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32X

PRIN

» ■*'-

.sy

•.^11^-

I. TheFj

ir. The

Cohefion, i
Uiticb, t

III. Piau

and

With an /
remote P
the Natit
The HiiU

IV. The I

In which t
partkulat

V. Chanj

In which th
Gothic ar
particular

VI. VII. \

Their Divili
Minerals, ;
Learning,

JLLU

Teacher of
A COURS

Printed for
ahb, by

H j ) ii i.wn)u

■]

E L E M ^ N

O F

GEOGRAPHY,

• WITH THE

PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,

AND

SKETCHES OF GENERAL HISTORY.

CONTAINING

I. The Figure of the Earth, and the Elements of Mechanics and

Astronomy.

II. The Oeconomy of the Sublunary Works of CreatioN}

Living and Inanimate.

Coh?f:on, Gravity, .Vagnetifm, Electricity, Optics, Phonics, Pnejmatics, Meteors,' Hydro-
lUticb, &c. tne StruAure or FoHils, AnatOiny of Plantc and Animals. ^ .

III. Pifturefqne and General Sketches of the different Parts of theEARTH,

and the varied Appearances and Manners of its INHABITANTS,

both Man and Brute.

With ail Account of J. Cook's laft Voyage, which, in accounting for the peopling of the
remote Part^ of the World, may ferve the mod incredulous as a Cord to bind together all
the NatioajTof the Earth in one great Family, defcended from one common Stock. AUb,
I'he HilM|y of Slavery, ancient and modern.

IV. The Rise, Revolutions and Fall of the Principal Empires

of the World.

In which the Jewifh Hi<V>ry is, as the mnft important, moft fully entered into; with a
particular Account of the Siege and final OeAruftion of Jerulalem.

V. Changes through different Ages in the Manners of Mankind.

In which the Idolatry of the Ancients, the Teftimonies of the Primitive Chriftians and the
Gothic and Feudal Manners, with the gradual Refineiuent of Europe thetefrom, are
particularly defcribed.

VI. VII. VIII. IX. Defcrlptions of the different Quarters of the World, ,

Europe, Asia, Africa, and America.

Their DiviAons into Countries, Provinces, &c. their Climates, Soils, Animals, Plants,
Minerals, Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, Canals, Commerce, Manufa^>itreii, Curiofities, Schools,
Learning, Literati, Religious Proteffion, Language, Government, HiAory, Sec.

ILLUSTRATED fVITH TEN COPPERPLATES.

By J O H N WALKER,

Teacher of the Classics and Mathematics, Ufliei's Iflaml, Dublin.

BEING PRINCIPALLY THE JOBSTAHCK OF

A COURSE OF LECTURES ADDRESSED TO HIS PUPILS*

§'

.y DUBLIN: ;

Printed for the AvTKOR, and fold by ROBBR.T Jackson, Meath-flrect.
alio, by Jambs Phillips, George- Yard, LoDibard-ftreei, LiDndon, _
and Joseph Ckvkshank, Philadelphia.

ll^DCCtlZXZVIII.

[ ^

.-n^my-:

AOrERTISEMENr.
THE autlioiiiits made ufe of in the compi'ation of this work, are \\y..

Amhonj iJenczet,
Samuel Boycf,
William Chefvldcn,
Thomas Clai kfun,
David Crantz,

Edward Gibbon,
William Guthrie,
Oliver Goldiinith,
liifli Antiquities,
Juilin,

Ifaac Newton,

Tho. Newton, Bp.Bi'noJ,

Jofeph Prietllry,

W. Robeitlbn,

Salmon,

FiancisArouet deVoUaire,

Voyn(',esofOok and other

circumnavigators,
ChaiKs Vv(e,
William Walker,

The Articles of Hirtory, J. Cokely Letfom,

Agriculture, &,c. in John Locke,

the Encyclopxdia liri- W. F. Martyn,

tannica, John Millar,

Adam Fergufon, Donald Monro,

James F'crgufon,

and others, w'aofe names I do not now recollect, or from whom I have de-
rived onl) vtry imA\ or trifling anecdotes. Uflidcs all thclc, informatioi;
from Uvcral of my acqvi.untances has furniHied fomc materials, and a little
iT\y own oblcrvation has I'upplied.

Among fuch iiumeious authors, unanimity is not to be foun:! j and it
wns hard to deteiniine on the greatell authority. Under hich embarralVmentt
it <'ur,ht to be the attempt of the hiiiori m to fix on the moft probable, and
in thiscaie lie may often iind a partiality in his own mind, which may be like
to influence his compilation i in oppolition to fuch prejudice I have fome-
times madt.' relations where I was rather Incicdulous myielf, confidering that
the acccMnts of the authors whofe names ate ufed, fhould be rather plainly
told than twKted or turne.l to any particular gratification of humour or wifli j
foinetinits however, I have ventured to oblul's delcription a little, where
accounts were marvellous beyond all probability j at otheis, 1 have given the
hyptiboHcal and elegant defcription in the author's own vfords. It necefia-
rily falls to the lot cf the writer of getieral geography, however painful it may
be to his feelings, to tell ciuil manners ai.J giois fupeiditions ; in fuch dr-
fcriptions however, I have I'eklom ^;one tho utmofl len^;th ; even on Indian
feverity and on the cruel bufmefs of (lavery, all the inj^pnuity of toituie ex-
ercifcd on the j)oor captives is not circumltantially entered intoj this would,
if pofTiblc, have rendered the accounts n;oie difmal tlun they are. In de-
fcribing of nations or focieti*s of people, vshich fomelimes forms a principal
piirt ot the bufinefs of a geographer, I'uch delicacy and candour are neceflary,
as indeed to require a wiiter relij^ioufly impartial: in fo important an under-
trtkinj^-, however, I wifli eCpecially to be confulered only as a compiler j
indeed every defci option in the whole work, except what has been imniedi-
attlv dciivcd fiotn ih.c hMr, I liav. ireant as referable to the fix firlt words
ci" the liouy of it, ilnr tho uai'tr may know wliat authorities i have made
ufe of and judge for himillf. I hr>j<e I m;)y he found c;«ndid if I go farther
in dLlcription or lemaik in I'cn.c p.inicular places, than I know will perfeflly
agree with the coniplailant temper of fomc of my friends. See Britijb
JjUSf p. VI, s. 1. Among the names received in encouragement to this
work, there are aiithorr,, nieti of learning, and of almoft every defcription
of bufinefs, in ikpartn^ents civil, ecclefiaftic, military and marine,
and of almoft every religious profiflion in thele countries. Gf all the'e
and generally of every reader, this is my realonable but earned rtqutlt, that
if there occiu in this woik any unbecoming remark, any improper fcnti-
n-.ent, i: may r.ot tc in any degree imputed to the people with whom I
have found it n.y duty to profejs (the Quakers) as it is not yet my privi-
lege to be a meni'ier of the focitty ; I would willingly hope alfo that it
jnay be attrihuteil to youth and miftake rather than to any thiny; ill-meaat.
1 li.;vc ibme'.ur.es been almoft ready to fink under the labour of this compila-
tion, however trifling and fmall it appear v.hen compleat, and it is with
gieat ilifiiilence I (lifmifs it to public view. 1 have often in the courfc of it
felt deficiency in a variety of ways, a want of a more general and txt(>.nnve
reading, of a recollcwlion of what I had rtad, obferved, or heard remarked
or related. When Albinus had written an hiftoiyof the Roman affair":

ill

'.f

A D r

E R r

'■'!.

•»

. k

;n Grrck. and anologized for , / ^ ^' ^ ^ ^ T.

•concurrence of ITZlaZ ""dertaking" j bSan jjlr"''* " becoming^
«"c,,mftances. and Xn I'"'"'''"'"' I found fvfe '""' '*'''»» ^rom

'o the calls of the dav ? w*'"'''" '"""« of fubTeteZi '";""y '"'bairafTcd
-in make large ,?;in:?°"^j:i? ""^ ''''^-'•t^^^^ ^''^^"ate

find themfelveJin the ve.-„ fet^'" °^ '"""'"^e and JeZ/"'''''" ""^O"*-
Projluaions, but the «1 1 ' I g'^afification in the r/ '""J'' "'*'« «hev
availing themfelves of rL?"'^ '°''' ^^^Y h ve not t,,?'^ '^"''"'^^ ^"^
.«'he. materials are coljjSed .^ """"'"» «»'«'' rccolleail ^PP°"""'V o^
nftant perhaps thev are «!. I ^i?'' """"rs duly puf i j " " ''''«'y. and

farther adinitced%s an I "''' ""angementpli, '*".'' "''■''^overablv

that thefe ft &J' **^ '''^ ''^ve flattering 1,°^'''' "|« ^^ ^y own mind
the name, of ^l^'S/c^mnr""^''*- " P-' of ' 'hei ^r^r^ °" '''^^' '"^o^'ct

«"»y is knoin. ConvL<.,t "P',"'"S them, and forJI° '''■"l? '''=" «ouId
of bowine to or fla?. • "•* *» ' a"' in my hea« .ru""" '"''"d the tific
»>elieve a happv afr, ""^ " '"'"ow-worm/it is eL? V ' ''J'' ='"'* '"dccencv
-ong in t'^J SrrnU' »- -moved KI^ ^^..^y^'J^/o- b.^I
and in fpeakine of I " ^y ^^^" t'fJcs rather tiiu'^.'^ '^^ '' ^o^'d be

"f^ of thS iideit 'r ;, Z ^'-^rs 'o them?Y Sd ^fl'^T'- "«-« ^
g've ir as a r>J, If ,t " "'^y tend to ufeful LL ■ *''^' only to n,akt

complimentary'"; t^.:,nr*r '^ "^ ^"^ «« oHrr'tv?';''- -" '«

a"g"age, but^s the f ft ■' ^°l^'' '' ^ould be un 'e ftlnV '' ^''"^ '^^'^A'.'
J. had written, " the S.>" J. •' ''^''' »''» ^orS s flV*"' '\'"^ «-"
*"^ of the people T). "'e^n'ng «he Sir of tJ.^ ii ''fV '" 'his work

'orinftance in ,h/ '"•^.''''o have agreed tn . f ?'"'^ " ^^ce or the
*5ir Hans S]o"n •• «'r^"'>^ '^ere occuVed •' the i" "?.??'" ^V '^at ,i j/
P-effions amTreWs L'lV'J:;"'^" Alexander -fth''' ^'^'"^^'" "!"«;
Altering titles ; the e are rh. ^'■' ^"■' ^o-d, 4. ^hjJh "' *'* "'^er ex-
accounted genteel »Lr ' "^"'^ of trade, o7ftpt; • PP''"'' 'o »"« aa
"-hen embodi d with ttT'*""" ^^'«" ^^e moVwldH '" H*' ^'"^'' are
., Days, Month^'Jj ''„!,^^"^"'<^ to ^void the ment,^"n'^of h?' ^'^ ^PP'^'Jation
'Jolatryj andinVr •.• ' ^'^' ''^ve received «;.. P''°P«- "ame

. '^»'"'n,\'hrj„pi; f"t'h;'"L'''^ '■°'ar fyrterj hav.::: "n^'^'v°^'g'"ated .•„

r. •
*/ I

I',

€^

i^.

Ai'-i

^ir

CONTENTS.

ROOK I.

PRINCIPLES OF PHILOSOPHY and SKETCHES
OF GENERAL HISTORY.

PART I.

The Figure of the Earth, and the Principles of Mechanics

and Aftronomy.

\ - '

1^ • '■.'^^

., ■ V'^

SECT. I. Figure of the Earth, Antipodes, Altraflion. Sphere. Expe-
linient. Antipodes. Univerfal Law. Effefls. Page i, 2, 3.

§. II. Diviftons of the Earth, Hijlory of Geography, Scientific.
Political. Natural. General. Geographic Information, p. ^ to 5.

§. III. Univerfe, Centripetal atiJ Centrifugal Forces. Planetary Revo-
lutions. Starry Heavens. Forces combined. Applied to Sun and

Earth
§. IV. Mechanics. Powers. Law. Inclined Plane

Pulley. Lever. Wheel and Axis. Balance.
§. V. Day, Night and Seafons. Diurnal Revolution.

Changing Day. Sealons. Polar Day

ocrew.

p. 7.
Heat diverfe.

Wedge.

Definitions of Circles, ^c. Celeftial and Terrejlrial.

Equinodlial. Tropics. Polar Circles.

p. 9.

Great
Zones.

and lefs Circles

Celeftial Circles. Ecliptic. Zodiac. Meridians. Terreftrial Lat.
and Long. Afcenfion and Declination. Points and Colures. Celef-
tial Long, and Lat. Finding the Latitude. Finding the Longitude.
Maps. Climates. Poles of the Horizon. Horizon. Azimuths,
Cardinal Points. Altitude, Almicanter. Pofitioiis of the Sphere.

P . ! I .

VII. Moon, Tides, ohlate Figure of the Earth. Phafes. Eclipfes.
Experiment. Moonfhine. Lunar Day. Telefcopic Obfervations.
Tides. Their Caufes. Earth a Spheroid. Other EfFtdls of its
diurnal Revolutions. p. 1^.

§. VIII. Planetary Laws and the Methods of ini>e 'Kigali ng the Motion,
Magnitude and Dijlances of the Planets. Mo.ion of the Sun.
Planetary Laws. Deception ot the Senles. Corrtcled by reafoning.
Afcertainment of the Diftance and Migniiude of Objefts. p. 2 1 .

IX. Solar Syflem. The Sun. The Mercury. TIi^ Venus. Our
Earth. The Mars. The Jupiter. The Saiurn. The Georgium
Sidus, or Georgian Planet. Number and Order of Comets. Threat-
ening Appearance. Ufe of the Comets. p, 24.

X Afironomical ConjeQures, Dijiance and Number of the Stars.
Conjeftures. Fa^. Dillance of the Stars. Number of the Stars.
Starry Heavens. p. 27*

_^ . A PART

*. !

• H ■

( —

■I

-.*

* .

C O N T E N

T S.

TheOeconomyofLL'* *^ "■

/ <" the fublumry Works nf r •

SECT. I ,„,, '"""8 »"'' i-inimate. ^'""'"'' f^-'h

none or M° gn,"'""^;^ '^?«""''^ '"d Effflric S ""^ ^""«'on.
General Preff„;^- „f ^f^'^'r- Non-CondX," '"f^<- . ^"»''-

Sound. Improvement, n'^"?' ^'^^^'^' C cila^l"'''^^^""''^-
Barometer Tm? r .^'^"^on of the Arm.r u '°" °^ ^'otes.

^ rh/oJor^nS^r^^^^ v- fe ^^e'^^

^ Air. Meteors. ^''' °^ *^e Atmofphere AnVf% ^*"^-

«-V. HydroPatUks R' ^ ^"a'/fis of the ^

^omparifon of R,,,,,. • l . ^'"' Nerves,
'/les, ublervations. S^r n ^j ^'

Defin.nons Oblervation..

P A

iir.

J-b„.„c, b„,h Man :'d B^Sr^""^ ""'' ^-""^ "^ tt' 1 !
jECT. 7 n„ /•

'^^anfportatonofr'''-y'"^^^"- Longe^^v T ^'"^^^'
^ "• W J?"/^ S°"^'«J' to Botany Bay.^ "^- ^^^^'^ ^'clers

'- ^«-^s. P;oduS/rn^, Mount^a/n -^ «^t Ice.

p. 87.
Soutlj

-f.

> both

Ruins.

CONTENTS.

h. III. AhftraB of CaoKt Voyagt, North Paflage to India. New
Holland. New Zealand. Friendly and Society Ifles. Sandwich
Iflands. Weftern Shore of America. Vicinity of Afia and America.
Owhyhee and Death of James Cook. Kamtfchatka, the Return.
Obfervations. p. 99.

S. IV. jifia. Tartary. Southern Nations. Arabs. p. io3.

\ V. jifrica. Egypt, Barbary. Ethiopia. Negroland and Guinea.
Enflavement of the Africans. Slavery in Antiquity. p. no.

§. VI. jtmirica. Complexion, Features, &c. Intercourle with
Europeans. Pafllon for Liberty. Public Aflemblies. Mode of
War, Cruelty. Unreferved Frisndftiip, Funerals, &c. p. 122.

S, VII. Lands round the North Pole. Supcrftitions of the Green-
landers. Their Strength and Agility. Houfes, Tents, and Fealls.
Manners diverfe. Tartars, Laplanders. p. 126.

§. VIII. Europe. Arts and Sciences. Manners. Remarks and Re-
fledtions. p. 134.

§. IX. Different Appearances of the Earth. Polar Regions, Tropical
Climates. General Obfervations on the People. P* '37*

§. X. Diverfity of Animals. Whale Fifhery. Polar Regions. Mi-
grations of Birds. Migrations of Fifties, Tropical Seas. Africa.
Europe. Afia, Iflands of the Pacific. America. P* "44'

S, XI. Manners of Animals. Care of their Young. Animofities,
AlTociations. Influenced by the Human Race. Prowefs of Man.

p. 154.

PART

IV.

SttccefTion of Empires.

SECT. I. Moft remote Antiquity, Jeivi/h Nation, &fr. Antediluvian
World, Flood. Origin of different Nations and Tongues. Remarks.
Chinefe, Japanefe. Arabians. Ifraelites. Separation of the Ten
Tribes. Captivity of Judah, Return, &c. Coming of our Saviour.
Roman War and Siege of Jerufalem. p. 1 64.

§. II. Ancient Hi/iory. Scythians, Egyptians. AlTyrians, Babylonians,
Medes, Perfians and Macedonians. Romans, Goths, Vandals, &c.
Mahomet. Conftaniine, Bifliop of Rome, Charlemagne. Grecians,
Carthaginians, Gauls. p. 173.

■5. III. Modern Hiftoiy, Mahometans, Chriftians, Crufades. Tartars,
Turks. Modern Europeans. PrefentDivifion of the Earth, p. 176.

PART V.

Changes through different Ages in the Manners of Mankind.

SECT. I. Ancient Times. Patriarchal Manners. Origin of Arts and
Letters. Aftronomy, Geometry. Idolatry. Perfecution. Primitive
Chriftians. Commerce, general Reniaiks. Architcfture, Learning.
Germans in their native Wilds. p. 182.

*. II. Middle and Modern Time:-. Revolutions, Feudal Syflem.
Crufades. Refinement of Manners. Laws. Knight Errantry,
Chivalry, Heraldry. Revival of Literature, Difcoverie^, Commerce.
Religious Profefiion, Remarks. p. 206.

As ,. BOOK

CONTENTS.

BOOK

II.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH, UNDER ITS
POLITICAL DIVISIONS.

With ihe Situation and Extent of the feveral Countiies in each
Quarter of the World, their Chief Towns, Climates,
Produce, Commf.rce, Manufactures, Curiosities, Schools,
Governments, and an Epitome ot their Histories.

PART VI.

Defcription of Europe.

KINGDOMS of Europe P. (2

firitiih Ifles - - (3

England and Wales (12

Scotland - - (26

Ireland - - (34

Denmark: and Norway (47

Sweden - - (J4

Mufcovy or Ruflia - (57

Poland - - (60

Pruffia - - (63

) Germany, Bohemia, I-

lungary (65)

) Switzerland

- (73)

) Holland

- (76)

) Flanders

- (78)

) France

- (80)

) Spain

- (85)

) Portugal

- (9')

) Italy

- (93)

) Turkey in Europe

- (98)

F. i

PART

vir.

Turkey in

Afia

- (105)

Tartary

- (106)

China

- (108)

India

- (114)

Perfia

- (•'9)

Arabia

- (>23)

Defcription of Asia.

(105) Kurile Iflands, Japan, Formofa,
Ladrones, Philippine Iflands,
Spice Iflands, Celebes, Sunda
Iflcjs, Nicobar Ifles, Ceylon,
Maldivia Iflands, South Sea
Iflands - (1*5)

PART

VIII.

Egypt
Barbary

Defcription of Africa.

(133) Weftern Parts of Africa
(137) Eaftern Parts

(«39)
(142)

PART

IX.

Defcription of America.

NorthAmericanlflands(i46)(i47) Portuguefe America (161)

Britifli America - ('S^^) French and Dutch America,

American States - (1S4} Guiana - (162)

Spanifii Territories in North Spanifti South America (163)

America j^r - ('54) Amazonia,- Patagonia (i6«;)

Indian Nations
South America

(i 59) Iflands of South America ( i6b)
('59)

•m

::^y

■f^,.

R H A T A.

ITS

(73)
(76)

(78)
(80)

(85)
(90
(93)
(98;

Pa|. LIo.
6 10

10
40
4«

54
70
84

«S

94
laz

131

>35
'45
'53

160
165
167
176
180
186
187

SIX

of the I'.ote, for vary rtad will vary.
1 1 for as the utmoft thicknefs ii to thr length, r. ai the length is to
the utmoft thicknefs.

6 of Note, far autumnal, r. vernal,
laft a lines, for cone, r. roff<v.
I for conni. r. cone.

r. the White of the Eye is covered with a fine Membrane called
conjunfiiva.

from bottom, r. catara£l.
/ordiftant, r. diftinft.
/or parfalenz, r. parsifelenes.
yor hydroftatic, r. hydraulic,
ybr flaking, r. flaking.

from bottom, yor grameniverous, r. graminivorous.
for as much, r. as much as.
for hooters, r. frre-booters.

from bottom, for guftcs, r. gudts.
for parts, r. coafts.

from bottom, /or it fo, r. alfo.

from do. for lima, r. puma.
for fire, r. free.
ybr ohinai, r. Shinar.

7 and 16 from bottom, for Rhrohoam, r. Rehoboam.
% from do. for polTeiied, r. proftfled.

13 for divided, r. a great part of it divided.

5 for ram, r. rain.
1. laft, for rights, r. rites.

8 for Magxra, r. Megxra.
17 /ordevife, r, device.

10
10
II

la
16

In B. II. P. (a) reverfe the Terms breadth and Ltngth over the Table.
(33) f'^f adjacent, r. fubjacent.

DWtSltQm to the Bookbinder.

Place

World otpofite

Titie.

PI. II.

P. a

PI. III.

General Chart

Hiftorical Chart -

165

£UR0P£

(»)

Asia

(103)

Africa

(131)

North America

('45)

South America

('45)

Quarter Sheet • B 7 is to be fewed in between B and C.
Qiiarter Sheet D 7 to be fewed in between D and E.
Half Sheet C 3 to be infet in. C

»fS^>

.' *"

A 3 '

work was written rh ^^*^°»^''"'i of thj Afr' n^'

^^on, different quarter rn/^ ^'"'°"^ ^o tLfend *^^ «" abolition
antl indeed ftJJI ! ^° '''^ Legiflature on!? ^ '*'^^e pouring i„

wko can wiH./fn/j f ^' 'hfir eaft t„,r]!. r ' '" "'•n of afflu
«"<'" P-donEgo^ft, "f- '° ^«« »" own feeE," A""-"'"/ W:

nie fome ftriftur^r **'"Ss m a Great klr uV^

The Bri„7I, Parl«,„" „,.'.'■' '^'"'- ''''mrokiUon of

»>/wl.icl,fe™,7,;' ='«'"gw;<l. reCpea ,'^ 'L sT'"'-^^'''' ^ft

»'• ftolen Goods ! g"'™'^'' '" '*el^im„f '"*""".« ™ ">» cCmhy
genera /y fbr ?„«• ^"'.oe. when the UrS ^ ^"" ^'^es.

and proJonjr rather k , "^^a-'ure which .-m- "°^ '" Agitation
•It", and o thi:l^'«'""'"'"^ftrw lri?,^"'^/'">«<'" -he eternal

«.or„„,g. / °'^■^■••'=<^=y<hcan;»a?^t;t^eM"'T,f'

• ■' ■ -*- ' . , ADD/.

i^ii

ADDITIONS to the Articles MAGNETISM, ET.ECTRICITY,
and MINERAL, WATERS of IRELAND.

letr
|ar-

On the VARIATION of the MAGNETIC NEEDLE,
(in adtlition to page 35.^

H E variation of the compafs, is the number of degrees or angle
by which the pointing of the needle differs from the' line of north and
fouth ; though the variation differs in different parts of the world, yet
tis believed there is very little difference between the quantity of the
variation here and in London, or in the channel ; but at Paris the va-
riation has been conftantl y found one degree and a half lefs than at
London. Before 1657 the variation was towards the eaft in thefe
countries ; on that year there was no variation, (the needle pointing
due north with us) and ever fince it appears that the variation has been
cncteafing weftward about one degree in five years, and in 1787 the
variation at Dublin amounied to twenty-fix degrees and an half, to-
wards the weft.

There has been noticed a daily variation of the needle, which
amounts only to a few niinuies of a degree, and does not appear to be
thought worth notice by our land furveyors. This daily variation is
almoft double in fummer to that of winter, it begins in the morning,
and continues encreafing wcftward till one or two afternoon, then
gradually returns and comes to about its former ftation againft morn-
ing : But if there be an Acrora Borealis at the time, the ncedk is
<ii(lurbed by it and this fmall daily variation will be eaftv/ard.

ELECTRICITY. In addition to fage 36.

They who are in poiTeflion of eleClrifying machines, have a fund
of amufement in the various experiments ; and it frequently lies in
their power to be of fcrvice to their neighbours, by a judicious appli-
cation of eledlricity.

yipplied to medical purpofesi In the prefent improved ftate of the
praftice of medical eledricity, large iliocks are not made ufe of, as
fparks and fmall iliocks are found more efficacious, and in feme cafes
fparks only ; however in cafes where the parts are deprived of fen-
fibility it appears that larger fhocks may be ufed with great advantage
r.ntil the feeling is reftoreii and they become difagreeable to the patient.
In cafes of rigidity, the flocks feem more efficacious than fparks.

A perfon who had got a very bad fraflure of the leg, was obliged
to lie eleven weeks in one pofture ; this occafioned fo great a flifFnefs
at his knee that it remained nearly ftraight and he could not bend it,-
he was electrified twice a day for two weeks with four or five fhocks
from a pint vial about one-third charged, and fome fparks, and in
that time he was fo far recovered, that he could bring tht fole of his
foot to the ground while fitting in a common chair.

There occurred in the year 1779 a remarkable cafe which fliews
the benefits that may fometimes arile from a long continued courfe of
electrifying. A female of a very delicate frame had broke her right
arm, and by too tight a banda]|e» a mortification had begun at the el-
bow. The mortification was fured, but the ufe of the arm was lofl ;
it WAS fo weak flie was not able to raife it without the help of the
other arm, the fingers were contracted in fuch a manner that the hand
could not be opened or fhut : and both the hand and arm were almoft
,Void of fenlation, except an obtufe pain at times with a pricking.

A 4 numbnefi,

i.-> til

>.-,

■M

f-^y^

If-V

«alfa vear •'» . u- l • "" 'Pa rks one dav nn^ /i. . ^ "'^" eJeC'

r^ difcoSntd hrLf'f" ""'"2 ''" '^0 .le "otr.'' f /"I >>» hand
f" fix weeks (?,„ ly/""'' """'hs- After wS*^; '■'" "Pw^ion

'Jot fprinffs in Ir*.i«„ J .i ® ancient wnter R«^^ ^ waters were

loft ; however wA'^'^'^'^^^^^^'-ewTrer^^^^^^ ^'^^^^ ^^e

■ kreacer degree of '^rfei'' '".'' '"'>■ >>- dr!Z."7!T "^"P?'^ "■'

a coiiip/ete/if
vas firft eJec'
'^^ next, for
and her Jiancj
the operation
'ng repeated

operations,
way by one
ch the a/-
two bits of
ent courfe.
Its tiirough
A:Ies occa-
*^** That
mediate//
)r the par-
'edtrifying
>ofc of no
trician to
'an might

?rs were

here are
*ng fince
»^e note,
?ht into
\ by its

Matlock'
iftcJ.

Airthei- ^

fybeate

them " f
>i7 tije 4'
1 in a ,.?

[late it ^

'beate *

Dublin

5tret-

'Ucan

:for-

lifce-

)ns.

IJa?

cian

arly

ions

^ith

Ich

\ I

'II Mfli™

■.4s.-

■-< :^-^«iffww

tf M>^^ ^^ .».ji**J»vWMHfci /i

II '

y.r

SJ-

i-:

' -.'

•J;

•^■m

I • k

.;'ia

ELEMENTS

O F

.-. /

GEOGRAPHY',

PHTT OSOPHiC AND HISTORIC.

PARTI.
THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH;

AND T H X

ELEMENTS OF MECHANICS AND

ASTRONOMY.

FROM the authorities premifei'., it appears— In the remote age*
of antiquity, ere man had mad ; any great progrefs in fcience ; in
the yet uninformed nations of the world ; among thofe people, in im-
proved nations, who think on the nature of things but feldom, and
then very fuperficially ; and among the puerile reflexions of the great-
eft geniufes ; vague and romantic have been the conjeflures, reipc6l-
ing the form, extent, and boundaries of this earth.

From our narrow, circumfcribed view of things, we are naturally
induced to fuppofe it neceflary for every heavy body to have fome-
thing to reft upon, or be fufpended from ; hence, fome have imagin-
ed, the ftars to be lamps, let down from heaven by golden chams;
the (ky, a vaft arc'i ; the earth, an extended plane, refting on they
knew not what, and bounded they knew not how. 7" >y^g,>.

■ ' M

SECTION I.

•al.lE.-*^-?^;* •

'.;' ■ Figure of thtEAKTH f Antijodes, Attractiow;

J. Sphere.] It clearly appears, however, from the r^^ptj&^iet
men of fcience, that the land and water of our worl^' tote^ery
form a large round body, which is balanced in the ether, Twe cbje
moon and planets j a globe of fo prodigious a fizC) that its nigheft

B mountains.

U i

E L E»M E N T S OF

P. 1.

' Jvi^'

mountains, are compared to iit'elf, but as a grain of dud on an arti-
ficial fphere ; and, to us little mortals who dwell on its furface, its
Iplierical figure is hardly dirceriiible; yet we, without failing round
the world, as fome have really done, as the navigators Drake, Anfon,
Cook, &c. have fuffi:ient room to conclude, wiih but a little obfer-
vution, that the earth is a globe, or of foine fiiuilai fliape.

2. Experiment] Flnte I. Let us take a (land on the lea fliore, on a
clear day, and view (liips leaving the c oaft, in any direftion whatfoever ;
as they recede from us, we may diftindlly obferve thv,* rigging of the
velTels, when the hulls are quite out of fi^hr, as if funk in the waters.
In like manner, in an evening, from the top of a hill, the obferver
may diftindtly fee the fetting fun, when it appears to thofe below, to
have funk below the Horizon, Nay, a perfon of fwift foot, wh^n it
has fei to him below, may. by running up the hill, regain his view.
Thus, when lifing, does he firft tip the tops of the mountains with his
rays ; and thus do failois, on their fiift making land, difcover the high
parts of the coall, but not the very lliore, till they are pretty clofe in
with the land.

Now, were t!i<* furface of the fea an extenfive plane of waters,
through defedi of fight only, thicknets of atmofphere, or fome fuch
like caufes, we would lole fight of the objedls, and then they would
dilappear all at once.

<j. AniTf'oaes .] If then this huge mafs of matter, this whole earth,
be a globe or round ball, we may naturally enquire, from what does
it hang, or what is there beneath to keep it up ? How are things fup-
ported on its furface ? And what miferable people are our Antipodes,
walking with their heads downwards ?

No race of people on our globe walk with their heads downwards,
though their faces may be diredled to every part of the heavens,
through their inhabiting the different parts of the furface of the round
world i and our Antipodes walk as ere£t as we do, though their heads
are diametrically oppofite from ours ; for they are as ftrongly drawn
to their pan of the earth, as we are to ours ; and might as reafon-
ably imagin-" that we are under the ftrange predicament, of walking
with our teet upwards like a fly on a ceiling.

4. Unhvtfiil Laiv.] It feems to be an univerfal law in the creation,
that bodies have a mutual attraction, tendency, or gravitation, to-
wards each other; and the heavier bodies are, and the nearer they
are to each other, the more ftrongly are they at trailed j the caufe
is unexpHcable from any enquiries in natural philofophy ; and can on-
ly be refolved into the will of the creator, whole works we may con-
teiDplate with wonder, but the leafl of which we can never fully com-
prehend *.

5. Efe(^s.

* That this attra£{ion nlUt, is deduced, not only from fpeculation on the na*
ture of things, but From actual experiment.

A weight let to hang by a firing from the precipice of a mountain, if undifturbed
by any current of air, or if it is perfeftly calm, is obferved to deviate from a perpen-
dicular. The prodigious mafs of matter contained In the mountain, aitradls the
weight towards itfehf.

In like manner, if two bundles of ropet, ^f equal weight, be fuTpended at the
toii of an accurate balance, or fcale beain>.oa the Surface of the earth, they w.ll

p. 1.

S. tl.

ASTRONOMY.

5. KffeHi.'] This principle ol attra^ton, feems to be as a chain in
\\\ie works of ihecreaiidn, to bind rhe elements Under harmonious or-
der, and wholefome lawi ; for owing to this principle it appears, that
tlje world remains a folid ball ; the Tea keeps in the deeps of the earth ^
the tiiountaiiis refl firni on their foundations, and things univerfaily hold
their refpeflive places *.

By the fame principle of attraflion, will the rivulets of water tumble
frniji the hills, glide down the vallies, and fettle in the deep. The
»ir is fomething, for we cannot live wit'iout breathing it; and when
in motion, under the name of winds, it impels fliips through the wa-
ter with incredible force. It is found to be an elaflic fluid. It will
alfo gravitate towards the earth, becoming heavier the lower it dc-
fcends; and, if there be any light things in the way, fuch as fmoke,
mill, &c. whether at large, or confined in balloons ; any things
lighter than itfelf ; thefe will naturally afcend through the air's fupe-
rior gravity, to rCj^jons of equal rarity with theujlelves; as the den^(j
water bears up light things from finking, while heavy bodies force
their v/ay to the bottom, in fpite of all the redllance the water can
niake.

liking

S E C T I O N lt»

Di'ViJtohs of the EaRth, Hijlory of Geographv.

1. Dii'ifont.] The moft obvious divifions that prefent themlelvM,
on a view of the furface of our globe, are thofe that arc mkde by the
yielding water on the crooked fhore { thefe are outlines in feme mea-
fure fixed and permanent.

2. Scientific.] Men of fcience have laid out the earth in degrees of
longitude and latitude, and divided it into zones and climates.

3. Political.] Befides thefe, there are other divifions of a more fluc-
tuating kind ; thefe are the political boundaiies that feparate kingdoms
and empires, which however we njay difregard, as delineated on the
geographical chart ; they have generally been marked out by the
(word of the conqueror, at the expence of the blood and carnage of
his fellows.

B z Kingdoms,

A'-

Teas.

equiponderate; but if one of thefe ropes, inftead of being rolled up in a bundle, bq.^
loofened out, and let to hang at length, down the mouth of a deep coal pit or minjp,;^
the rope, thus extended, lofei fome of its weight, though it hang perfe£tly free as ,
before, from the end of the balance; and the rope that remains above, preponde* ':
rates, through the other's being attra£led by the tides of the coal pit, in direftiont' '
counteraAing its perpendicular defcent.

* Plate I. Lei A reprefent the round world ; the particles of matter compofiag
it, being brought into order, will naturally, by their mutual attraftion, adhere to .
each other, and thus be prevented from falling into confufion. Lee us ima^ute a .
heavy body, B. without it, by attraction, they will be drawn towards each ddttr,"^
till they toach. B. may be faid to fall or gravitate its motion alone, being otitlrVi''''
able; the world fcarcely moving, on account of its magnitude; as a large veflet j»<|l.
the water fcarcely ftirs, when the light ftllT is drawn to it, or pu/hsd from it, by »
pole, though they are both a£led upon with equal force. Indeed the quantity of
motion is equarih both, though the fwiftnefs is very different; for quantity of.
tmuibft in a moving body, is according to the force applied in moving it ; but fwift^
^^h .*ccoi ding to the diftance moved in a gi vt n time, /•'^

v:!.>j:

K-,

'■0^:

■i <■

A
t

.-v¥^-..

s«(e=;-

ELEMENTS OF

P.I.

Kingdoms, provinces, towns, &c. are divifions of the earth, that
change with the atfairs of the nations that have made them j and ac-
cordingly, in different ages, thev vary their appearances.

4. Natur/il] The natural divifioRs of lanvl and water are more
fixed. PI. I.

. Definitions or Land.

1. A continent is the largeft
continued traft of land, conipre-
hending feveral countries in it-
lelf.

2. Capes or head-lands and
promontories, fhoot out into the
fea.

3. Iflands are entirely fur-
rounded by water.

4.. A peninfula, alnioft an
ifland, is .furrounded on all fides
by the water, except where

5. An ifthtnus, or narrow neck
of land, joins it to the main
land.

Definitions or Water.

I . An ocean is the grcatetl ex-
tent of water.

s. Seas are particular or con-
fined parts of it.

3. A lake is a body of water
enclofed by the land.

4. A gulph is furrounded by
the land on all fides but the en-
trance.

5. A ftrait is a narrow pafTage
between two feas.

5. General.] Geographers have ufrally divided the world into four
quarters; Europe, Afia, Africa, and America, If we take Europe, by
much the fmalieft divifion, as a place of departure, America lies to
the weft, Afia to the eaft, and Africa, to the fouth. America is call-
ed the new world by Europeans, from their having but lately difco-
vered it ; the other quarters, they call the old world. America
is feparated from the old world, on the weft by the Atlantic Ocean,
on the eaft by the Pacific.

6. Geogrophu Information.] Our knowledge of the different parts of
the earth, we have derived from the accumulated obfervations and
difcoveries of diftant ages and different countries. We may reckon
Mofes and Homer, among the geographers of the moft early times;
but the places and the people mentioned in their writings, are gene-
rally now no more. The conqueror Alexander employed engineers
in his fervice, whofe bufinefs coniifted in meafuring and keeping an
accurate account of his marches. Thefe were extended into India,
the borders of Scythia, through Judea and Egypt. By reducing Tyre
and Sidon, the Greeks informed themfelves of the places to which
the Phenicians traded by fea. Ptolemy Evergetes led his armies into
AbylTmia, and thereby obtained a knowlege of that diftant country.
The conquefts of the Romans added both extent and correftnefs to
the geography of the ancients. The great roads of their extenfive em-
pire, meafured through their whole extent, proved extremely ufeful ;
and the Itineraries afforded confidbrible afllfEance. Accordingly, the
geographers of thofe times, were enabled to defcribe countries before
hardly known, and correft the errors of former writers. Their know-
ledge of the earth's furface, however, was but little, if compared with
the difcoveries of the later Europeans. In the fifteenth century, the

Portuguefc

lHB55®rrs:^^'=-"--

s. in.

ASTRONOMY.

Portu^uefe opened the way to the Pacific by the Cape of Good Hope.
The Spaniards afterwards attempted the paiTage to India, on the well,
under Chriftopher Coluinkus ; but inflead of India, they difcovered
America. It might fecni fuptrfluous here, to enter into a detail of
what followed : how the other European powers embatked on fmiilar
^nterpiises; how they ha v« penetrated into every habitable climate
on the earth ; and how often they have abufed their fuperiority among
artlefs and feeble nations. In fhort, ftom the travels of miinonaries,
and adventurers, and from the voyages of navigators, we have now iia
acquaintance with every quarter of the globe.

SECTION III.

Universe, Ctntripetal and Centrifugal ToKCt^,

The principle of attra^ion, by which the order of fublunary things
is kept up, naturalifts fuppofe, upholds not only the component paita
of the earth, but the globe itfelf and the whole univerfe.

1. Planetary Rn/olutiuns.] They tell us that the earth is a pjanet ;
that it and (ix other primary ones, move round the fun, in oibits,
nearly circular ; that fome of them have fccondary planets, fatellites,
or moons, accompanying and moving round Uiem in their orbits, as
our earth has one moon ; that the comets alfo move round the fun ;
that all thefe together compleat our folar fyftcm.

From the motion of the earth on its axis, and from its orbit round
the fun, they derive all the changes of night and day, and the vicifll-
tudes of the feafons that we experience; and as the other planets are
fubje£t to the fame phyiical laws as our earth, they by analogy con<>
elude, that they have their feafons, their days, and their nights, as
well as ours; as alfo inhabitants fuited to their refpeflive regions

2. Starry Heavens.] 'TIS conjeftured, that the fixed ftars are all of
them funs, round which planets may revolve ; though from their im-
menfe diftance from us, we cannot difcover them.

The focial idea prevails, that tbele may be the manfions of beings
fuited to their places ; to whom the Great Patent difpenfes marks of
his goodnefs as welt as to us. And indeed, from the immenfe diftance
that the fixed ftars are from us and our fyftem, it may not be inconfift
ent with the truth to believe, that thofe huge vivid globes, loft to ou
view in a point, were created to fupport and cheer other creatures, ra-
ther than merely to guide us in our little peregrinations on the globe,
or aftlft us in our aftronomical obfervations.

3. Forces combined.] Aftrononvers fuppofe, that a mutual attrafllon
exifts between the fun and fixed ftais, or funs, by which they are all
poifed in equilibrio. They imagine, that the funs are a fort of centres
of gravitation to the planets that furround them; that the attraction
or centripetal force, which would alone draw them to the centre, is
nicely combined with an impulfe thefe bodies have received, which of
itfeif, and unreftrained, would caufe them to flv off in a right line
through the immenfity of fpace. This impulfe is called the centrifu-
gal force i that by the combination of the centripetal and centrifugal

forces,

ij.^<

ELEMENTS OP

r. I.

forces, the pinnets are naturally carried in orbitj round the fun j that
the primary planets are as ctiitres of gravitation tu their rutellites or
moons; and they account tur the revolution of thefc, from the fame
phyllcal laws ♦.

4. Jp^/ieJ to Sun and Earth] From the unexpiicable law of gravi-
tation or attraction, that univcrfally prevails in the natural world, it
inay readily appear, that if the fun and the earth were the only bodies
in the univerfc, and they at reft at a didance from each other, by their
ntutual attraction they would directly be drawn towards each other.
The fun being a million tiiucs bigger than the earth, the latter (as a light
flviti'drawn toa large veiTch would move with great velocity, and fall
to the fun ; the fun would flowly meet the coming of the earth. As
each would thus be influenced by the other, fo the Ci^ntrifugal fjjrce
which, combined with attiadion, carries the earth round in its orbit,
and pievents it from fulling into the fun : it alfo carries the luminary
round in an orbit, and prevents it from falling to the earth ; and the
centre of their revolution or their centre of gravity, lies between the
two bodies. As the earth is but very fmall, in comparifon vith the
Can, it is whirled round in an orbit, proportionably larger than that of

the

!•

^ It ii abferveJ in the natural world, that matter U of itfelf pailive, indilFerent
•I tom'tiofl or reft; that hence, were a body put in motion, it would continue to
piove on in a lighr line, without end; or it' it wai at red, it would for ever renuiii
(0, unlefi the>e was foaie active caufc to produce a chantse.

PI. n.fig. J, Let A be a body uninfluenced by the attraction of any other body; let
ut fupp' Tu t^ai It receives an impulfc that would carry it in a certain time to B. if
at the |4me time it receives a contrary force of equal ftrengtli, that would alone I.t
th« f^me tin>e >arry it to C, the contrary impull'es will neutralize each other, and
the body remain at A. bt^t if with the original impulfe that would l.ave carried it
from A. (o B. it not interrupted, it receive at the fame time a fotce that would of
itfelf rarry it from A. to D. the body wi|l move in or defcribe the diagonal AE.
from the combinations of the two forces AB. and AD. and will at the end of the
certain time, be exa£tly at the fame diftance, as when it firft fet out trom the places
II. and D. where the acting forces refpe^tively tended tu carry it, if the forces are
equal ; but if the impulfes AB. and AD. be unequal, fig. z. the body will be found
at the fame diilancc from the more remote place of tendency B. as it was from
the nearer D. and reciprocally at the faiae dift^nce from the nearer place of tenden>
cv D. as it was from the more remote one B. on its fiift fetting out from A.
When the forers are equai^ thediagonal AE. or motion produced by the combination
ef the two impulfes, according to the directions of the force applied, vary through
every decree of fwiftnefs, from abfolue tcR, to the dggregnte of both velocities, add-
ed together, or produced in one ri^ht line. When the impulfes are unequal, the
fwiftnefs of the body will vary, according to the direction of the forces, (rom the
fam of the two velocities added together, to that of the greater, when the lefs is fub-
ttaded from it.

Fig. 3. From thefe known principles of n^atter put in motion, it is difcovered
how and why the planets move in orbits round the fuQ. Let S. reprefent the fun j
f.S. the attradtive force v.ijereby the earth is drawn towards the funl
£F. the centrifugal impulfe: by the combination of thefe twe forces acting
at the fame time upon the earth (or it may as fitly be faid, between the confliA of
the two) it would naturally move along the line EE« in the fame time it would have
moved along either of the other lines fingly j but, as the centrifugal and attraAive
JFarces afl not by fiarts, but uniformly and conftjotly, the earth inftead of being
faonci along in right lines, is naturally refolved into a curved one, or or-
|>it. EOE.

It^may here be remarked, howerer, that the fun is not ftriftly a centre of gravi.
^fion to the planets, nor are the primary planets, that have moons or fatelUtef ac*
{:finpaoyiog thenii firiftly centres to the oibi that revolve round them.

iSue^

S. iV.

ASTRONOMY.

the luminaiy, and their common centre of gravity lies confequently
very near the centre of the fun. The fame laws hold between the
fun and other planets* and between the primary planets, and their fa-
tellites, or moons.

SECTION IV.

Mechanics.

On thefc principles, which fupport the order of the fphcres, ihe
fcicnce nt niechaiiics wholly depends ; and in a very flight view of the
mechanical powers, there teems a fatniliar leprefentation of the natu-
ral laws ot the univerfe.

1. Puwert.] The mechanical powers have been reckoned fix ; the
lever or balance, the wheel and axis, the pulley, the wedge, the
fcrew, and the inclined plane : The three latter may be confidered as
different modifications ot the principles of the inclined plane ; the three
former, the fame of the balance or lever.

2. Laiv] It is a law in mechanics, that whatever be the force of
the power applied, it can produce no more than a certain efFcd. This
eife^, theiefoie, is only differently modified by all the various contri<>
vances of machinery. By fome machines velocity is acquired ; but
what is gained in fwiftnefs or time, is \oA in power. By others an in-
creafe ot force or ftrength is gained ; but what is acquired in power,
is luft in velocity or time. So the eff^ft remains ever only equal to the
force applied, whether the weight of a (lieatii of water, as in mills;
the expanfion of afteam, as in fire-ongtnes ; whether the llrength of
t horle, the force of a man's arm, or any other thing. If therefore
we confider two weights, as the contrary forces applied to any of th©
mechanical powers or machines, in whatever proportion the g« ?ater
exceeds the lels ; if in the fame proportion, the rife or fall of the lefs,
exceeds the afccnt or defceni of the greater, when the int^rument is
put in motion, the weights, however different their magnitudes may
be, will themlelves naturally equiponderate, if the machine be let to
reft. Thus in the inftruments or machines Fig. 4, 5, 6, 7, b, &c. vrhen
put in motion, if the weight G. be to the weight or power of the
hand, applied at (^ as the afcent, def^ent, or motion of C^ is to the
rile or fall of G the weight or forces G. and Q^ fhall, if lett to ihem*
felves, naturally balance each other.

All the mechanick powers are fubjeft in fome meafure or other, to
impediments from friction ; but fetting this adde, aad confidering the
nature of thefe inftruments only in theory.

3. Inclined Plane. "^ The inclined plane affords a means of railing a
weight with lefs force, than what is equal to the weight itfelf. Sup-
pofe it was required to raife the globe G. Fig. 16, from the ground
H. P. up to the point whofe perpendicular height from the grourid is'
H. I. If the globe G. was drawn by a cord parallel to the plane I. P.- .-
let the cord be continued on and pafTed over the pulley ; and let the*^
weight Q;_be hung to ir, or a hand may be applied to it. Now if th»
weight nr pawtr of thi hand nf (^ bears the fame proportion to the

ELEMENTS OF

P. T,

A •

- 1

globe Q, as I P bears to I H, i.e. as the fall of Q^bears to the dl-
reft afcent of G from the ground, the fmaller weight or force of the
hand at Q^will fupporl the globe G.

4. M'^e(/ge.] The wedge may be confiJered as two inclined planes,
joined together obliquely, for gaining of power. When a wedge is put
under any weight to raife it up Fig. 17. the force with which the
wedge will lift the weight, when driven under it by a blow on the end
C A B, will bear the fame proportion to the force wherewiih the
b'ow would aft upon the weight if dired^Iy applied to it, as the ve-
locity which the wedge receives from the blow, bears to the velocity
wherewiih the weight is lifted by the wedge ; i i e i fto the utmoft th iek -
j Mifj GAD 1^ 16 ItlL Ilh^lIi i ?f fhr wi id g 8 ; and the fame proportion
holds in cleaving of timber, or producing any iiniilar efFeft.

5. Screw.] The fcrew may be confidered as an inclined plane,
twilled round a 1 oiler j fomeiimes it is double, treble, or fourfold ; or
it has two, three, or four threads, or twifted inclined planes. There
are two ways of applying this inftrument. Sometimes Fig. 18. it is
fcrewed through a hole or box, fitted to the fcrew or pin. Some-
times Fig. 19. it is applied to the teeth of a wheel fitted to receive it.
In both thefe cafes, if a bar QJ^ be fixed acrofs the fcrew, the fore©
wherewiih the end G of the Icrew Fig. 18. prelles, and the force
wherewith G the teeth of the wheel Fig. 19. are prefTed, each force
bears the fame proportion to the power Q^applied to the end of the
har, as the velocity of the end of the fcrew, or of the teeth of the
wheel bears to the velocity of the power (^when the fcrews are
turned.

6. Pulley.] It is ealy to eftimate the effeft of the pulley, fimple or
combined.

In Fig. 9, where the weight hangs from one ftring, the power E,
fufpends a weight equal to iitelf. In Fig. 10. where the weight hangs
from two, the power Q^holds a weight double of itfelf. In Fig. 12.
where the weight hangs from fiye, the power Q^ balances five times
its own weight. In Fig. n- where fi:^ ftrings fupport the weight, the
power Q^fufpends fix times itfelf.

There are tv/o other ways of fupporting a weight by pulleys; one
of thefe is reprefented in Fig. 13. heie the weight being connefted to
the pulley 13, a power equal to half the weight would fupport the
pulley C, if applied immediately to it. A power only equal to half
of that which fupports C would fupport D, but half of this laft pow-
er applied as at Q^ fufpends D, and confequently the weight G ; the
power therefore at Opioids eight times itfelf, applied at G.

Another way of applying pulleys to a weight, is reprefented in Fig.
14. To explain the effeft of pulleys thus applied, it will be proper
joconfider different weights hanging as in Fig. 1 5. Here if the power
and weights balance each other, the power Q^is equal to the weight ;
B C is equal to both together ; and D is equal to the power Q^
and the other two weights. All the three weights together, then, are
equal to feven times the power Q; But if thefe three weights were
joined in one, they would produce the cafe of Fig. 14. fo that in that
figure the weight G, where there are three pulleys, is feven times the
Po\yer Q^ If there had been but two pulleys, it would have beei^
thr^e times ; and if four pulleys, fifteen tiiues the power.

7. Lever 1

a*,-

- if';

p. T,

S. V.

ASTRONOMY.

one
led to
tiie
half
pow-
, the

f>"g-
iroper

lower

7. Lever.] The lever is generally underftood to be a bar made ufc
of tor moving great weights, or effedling foiiie great force.

Fig. 5, 6. The bar is applied in one part to fome ftrong fupport ;
this is called the fulcrum, and is ihe centre of iis motion ; the tariher
the power Q^is applied from this centre, the greater mutl: be its mo-
tion, but the greater weight will it raife at G ; on the contrary, if we
fuppofe G to be the power, and Q^the effeft or the weight to be
raifed, the nearer ihe fulcrum the force is applied, the Jefs will be its
power, but the greater velocity will it give to Q^ We may condder
our own linibs as levers of this latter defcription.

a. PI heel and Axis.'] A lever maybe hung upon an axis Fig. 7.
and then the two arms of the lever need not be continuous, but fixed
to different parts of ^ .e axis, and the axis here muft be confidered as
the fulcrum.

From this cafe of the lever hung \ipon an axis, it is eafy to make a
tranfuion to the wheel and axis. Fig. 8. Here the axes may be con~
fidered as fulcrums, and the wheels and rollers as levers, whole
lergrhs are their fcmidiamelers. By different combinations of the
wheel and axis, n>any of the moft complicated machines are princi-
pally made out ; and the way of .onmiunicating motion from one
wheel to another, is by means ot teeth at the extremities of the
wheels, or by cords or bands, as in the combinauons of pulleys.

Ir has already been remarked, that no combinations of the mecha-
nical powers, however nice or complicate, can encreafe the whole ef-
feft of the force applied ; the force can only be modified into certain
degrees of ftrengtt. or velocity.

9. Balance] While we may read the laws that govern the fpheres,
in the properties of any of thele inltruments, whether fimple or com-
plicated, they appear the moft obvious in the fimple lever, balance or
fletlyard. If the two balls G and Q^were connefted together by an
inflexible rod, ftcelyard, or lever, drawn from centre to centre, and
the rod was fo divided in C that the pai t C G bears the fame pro-
jjoriion to C Q^as the ball Q^bears to the ball G, then the rod being
fupported at C, luppofe by a thread, will uphold the ball. Now if the
thread be twifted, fo as to nmke the balls turn rcund their common
pentre of giavlty C, it is evident, that the fmallei ball will perform
a larger circle than the greater; in faft it will wheel round the orbit
of the greater. So it is with the eaith revolving rouRd 'he fun; and
\o with the moon wheeling round the earth.

SECTION V.

Day, Night, flW Seasons. ^

I. Diurnal Revolution.] Fig. 20. The earth is alfo obferved to tui^i
round on its axis, at the fame time that it moves in its oibit round the
fun : this revolution is performed in the fpace of twenty-four hours;
as any part of its furface is turning to the fun, to that part the fun
feems to rife ; and it is with them morning. Turned oppoHte to the
fun, they enjoy noon. Turning from the fun, he feems to fet j and it^

ELEMENTS OF

P. I.

is with them evening : turned from the fun, they are involved in flia-
dow, which is night.

2. Heat i/iverj'e.] From the rotundity of the globe, the fun darts
his rays diitdt on the heads of fome, while on others he ftioots his
beams very obliquely : hence the polar regions ate rendered uninha-
bitable through extreme cold, while the nations of tropical countries,
or thofe direttly under the fun's lays, arc coloured black through in-
tenfc heat.

3. Changing Day.] In the dilFercnt parts of the world, from the
equinoctial to the poles, or terminations of the axis of the earth, their
days and nights vary in length, from the fame caufe which produces
the feafons.

4. Seafons.] Was the earth to move round the fun with its axis
perpendicular to its orbit, a regular fucceflion of equal days and nights
would uniforn)ly take place in the different parts of the earth;
for the fun illumines half of the globe at once. Fig. 20. and
every part of its furface would alternately experience a change of
twelve hours light and twelve hours darknefs, from pole to pole ; but
the earth is found to decline from the plane, E. Q^ Fig. 21, both
northward and fouthward, and move in the orbit E. C. or the eclip-
tic : hence the earth has day and night impartially and equally diftri-
buted all over its furface, only when it is at Sp. or Aut in its orbit,
where the equator and ecliptic interfeft each other. In its moving
from V.'in. by Sp. to Sum>in its orbit, we, the inhabitants of the nor-
thern hemifphere, will have the days increafing in length, and wea-
ther growing warm ; while thole of the fouthern hemifphere, will ex-
perience exidly the reverfe. In its moving from Sum. by Aut. to Win,

' we have days decreafing, and weather growing cold, while the inha-
bitants of the fouthern hemifphere enjoy lengthening days, and in-
creafing warmth.

5 Polar Day.] At the poles, day and night alternately fucceed each
other, at intervals of fix months ; for all the time between the vernal
and autumnal equinoxes, or while the earth is moving from fpiing to
autumn, when the fun is no longer viiible at the fourh f ole, it gives
continual day to the arftic regions ; and, the remaining part of the
year, thofe dreary waftes are involved in ni^rht, while the antaiftic,
or foulh pole, is in the glare »f peipctual day *.

SECTION

* The caufe ofthefe remarkable effe'ls may be earilyfeen in Fig. 11, «, 13. Let
S. reprefent the Tun j the four globes, the earth in ditferent mm oi its orbit, leceiv'
ing trom its changing pofition, the varying leafons of fpri , I'ummer, autumn, and
«itiier, as it would appear to the eye fituatfd, Fig. ii. between the fun ami polar
ftar; confequentiy, the pole of the earth towards the eye. Fig. ax. beyond the
earth's orbit, at the autumnal equinox. Fig. 13. beyond the earth's orbit at the
cftival folfiice, or midfummer. If the black fpot on the globes be fuppofed to re-
prefent Ireland, wc'inay eafily fee how equally light and darknefs would be diftri-
buted to it at the time of the equinoxes, or in fpring and autumn j howfmalla
ftare of funfhine it would be turned inf) in winter; and how (hott a time it would
be obfcured in Aade or night in fummer. Thefe things may he all pleafingly ex-
hibited beyond all defcription, by an eify experiment. If a couple of hoops be fixed
in the direftion of E. (^ and E. C. Fig. z». and a candle placed as at S. we may,
by fttfpcnding an artificial ball from a thread, aiSp. from H. and moving it eafily
•long the hwf £,C. be agreeably entrained with a p>etty miniature reprcfen<

tatioa

§. IV,

ASTRONOMY.

SECTION VI.

Definitions <?/ Circles, i^c. Ctlejiial andTerreJirial.

1. Great and lefs Circles.] Aftronomers have confidered the (larry
heavens, as a Iphere with our earth in the center : this is the appear-
ance they make to our fenfes. They h? e divided the terreftrial and
celeftial fpheres, by great and lefs circles : great circles are thofe which
divide either the celeftial or terreftrial Iplieres into two equal parts:
lefs circles are thoi'e which divide the fphere into two unequal
parts.

2. Eqitinodial.'] If at the time of the equinoxes, a ray direftly
pointed fiom the center of the fun towards that of the earth, be fup-
pofed, like a pencil, to delcribe a circle on the lurtace of our globe,
as it turns lound on its axis ; this circle would divide the earth into
the northern and fouthern hemifphercs, and would be the equinoftial
line.

3. Tropicks] If circles be fuppofed to be defcribed in like manner, at
the time of the folltices, or at niidfuMuner and midwmier ; thefe would
be about twenty-three degrees and a halt from the equinoftial, and
thefe would be the tropicks.

4 Fular Circles,] When the fun is thus diredlly over a tropick, as
he illumines one half of the globe at once, his ray"! extend twenty-three
degiees and an half beyond one of the poles; and fall fo tar lliort of
reaching the other. Thefe extreme boundaries of light and darknefs,
on the north and on the louth, as they are twepi round the poles in
one revolution of the earth on its axis, mark out the polar circles on
the furface of the globe The polar circles are the arflic on the north,
the antarctic on the louih. The tropicks are that of Capricorn on the
fouth, that of Cancer on the north ; fo named fiom the conftellations
that are over them in the heavens.

5. Zones.] Thefe circles divide the furface of the earth into five
zones. The trafts at the two poles, aie the frozen zones; thofe be-
tween the polar circles and the tiopicks, the temperate ; and that which
extends from tropick to tropick, is the torrid or burning zone.

6. Celejiial ] The ftarry heavens that luiround us, appear to forni
one vaft concave. \i thefe circles be fuppoled to be produced to the
ftarry heavens, or fwept round ilie concave, thefe are what are called
the celeftial polar circles, tropicks and equinoftial.

When the fun is over any of thefe circles on the earth, it will ap-
pear to us' in the correfponding circle in the heavens.

7. Ecliptic

tation of all the changei of day and night, and the varied fsafona naturally pto-
duced on iti furface, 4>y the rays uf the candle (Iriking on it, as it rifes or falls in
the difTeient parts of its crbit or hoop, and as it naturally revolves on its own axis,
by its touching the hoop ; or we may make the fame exhibition without ufing the
hoopi, by gently twifting the thread, to make out the viciflitudea pf night and day ;
takiogcaie to raifeand lower the hand at proper intervals, to make out the changes
fti the feafoas, as we carry the ball rouod the candle.

* -

ELEMENTS OF

P. I.

7. Ecliptic.] As our earth in the courfe of a year, moves round its
orbit or ecliptic, the plane of which is oblique to that of the equinoc-
tial, the fun in that lime feems to us to move in a contrary diredlion,
in an orbit or ecliptic round the heavens, of the fame obliquity from
tropic to tropic, interfering the equinoftial in two oppofiie points,
and forming an angle with it equal to twenty-three degrees twenty-
eight minutes, the fun's greatelt declination.

8. Zodiac ] All the planets move nearly in thedireflion of the eclip-
tic ; and that fpace on each fide of it, which bounds their utmoft devia-
tions, is called the zodiac. The Zodiac is a broad circle or belt, in the
ilarry heavens; it is about fixteen degrees in breath. The ecl'ptic is
a line which equally divides it in two all round.

The zodiac is divided into twelve equal parts, called figns or con-
ilellalions ; each fign contains thirty degrees ; and thefe (igns are named
and noted in the following manner :

Aries.

Taurus. (jemini,
» u

Cancer.

Leo. Virgo.

Libra.

Scorpio. Sagittaritis.

Capricornus.

Aquarius. Pifces.

The former fix are called northern, and the l^tt«r fouthern, figns j be-
caufe the former poflefs that half of the ecliptic, which lies to the
northward of the equinotlial ; and the latter that which lies to the
fouthward. The northern are our funmier figns ; the fouthern are our
winter ones.

9. Meridians'] If we fuppofe a line extended from pole to pole, on
our earth, cutting the equator at right angles, this would be a meri-
dian ; for all the people who live on this line, would have noon or
any other part of the day, at one and the fame lime.

In the heavens alfo meridians cut the equinoftial at right angles, and
terminate in points oppofite to the poles of the world.

10. Terrejhial Lat. l^ Lon^.] The latitude of a place on our earth,
is its diftance north or fouth from the equinoftial line. The longitude
its diftance eafl: or well from a meridian. Circles are divided, whe-
ther great or fniall, into three hundred and fixty parts, called degrees;
the greateft longitude cf a place, therefore, can only be one hundred
and eighiy, the utmoft latitude ninety, degrees.

The meridian for meafuring longitude from, on our earth, is not
determinate or eftablidied ; and geographers generally fix upon that
one, on which the metropolis of their own nation ftands.

1 1. Ajcenfton and Decimation] The right afcenfion of any heavenly
obje6l, is its diftance from that meridian which paflts through the firft
point of Aries; the declination is its diftance from the equi-
nodial.

1 2. Points and Colures.] The cardinal points of the ecliptic, are the
four firft points of the figns, Aries, Cancer, Libra, and Capricornus.
Thofc of Aries and Libra, are called equinodlial points ; and thofe of
Cancer and Capricornus, folftitial points. The meridians that pals
through thefe four points, meeting at the poles, form two large cir-
cle. * there, interfering each other at right angles ; tjiefe are called
t.he equinoctial and lolditial colures.

13 Celejin/

AAT

p. I.

oves round its
^ the equinoc-
rary direftion,
'bliquity from •
'pofite points,
rees twenfy-

of the eclip-
itaioftdevia-
r belt, in the
he ecliptic is

>gns or con-
s are named

Viigo.
'K
us. Pifces.
H

figns ; be-
Hes to the
lies to the
-rn are our

o pole, on
e a mcri-
2 noon or

'gles, and

ur earth,
ongitude
'd, whe-
degrees ;
hundred

is not
on that

eavenly
the filft
• equi-

are the
corn us.
lofe of
It pals
je cir-
called

s. vr.

ASTRONOMY.

Celeft'tal Long. £s* Lat.'\ If great circles be imagined to cut the
ecliptic at right angles, thefe will interfedl each other in two oppofite
points of the heavens. Thefe points are the poles of the ecliptic, at
nearly twenty-three degrees and a half from the poles of the world ;
and the circles are called circles of longitude in the heavens.

The latitude of any heavenly objefl, is its diftance north or foutii
from the ecliptic. The longitude its diitance from that circle of
longitude, which paffes through the lirll point of Aries *.

13. Finding the Latitiulc'] The latitude of a place on the earth
is more ealily found than the longitude. It may be performed by the
help of a quadrant and addition and fubtradion only, if we have a
meridian line, or other certain means to know when it is twelve
o'clock by the fun. By the quadrant (Fig. 24. PI. II.) we can find
the height or altitude of any heavenly body above the horizon ; if it
be the fun we hold the quadrant fo that his lays fliall pafs through
two holes or fights fixed on D. S. ; but if any other objcft, we look
at it through tiie fights along D. S. ; the plummet aad thread hang-
ing from the angle S, mark its altitude on the arch C. D. The me-
ridian altitude of any object is its greafelt altitude for that day, and
when the fun is on the meridian, it is twelve o'clock bt the
dial. The fun's meridian altitude is his noon day altitude, and ih all
places north of the torrid zone, the fun is exadly fouth at noon,
by which we may gain an idea of the other points of the compafs,
for if we turn our faces to the fun at noon, the north point will be
exadly behind us, the weft on our right hand, the eaft on pur left.

If we take the altitude of the fun or a ftar on the meridian, and the
fun or ftar be in the equinov5lial, that altitude fubtra<5led from ninety
deg. leaves the latitude of the place, but if the fun be not on the
equinotSial, fubtraft his declination if north, or add if it be fouth
from or to the degrees of altitude, and the remainder or fum fub-
traded from ninety dcg. tells the latitude. Thofe who have but
very little acquaintance with the heavenly bodies may, by juft look-
ing about them, form fome idea of the latitude of the place they may
be in all over the world. If the fun be over their hekds at noon n

they mufl be within the tropics ; on the contrary, if he either keeps Xlk l^'
up or never rifes during that fpace, they are within the polar cir-
cles ; even the temperature of the place alone might give them fome ,.-
idea of their latitude. The north or fouth pole is eafilv pointed out
in the heavens, they are thofe points which appear as centres of re'-
volution to the ftars in their apparent diurnal irotions. If our fitii'-
ation be on the equator, both thefe points or poles fiiall be in our
horizon, if we recede from the line, one of thele poles ihall fink -

from

* The latitudes of the fixed ftars remain invariahly the fair e, but their longi- .' ';

tudc encreafts at the ilow rate of one licgree in fcventy-onc yeais and a hall; this \'^

is not a motioa of the fixed ftars, butoi the ciiiiinoiiial points (fr )m whi'Ji we
reckon the ftar's longitude) and which move bacuward at hat rate; this is
called the precelfion of the equinoxes, which requires uboiit 25,740 years for :,
one revolution through the twelve figus, in which tirre the pole of the car'h in ^;;^
pointing to the heavens will defcribe one circuit round the pole of the ecliptic. .;. ' -

*B7 ^ --:'.'\

^■j&

ELEMENTS OF

P.I.

H ;

from our view, the other (hall coniequently rife above the horizon,
juft fo many, degrees as we are didant from the equator ; to afcer-
tain the altitude of the pole is the fame as to determine our latitude.
When we turn our backs to the pole and look towards the equator ;
if the heavenly bodies feem to rife on our left hand and fet on the
right, we are in a northern latitude or on the northern hemifphcre ;
but if they rife on the right and fet on the left, we are in the
fouthern.

There are no liich fimple and eafy methods of judging of our longi-
tude, whether it be eaft or weft, from any given meridian, the ap-
pearances of the heavenly bodies (hall generally be the fame in any
longitude, while we keep in one parallel of latitude.

14. F'tndng the Longitude."} All places that lie under one meri-
dian have the fame longitude, and experience at qnce the fame hour
of the day ; and as the difference of time between any two places
is according to the diftance of their meridians from e^ch other, fo
if we knew the difference of the hour in thefe two places at one in-
ftant of time, it would only be another name for difference of longi-
tude ; for if their difference of time be one-half, one-third, one-
fourth, or any other part of twenty-four hours, i. e. of the time of
one diurnal revolution, their difference of longitude, or the diftance
of their meridians from each other, will be one-half, one-third, one-
fourth, or a fimilar part of three hundred and fixty degrees, i. e.
of a parallel of latitude, or a circle on the earth, in a diredion eaft
and weft.

To find our longitude ; befides finding the hour in the place where
we arc, we muft know what hoar it is at fome diftant place, the
latter we muft either have by fome exaft * timekeeper, fet to the

time

• Furniflied with a true going watch and a quadrant, if we fet out with the
Greenland-men, Aippofe from London, and proceed towards the north ; the
farther we advance in the voyage the more the pole will feem to rife in the
heavens or iky, and hence we may know how far we have got to the north :
if we find that noon is longer in coming on than we might expeft it, from the
watch as rej^lified for the meridian of I^ndon ; or in other words, that tlie
watch is too faft for the place we are in, this at once informs us that we have
got to the weftward, or towards the American coaft ; on the other hand, if we
have noon hefore it is iz by the watch, that is before it is noon in London, we
may be fure we have got to the eaftward : If the difference between the watch
and the time of the place we are ip be one hour, we have got fil.een degrees
eaftward or weftward of the meridian of London, if two hours we have got
thirty, and fo on in proportion

We may leave the whak-fiihers, and effeft in imagination the vainly attempted
paffage to the Pacific on the north, if we go right over the pole when we arrive
at that point, the quadrant may as before inform us of our fituation ; the quadrant
however will here be fuperfluous, as at one view we fliall fee we are in latitude
90°. the heavenly bodies, whether fun, moon or ftars, all feeming towhirl round
■us in circles parallel to the horizon ; here the mariRcr's compafs can no longer
p<iint to the north, to whatever part of the horizon this magic-like inftrunicnt
IS diredcd, it will point to the fouth, the heavenly bodies alone can be no di-
rcdion to us here, though unceafmgly moving they will be always on our me-
ridian, every vertical circle being a meridian here. If taking one of them
as a point of direction, we attempt to fteer towards it away to the fouthward,

S.VI.

ASTRONOMY.

time of the other place, or from obfervations of the celefllal bodies ;
for which the eclipfes of the moon and of the Jupiter s fatellites are
beft luited, becaufe the coming on of thefe eclipfes is feen at the fame

indant

it will but moclc our vain purfuit ; twenty-four hours will convince «» of our
miftake, for at the end of one daily revolution of the earth we Ihall have ar-
rivcil at the pole or the place we fet out from, if our Ipecd be equable; nor cat!
we alter the matter by doubling our fwiftnefs, except only in defcribing a cir-
cuit of twice the length bifi)rc ve return to the fpot we let out from. In thi«
dillrt'fsful fituation to what expedient can we have rccourfe, our quadrant is
ufeltl's, the compafs would fail, and the heavenly bod'es perpetually whirling
round us, feem but to bewilder us ; here however our watch feems - ■> prove »
moft faithful guide; by it we can ice when it is at London, morning, nuon,
evening or midnight.

If when we know that it is 6 in the morning at London, we take our depar-
ture from the pole, having the fun on our right hand ; if we keep fo travelling
forward that the luminary Ihall by degrees take us in the rear, and againft twelve
o'clock, or the noon of London, bedire«31y behind us; if we ftill continue tra-
velling forward in the fame dire<5tion, the fun by degrees takes us on the left,
till at fix, or the evening of London, we have it dircdtly on our left hand; if
flill travelling forward, v*lien it is night in England we keep the fun before us,
fir ft towards our left hand, at twelve direAly before us, and afterwards toward*
our right hand :— or, if we be fuppofed travelling by fea, we may exprefs it in
other words, if we keep the fun on our flarbeard bow when it is 3 of the
morning by the watch, that is, in !,ondon; on our (larboard beumsat6, on our
(larboard quarter at 9, right aftern at 12, or when it is noon at London; on our
larboard quarter at 3, on our larboard beams at 6, on our larboard bow at 9,
and right a head at 12, or when it is midnight at London : — this will be di-
rc«Sly leaving the pole and proceeding towards the Pacific : this courfe will
bring us up with the rcmotell ttrritories of the Ruflians in Siberia near the arc-
tic circle, where we find Afia and America within a few leagues of each other j
paflTing thefe ftralts and entering the Pacific ocean, we find when it is noon in
London, or by our reckoning on the watch, that midnight darkncfs envelopes
fhis oppofite part of the world, by this wc know we are in 180" longitude both
eaft and weft from London, and by our quadrant we learn our diftance
from the equator. As we proceed towards the (buth, the ftars of the northern
hemifphere feem to dip below the horizon, and thofe of the fouthem appear to
rife in the heavens. When we crofs the equator, the ardic pole feems to fink
from our view, and the arnardlic pole feems to emerge from the deep. We have
the moft fouthcrn rapes li Africa or America to double before wc can retwm
home. If we ftccr caft f vr raerica, the day will feem to come or quicker and
quicker , if weft for Africa flower and (lower, till having palled one of thtfe
capes and got into the Atlantic, the day and our watch pcrfedlly agree. When
this is the cafe, we know we are once niore on the meridian of London : We
have by the afilftance of the quadrant to gain the lame latitude, and at the fame
time by help of our watch, to keep on the fame meridian we fet out from, and
this brings us back, after our ideal and moft folitary voyage, to perhaps the moft
bufy and buiUing fpot in all the world. Thus, by a true going time-keeper the
difficulty of finding the longitude would be removed. All works of art how-
ever are liable to imperfedion from their ftrudlure, and befides thefe, the changes
of heat and cold, with the different degrees of gravity in the different parts of
the earth, and the motion of travelling, all thele militate againft the regularity
of a time-keeper, watch or clock. One artift however, J. Harrifiin, has fo
far fucceeded in an attempt after a machine that Ihould furmount thefe obfta-
cles, and going regularly on, tell in every part of the world the time of the
day in London, that it has been ufed with (atisfadion iu every longitude, and
in perhaps every habitable latitude upon earth, by the late adventurers for dif-
coveries ; and government has beftowed upon the maker of the inftrument the
fum of 20,oool. as a reward for his labours and invention.

B 8

ELEMENTS

O F

inffaritofabfo/utctimefroiTirf,. - ^' ^'

n >!>=. calculation , b„, „,., ^'T ''^ '" »Pi'cara„ce diftr from ,"1
5!«^« '». .s „:,s already ^m^k'^"" ,"' """^ ''"wcen any ^ '
<i«foence of Io„gi,„d,. ^ "•'"■'">^'- °"'y anutlKr „a,„. f./ .i™"

ct il'rF-"'''-" »' ''™J^^ .0 .e of ,„„,.

Ij 7'?^"'7 "'=y 'T-^ylk " ""-■'■ i-''-^ '■'=»a. and whici,

the tTventy-fourtJi climate.
^•f Within

s. vr.

ASTRONOMY.

Within the polar circles, the longeft day encreafes not by half hours,
but by days and months.

Befides the circles alieady mentioned, which are in fome nieafure
fixed and detciniinatc J there are others that vary according to the
place of the oblerver.

1 6. Poles of the H^^ri, «.] The zenith is that point in the heavens
dire6lly over liead. Th« nadir is that po-nt dirc6"tly oppofue the zc-
'/ith ; tl^e zenith and nadir are the two poles of the iiori/on.

17. Hori)con.] Thf feiifible horixon is that apparent clicle in the
heavens on a le\el with the eye, which limits or boii.Hls the view of
the iptdator on the lea, or on an extended plane. The eye of the
Ipettator is the center of his hoiizon. The matheniiticd horizon may
be CQnfidcred as coincitling with the renl'ibk', ih<jugh ihe centc: of the
earth is the center of the inatheiuatical horizon ; for the (emi-diame-
itro/ine earth, is but as a minute point, ifcoinpaicd wiih tlie dlftance
of the ftars.

18. yertical Circles. Cart/imil Points.] The rzimuths, or vertical
circles, pals through the zenith and nadir, and cut the horizya at right
angles.

The points where the azimuth, which coincides with the meiidian,
cuts the horizon, are the north and fouth points. The points where
the azimuth, which cuts the metidian at right angles, falls upon the ,
horizon, are the eart and weft points. Thefe are the cardinal points of
the compafx. All the points of the compafs may be feen in their order
in Fig. 25 Vl II.

ly. /Iltitiule. /4lmicanter.] The altitude of an heavenly objeft is
its dillance from the horizon j the zenith diftaKce its diftancc from the
zeniih.

The meridian altitude, or meridian zenith diftance, is the altitude
or Zenith diftar.ce, when the objet^ is on the meridian.

A circle round the heavens, and through the obje«5l, parallel to the
hoiizon, is called an Almicanter, or a parallel of altituae.

20. PojUions of the Sphere.] A parallel fphere, is that podtion
wherein the heavenly bodies appear to move parallel to the horizon.
This can only happen at the poles, where the equinoflial coincides
with the horizon ; one of the poles with the zenith j and the Qther
with the nadir. PI. 11. Fig. 26.

A right fpliere.is that wherein the heavenly bodies appear to rife
direct from the horizon, and to fall direftly upon it when they fei.
This is common to all places fiiuated under the equinoftial, where
the poles are in the horizon ; and the equino^ial palTes through the
zenith and nadir. PI, 11. Fig. 27.

An oblique fphere, is that where all the heavenly bodies appear to
move obliquely to the horizon. This is common to all parts of the*
earth, except thofe under the poles and equator. In an oblique fphere,
one of the poles feems elevated above, and the other deprefled belov/
the horizon. PI. II. Fig. 23. ,

Fig. 29 Fl. II. Reprelents an artificial armillary fphere, which
Hiews the difpodtion of feveral of the circles already described.

• J

tti.k*

¥■■*

SEC T I ON

:■•**•

ELEMENTS ?

P. 1.

SECTION VII.

>< ]

Moon, Tides, Oblate Figure of t!;e Earth.

As ihe moon accompanies the earth tIirouj;h its annual courfe, at
the fame time alio moving round it in an oj bit, as the earth moves
round the fun, this produces thule various phalcs ur appearances ob-
fervable in the moon.

1. Phafes,] It is full moon, when the earth being between the fun
and the moon, we fee alt the enlightened part of the luoon.^iiange^
When the moon being between us and the lun, its enli£,htened part is
turned from us ; and half-moon, when the moon being in the quadra-

■ lures, as the aftronomers call it ; or half-way between the two other
poiltions, we fee but half the enlightened pait.

2. Ecli/>/'es.] The eclipfes of the fun and moon, are produced in a
fimilar way ; an eclipfe of the i toon, is when the earth, being in u
direct line between the fun and moon, P'ig. 30. hinders the light of the
fun from falling upon, and being refledled by the moon. If the light
of the fun is kept off from the whole body of the moon, it is a toial
eclipfe ; if from a part only it is a partial one.

An eclipfe of the furt, is when the moou being in a right line be-
tween the fun and the eaith, hindeis the light of the fun from coming
to us. If the moon hides from us the whole body of the fun, it is a
total eclipfe j if not it is a partial one.

In Fig. 31. let S reprefenl the fun ; E the earth; and M the moon
in the different parts of iis orbit. Here the balls P H in the outer
circle, reprefent the different phafes, or appearances of ihe moon, in
the different parts of its oibit, to the inhabitants of the earth.

3. Experiment.] All thefe phenomena iiuiy be prettily exhibited in
an eafy experiment, with a candle and ball Tig. 32. Let S be a candle,
reprefenting the fun; B. a ball, reprefentiug the moon : let the head
of the obfcrver be confidered as the fnuation of the earth. If the ob-
ferver carry M. round his head in an orbit, and keeping his eye on it,
mark out the different phafes in the different parts of its orbit, at C it
will appear a crefcent ; at F full iMoon ; at H half moon ; and at D
dark moon or change. If his eye, the ball and candle, be all on a
level, when M is at D, S will be eclipitd by it from his view : and
when M is at F, M will be eclipled in the iliadow of his head. Hence
we may fee, that lunar eclipfes can only happen at the time of full ;
and folar ones, only at the change. If the moon moved in the fame
plane or level with the earth, fhe fliould have an eclipfe every full
and change ; but the plane of its orbit is oblique to that of the earth j
and crolfes it an angle of five degrees and one-third. The points of
their intcrfe^ion are called the nodes of the moon's orbit. 7'he nodes
change their place every lunation ; they move nineteen degrees and
one-third towards the wed every year, and therefore pafs round the
heavens in eighteen years and two hundred and twenty-five days ;

mimmx'mm.sr.ii'..

s. vir.

ASTRONOMY.

ihe golden number of our Kalendars. And it is only when the nodes
happen to be in a light hne with the fun and the eaj^th, that the Iblar

iand lunar ccliplos take place; as the orbit of C i moon is not very
many decrees oblique to that of the ecliptic, flie generally fliineJ
without letting every fccond fortnight, on the arftic or antarftic parts
I of our globe during their winter, and thusdiveififies the gloom of their
y fix months night.

/ 4. Moon-Jbine .] As the moon reflets the light of the fun to the
r earth, fo if the moon have its inhabitants, our earth, in like manner,
3 a^ts as a moon to them. And fo great a moon-lhinedocs it throw on
the Sattelite, that it may be feen from the earth with the naked e^e.
There are few but who have obfcrved of the moon, a while betore
and after the change, when we can fee it only a little while in the
morning or evening, we may then fee its whole body diftindly : One
fide of it appears as a bright (lender crefcent ; but the principal part
of it fcems of a dark or dull, and fcarcely diftinft hue. The bright
part ot it is as the day-light of the moon ; the dark part as the moon-
ihine reflected from the earth. We are told, that in Italy and other
parts, wliere the air is clear, that the dark moon may be feen, or the
moon at the change, when it rifesor fets with the fun. If this be the
cafe, it muft be fro-.n the moon-fiiine or the light of the fun reflected
on it from the earth.

5. Lunar Day,] If the ihoon be peopled, the lot of Its inhabitants
appears in fume refpe^s ditferent from ours. The moon turns only
once round on her axis, while ihe performs her orbit round the earth i
one fide of it is confequently always turned towards our earth, and
receives fuccefTively two weeks of moonihine from our earth, and two
weeks ot fun. The other fide, it feems, muft be two weeks in conti-
nual darknefs, and two weeks in conftant day. Their day and night
tlien is a month in length j and they experience no diverfity of feafons
as we do.

6. Ttlefcopk Ol'fer'Vathns.] The ttioon is fufficiently near us, to
give us an opportunity of obferving with the naked eye, inequalities
of its furface. By help of the telefcope, they have been diftinftly af-
certained, and confidered as mountains and cavities, as land and wa-
ter ; they have eveo got geographical names, after the iflands, coun-
tries, and feas on our earth, though without regard to fituation or fi-
gure, from the fliadows ptojedted on the furface of the moon, froni
lis eminences or uiountains, aftronomers alfo calculated their heights;

-j they werp conc^uded to be about nine miles high. From the clear
,j|l appearance of the moon, it was imagined there were neither clouds
"nor vapours about it, from whence raio might proceed; that there
was confequently a feries of fine feiene weather there. It was even
thought probable, that the moon had not even an atmofphere, be-
caufe the planets and ftars which were feen near it, had not their light
refracted, as it is in palfiBg through our atmofphere. Later obferva-
tions however appear to have been more accurate. The aftrono-
mer Herfchell, whofe telefcope magnifies fix thoufand five hundred
imes, has reduced her higheft mountains, by his calculations, to about
two miles. It feems he has lately difcovered alfo three volcanos in
the moon : the principal one at the time of obfervation, was in a part
of her diik, not then illuminated ; be eftitnated its diameter at about

^' '■' ^ * -^1^ ■■ S% '■■■ •' ^^^^

ia ElLEMENTSOP P. f,

three miles. It »je£lcd great quantities ot* finoke and lava ; and its
light was to corfiderable, as to illiimioatc ilie lulls in its vicinity. The
next luiiiition, he repeated hrs oblcrvations with the greateft attenti-
on, but law nothing ot'it. The other two fccincd eitlier to have been
lately extiiiguiihed, or to threaten an tniinediate eruption.

7. 'Tides. I While it is by attiaition that the caith reninins a fuIiU
ball, when otheiwife its paits would be thrown off fioiii its center by
the rotatory motion which it has on its axis; »nd while it it kept in it!*
orl)it by the centripetal force, when otherwife the centrifugal would
thiow it off in a right line through the imnicnfity ol Ipace. The wa-
ter in its vallies, or the lea, and the aimofphere that Turrounds it, be-
ing fluids, they receive from thefe two forces particular impreinons,
t»l which the firmer parts of it are not fufceptible. Of thefe the moft
feiuarkable are the tides, which, while they are produced in the ai-
mofphere as well as in the water, they appear to us the more diiliil£t
in the latter.

8. ThfirCauff] If we fix a firing to the fide of a flexible circula? r-oop,
and thereby fwing it round in a circle, PI. Il.Fig.j2. we readily conceive
liow the pan next the hand would draw out or Iwell by the drawing of
the llring; how tiie oppofite part would fly off or fweli, by the centrifu-
gal forte, it being leaf! drawn in ; how the intervening parts of the
hoop would hereby be deprefll'd or flattened. So it is with the ocean j
that part of it which is immediately under the futi, israifjd by its attrac-
tion up into a fwell ; that part of it which lies on the oppofite fide of the
earth, being leafl: aitrafted, is thrown up into a fimilar fwell, by the mo-
tion of tiie earth in its orbit, or by the centrifugal force : the moon is fo
near the earth (two hundred and forty thonland luilesat a medium) in
comparifon of the fun (near one hundred millions of miles) that the moon's
atiiartion, and the accompanying centrifugal force, are to thofe of the
fun as ten is to three. If we confider then the lunar tides as the
principal ones, we lliall find them influenced by the folar tides, as fol-
lows: at the full and change, the lunar tides ten, fliall be encreafed
three, by the conjundtion of the lolarones; and a power of thirteen
/hall influence the fea, and produce fpring tides; but at the quarters
of the moon, or at the time of half-moon, the two luminaries coun-
teradting each other's inJluence on the waters, the fun's power of three,
fliall be taken from the rioon'sof ten, and leave only feveti operating
upon the fea ; and hence neap tides (hall confequently take place.

9. Eurt/j J If inftead of fwinging the flexible hoop round in a circle,
as m the former experiment, we fuppofe it whirled round witii velocity
on one of its fides, as a centre, as in PI. 11. Fig .33. we may eafily con-
ceive how this fide, and the fide directly oppofite, would become fiat
©r deprelTed, by the intervening parts of the hoop fwelling out from
the center, as it is whirled round. So is it with the fea ; by the cea-
irifugal force from the turning round of the earth on its axis, t"lie wa-
ters of the ocean are thrown up many miles higher at the equator,
than they are at the poles. We might hence be apprehenfive, that
the countries within the tropics would be deluged with water ; but
the faft is, the folid part of the earth itfelf has a correfponding fliape,
Lcing rather flat at th% poles, and highefl: at the equator. The land
ftnd water then of our globe is not an exaft fphere, but an oblate
jpherhuid. A prolate fpherhoid is highefl: at the poks ; a lemon may

• I

■4»»»WKW!W» iri--!

s. vnf.

ASTRONOMY.

be confidered m a figure of this defcription ; an orange a£ a fpheroid
ot the oblate kind.

It is the tendency of gravitation or attraftion, to draw the waters
down to the poles, and to lay even thofe countries that we live in,
fome miles under water ; but this influence is nicely countel-afled by
the centrifugal force, which perpetually keeps it heaved up to the
equator.

10. Other tffeGt of its Diurnni Revolution ] Thefe forces aft in
like manner upon other bodies, as well as on water; hence the fame
bodies are of lefs weight at the equator than at the poles. Thefe
effe^s are mod di(lin6lly obfervable in the motion of pendulums;
pendulums of the fame length move flower on the equatorial parts
of the earth (where they have in their defcent to combat with
the greated motion or centrifugal force, from the daily rotation of
the earth on its axis) than they do at the poles (where their
gravitation is not counterafted by the daily rotation of the earth, and
where, being nearer to its center, they are alfo more ftrongly at-
tradled. A difcovery of this difference in the motion of pendulums^
or in the time of clocks in the different parts of the earth, appears to
have firft given the hint, that the earth was not an exaft or perfeft
fphere. Two companies of mathematicians were difpatched from
France, one to meaiure the length of a degree on the meridian in
Lapland, the other at the equator; and a degree of latitude was found
fomething fKortcr at the equator, than it proved to be on the flatter
parts of the earth near the pole; our globe was found to be an oblate
fpberoid, and very nearly of the fame proportion as the ingenious
Niewton had computed it to be, from his knowledge of the laws of
the creation : the figure of our earth, however, differs fo little from
that of a fphere, that It i ,ay be confidered as fuch in th*? common
geographical computations, without any fenfible error.

SECTION VIII.

Planetary Laws, tiriii the Methods of imjejligating the Motion,
Magnitude, aW Distances oj the Planets.

1, Motion of the Sun.] Hitherto we have con^dered the fun and
the earth as regularly moving in circles round one common center of
gravity ; however, as there are a number of planets in our fyftem,
revolving continually, like our earth, round the luminary at different
diftances from him, and in different periods of time; the fun may be
more fitly confidered as agitated round their feveral centers-, accord-
ingly as he is attracted by them in their different diredlions ; nor are
their orbits round the fun perfecliy circular, but elliptical, the planets
I'ometimes receding from, and fometimes approaching nearer to the fun.

2. Paths of the Planets ar.d Covins.] If a thread be tied loofely
round two pms ftuck in a table, and moderately ftretched by a black-
lead pencil, carried round in an upright pofition, aa oval or ellipiis

[Infet] C 3 ^ will

\t !:>

;i'

. '■(

%t E L E M E N T S O F P. I.

will be defcribed by the point of the pencil ; the two points where
the pins are fixed are called the focufes or foci : The orbits of all the
planets are ellipfes, but to trace out their rercmblance the pins muft
be put very near together, and the nearer the pins aie, the more
will the figure refemble a circle. But in repr«fen .ing the path of a
comet the pins muft be far afunder, and then the figure defcribed will
be very long and narrow. The fun is fituatcd nearly in one focus of
the orbit of every planet and comet. That place in any orbit which
is r.eareft to the lun is called the perihelion, and the moft diftani part
the aphelion.

rianetary Lanvs.)^ There are two principal laws obferved in the
folar fyftein, which regulate the motions of all the planets.

Firft. The planets move through the arches of equal areas,
(that is of equal portions of the planes of their orbits) in equal times ;
when a planet in its orbit is receding from the fun, the attraction of
the luminary more diredtly rounterafts its centrifugal force, and retards
its velocity ; at length, the attraction prevails, and the planet begins
to approach nearer to the fun : in this approach the attraction en-
creafes, as before it counteracted the motion of the planet j the velo-
city however' which it- acquires in its approach to the fun, is the very
f"»rce which again makes it recede from the luminary. Thus it is
kept, as it were, fwlnging to and from the fun— as it recedes, it is
retarded by attraction, and kept from flying oif through the immenfity
offpace; as it approaches its velocity is encreafed, and this velocity
again throws it oif, and thus prevents it from falling into the fun.

Second. The fquaresofthe periodical times of the planets, are
as the cubes of their mean diftances from the fun ; hence the propor-
tion of their diftances are ealily afcertalned, by comparing the times
of performing their orbits : was the real dlftance therefore of any of
them determined, the diftances of all the others might be thus ob-
tained. By obfervations of the tranfits of the planet Venus over the
fun in 1761, and 1769, we now know the real diftances of the planets
from the fun much better than before, and when the dlftance of an
object is known, there are cafy geometrical rules for deducing its real
bulk, from its apparent fize.

3. Deception of the Sen/es] When nftronomlcal doCtrines are Hrft
advanced to us, we liften with furprile, and naturally doiibt ; we
afk, How can aftronomers mealiare the ftars. and tell their dilVAnccs,
for they are quite above us and out of our reach ; and how can they
tell that the earth turns round ? if we may btlieve our own fenfes,
the earth ftands ftill, and the fun, moon and ftars daily rife and fet, to
lerve us for the purpofes of light or of heat.

Thofe who have failed in fliips or in boats, may well remember,
when once they had got accuftomed to the motion of ths veffel, fo far
from their L-ing ferMole of its progreflion, the objeCts that relatively were
ftanding ftill, as the houfes, the trees, and the iliore, appeared to be
in motion, while they themreh'es, and their veflel, fcenied to be quite
at reft j the teftimony of our fenfes then alone is invalid and futile in
philofophical enquiries, and muft be corrected by reafoning on the na-
ture of things.

4. Cwreded by Rea/otiing.] If the moft prodigious weight and
complication of artiBciai machinery that the powers of man could

^-^ . ^ invent

■,sf^

■"?^.

aBW^Jtnpc^

S. VIII.

ASTRONOMY.

«?

>,•",*?■

invent and execute, were erefted before us ; if, among all the variety
of motions that could be contrived in it, one fmall wheel, index,
pointer br hand, fo minute as to reiiuire a luicrofcope to dilccver it,
turned round on its center, in a fecond of time, while the larger
wheels were days, months, or years, in turning on their refpedtive
axes : it would certainly be moll prepofterous and unnatural to expeft,
that the little microfcopic wheel lliould fuftain the whole, that it alone
rtiould be fixed and fini), and that the prodigious weigiit and com-
plication of ivachiaery, lliould be whijled round it every fecord.
Thus unnatural, and lti!l irore inconfiftent with the laws of the crea-
tion, appear thcfe theories in the eye of modern philofophy, which
fuppofe that the earth ftands ftill, and that the myriads of globes aie
perpetually v/hiiled round it every 24 hours; for a'.honomers find by
obfervatiun, that our earth is in fizw* but as a fmall or dimenfionlefs
point, if compared with the diftance of the fixed ftars ; and that everj
our whole folaifylUni, is but as a minute fpot, in what is nightly feen
of the creation.

5. Afcertainment of the Dljlances and Mngnitude of Obje^s.] To
conceive how they alcertain the diliance and magnitude of the planets,
will be difficult for thofe who are unacquainted with the fcience of
geometry : perhaps, however, an idea of the principles on which their cal-
culations are founded, may be gathered f'lom what is obfervable on
ea. .h i and firfl, if walking along a ftraight road, we pafs my objetl
on the right or left, as a tree or a tower ; if the objeft lies clofe to the
road, a very liiile diftance will make a confiderable difference in its
bearing from us ; at a very ihort diliance before we come up to it, it
fball appetir almoll diredly before us, foon we flialt be abreaft of it,
r.nd as fbon we <hall leave it behind us j but, if the objeft be at a great
diftancefrom the road, we iliall travel along for fome time, with it nearly
abreaft of us, and from hence we might form fome eftimation of its
diftance, if we had nothing elfe to guide us ; in fa£t, by meafuring a
portion of the road, and obferving the exafl direftion that lines would
take, if pointed from the cx'tremities of that portion of the road
to the ojje£t in view ; or in other words, by obferving the angles
thefe lines would make with the road, a geometer might eafily cal-
culate the diftance of the ob'ciSt from the road ; on thefe principles
rather farther complicated, they compute the diftance of the planets j
it is eafy to conceive, it right lines are pointed from the geometer on
the road to the extremities of the obje^, thefe lines will vary their di-
redlion, or foun an angle more or lefs acute, according to the breadth
of the object ; but the diftance being already afcertained on the prin-
ciples of the triangle, he calculates as before, and thus determines the
diameter of the ohjeft : we may readily fee, how the fame method of
invertigation is applicable to the planets ; their very great diftance
however, from us, renders the angles fo fmall, that the difficulty at-
tending it fliould feem obvious and almoft Infurmountabie. The
place of the fun, or of a planet in the heavens, as it would tippea^- to
an obfervcr, if feen from the center of the earth, is calculates by
aftronomers : if we fuppofe an obferver on the furface of the earth,
to whom the objedl is not vertical ; he will look at the objcdl in a
rather different direction ; the different lines of direftion along which
ihey will look, would make an angle at the objedt; this angle is called

C 4 its

#■

^- V'

'iM*'

:l'

ELEMENTS OF

its parallax; but the greateft parallax is fo very little, the fettii-
diameter of the earth being fo fliort a line, when compared with
the diftance of the objeft, that it is difficult to determine it : hence it
is, they have availed themfelves of the tranfit of the Venus, or its
intervention between the earth and the fun, to afcertain the diftances
of the planets; ftili however, on the fame principles, though vaftly
more complicated. The diftance cf a planet being afcertained, yet
an objeft (o very far diflant appears but as a fpot, or a point of
very fmall or dimenfionlefs magnitude ; here the telefcope lends its
aflHlance, and indeed without it, but little could be done in this way ;
as viewed thro' the telefcope the objeft is magnified, or it appears un-
der a greater angle ; it is calculated on optical principles, how much
bigger the objeft appears to us, or how much nearer it feems to
be brought towards us, by means of the inftrument ; and this appa-
rent approach being thus afcertained, its magnitude is calculated as
^ aflually brought nearer to us.

SECTION IX.

Solar System.

I'JiV

The names and charafters adopted by aftronomers to exprefs the
planets are as follows, in their order, wherein they roll round the
lun. PI. II. Fig. 34.

^ 5 « © ^ It t

^ . Mercury. Venus. The Earth. Mars. Jupiter. Saturn. Georgian Planet.

1. The fun, a vaft globe of fire near a million times as large as the
earth, is placed in the center of the fyftem, and fuppofed to give light
and heat to the feven primary and twelve fecondary planets, that have
been difcoveied to move round hiu^ : by fpots on his difk, he has been

^ found tr turn round on his axis in about twenty-five days. Thefe

Ijpc js are frequently altering in their fliape, fituation and number ;

■j^ fome have fuppofed they have feen fmall indentions on the edge of

the fun, as the fpots have paiTed it, and conjectured, that a fluid
matter rolling tnto thefc piis, might occafion the tranfient appearance
and diiappearance of the fpots.

2. The Mercury is the firft planet in the order of the fyftem ; it
- is not much larger than the moon, it moves round the fun with great

^', velocity in about eighty-eight of our days, but it is fo near the fun,

we can feldom fee it j and when we do, it is for fo fliort a time and
motlly in twilight, that we can difcover no fpots on its face, and there-

* fore we know nothing of the length of its days and nights j but it is

likely it may be a fellow world, with inhabitants adapted 10 the heat of
its fuuation.

3. The Venus the fecond planet from the fun, remt».f kable for it$
-Tiild brilliancy, is nearly as ^rge as our earth, and rooy:s iOund th«

-ST- i

■^

M&M

S. IX. . > A S T R O N O M Y. ^5

fun it about two thirds of our year ; its day is about as long as twenty-
four cf ours, its feafons more diverfe than ours on earth, and it has
been calculated to have mountains higher than thofe of the moon :
when it is to the weft of the fun it is a morning-ftar, when to the eaft
of him an evening-ftar.

4. Our Earth is the third planet in the order of the fjdem. It
moves round the fun in 365 days ard nearly 6 hours, which is the
origin of our civil year, and it turns round on its axis in the fpace of a
day and night. The earth is attended by the moon, which moves
round it in twenty-Cen days and eight hours, but from one new
moon to the next twenty-nine days and an half. The moon's phafes
are explained in page 1 8.

5. The Mars is the fourth planet from the fun, it is about one fifth
as large as the earth, its day is nearly as long as ours is, it goes round
the fun in fomething lefs than two of our years, and has no variety of
feafons : when we pafs near it, it has a fiery appearance, and is often
miftaken for a comet ; but when we are on the opf ofite fide of our or-
bit, it appears fmall, and fcarcely to be diftinguiftieJ from a fixed ftar.

6. The Jupiter is the fifth planet in the order of our fyftem, and
the largeft that has yet been difcovered, being near a-thoufand times
as large as our earth, and five times the diftance from the fun that we
are j fo enjoys but a twenty- fifth part of the light, heat and at-
traction of the luminary »hat we do ; for the proportions of ihefc are
inverfely as the fquares of the diftances ; four moons however fceni
to cheer the inhabitants, if fuch there are, -^f this diftant planet ; it
has no variety of feafons ; its year is equal to about twelve of ours,
and yet our day is more than twice as long as its ; turning fo fwift on
its axis, its figure becomes more oblate than that of the cajth, being
more than fix thoufand miles longer in diameter from one fide of its
equator to the other, than from pole to pole : *'-'is fwiftnefs of its
diurnal motion, alfo draws its clouds and vapours into l^rcalts or lines
over its equatorial parts, forming what is called Jupiter's beMf.

7. The Saturn is the fixth planet from the fun, and is near thirty
years in going round him ; the length of its day is not yet afcertamed ;
it has five moons or fatellites, continually revolving round it, befide*
a broad thin ring, fet edgeways round it, but detached a confiderable way
from it, which alfo reflefls light upon it : by thefe reflexions, and the
direft light from the fun, it receives more light than two fuch full moons
as ours would afFovd ; fo it feems likely it nmy have itihabitants adapted
to the gloom, and coldnefs of its fituation. Among the various conjec-
tures that have been made refpedling the very fingiilar appesvrance of
the ring that accompanies this planet, fome have luppofed it to be the
fragments, or ruins of its exterior original fViell, the reft of which has
fallen down and formed the prefent orb ; if the ring itfelf be inhabited^
they mud have a day and night equal to near thirty of our years, as
the fun fhines for almoft fifteen of our years on the northern fide of it,
then goes ofF, and {hines as long on the fouthein fide Neither the
Jupiter's, the Saturn's Moons, nor the ring can be feen without a
telefcope.

8. The feventh planet in the order of our fyftem, was but lately
difcovered by Herfchell, and called by him the Georgium fidus, or
peorgian planet; it Is neatly twice as far diftant as the Saturn from

, :' • the

fe.

E !• E M E N T S OP

the nror ^ " ^"^ '"OOR be abfenr U.Hr " evening v fible to

bits, by the conK "";^ ^"'^ ''ke them carried .' ^- '"'"S only

in their Derfolf * '^^ *'""'^''' ^'o«Jd preferv^ ^^^r °''"'' '^ »

while the l ^ ° prevent difturbances in lu r .

the comet's orbi; "h' ^''^^^"o^e. they are flwavs /H?""," '^^"^

''. UfiofthrcT't'"''''^^'^^ ^"^^ ^^"'"g into

^^'^''^'°"« Ji feems to have

,. ' " * ^' ,- - '■«_.•■-.* been

S. X.

ASTRONOMY.

been his opinion, that as the comets are framed of a texture which
difpofes them to fume and difcharge vapours in an aftonifhingly pro-
fule or copious manner even at confiderable diftan-:es from the fun j
for fome of them, when neareft to the fun in iheir orbits, have been
yet farther diftant than feveral of the planets ; that the tails which
they emit are g»^adually difperfed and fcattered through the planetary
regions, and that the planets, as they roll along in their orbits, attraS
this vapour to themfelves, which entering their atmofpheres, contri-
butes to the renovation of the face of things, fupplying moifture to
the globe, and renewing the viviiying quality of the air, whofe moft
aftive arxi fubiile parts they chiefly fupply ; that the decreafe which
the fun itfclf may fufFer, by fo long an eniiflion of light, muft be fup-
plied by the cometi. The tremendous one of 1680, came fo near to
I he fun, that it muft have been retarded by its atmofphere, if there
be one round the luminary ; and will confequenily, approach nearer
in its next defcent, meet with greater refiftance, and be again more
retarded, till it will at length iuipinge on its furface, and ferve as fuel
to that prodigious globe of fire.

SECTION X.

Conjectures of

AsTRONOME RS.

the Stars.

Dijlance and Number of

We may conclude this defcription of the folar fyftem, with juft
mentioning fome refledions that have been made on it by aftronomers.

I. CofijeSures.] The ledlurer, William Wjilker, has afTerted, that
fo peifeft are the laws by which this wonderful fyftem is regulated,
and fo cfFedlual that felf-phyfick which the Almighty has inftituted
through all his works, that if any difturbance happens in the fyftem,
there requires no immediate interpofition to prevent or cure the nv'*-
chief J each body carrying within itfelf the principles of prefervat.on
and cure. Enough has been faid on the eftabliflied laws of the
fpheres, to fliow what he means ; he exemplifies it in the Jupiter ftill
perfevering in an orbit, when drawn out of its former track by the
comet of 1680.

On the other hand, Newton obfervlng fome fmall inequalities In the
inolion of the planets, thought that thefe muft increafe by flow de-
grees, 'till they render at length the prefent frame of nature unfit for
the purpofes it now ferves. This thought has been reprefented as
impious ; and as no lefs than cafting a refleftion upon the wifdom of
the Creator, for framing a perifliable work. In anfwer to this it has
been replied, that the body of every animal fhews the unlimited wif-
dom of its author no lefs ; nay, in many relpedls more than the larger
frame of nature ; and yet we fee they are all defigned to laft but a
fmall fpace of time; and that it is fufficient if it endure the time in-
tended by its author. r*;^!' .' ^

.'Ia Whatever

*"/ «» ■

•;*■:

»•**•

::n^'

''H '

1!^

ELEMENTSOF

P.I.

Whatever truth there may be, in the fpeculations of philofophers,
with regard to the changes that niay happen in the bodies that He
without our earth, we read in the icriptures of the end of the world,
and of the end of time ; and however we regard it, we may continu-
ally lee, that the world and time keep pafllng away on the children
of men ; and that death foon clofes the tranfitory fcene of this life.
Such is the lot of the inhabitants of our earth : But what is th« Con*
dition of the worlds that furround us is unrevealed to us.

2. Dijiance.] The moon is dillant from the earth 240,000 miles,
and by the lateft obfervations the fun's diftance is ninety*five millions
of miles ; the planet Saturn is above nine times farther from the fun,
and the comets in moving from their perihelion, go fo far beyond the
mod diftant planet of our fyftem, that we quite lofe fight of them till
they rejturn nearer the fun. But much farther than their greateft ex-
curilon, as calculated by Aft^onomers (and the Periods of fome of them
have been told) is the almoft unmeafurable diftance of the fixed ftars^
Far beyond the utmoft verge of our magnificent fyftem, and where our
moon and planets would be invifible and our fun feem but a bright
point,' ihine the innumerable multitudes of ftars ; thefe are called
fixed, becaufe they wander not like the planets. Whoever fuppofes
the fixed ftars placed in a concave fphere, as they appear to us, muft
have a narrow and contracted idea of the works of creation, and the
extent of the ftarry heavens ; for one ftar appears large, and another
fmall ; becaule one is immenfely diftant in comp^irilon of another.
The earth moves in an orbit of more than two hundred millions of
miles in circumference ; yet there appears no fenfible difference be-
tween its neareft and farthefc diftance from thefe remote bodies; ftill
they appear to be in the fame (ituation, or at the fame diftance from
lis ; ftill they appear to be of the fame magnitude, and to twinkle
with the fame degree of brilliancy ; and the utmoft ftretch of the
human imagination feems incapable of conceiving the imntenfity that
lies between.

J. Number.l Befides the ftars which are vifible to the naked eye,
which aftronomers have divided into fix or feven claifes, accord-
ing to their different apparent magnitudes, there are others which are
called telefcopic ftars, from their being only difcoverable by means of
the telefcope; an innumerable multitude of this kind of ftars, makes
that brightnels in the heavens, which is called the galaxy, or milky
way. By the laft improvements in the telefcope, 30,000 (thirty thou-
fand) fixed ftars are difcovered. Many of them appear double; but
they are only ftars at different dlftances from us, appearing nearly in
the fame line. Some appear like a topaz ; others azure ; others red ;
all are round, and many as pcrfeClly defined, as a (hilling on black
cloth.

4. Starry Heavens] As the ftars, contrary to the moon and planets,
fhine like our fun, by their own native light ; aftronomers imagine,
that each of them is a fun, with its fyftem of inhabited worlds revolv-
ing round it, though invifible to us from their immenfe diftance from
us. Some of thofe called fixed ftars, have a progreffive n;iotion :
fome of them appear to change their magnitudes : new ones feem to
rife into view, increafe in magnitude, and then diminifh, and vaniih

out

S. X.

ASTRONOMY.

out of fight. From ihefe appearances in the ftariy heavens, it has
been thought probable, that lyllenis may revolve round fyfteins : that
our fun hiuifelf is in motion, ami carries his fyftem of worlds along
with him : that funs and fyftems are created remote from us, endure
for a time, and then are diffoived : that fome of the Oars may be fo
remote from ours, that their light may not have reached our eaith ever
fince the creation : that could we launch out into fpace, and fly to
the mort ditlant liar we can now fee, even there we Ihould find our-
felves on the confines of creation, and fee as many ftars before us as we
left behind : that fpace is infinite, without top or bottom. Well in-
deed may it be faid, that the human underilanding is bewildered in
the contemplation of the wonders of the firmament ; that the giddy
fancy turns round, and is entirely lofl and funk in the abyfs of
creation.

P AR T^

;^-

1,'

. <

'■' i:

"■■^ -■

^J'l'ft!

t 30 J

Ik"

!• A

R T 1/.

THE

O N o

M Y

o r

THE

Yj^yj ^ '^^"^^ INANIMATE.

H platlS^S.;^!! "■'"'"^''- '^.^"^e of the earth and conr
{"^'H. and ihe coS b oV d,. r ''^/'■STS '^^ vicilfitudes ofdav ""l

0.^. . i...enced t^^ ^ ^^ tj!;;:^; -'f<^-' t's

— u, aa awfui ..d i.,,,,,,, t^f J,^^^;;;;^;;;^ u.ud thac ca^

SEC

T f o NT

Sublunary Thi^cs, P„,,„.,

prehenfion. ^

J ,

plains or ,awif ""i ""' '*)' '™U'.t".s ^u, „ ,"" "."S'">' """d

the

■Jflp««nM*^^^^*>^ -r-^ 'Vm-«

SUBLUNARY CREATION.

3«

ihe earth ; of countries laid under the rolling waves of the ocean ;
and of lands riling from the uiidlt of the waters, and becoming the
habitations of beufts and of nicn : lb tranficni and uncwiain are all
earthly things.

%. 'Their otifjn.] There was a time when man lived in paradife, un-
niolelbd by the outrages of the natuml woild, and undifturbed by ihe
rtill more dreadful tumults of a difordered nnnd. When he had givcQ
hiui tor meat every herb bearing feed, which was upon the face of all
the earth ; and every tree in tlic which was the fruit of a tree yield-
ing feed ; when to every beaft of the earth, and to every towl of
i:he air, and to every thing that crept on the earth, wherein there
was life, were given eveiy green heib for meat ; and it was lb ; and
every thing that was made behold it was very good. But Adam de-
parted from the commands of his Creator, and the ground was curfed
for his fake { thorns alfo and thiftles it brought forth ; in forrow he
was condemned to eat of it all the days of his life ; and in the fweat
of his face to cit bread, till he returned to the ground from whence
he was takirn. Yet however the earth may have been defolated by
this dreadful revolution, whatever difurders may have been iniro-
<juced in the vegetable creationv or the more fcnfibly fufFering the
animal world, it feems magnificent even in ruins.

3. H^arld grandin ruins.] If we caft our eyes around us on the va-
Tiegatfd landfcape, the lively morning rifiug on the view, the broad
fhine of day, the fober tinfted evening, or the filent uioonfhine ; if
we contemplate the revolving feafons, the blooming fpring, the warm
fummer, the ripening harveil, or the hoar froft, the calm, the breeze,
or the dreadful temped ; if we mark their vicilfitudes, and condder
their efFeAs ; if we furvey the order or oeconomy in creation, from
the flow productions of the hidden mine, to the varioudy diverfihed
and animated tenants of the earth, there dill feems much left to ex-
cite our wonder; but accuftomed to behold thefe with indifFerence,
and familiarized with the feelings of our own exiftence ; (Iruck rather
by what; is uncommon, than by what is great, incomprehenilble vron-
ders are perpetually about us, and in us ; and yet we regard them
without admiration and without furprife.

4. Philojopher unatle to comprehend it.] Indeed the creation, in it.^
various forms, appears to be a fubjeft far above the feeble comprehen*
fion ot created beings. The Naturalift may with diligence obferve ef-
fefts, and with feemingly great precifion, discover fecondary caufes j
he may talk of organized matter, and animated machines ; he may
tell us that all natural bodies, and the globe itfelf, can by a fufficicnc
degree of heat, be reduced into water, or diflipated into air; thac
this he can prove by a chyniical procefs. He may try his experiments
upon (tones, upon plants, or upon animals ; he may bring, them to his
elaboratory, and there analiz^ them ; but to recompound their fubtilc
parts, or build up their ruins i Or to comprehend their firft formation,
eludes the utmojl eftbrtl|^^pf hjl^^genuity j and aiuft make him feel
thatcreatioQ belongs only Jo i^''di*greji,t aiid incomprchenfible pow-'
«r, which worketh in wiyspitl^|'hndj1% Out. .J

But the philofopher,%iatur^'ih wifdom and in years, furiiy
with the accumulated learning of ages, and experienced in fubtli
curious inveftijf aligns, the ^Jgh he cannot lell his own formation, '^or
, . ConiprchciMi

:'.v7r-..::iia

'>>'a

•-'I.BiJW't

3»

SUBLUNARY

P. n.

r; t.

•■ }

comprehend the power he finds within hiinfelf of reflc(5t:on, of fpeech,
or even of inovinj^ his fmalleil finger; though he cannot conceive the
infeft in its Cell, its minute contriv.inces ; the filcnt tenants of the wa-
teis, their fimple oecononiy ; the birds lilted upon high, and behold-
ing obj.-ds trom iifu ; the bealls of the field, their varied fagticities ;
ihoUj^h he cannot tell their ileligns, or their powers; compr> hend tlie
formation of plnnts, or lubttrianeous piodutlions; his Ipcculations in
the txtenfwe fiekt ofnatuie, are interelting and curious, and may fervn
to teach him modefty, by ihewing him his weakncls ; and from his
enquiries refult numerous iulvaiitages in fecial life.

5. Specuuicons.] Prone to fpeculation, he looks v;ith v/onder and
curiofiiy on liie objfrdts that lurround him; and the mo(l coii;mon oc-
curiences in the naiural world, which we are apt to dil'regard, fioiii
our being familiar with them, thefe excite his enquiry, and promoie
ulefu! kniiwleciii^e He takes his itand in the fun-fhine; he rejoices in
ilie light and w-uiinth of the day ; he confiders their fource ; he meets
thez-phyr, and is refreflied by the breeze; he fays f!ic atmosphere is
in motion ; he lillens to ibund, he fays it vibrates, and confiueis ilic
caulir ; he flikes his ihir(t in the ftream, and eiiquires whence ii
fprings, anjd how it is fupplied ; he feeks the fliade, contemplates on
his luxuriant canopy, and the verdant carpel under his feet; he ,ilks
liow tliey annually put on their clout hing, and how they are yearly
(Iript of their veiduie; if there be lands that always make this ga/
appciirance; and if tliere are others continually naked and bait
The deep calls forth his attention ; and the lecrcts of the mint bi:come
ob)e<?ts of liis refcarclies. He confiders the meteors that diverfiiy the
face of the landlcape, and aftjnilli mankind ; the many living tiibes
of the creation call forth i^is adiniratioq ; he examines their varied
liubitudeb ai.u liruduicsi and lu hue he turiis lii:> eyes upon iiimicL.

SECTION II.

AitraSions of Cohesion, Ghavity, Magnetism, and Elf-c-

TRICITV.

I. Minutiiiiefi of the Particles uf Matter.] We have already (een^
how naturalifts account for the planetary revolutions; and how large
a iTiare of the work they attribute to attraftion ; how they reft the
order of the fpheres, and of lublunary things, on this prevailing piiri-
ciple, for their iuppoit. They tell us ot a variety of kinds of attrac-
tion, as thole of cohefion, gravitation, magneiifm, and eleftiiciiy. Jr.
U true, we* may oblerve many very different appearances of attrac-
tion ; but pofllbly they may ail be only dilfereni modifications of the
lam« active principle, by which all things in the natural woild are up
held. For ought we know, the. original particles of matter abftradted
from all combination (if this ever happens or can pofi-^*';' be) may be
all the fame; and the hualled atom ot aitatter that human obfervati-
on can lay hold ot, by help of lh« fineft miciofcope, may be compqiied
of ten hundred times ten thoufand millions of ihe original uncoiii-
founded particles of matter. It is found, however, thai a livjng uni-

s. ir.

CREATION.

already feen,

mal, which, under the fiinpleft occonomy that it is ever found to exift
ill, is a complicated and wonderful machine, often through its mi-
nutenefe efcapes the fined human eye : witnefs the animalcula, difco-
veiable only by help of glafTcs : and myriads there are, no doubt, that
elcape atl human obfervation. *

2. Motiifieations of /IttraSion.] All the different properli«;s obferva-
ble in bodies, may poiUbly be derived from the particular nioiies of
aiiiaflion exiting between their component particles; probably a kin-
dred mode of attraflion in the bodies, caute fome to coalefcc; as wa-
ter with earths; while a dilRniilar manner of atiradion in oihtrs, en-
tirely forbids their union ; as with oil and water.

'Tis obvious, that our bodies derive nutriment, and confequcntly .
Llood, from a ftrange vaiiety of things, an<4 ditfcrenily conrtrudted
-plants, in the fame loil, become charged with food, or fraught with
.poifon. Can this be owing to any thing, but the imbibed fluids, fe-
ceiving foinehov/ a different mode of attraflion, from what they be-
fore pofTefTed ? Chymifts inform us, that fome inveterate poifons of
4iifFcreni kinds, fliall, when mixed, fo neutralize the obnoxious quali-
ties of each other, as to become an innocent potion ; and trom differ-,
ent degrees of heat and cold, the fluid v/ater becomes a brjttle icicle.;
and file firm iron a fluid mafs ; all which feem to prove an altciation
in the attruflion of the component parts; for the matter being al'l
there, it feems only to have been differently modified. "

3. Cohesion and Grai/i I athn.'\ That moft fiinple and beautiful figure,
the fpherc, which feems to have been chofen m the grandeft woiks of
creation, is the form to which the farface of the pafuve fluids are na-
turally refulved by the laws of gravitation ; while firmer bodies retain
their forms by the particular attraction of cohefion, which exifts be*
tween their couiponent particles when incontaft; break the contact,
the attradlion ceafes, and cannot be reftored ; unlets, like ice and me-
tals, it may be fit 11 reduced to a fluids yet the furfaces of firm bodies
being made to fit each other very clofely, when brought together, will
cohere very ftrongly to each other : thus if a lead bullet be cut in two,
and the fiut fidcs'fiited and brought dole to each oiher^ it will be dif-
ficult

* Pliilofophcrs think they can conceive it pofliMe for the wodd, and even t(re
whole univerfe, to be reduced to a globe of an ini'ih diameter, or even to the fmali-
«ft atom of matter, merely by bringing the particles of which they are compofed
clofer together; and thus filling up the cavities or pores. They fay, it is not diffi-
cult to underftand, how a body, hara and folid, may ht compounded of particles, (b
formed, that when brought together, the pores between them may be equal to the
particles themfelves. In this cafe, the folid matter of the body, takes up only half
of the fpace occupied by the whole. If each condituent particle be fornird of other
lefs ones, in the fame manner, (he folid parts of thi body are only one-foui th of
(he whole. If the lefs particles be conftrufled of similar minute ones, the folid
farts of the body are only one-eighth of its bulk. If the minute ones are formed in
Similar manner, of ftill more minute ones, the fv>lid is one-fmeenth of its appS'*
Tent bulk ; and fo on ad infinitum ; but the real firu^ure of bodies, we know not.
Therefore, the whole material univerfe may be fo conflru£led, as to be capable of
being reduced to the fwe of the fmalleft conceivable atom ; merely by bringing the
panicles of which it is compofed, into clofe contact. Thus, when the eye and
gtaifes tail, imagination carriet them to minntenenes, which the gruflTer fenfes can-
^wjt take bold of j and where reafon feems rather wilJin^ to withhoid its afler.t, th»«
ii«bour Mconipiehcnd their aice fpeculations.

■j! '; i\

SUBLUNARY

P. IJ.

.;r

.^■'i~

ficult to pull them direflly afumler. If large polidied furfaces be
brought together, the power mull be prodigious that would foice them
from each other ; and fluids, in Iniall quantities, feem often to be de-
termined in their figure, more by the attia£lion of cohefton, than that
of gravitatiun ; they will i^and in drops on a flat furtare, till it be-
comes wet, and then they fall ; or be lieaped in the vefTtl which con-
tains them, till its fides become wet, the contained fluid then tiles
higher at the edji^c than it is in the midille.

Under two different appeaiance.s of aitratlion, viz. gravitation and
cohcfion, as the moft active print, ^)lcs in the natural world, the lub-
lunary works of the creation feem to be lupporied, in a far more com-
plicate and curious manner, than the cclcllial motions are; though
thefe may appear vallly more fplendid. Their motions feem fmiplic'.
ly, and their lavs appear obvious, if compared with the order of thing.>
on our globe. Tlie minutefl infctt, nay, the blade of grai's whereon
it feeds, fcems lefs, far Icfs compichenfible in the principles of its
growth or exiftence to the capacity of man, than all the magnificence
of the celeftia! concave. In the heavens we behold f^upendous won-
ders, which fill us with atloniilinient, and force the poor unhappy
fceptic to refer them to Ibiiie great and powerful firrt caufe. On
earth, the works, though more minute, appear curious beyond*ex-
prefHon ; and varied beyond what the imagination can conceive.

Were the attraction of gravitation a'one to obtain, whatever may
be t.'e prefent convex appearance of the globe, it fiiould feem \is
lurface would foon afTume the fmooihell form, l^xhale '">y the fun,
the vapour might afcend ; and condenfed by cold, fall i in fliow-
ers; but no longer putting forth its branches againd ti ..j of gra-
vitation, the trees muft fall never to rife again. All woiks of ait niuft
tumble to the ground ; and the fea, and its fliores, the river, and its
banks, the mountains and therir valiies, and even man and brute,
with all their powers, and all their animation, mull give up their bo-
dies to the general mixture. Thefe efFeds, however, feem prevent-
ed ; and the order of things nicely balanced and I'uflained, by the feve-
ral partial attractions of cohcfion.

To this prevailing principle in the natural world, we may refer the
moll compleat and curious productions. This man may behold and
admire, and were it in his power to modify this principle according to
his wiflies, we can hardly imagine a labour too difKcuk for his at-
chievements. Indeed, on fuperncially glancing at fome particular ef-
fects of coheiion, he might be flattered for a moment with the ex-
pectation of producing fomething great ; and by their combination,
he might hope to Ck^Ct what fome wrongheads have vainly attempt-
ed ; he might imagine it poifible to contrive a machine, that fhould
work of itfelf, or keep in perpetual motion ; and thus enable his fel-
lows to ceafe from their labours : at prefent availing ourfelves of
wiiids and of waters, by lifting a flood-gate, or hcifting a fail, we
have many ufeful labours performed. The man in authority can fay
to the mute animal, that has fubniitted to his yoke, as well as to his
fervant. Come, and he cometh ; go, and be goeth : but could fuch a
machine be confltuCted by the art of man, as to keep in perpetual
notion of itfelf, we then might fucceed in the moil extravagant at-
'^empts. The farmer need then no longer wait for his horfes to break

i'.i&'.i

W-

p. II.

?d furfaces be
uld foice ihciii
aften lo be de-
fion, than that
ace, till it bc-
fTcl which con-
uid (hen rifcs

;ravItation ^nd
orld, the lub-
tar more coin-
are ; though
feciii riiiiplic'.
Older of things
grais whcteon
inciplfcs of its
e magnificence
pendous won-
)Oor unhappy
;l cr-ufe. On
s beyond. cx-
onceive.
ivhatever may
ould feeni iis
' 'v the fun,
^ in fliow-
1 ..i of gra-
cs of ait niuft
river, and its
and brute,
up their bo-
em prevent-
by the feve-

tiay refer the
behold and
according to
for his at-
)articular ef-
ith the ex-
ombination,
ly attempt-
that fhould
able his fel-
urfelves of
; a fail, we
rity can fay
:;ll as to bis
3uld fuch a
I perpetual
vagant at-
fes to break

S. IL

CREATION.

.if,

''■ti

i-lS

up the ground ; his felf-impellcd machine might be brought i3 ptrform
ihis laborious bufincls. The mariner need no Jonger be detained by
the calm, nor the citizen by that painful diford.-r the gowtj each in
his machine could aniwer every purpofe of navigation or bufincfs ; and,
if weary of being confined to the furface of the "globe, I know not but
each man in his niuchine mif>ht at once afccnd on high, and oulftrip
the fleeicft inhabitant of the air.

The cfftdb of cohtrfion alluded to, which might make man look
for thefe pii.poftcrous dilcoveries, and forget that labour is to be his
lot; and thu no machine can give new ftrength, feeing it will take
from him lime, if it give force to his efforts ; and if it give them
fwiftnefs, it will It-lTcn their force. The ctFctls ar»; thefc : water and
other Huids, are made hy cohelion to rile above 'heir level. A pi^"ce
of bread, loat fugar, or a Ipunge, will attract or draw up a fluid.
The cndsot a fmall gliiis tube, being both oper, if one end be dipped
in water, the fluid will rife in the tube to a considerable height above
t!ic level ; now if the lube when it has thus received the fluid, would
of itfcif contra^ in its diameter, and clufe up the cavity from the bot-
tom upwards, and open or dilate in the fame order, the water might
hereby rile and run over at the top of the tube, and thus produce a
peipetual motion. But chefe are etfefts the art of man can never ac-
complifti. Thefe feeui to obtain, however, in the works of the cre-
ation, and there only are to be found ; on this fimple procefs, which no
liuman ait can imitate, all natural life feems to depend ; in this way,
the herb feems to draw its juices from the earth ; and the tree its lap,
JO the remoieft branches. Thus in the bodies of all anin)als, nutri-
ment feems to be fecrttedfrom their food; theii fluids circuLied; and
indeed their every aftion performed, whether dcfigned or involun-'
tary.

4. Northern Lighu.'] The magnetic and eUflrIc influence, feem to
us to differ widely from the other appearances of attraftion. There
\i probably a near affinity between the two; and they may be under
the fame laws as the others, if our fenles were acute enough to ob-
ferve their appearances, and difcover their tfFc£ls. The ftreamers,
or Aurora Boreales, in the northern regions of our atmofphere, are
^uppofed to arife from the ele^ric fire, fladiing as it puffcs from cloud
to cloud. *

5. load-Stone.] Where caufes are not obvious to the fenfes, phiio-
fof hers form their theories by the force of imagination, or the help of
analogical reafoning. Thus they have fuppofed, that the load flone
emits an effluvia attracted by iron, and fine or thin enough to pafs
through grot's bodii.^s. That hence a needle lying on the top of a ta-
ble, may be moved, on applying the magnet or ioadftone underneath.
7'hat there are mines of this ftone in the northern paits of the globe,
large and powerful enough to influence its kindred body, iron, all
over the world. Tha< the pieces of iron and fleel which we fee in
common ufe, or lying about, have their poles or particular parts

D 2 adapted

* Perhaps the magnetic effluvia may abounJ in thofe parts, and concur with the
ele^ric fluid in producing thefe phxnomena, by which the electric fire may perhaps
be diflipated ; and the northern regioni thus freed from the dreadful e^efli of li);hti«
nipg, cjipcritnced in other parts.

li^M

#■

3« SUBLUNARY P. II.

adapted to receive the effluvia. That they are all making wen Ic
though invifible efforts to turn this pole or extrennty, towards the
mines of the north. That generally not being able tc lubdue fi;r-
rounding obftruftions, their efforts are enfeebled ; but when they are
balanced, as the needle in tlie compals, and particularly when pre-
pared like it, by being touched with a load-ftone, they then aflume
their moft natural pofition ; and in niaintaining ir, j;,nther attra6tive
ftrength ; ard thus ferve to guide the nuner in the darkfnme caverr.,
the pilgrim in the defart, and ihe mariner on the ocean j when ftars
and land-marks are no lon,7er in view.

6. Ele8ricitj.] Lightning, or eleftrical fire, is alfo accounted a fine
fubtile fluid : through fome bodies it ruflies with inconceivable velo-
city f thefe are called condiiftois. At others i» flops; thefc are called
non-condu6lors. The non-condudlors are glafs, and all vitrified bo-
dies ; diamonds of all kinds ; balfamic and bituminous bodies, as re-
fins, wax, fulphur, amber, &c. &c. The covering* of animals, as
feathers, v.'ool, hair, bridles, filk, &c. by rubbing of thcfe, we may
collect around them an pleOrical atmofphere; and thus excited, they
will attraft light bodies of ihe condi;£lcr kind ; as gold-leaf, paper,
ftraws, &c! When thefe light bodies have received, or are charged
with the eleftrical atmofphere or fluid, it it be fufficiently ftrong, they
will then fiy off, or be repelled, and not be attracted again ; till hav-
ing touched fome other body, the fluid is thereby drawn from them.
The ancients were only acquainted with this property of attraction
in amber; it is found, however, to hold with the other non-conduc-
tors; and as this effeft is produced by the electrical atmofphere, thejr
colledl round them when rubbed, they are called alfo eleCtrics,
Conductors, on the other hand, are called non-eleCtrics. No rubbing
or excitation of thefe, will colleCt the ekCtrical fluid ; yet if fufpend-
ed by hair, or filk-cord, or fupported by glafs, or any of the eleCtrics,
at a fuflicient diftance from the floor, wall, &c. (which are conductors,
and communicate with the earth) they may be filled with or emptied
of their electrical fire. The conductors, or non-eJeCliics are all me-
tals, and the greatefl: part of minerals ; water, and all aqueous and
fpitifuous liquors ; and whatever contains in them any of thefe ; as liv-
ing creaTures and animal fubftances ; as leather, bones, fhells, &c.
trees and plants ; thread, ropes, paper, &c. even glafs itfelf, or any
of the electrics, if moiftened or wet, become thereby conductors, and
will not collect the eleCtrical fluid till wiped or dried.

7. General Prefence of the Fluid.] The eleCtric fluid fecms to be (a
generally diffufed, as to enter into the fubftance of almoft all natural
Bodies. Though infenfible of its prefence, we have it in ourfelves,
and the objeCls that are around us, and the ground that we tread upon,
have their fliare, though we do not perceive it. In faCt, it is fo ex-
tremely fubtile, or fine, as to efcape the cognizance of our dull fenfes ;
and it is only deteCted in the phaenomena and elFeCts it produces,
when having been unequally dillributed in different bodies, it ruflies
out of one into the other, in ordei to reftore an equilibrium between
them. Thus it is with the lightning; fometlmes it rufhes from the
cloud$ to the earth ; fometimcs from the earth to the clouds, as well
as from one cloud to another.

^ 8. Ex^^

Mi.

p. II.

S. III.

CREATION.

8. Experiments '\ Similar cfFefts take place in the eltftucal experi-
ineiits ot the philoiopher. If he places us on a cake of redn, a piece of
gla!s, or one of his llools, with glafs fupporters, by the interpofition
ot thefe eleflrics, or non-conduftor.s, between us and the earth, the
communication between the elt^bic fluid in our bodies, and that in
the earth, is cut off. He lays, we are infulated ; and indeed with
regard to eiediicity, we may even be conf.dered as clouds floating in
the air. Under thefe circumdances, by means of his machine, he
draws from us the eleflric fire in our bodies, and we are negatively
electrified ; or he char^^es us with ftill more of the fire, and we are
pciiiivcly electrified, ha perfon l^anding on the floor, touch us, at a
time when we are negatively tleftrified, the ?ixt will be drawn by our
lodies from the earth, and rufli through him, as a condudor ; a fpark
will be feen and heard between r.i>, which may be confidered as a mi-
niaiurc reprefentation of thum.er and lightning} and both he and we
will feel the fliock. If he touch us at a time when we are pofitively
ticdrified, the fame eflcds will take place as before ; excepting this
difl'erence, the fiie v ill be drawn from us thiough his body, and pafs
inio tae earth ; and thus the equilibrium be reltored as before. By
eafy txpeiimeiits, the eltdliitul fluid is alfo drawn from and dilcharg-
tJ into ilie clouds; which leems to obvioufly prove, that the fpaik
procured hy the arts of the philoiopher, and the lightning in creation,
arc ideniitally the fame.

SECTION III.

Optics, Light, Heat, Colovr,

iA-/^-

■0^

v^-

1 hz To

latural

■Vi

felves,

upon,
fo ex-
en fes J

■,^i

duces,
rurties

tween
n the

s well

I. SubtiUy of the Rays of Light. 1 Light is thought to be a body or
fluid fubtle enough to pafs through the atmofphere, and all tranfpa-
rent bodies in right lines; how this can pofiibly be, is unexplicable ;
and indeed one would have thought it an inconceivable idea. As ftioi
thrown upon a heap of cannon balls, will find its way to the bottom
in very crooked lines; fo pofiibly may it be with the rays of light,
piifling through tranfparent bodies ; but the endlefs curves that are
m its rays, may be too fine for our dull fen fes to obferve. However,
the offciiiig this conjecture, or indeed a»y other, to explain the fub-
tle nature of light, items attended with a thoufand difficulties, which
human fagaciiy will hardly remove. *

Our

* Our idea of any kind of body or matter, neceflarily is, that it occupies fpace*
and precludes all other bodies from that room which it holds iifelf. If we fuppofe
a quantity of matter, as glals, the atmofphere, &c. made up of particles, with in-
tervening pores, we may fuppofe the rays of light fubtile enough to pafs throrgh th'e
poies of fuch a body ; but as in fikeiing of fluids, or fitting of powders, we fup-
pofe the cavities or holes to be filled up by the body, as it paOei through in the
operation, it fhouid feem, wc would naturally conceive, the rays of light in pafTrig
through a tranfparent fubilance, to fill up the pores. This, however, itTfvu fit
from being the cafe, with the inconceivably fubtle emanations of light. The cur«
leat of thefe, as it p^lTes alung, a^poart capable of being diiattd to any extent, or

reduced

•*-■

SUBLUNARY

P. II.

2. Ligh produced from Fire. Heat from Motion ] As far as human
obfervation reaches, hght appears to be derived from fire j and firr,
naturalifts tell us, is produced onljby morion. Thus the fermentati-
on, or the rubbing of bodies together, excites in them heat ; and ac-
cording to them, heat is a very briflc agitation of the infenfibly minute
particles of the body, which we denominate hot ; and the ceifation of
that motion is the utmoft degree of cold. A kindly temperament of
heat and cold, or in other words, a proper degree of this impercepti-
ble ftitring of the minute particles, feems neceflary in producing and
fupporting all the varied works of creation : and excefs of either hcait
or cold, eflPedtually deftroys all growing and living bodies.

Heat dilates or expands bodies ; and on this principle, the thermo-
meter has been contrived ; an inftrunient for meaforing the degree ot
heat PI. Ill- Fig. i. The thermometer is generally a tube of glafs,
with a hollow globe at one end, filled with mercury, or Tome other
fluid : according to the degree of heat, the fluid in the globe is ex-
panded ; and it confequently rifes in the tube, which is graduated, and
thus tells the precife degree of the heat. To a proper degree of hear,
liquids owe their fluidity ; by the prodigious and forcible expanfion
of water, when heated into fleam, maflive woiks are cairied on, as
in the cafs of the fire-engine; and from what we obfeive in wa-
ter's

reduced to the fmalleil compafs ■, by means of a convex glafs, the rays of the fun
can be brought together to a£l with fuch force, as even to melt metals ; and by the
intervention of a concave one, its beams can be fo diffipated, as fcarcely to be felt*
Rays of light feem alfo to pafs freely through each other in every diredion.

If a couple of lighted can>Ues be placed on a table, in a room, and half a dozen
people fit down on the oppoAte fide of the room, the two flames (hall be dtAin£tly
vifible to each of them. Now if the eyes of the fpedlators, and the flames of the
candles be on a level with each other, the rays proceeding from the candles, to im-
prefs the image of the flames in the eyes of the fpeAators, will obvioufly interfeA
each other in a variety of angles. It may be faid, 'tis true, that though thefe rayt
fomehow pafs through each other, yet the obje£ls are hereby rendered lefs vivid.
That if one of the candles be put out, the other will be vaflly more di(lin£l. That
thus theflars fliine with a bright luftrein the night, which we could not diftinguifii
when the fun flung around us the fplendour of day.

It is remarkable, however, that when the rays of the fun are made by an optical
inftrument, to converge to a particular fpot, with fuch force as to melt metals,
that however impetuous the torrent of light may be there, through that very fpot
which it would be inflant death to get into, rays of light will pafs freely from ob'
jefts beyond it to our eyes. Thel'e effcAs we may ebferve : and the philofophir,
though he may be able, by his improvements, to give artificial youth to the fading
eyes of old age, perhaps i: * caufrs he never will be able to unfold.

It feems a ftrange property in light, that it refufes to pafs through poroHS bodies,
fuch as white paper and linen cloth ; yet if the particles of thefe be brought clofe to-
gether by glazing, they aflTume a degree of clearnefs: and if their pores be filled up
by being wet, oiled, or varniflied, thty become very tranfparent. It is fuppofed,
by the introduftion of this new matter, the pores or cavities of the paper become
filled J and the body being thus confolidated, the light has an opportunity of pafling
from particle to particle, through the whole fubflance, without the interruption of
the cavities which were before in the way. It may be aflced, why do not the rajs
of light, flioot acrofs the pores which lie in the way } We may anfwer by another
^ueftion : Why does not water immediately drop from the projected beam or ftone,
but rather follow the lower fide of it till it takes the wall ? In faA, the ftream of
light, in palling through a medium, or tranfparent body, may follow the furfacs of
the particles which compofe it, through all their minutenefles; and by their be-
ing uniformly clofe to each other, find its way through, in a more fteady, eafy cur-
feat, than it could have done when the poi?s or Cdviiies lay in the way.

fi...

■Mi

,S. III.

CREATION.

s far as human
fire ; and fire,
the fermentati-
heat ; and ac-
"enfibly minate
be ceflation of
;niperanient of
lis impercepti-
>roducing and
of either heat
;s.

, the thermo-
the degree ot
tube of glafs,
or fome other
; gbbe is ex-
raduated, and
egree of heat,
ble expandon
carried on, as
jfejve in wa-
ter's

rays of the fun
>ls i and by the
ccly to be felt.
Edlion.

id half a dozen
II be diftin£lly
e flames of the
jandles, to iin«
ioudy interfeA
>ugh thefe rays
red lefs vivid,
ftinft. That
not diftinguifii

by an optical
) melt metafj,
that very fpot
eely from ob-
; philofopher,

to the fading

>orous bodiei,
ught clofe to-
'3 be filled up
is fuppofed,
japer become
ity of pafllng
terruption of
not the ra}s
sr by another
am or ftone,
e ftream of
s fur fact of
by their be-
r» eafy cur-

ter's becoming hard through the froft, it fhould feem, that abfolute
cold would ftifFen all natural bodies in frigidity.

3. Bodies njoith rejfed to Ught and Colour.] Light feems to flioot
out mod naturally in right lines; and only deviates fiom thefe, as it
meets with interruptions fron. bodies that rcfleft, refradt, or infleft it
in its courfe ; and by the fcparation of its rays, prefent us with co-
lours. Bodies with refpeft to light, are accounted, 1. Luminous, or
emit light from ihemfelves ; as the fun, fixed ftars, or flames.
2. Tranfparent or pellucid, rays of light pafs through thefe, as the
air, glafs, &c. 3. Opaque or dark ; thefe rcfledl the rays of light, as
fpecular bodies or mirrours ; the moon, a wall, &c. But opaque bo-
dies, being made thin and clofe, become pellucid ; the texture of tranf-
parent ones being difturbed, they become dark ; heat nmkes them lu-
minous J and to deprive luminous one; of heat, would be, in other
words, to extinguilli their light, or render them op? que. Philofo-
pliers fay, the rays of light themfelves are not fee-., but by them, the
bodies from which they originally come, as the fun, a fire ; or the
bodies from which they are rcfleded, as the moon, a field. At the
fame time we are told, rays of light are of different colours. That in
the fun's light they are fo compounded togctlier, as to produce the
fine tinft of day. That opa<^ue bodies, by having a certain difpofition
or fitnefs in their particles, for reflcfting particular rays, give us the
idea of colour in themfelves. That when we are fuppofed to fee figure,
in truth we only perceive the termination of colour. That whitenefs
in bodies, is but a difpofition to reflect all colours of light, nearly in
the proportion they are mixed in the original rays ; hence whited
walls make the lighted rooms; on the contrary, blacknefs, is only a
difpofition to abforb or ftifle without refleftion moft of" the rays of
every fort that fall on the bodies; thus holes and fiffures, which reflect
no light, but rather fwallow it up, imprefs upon us the idea of black-
nefs.

If the eye be placed In the medium, through which the rays pals to
it, the medium is not feen at all ; for milance, we do nor fee the
air through which the rays come to our eyes : Im if a pellucid body,
through which the light comes, be at a diftance tiom our eye, e fee
that body, as well as the bodies from whence the rays come, that pafs
through them to come to our eyes; for inftance, we do not onl -
lee bodies through a pair of fpeftacles, by the tranfmitted T.ys, but
the glafs itfelf, by thofe rays which are reflected from its furfuces.

The beautiful colours of the rainbow, appear vifible in viewing the
feveral forts of bodies ; as in the luminous flames of a furnace i in
ftained glafs ; or in plain tranfparent glafs of unequal thicknefs ; id
on the opaque iron of polilhed furface, after a ceitain degree < ' .calj
on filks, feathers, &c.

4. Rejpe^ion^ Experiments.] That light is reflected from different
bodies, is obvious. Coloured cloaths throw their hues on the walls
they approach ; and the mirror reflefts the image of the objeft from
its furface, in an angle equal to that in which it fell. Thus PI. IW.
Fig. 2. ftanding diredly before a plane or flat mirror, we are pre-
fented with a faithful pidlure of ourfelvesj ftanding obliquely, it is re-
flerted obliquely, and may be received by another in an oppofite part
of the room J whofe image we fliall likcwife fee at the fame time,*

Thui

stmam

4»

SUBLUNARY

MI.

Thus holding up a concave mirror before us, the hollow on every fide
takes up the cbjedt, and throws on the eye a face which may divert
or afFiiijht us with its monftrous appearance. Turn the mirrour to the
fun's beams, the rays are by it converged to a particular focus or fpot;
where ihsy aft upon bodies with the fury of a furnace. On the other
hand, bold up a convex mirror, the refledion of the face i»a minia-
ture pidture. Turn it to the fun, the rays on no fide will remit to
the obferver, more than one mere fpot of light, or very minute repre-
fentation of the luminary, which even the eye may receive without
danger or inconvenience.

5. Refraiilon. Fx/>eriments.] Thus obvious appear the laws of re-
flexion. Thofe of refraflion feem not to be fo generally underdood
or regarded ; however there is hardly a child that has dabbled in the
water, but what may have obferved with furprife, on plunging its-
hands or little play-things in the fluid, they *"ave feemed to be broken
or very much bent. This is produced by what phi4ofophers call re-
fraction. They obferve that light, in paffing out of one medium into
another, of different denfity, is broken in its courfe, or deviates from
the line in which it fiitl fet out. Thus light the candle, in PI. Ilf.
Fig. 3. the pait A in the balon, fhall be enlightened by its rays;
but the rell will necefl^rily be imraerfcd in fliade. However, fill it
with water, and without moving either candle or bafon, the bottom
of the vfcfTe! will then be illuminated. In faft,. it feems, the rays of
the canule are refrafted on their ftriking on the furface at S^ and en-
ter the wnter in the angle at C S B, inftead of purfutng the ftrsiighr
diredion they fet out in : Thus the aimofphere being a tranfparent
body, as the rays of the fun fall obliquely on it in the morning, they
are tranfmitted to us before it has adlually rifen -, and in like manner
in the evening, they Hiine on us after it has fet below the horizon.
If in OIK experiment, the candle be removed, and the eye fixed at O^
the part A, -in the bafon, when empty, fhall H«» vifible; but the bot»:
torn will be hid by the edge uvai me eye. Afixpence, a halfpenny,
or any fiiiall body lying on the bottom, will be alfo invifible. If wa-
ter be poured in, without altering the eye, or the veiTel, the bottom-
and the piece of money will both become vifible ; they will feem t»<
the eye to rife in the fluid. In fact, it Teems, the rays refleded from
obje^s in the water, are refrafted on their ftriking on the furface, and
enter the air in a direiflion more oblique than that which they purfued
VI their courle ihrough the dt nfer medium of water. This may ac-
count for the apparent diftorti n of bodies, when dipt in a fluid; and
from the principles of refraftion and reflection, fimple or combined,
the variety of optical in)proveme;its have been derived. Thus by-
adopting gkfs inftead of water, and varying its forms, 9. variety of
curious ctfefts are produced. In PI. III. Fig. 4., let C be a flame, G-
a glafs, or lens, with its edge towards us ; T a tablet or board, to
receive the rays. T'he rays in cone, will be refracted in pafling
through the glafs, and brought near together or made to converge ;
in plan, they will be refrafted, and again eiume their diverging di-
reftion. In con'v. they will be refratted, and their divergement en-
creafed; and accordingly the tablets will be difl^erently illuminated.
in cone, the light fliall be collected to a fmall fpot, appearing very
b.:ig|it. In /Jan, it is' fpread over the iarfacc of the tablet ; and in

i9nc.
\ ■ ■

lS&

p. II.

3n every fide
I may divert
irrour to the
cus or fpot ;
3h the other
e i» a minia-
ill remit to
linutc repre-
£ive without

laws of re-
f under (lood
bbled in the
plunging its-
to be broken
lers call re^
iiedium inro
jviates from
S in PI. III.
>y its rays ;
wever, fill it
the bottom

the rays of
Sj and en-
the ftis»;gl,t-

tranfpaient
•rning, they
ike manner
horizon,
fixed at O,
the bot--
lalfpenny.
If wa-
he bottom
feem to^^
eded from
wface, and
y purfued
may ac-
Huid; and
coiiibined.
Thus by
variety of
flame, G
board, to
paffing
:on verge ;
srging di"
ment en-
minated.
ing very
and in
i9nc.

S. III.

CREATION.

"■;:>v

cor., we may fee a fmall portion of the rays faintly illumines the
whole furface, while the reft diverge, or are refracted beyond the ex-
tremities of the tablet. Now if we remove the candle, and fix the
eye in the place which the flame occupied, thofe parts of the tablet
which were before enlightened by the rays of the candle, fhall be vi-
fible to the eye ; and the fmall Ipot on the tablet in cone, which be*
fore was illuminated, fhall by its rcfra£lion in paflinr to the eye, ap-
pear as much larger through its convex glafs, than the whole tablet
in cone, does on the fame principles through its concave one, as it
received a greater fhare of the rays Irom th« candle in the former ex-
periment, in other words, it ihall fall in a greater angle on the eye.
as may be feen by the Imes which (View the courfe it takes in pafling
to the eye, as well as that of the rays in the experiment with the
candle. The dotted lines represent the courfe that the rays would
have taken, if no lens had intervened.

6. Formation of the Eye^ and its liluftons. ] The eye is found to be
an optical inftrument, ot exquifite Itrutture, furnifhed with a variety
of refrafting mediums, comprehended under different furfaces ; the
orbit or cavity in which it is contained, is furnifhed with a loofe fat, .h it
m which it refts or moves with great eafe ; and on the fore part, theWh^^
eye is covered with a fine membrane, called tOnjcMlctl^fa, which
being reflected or doubled back from the ball or eye, alfo lines the
eye- lids, thereby cfftftually preventing any extraneous body from
getting in behind the eye in its cavity, as well as lefTening the fric-
tion between the eye and its lids. The eye lafhes feem obvioufTy
defigned for fanning ofFduft; and that which efcaping thefe, falls on
the eye, is waffied oflFby the water which continually flows from the
lachrymal gland, in the upper part of the orbit; and which is nicely
diffufed over the fmooth glaffy fui face of this optical inftrument, by the
clofing of the lids, to keep it tranfparent, even when we are not con-
fcious of doing it.

PI. III. Fig. 5. The membrane T, which covers the apple of the
eye, called from its tranfparency the tunica cornea, or horny copt,
further extended, is opaque or fclerotic, forms the white, and ferve^
as a cafe for the intenal humours. Immediately under the cornea,
lies the Iri», which 'v\ different people \i of different colours: it ha»
a hole P, in the centre, for admitting of light, or objefts ; this is
called the pupil, or black of the eye. Where this is panting, the •
furgeon's knife fometii.)es lays it open. Beneath ihis hole, floats the
chryftalline humour C, of a roundifh form, vulgarly called the fight,
with the vitreous humour V behind it, and the aqueous one A before,
to defend it from being bruifed in rubbing of the eye, &c. The optic
nerve N from the brain, enters the back part of the eye, where be-
ing expanded on the infide, it forms the retina R, as a fine web, to re-
ceive the picture or impreflion of the objeft; <»nd this imprefllon is
wh.it gives to us the fenfe of vifion. Yet ciTeniidly necefl'ary as the
chryftal appears to be to vifion, when a cataroffiHTas clouded the fur-
face, the patient is couched ; or, in other words, the eye is laid open s
the chryftalline humour being then taken out, the aqueous one fills up
its place j and anfwering as a lens, gives fight to the blind ; but this
not refracting fo ftrongly as the chryftal, a convex lens is ufed to fup-
ply the defea.

Clumfy

'^"'^^ffjjm^lj^^^^^^^^j'll^p

4«

SUBLUNARY

P. ir.

^ Clumfy and confined are the inftrutnents of art, if compared with
this delicate and wonderful organ. They, it is true, help out the de-
ficiency of fight. The niicrofcope enables man to look far down on
the minute woiks of the creation ; and the telefcope lifts up his view
to the wonders of the fiiniament ; but thefe are fixed to certain dif-
tanccs ; one fuits ro ineafure the magnitude of a planet ; another to
examine the formition of an infeft ; but the eye wonderfully adapts
itfelf to every diftance within. its own cxtenfive fpheie. Without dif-
traftion, it alike furveys the letteied page; lays hold on the extend-
ed landfcape *, and views the llais. In what nianner it accommodates
itfelf to thefe very different diftanccs, feems not to be thoroughly un-
derftood by anatomirts ; it feems, however, to be the idea, that the
eye becomes more flat in ftraining alter remote objedls, and more
convex in prying into minute ones. In old age, when the eyes lofe
their lulnefs, become flat, or incapable of adapting themfelvesto look
at minute objefts, they find relief in the ufe of convex fpeftacles ;
while near-fi^hted people, on the contrary, having their eyes naturally
fitted for viewing minute objefts, near hand, have their vifion extend-
ed to a diftance by the help of concave glafles.

Every body knows, that too much light difturbs the eye : and that
too little does not anfwer the purpofes of vifion- The efforts it makes
to bear with the excefs, and to accommodate itfelf to the deficiency,
are not fo generally noticed or known. In looking at a luminous body,
as the flame of a candle, the pupil of the eye, or hole in the iris,
becomes very fmall to prevent too great an influx of the rays : on look-
ing at objects but faintly illuminated ; and efpecially in getting into
darkfome places, the pupil is dilated, that it may the more copioufly
receive what little light the faint object or the gloomy fituation may
afl!brd. If we look up at the (ky, and then fuddenly cad our eyes
down on the ground ; or if we look at the flame of a candle, and
then beneath the table on which it ftands, or on any dark objeft, a
byeftander may diltinftly obferve, the vifible contraction and dilata-
tion of the pupil. Thus admirably does it adapt itfelf to the duties
impofed on it ; but this is not all that is wonderful in the organs of
fight } to fay nothing of the mufcular fibres within the nice cord-like
tendons behind, pafled as through their pulleys, and helping to roll
the eye- balls in their fcckets; we may yet dwell with wonder on
their internal ftrufture ; remark their fceming imperfeflions and illu-
lions ; and obferve with furprife, how we learn by experience to de-
left their deceptions, and derive juft information from their errors or
deviations. There is nectflarily a hole in that part of the retin;),
where the optic nerve entering the eye, begins its expanfion. PI. III.
Fig. 6. This fpot is incapable of receivin^g the impjellion of vifion, as
may be difcovered by an eafy experiment: if we clofe the left eye,
and ftretching out our arms, hold up our two thumbs before the
right eye, ftiil kept open, the thumbs being clofe together, they will
both be vifible : if we keep the eye ftedfaftly fixed on the left thumb,
and at the fame time carry the other one outwards, the right thumb
iliall at a few inches dillance from the left one, become invifible.
Carry it farther dilUnt, it fhall again appear in view to the eye, ftill
looking ftedfaftly on the left thumb, in its fixed fituation. The ex-
periment may be made with greater cafe and nicety, b/.fticking up
\ Imall

' 'J*

■*.■(»=..

S. III.

CREATION.

ared with
Jt the de-
down on
) his view
:itain dif-
nother to
ly adapts
thout dif-
e extend-
nmodaies
Jghly un-
that the
ind more
eyes lofe
PS to look
)eftacles ;
naturally
1 extend-

and that
i it makes
eficiency,
ous body,
the iris,
on look-
tting into
copioufly
tion may
our eyes
die, and
bjeft, a
dilata-
le duties
irgans of
ord-like
to roll
nder on
nd illu-
to de-
rrors or
retina,
Fl. Ilf.
fion, as
ih eye,
ore the
ley will
thumb,
thumb
ivifible.
re, ftitl
he ex-

fmall pieces of white paper againft a dark-coloured door, or dark
pieces againft a white wall ; or by lighted candles properly fixed at
greater diftances than we can hold our thumbs ; and fixing the eye
proportionably farther off, this defeft of fight in either eye, is made
up by the help of the other ; for the objeft which falls on the optic
nerve of one eye, neceffarily from their conilru£tion, falls on a dif-
rinft part of the retina in the other . But our having two eyes, though
it gives us more extcnfive vifion, it feems, it naturally prefents to us
illufions, which experience only reftifies. With whatever unity and
precifion fingle objedls may appear to our direft view, this it Teems is
not their natural appearance. Naturally they appear double to us ;
a :d it is only the touch that has corrected the deception ; and in fpite
of appearances told us the truth. Thofe parts of the retinae immedi-
ately oppofite the pupils, may be called the parts of diredl vifion ;
upon thefe v/e receive thofe objects our eyes moft ftedfaftly behold ;
and however double the objects might appear in the beginning, the
imprefllons they make there, give us the fimple idea of finglenefs. It
is diflFerent with the other correlpondent parts of the retina: ; objefts
falling there we but faintly obierve; and their imprefllons, though
they appear to us double, are fcarcely obferved. An eafy experiment,
however, will fhew, that this faint illufion aftually obtains.

If we fix upon an objeft on the oppofite fide of the room, fuppofe
a candle, or a hat ; and between the objedl and the eyes, hold up a
thumb ; if we bring our eyes to bear dircdtly on the thumb, the
diftant object (hall faintly appear double ; if we look dire^Iy on the
diftant objedt, the thumb fhall feem as two.

PI. III. Fig. 6. The images of objedls are painted on the retina of
the eye in an inverted pofition ; hence feme have imagined, that chil-
dren fee objects upfide down; and that this deception is corrected by
the feeling, as they grow up. Others feem to have more confiftently
concluded, that we always fee objedts reverfed : that in fad the flcy
and the ground are turned upfide down to us, if the exprellion may
be allowed ; and that our other fenies are accommodated to the illu-
fion. That up or down, right or left, &c. are merely relative; and
that all our fenfations in the matter, being relatively true, the rever-
fion is without inconvenience ; and the deception, in fadl, amounts to
nothing.*

. Prifmatic

* In oppofition to this ftrange and feemlngly abfurd do£lrine of the philofopheis,
we might with the evidence of our own fenfes, and the common confent of manr
kind, venture to difbelieve their report, without fearing a general imputation of
ignorance; and in fuppott of the common opinion, thus we might argue i If we
imagine a^ perfon at fome diAance behind a wall, looking through a hole in it, at a
tree growing before ir, we may readily conceive, how it would be neceflary for him
to ftoop, in order to fee the top of the tree ; and to raife up his head in order t»
fee the bottom of it. Were he fo near the tree as to need a ladder, to difcover the
top, he muft afcend to fee it, and come down again to obfcrve the trunk ; yet
thoogh he ftoops in one cafe, and aftends in another, to fee the top or bottom of
the tree, he has the fame conception of its pofition in both cafes.

If a traveller pafs the hole towards his right-hand, v.hile behind the wall, he
muft move to the left, if he wiflies to keep him in vie v ; yet does he juftly con-
ceive, that the traveller pafles towards the right, though he had to move the con-
trary way to make the obfervation. Thus as it is neceflary forobjeas to be in-
werted in pafling to the retina, the very reverfion may puhaps give us the juft in-
formation of their true pofition in naturci

-it

SUBLUNARY

P. II.

7. Prifmaiic Rays.] That colours are originally in the rays of light,
is ihewn by a variety of experiments. If light be received through a
hole in a window fiiutter, into a darkened room; and to the hole
there be applied a glafs prifiu, as in Pi. III. Fig. 7. x^t light fhall no
longer follow ihe diredion in which it entered the room ; but be re-
fracted in its courfe, by pafling through the prifni ; and the feveral
coloured rays of light, which compounded together produce the fine
vhite tin£l of day light, (hall be feparated according to their diiferont
decrees ot refiungibility ; the red rays nialcing the Ihongeft effort to
pats in a liglit hne, fhall be lead refra^ed in pafling through the
prilm i and the violet-coloured ones, being mod tadiy lefraftcd, fliall
deviate the farthell from the line in which they hril entered the room.
if a tablet, or llicet of paper, receive the light after it has pafled
through the priiiu, the impreflion of light, or fpeAium, on the la*
blet, ihall be of an oblong ngure, variegated with colours, in the foi-
lowinj; order : the extremity of the fptdrum, which receives the Icafl;
refracted rays, iliall appear intenfely red, then orange, then yellow,
then green, then blue, then indigo tinCls fhall fuccecd; and, laftly^
the moll refrangible violet ihall terminate the other end of the fpec-
trum. If the tablet be perforated, fo as to let (bme of thefe coloured
rays pafs through if, an objeCl held behind the tablet, fhall not be of
the colour it appeared in the finely compounded light of day ; but of
that colour of the rays which are made to fall on it. In this way, the
violet may be made to appear red ; and the orange-coloured marygold
to afTume the tinft of indigo. It feems, however, not to alter its co-
lour without a druggie; wherein the rays lofe fome of their foice.
The colour thus impofed upon the objeCl, fhall appear icfs brilliant
than it would on white paper ; but in its own coloured rays, the ob>
jeCl ihall appear of a more vivid hue, than it does in day-light j the
fpeCtruni, however, produced by the prilm, is not "^oloured with fe-
ven different thipes, diilant from each other ; the giadations between
the feveral colours are fo 6ne, or the tinCls are fo nicely blended with
each other, there is no fuch thing as a diftinCt divifion between any of
them. The rainbow produced by the fun-beams, flriking on the tiall-
ing drops of rain, being there refradled and reflected to the eye, the
rainbow is on the fame principles of the fame variegated hue with the
fpeCtrum, In like manner, the fame colours are produced, by blow-
ing globes with foap and water ; and it is remarkable, that when one
of thefe bubbL's has been blown in the baibn, and let to remain till
the water fubfiding from the top, it at lail becomes fo thin as to
burft, there fucceilively appear different colours at the top, which
f'preadingon alt HJes, fall to the bottom ; the lead refrangible colour,
red. 6rd makes its appearance ; after this a blue emerges ; red appears
again; afterwards blue; thus, at different thicknef^s, in its throw-
ing off the feveral orders of colours, the lead refrangible dill continue
to be reflected fird ; then thofe that are lefs fo, for feveral times ; till
it gives a greater variety of colours, as yellows, greens, purples, &c.
at lait becoming fo thin as fcarcely to redeCt any; it looks black, and
the bubble burtts. From thefe obfervations, fome curious experiments
have been made, and fome ingenious conclufions drawn; that colour
in bodies mud depend upon the fize and dendiy of their particles. An

analo0

ifX'

■- -^J

■i#ir

p. II.

ys of light.
I through a
to the hole
;ht ihall no
but be re-
the feverai
ice the fine
:ii different
\ effort to
rough the
iftcd, fhali
the room,
has pafTed
9n the ta-
in the fo,'-
:s the lead
:n yellow,
nd, laftly,
'he fpec-
; coloured
not be of
y i but of
i way, the
niarygold
ter its CO*
beir foice.
i brilliant
the ob-
ght, the
with fe-
between
ided witi)
:n any of
the fall-
eye, the
with the
jy blow-
rhcn one
nain till
in as to
, which
colour,
appears
throw-

S.IV.

CREATION.

analogy has alfo been imagined or difcovered between colours and
mulical notes i or betv/een the refradtions of light, and the vibrations
of found.

SECTION IV.
PhvONics, Pneumatics, Meteors.

1. ilajlicityt Windi\ Sounds.'} The air, which on all fides furrounds
our habitable world, is found ic be an elalHc fluid ; its denfity or gra-
vity therefore will be very different at different heights ,: as in fleeces
of wool piled one above another, the lowefl will be much com-
prefled, while the highefl remain;; in its full flate of expanfion :
through its extreme elafticity it is liable to be put in motion from
tiumberlefs caufes.

Different degrees of heat and cold contrail or dilate this fluftuating
body, and produce the variety of currents^ from the gentle gale to
the dreadful tempeft and rapid whirlwind.

By tiie flrokes of hammers, and the vibrations of firings in this ele-
ment ; by its being thrown out of certain cavities^ and modified in its
paffage ; as in the voice and wind inflruments of mufic it receives
an undulatory motion, and fills the cavities of the ears with its vi-
brations, which echo to the mind the bewitching melody of mufical
found, or fill it with pain by the unkindly jarring of difcordant vi-
brations.

2. Muftc^ and its Effe3s.'\ Not man * only* feems fufceptlble
of the powers of mufic ; birds ferenade and folace their mates with
their melodious warblings ; the dogs animate each other in the chace
with their mutual cries, and eVen inanimate bodies fitted for pro-
ducing found, as bells, the firings of inflruments, &c. when a note
is flruck according with their own, they join the chorus and alfo

(bund.

* The child may, with an iindefcribable and fccretly pleafing fatisfaAion,
pradife its little fingers in grafping and turning in a thoufand ways its fmooth
and glaiTy coral; old age may find a fainter, but fimilar amui'ement, inhandlinj^
at leifure the time-worn fmooth )iead of hi» walking ftafT; the beau and the
foldier may forego their more ardent purfuits, and play for a while with their
trinkets and trappings; fome may with a degree of plealure hang on a perfuine,
and others delight in the more fubftantial enjoyment of a feail ; the variety of
beauty, the contour and relievo, or the form and colouring, may captivate the
eye, and afford a delight ; the gloomy fcene ma/ imprefs a degree of melancholy,
and the lively prdfped animate our Ipirits ; but of all the powers in the natural
world, the airy magic of mufic feems moft to triumph over the paffions of man-
kind. Naturalifts have confidcici a diflimilat formation in the organs of hear-
ing as the caufe of what id termed an unmufical ear ; they have thought that a
perfon of fuch condition does not hear alike with each ear ; and perhaps here is
no one living whofe organs of hearing are pcrfedly formed, can declare himfelf
entirely free from the dominion, or unfufceptible of the powers of mufic ; in
faft, all nations feem naturally pleafed with it : its charms have been romanti-
cally dcfcribed as capable of foUeriing rocks, ani bending the knotty oak ; and

D 7 fabulous

'-■^

'^- *y « t> €>wi»^.

4«

SUBLUNARY.

p.ir.

found. Thofc animals tlii;t have fubmitted to the reins are encou-
raged under toils by the voice of the driver; and animated by fhouts,
on the precipices of lofty mountains, with riders on their backs,
perform feats of dtfperate addrcfs and wonderful agility ; as on the
Alps and the Andes, the hardy and artful mules, Hiding down
frightful deeps with an infinuating and (kady motion, when fear in
the rider, and ill-timed efforts to fave himfelf, would throw the
artful creature off its bias, and they would both be overturned, and
dafhed to pieces in the fallf .

3. Melody-, Harmony,, Difcord.] According to the language of
muficians melody may be defined a pleafant and agreeable fuccef-
fion of founds : Harmony, the found of different notes at the fame
time, which .iccord with each other. The former appears \o have an
origin immediately in nature ; it prevails in fome degree in all lan-
guages, and in a very high degree in the Chinefe, where words
vary in their meaning according to the tone or note wherein they
are forided. Melody formed the muflc ai the ancients, and as this
was Tt A\ fimple or natural its effetfls were mo(l wonderful ; to this
the moderns have added harmonicks ; thefe have been accounted of
Gothic defcent ; it is remarkable however they were fond in the
mufic of thofe fequcftered defcendants of Adam, the natives of the
fouth fea idands. Difcord is the founding together, or indeed in fuc-
celTion, notes that jar with each other.

How it happens that fome founds jarring with each other diflurb
with their difcord, while others naturally pleafe with their melody,
feems beyond our conception ; perhaps, however, if we could but
deted the (imilitude as it waves along, we might obferve, in the

varied

flibulotts hiftof)' has not farkd to tame wild 6eafts, build up cities, and a thoiN
fand extravagancies, by the Ibunds of the lyre

However, without giving weight to thefe ficSlions, and without going back
to the days of the ancients, the cfTciSs of modern mufic upon fome may fill irg
with wonder ; whether we obferve it thrilling them into foftnefs and effemi-
nacy, er bracing up their nerves, and roufiiig them to acftion ; working them
up to revel in the noife, or enter with ardor on feats of danger ; and what
might make humanity fliudder, fteeling their hearts to rufli without reniorfe
on the bloody carnao;e of their fellows, amid the tumultuous horrors of war.

Ff I'uch be the efFtds of mufick upon the paflions how dangerous then muft
it be to tamper with fo falcinating or alluring a thing ! and how eafily may
we be made to imagine that we feel all the kindly tfam of gentle cniotions or
of noble fentiments, and even devotion, when in faft our weaknefTes are only
impofed on by the melody of founds, and when the intervention of difagreeablc
founds would prove our happinefs and our afFedions to be unfubflantial and
imaginary, nuy, even awaken in us the moft turbulent and tormenting paf-
fions.

f Indeed noife alone feems naturally to have a great efledl on the fpirits
of animals, and efpecially of man. Without much reafoning on caufes and
cffeds, the rollings of thunder fill him with awe ; the winds fcowling over
the hills, or whiftling through the crannies, bring on him a pleafing delirium
of melancholy, while the diftant founds which anbciate with them the idea of
company naturally chcar him : pleafing would it be if they never gave him
reafon to be afraid of an enemy ; but how have 1 feen the countenance fall, oft
the~lbund of diftant guns, in people fafe upon land, and wrken the veflel was
•■t cf light.

*/■

p.ir.

s.iv.

C R K A T I O N.

ns are encoU-
led by fliouts,

their backet
y ; as on the
Hiding down

when fear in
d throw the
erturned, and

language of
seable fuccef-
s at the fame
rs to have an
ee in all Ian-
where words
wherein they
I, and as this
:rful ; to this
accounted of
fcvnd in the
atives of the
ideed in fuc-

other diflurb
heir melody,
could but
erve, in the
varied

f, and a thoih-

going back

nc may fill irg

"s and effemi-

rnrking them

and what

lout reniorfe

)rs of war.

us then muft

eafily may

emotions or

fles are only

difagreeablc

bftantial and

nenting paf-

n the fi)irit3
caufcs and
owling over
ng delirium
the idea of
r gave Him
nee fall, oA
; veiTel was

■M

varied undulations of the water, a clunify reprcfontation of the
vibrations that in the rarer medium of air iniprefs upon us thefe dif-
ferent fenfations.

There are few that have not fometimes amufed themfclves by
throwing (tones into the water, and obferved, that uhe.i bi;» liones
are thrown in, its furf.ice is agitated by large circular fwells ; and
when Icfs ones arc cart in, fmaller waves fpread alfo in circles. It
feems not very difficult to conceive, if (tones of different lizes are
thrown in at once, their waves might cither fo fall out, as kindly
mingling together, they might produce an agreeable motion, or dif^
cordantly clafhing againil one anotiier, foon defttoy each other's
undulations. In thefe contrary eft'tds, obfeivable in the water,
there is perhaps fomething very (imilar to tliofe invifible ones pro-
duced in the atmoipherc by the different vibrations of harmonious
and difcordanc founds ; however, in the recoiling of waves from the
edge of the water there appears a pretty reprcfentation of echo.

4. Circulation of Notes.] We have already feen how a fort of
circulation takes place in the changing foap-bubble, as it becomes of
different thicknefl'es ; in varying of found there feems alfo-to be a
kind of circulation of notes ; and perhaps if our fenfes were fuffi-
ciently delicate or fine to dctcft the analogy, we might difcovcr the
circulation of founds and of colours to de])cnd upon principles in
creation, akin to each other §.

5. Soiitifif

§ Mufical inftniments arc fupcrfluitirs, and minifter to diffipation ; adoptirisr
thefe however inftcad of the voice, wf inay by them iiivc{lii;ate I'umcthing of
the nature of found, and if the pafiions be net !iere!.y hurt, pcrh;ip,i the
mind may be for a while rationally amufed in contempliitiiig this uncxplicable
part of creation, the circulation ol founds.

If a mufical liring be llruck, givir.g a certain rnind, by rendfrijip the cori
or wire fhorter or tighter the found becomes fhriller nr higher, till at length
• it feems, fomehow or other, to give the fame note it founded at firit, though
it has continued IHU to afccnd. If a llute be blown or iiyed gently with
all the fingers down it gives a certain found or note, on liftinj^ up thefe
fuccelTively to the top the notes afcend ; if the tiui^crs are ciofed down
again upon the holes, and difpofed of in the fume manner as before, wiiH
the blait encreafed, the founds fHll continue t<i rife ; a third time they
, hiay be tloled upon the inftrunient, and for a while lifted as before, the notes
!.;,</ fiill growing higher by a forcible blall ; yet when the finger* are alike dif-
'- pofed, whether the flute is filled with a gentle, firm or forcible blaft, the
, notes fomehow or other ajijiear to be the fame ; 'tis true they are of very dif-
, fercnt heights, and naturalilts have called them odaves to each other, from
. their having divided ihe intermediate variable founds into fevcn ddHn(5t di-
' -, vifions. As we have ah'eady leen the variegated prismatic hue on tlic rain-
:(■!. bow divided into feven dilHnd colours, one might think their di vifions alto-
gether arbitrary and artificial, but they appear to be natural ; and it feems
remarkable, that the nations who have given themfelves to the ftudy of mufic
have difcovercd in it thefe diflin<5t divifions of found ; the principles in nature
upon which theli; diftindioiis depend ieem as unexplicable in philofophy as
the laws which give to the I'everal rays of light their different colours.

Thefe divifions or notes feem moftly to accord with each other, or to pro-
duce a fort of harmony when founded together; one or two however are dif-
cordant with the relV, and founded with them produce a horrid jarring ; thefe
jarring tones are notwithftanding made ufe of in mufic, and ferve to give a

I> 8 lively

■«!•■

'#» .Uu

mfamm

SUBLUNARY.

P.IL

5. Sountf, Improvements.} It is well underftood that found is pro-
duced by putting the uii* into an undulatory motion, and vibrating
bodies, as bells, &c. when ftruck in the exhauftcd receiver of an
air-pump, or in vacuo, ate found not to found. Were tlic particles
of the atmofplierc as elailic as thofc of light, it Hiould fccni that
found would move with equal or greater velocity than light itfelf ;
but a flight obfervation informs us the rcverfe is the cafe : if we ob-
fervc at a dillance any one (Iriking with a harhmer oi* hatchet, we
may fee the tool afcend after the blow before we hear the found
from the llroke ; and in the firing of guns afar off, and the difcharge
of the eledric fire in the clouds, we fee the flafli long before we
hear the report or the thunder.

But though found does not move with t' i velocity of light, nor
pafs like it through tranfparent folid bodies, its impulfe is fometimes
telt where light does not fenfibly come ; for inftance, the company
in the next room, we may hear them converfe, though their fire and
their candles be fhut out from our view : and echo, from an oppo-
fite building or hill, while it furprifes and diverts, fiiews that f )and
like light is capable of being refletfled, and in the reHedion it is
found in fome meafure under fimilar laws ; in fadt, the f^udy of pho-
nics, while it has furniihed the world with fome intoxicating lux-
uries, it has alfo produced fome ufeful knowledge, and inihuments
of real fervice to mankind. The dull car derives aid from the fim-
ple contrivance of an hearing trumpet ; and by help of the fpeaking
trumpet the mariner is enabled to cheer and diverfify his folitary
voyage, in hailing his fellow-travellers on the oce.in, when witho t
fuch an inflrument the noife of the waters, or the diltance ox' t!w
vefl'els, would have neceffarily fhut them out from the pleafure of
the falute, and the benefits tiiey derive from the mutual informa-
tion*.

6. Dtffvjm

lively variety to that bewitching art. As in nature, or on the canvafs, the
abrupt prL'cii)Jcc, the broken clift, the glaring light, or fuddcn Ihadow, diver-
lily the landfcape, and carry the eye with cncreafcd nlcafure to the Ibfter
tindls and more gently flowing outlines ; fo the harlher founds in nnific Teem
ftir a moment to arrci} the liflening ear, and keep it in fufpcnfe, that it may
be tlie more efl'iohially furprizcd and delighted with I'uccecding founds ot
melody. Thefe efletils may be eafily obl'erved, and were it right to give a
loole to the pallions, and revel in tiie moll joyous plcafures, the intoxicating;
I'ffcds might as eafily be felt in their full force; we may gueft at the caul'es oi
thefe furprifing efl'eiSt*, but like the other parts of creation, they fcem too fine
for our grofs fenfes ever fully to comprtihend.

• 'ri>e Paul's Cathedral in the city of London furnifhes a proof that the
vibrations of whifpers, however faint, when difperfed abroad in the air, may be
fo colleded together as to furprife and dilhirb with the noife. In the dome of
that ftately building there is a circular gallery that fvveeps round the concave ;
llrangers on entering this part of tne building are ftruck with furprife at
the grandeur of the fcenc which art has produced. When the firfl moments of
adoniihmenr are over, the whifpercr dircds the curious to walk round the gal-
lery, and take their feats oppofuc to him, he turns about and whifpers to the
wall, his whifpers on each fide fwecp round the dome, clafli together amidflthe
liflening flrangers, with a noife, which though expedled, hardly fails to fur-
prife, or futfers the whifpcring gallery to fink in it» fame.

w^^

^r^;'i

P.IL

found is pro-
and vibrating
•eceiver of an
; the particles
aid fecm that
n light itfelf;
fe : if we ob-
hatchet, we
ar the found
the difcharge
)ng before we

' of light, nor

i is fometimes

, the company

\ their fire and

Vom an oppo-

:ws that (t)und

cHedion it is

: (tudy of pho-

oxicating lux-

nd indruments

from the fim-

)f the fpeaking

\(y his folitary

when withu t

liltance o/ thj

he pleafure of

utual infornia-

6. Diffujlon

[the canvafs, the
{hadow, diver-
Ire to the ibfter
U in miific i'ccm
ife, that it may
;ding founds ot
J-ight to give a
|thc intoxtcatin<>
at the caiiles ot
;y fcem too fine

I proof that the
[the air, may be

In the dome of
the concave;

^ith furprife at
Irft moments of
1 round the gaU
Iwhifperst to the

Ether am idft the

\y fails to fur-

S. IV.

CREATION.

6. Diffufton •/ tbe Aimofphtrt] Though the air is • body which
efcapes our fight, we every moment have proof of its exiftence, with-
out the help oi found ; the aerial fluid furrounding on all fides our
habitable world, infinuates itfelf into the pores, and mixes with the
fubftances of the variety of bodies; without this great neccffary to life
the feveral tribes of living creatures cannot iubfitt, even the mute te-
nants of the water, and the minuted infefts cannot live without it,
and vegetables deprived of this vivifying element ceafe to grow, be-
come flaccid, and die ; without this, fires foon go out, and even gun-
powder will not fire in vacuo, or in a receiver exhaufted of air.

7. ti^eighty Baromeur.] 1 hat the atmofphere has body, is obvi-
ous from the force of tbe wind ; and that it alfo gravitates, or has
weight, clearly appears from light bodies, as fmoke, clouds, &c.
floating in it ; a glals globe when exhaufted of air, weighs lighter than
before ; in faft, the atmofphere is found to prefs upon the furface of
our globe, with a weight equal to that of a fea of quickfilver, fur-
rounding the world za inches deep, or one of water 30 feet deep.
Philofophers feein to have derived this information, fom the obfer-
vations they have made upon puuips ; if a pump be inferted in a
ciilcrr. 'A water fur pumping it off, the piflon or box on being drawn
up, would make a vacuum in the hollow of the pump ; but the
atmofphere prefling on the futface of the fluid, it is thus forced up
by the weight of the air, to fill up the vacuum; but when the
water beneath the box, is railed in the pump thirty feet high ; the
column of water being equal in weight to that of the atmofphere
prefTing on the futface of the fluid, they neceffarily then balance
each other, and the water rifcs no higher : In like manner, Mercury
may be railed twenty-nine inches, and then it, on the fame princi-
ples, ceafes to afcend ; but the force nectflfary to raife the fluids
to their utmod heights, in tubes of a given diameter, fuppofe
an inch, is eafily afcertained, and that force, or a weight of air
equivalent thereto, every inch of our bodies mud neceflarily
fudain ; hence the load of air which preflas on the furface of an

[ordinary man's body is equal to forty thoufand pounds weight :

;:i|-thus, were it not for the air within us, we fhould be cruihed to

^|)ieces, by this load of air ; and, were it not for this external

ll|>refrure, we fhould burd to atoms in the internal air taking vent

tfrom our bodies. The air is not always of the fame denfity, and its

:hanges in this refpeft, fenfibly afFefl our bodies ; they are braced

fftrong and vigorous when the air prefTes forcibly upon them ; and

fwhen the air is light they are languid, relaxed and feeble; to

determine the weight of the atmofphere the barometer has been

contrived, PI. Ill, Fig. 8. this inftrument is fimply a glafs tube about

thirty inches in height, clofed at the upper end, and filled with

mercury, with its open and lower end inferted into a cup of mercury,

jor its lower end may be enlarged to a ball or bottle, and turned up

in place of the cup ; now when the ait; is fo heavy as to keep up the

clouds and give us fair weather, it preffes on the quickfilver in the

bottle or cup, and forces it up to a good height in the tube;

and when the rain mud defcend, through tiie atmofphere's becoming

loo light, the prefTure on the quickfilver in the cup decreafes, and

the barometer, or the quickfilver in the tube falls, and thus predias

E (he

S U B L C N A

iS.

P. n.

•hi

f".>"

the changes in the weather. This inftnimeirt is atlb ufed in mea-
Turing the heights of mountains ; as the air becomes lighter 'he higher
we afcend in it, (o the higher the barometer is taken up« the more
the quickfilver fhall neceifanly fall ; ano where the acclivity may b^
fo rude and irregular as to forbid the application of a mathematical
apparatus, thi; inflrument by the fall, fhal! tell pretty exa^l}r the
height afcended : it Hnks about the tenth of an inch for every ninety
feet we afcend, or an inch for three hundred yards. Such is the
elafticity of the air, that what is contained m a nut iTicii, may eaiily
with heat be dilated into a fphere of unknown dimenfions • on the
contrary, the air contained in a houfe may be compreiTed into a
cavity not larger than the eye of a needle.

8. Theatre of the Meteors.] Thefe eiFefks take place with the
atmofphere which we breathe, and which appears to be one of the
mod con'pounded bodies in all nature ; it has beeu confidered as one
large chymical veffel, in which an infinite variety of operations are
continually performing. As organized bodies, we fee, receive of this
{[eneral flora, fo alfo they are found to furnifh their copious fupplies :
plants and animals, earth, waters and minerals, from their fecret beds,
are found to emit their feveral vapours or effluvia, which, mixing
in this vaft alembic^ float a while in common. In this great and
general mixture, found fo abfolutely neceflary to the fupport of all
living things, all other bodies are found to decay ; eypofed to its
influence liquors lofe their fpirit ; cloths their colour and firmnefs ;
metalf ruft, and ilones in time moulder away. In this great theatre
the meteors make their appearances, and a£t the part allotted them
in the v'orks of creation i here is colIe£ted the gentle dew and the
hoar froft ; here clouds are gathered and carried along by the wind,
to refresh the earth m falling fhowers, give rife to rivers, fprcad vafl:
inundations of tvater o'er the fields, or uy them under a covering of
fnow or hail ; htr? mock funs,, mock moons, halos and rainbows
make their gaudy but tranfitory appearance y and here the water-
fpout, dreadful to the mariner i here to\\s the dreadful thunder,
here lightnings dart their livid flames, and fometimes, ftriking upon
ikiQ earth, deftroy its productions, fill its inhabitants with terror,
and fometimes ftrike them dead ; here the aurora: or dreamers,
the Ignes fatu!, or wandering i{res, called ^Ifo Jack with the
knthorn ; here falling fta.s, as t'ley arc ignorantly termed, or fiery
balls of various fixes, appear with fplendour during the gl^om of
night aud adonifli rnnnkmd, who ^o often feem willing, with fuper-
fiitious awe, to find portentous omen: of dire calamities in thefe
curous phsenomena, rather than invedigate theix; caafes or difcover
their ufes.

In the tranfitory meteors, making dieir fudden gaudy and unfub-
flantial appearance, we fee a lively pi^ure of all natural things. As
flies the meteor through the flcies, and fpreads its loiig and gilded
train, and foon dihblves again to common air, fu is it with us, fo with
the mod fuperb monuments of art, and (b with the granded fcenes
of nature. Wherever we turn our ty^s, all appears ondable, all in
motion, and to the genera^ circulat-ion the mod durable bod' .s feem
to owe their origin » iiones and metals feem to b* concretions of
fof^ fubdances, and bcth are found to rud or moulder away;,

plants

p. n.

fed in mea-
r 'he higher
U the more
ity may b^
athematical
exaftly the
very ninety
Such is the
, may eaiily
ns ; on the
liTed into a

; with the

one of the

ered a» one

orations are

:eive of this

us fupplies:

fecret beds,

ich, mixing

great and

3port of all

;ofed to its

d firmnefs ;

;reat theatre

[lotted them

|ew and the

the wind,

prcad vafl:

overing of

rainbows

the water-

thunder^

kmg upon

Ith terror,

dreamers,

with the

d, or fiery

gU»om of

ith fuper-

in thefe

or difcovcr

S. IV.

CREATION.

5«

unfub-
ings. As
nd gilded
s, fo with
eft fcenes
!e, all in
d' ,s feem
Iretions of
awayfc
plants

plants and animals foon arrive at maturity, and as quickly haften to
their diffblution.

9. rafours, Difeafes] As the atmofphere is found to be a general
compound, fo from accidental caufes in particular places the mixture
is often partial ; different fupplies of vapours and exhalations from
animal, vegetable, mineral and other fubflances, and different degrees of
heat and cold, all tend to afFe6l this element ; as any of thefe fingly
prevail they render it unwholefome and inconvenient for refpira-
tion, but as they are generally mixed together they neutralize
the obnoxious qualities of each other, and become falubrious to
the conftitution.

I<n mines, where the air has oot an opportunity of circulating,
it becomes charged with particular vapours or exhalations, which
are often found fatal by dreadful experience : thefe are ftrangely
divertified both in their appearance and efFefts.

Some refemble in fragrance or fmell the pea bloffom in bloom,
and hence have their name ; others /hew their approach by leflen-
ing and at lad putting out the flames of the candles, and thus give
the workmen an opportunity of efcaping ; the fulminating damps
flrike down all before them, like a flafh of gunpowder and 1 fourth
icind, moie deadly than all the reft, being by accident fet frte, rufh-
ing out from where they have been long confined in old mines,
inftantly ftifte thofe they overtake.

In fonie mines the workmen breathe without any apparent preju-
dice to their health ; yet if a lighted candle be introduced the
whole cavern at once becomes one furnace of flame; by a very
pecuHsir contrivance, a fufficient light for thefe gloomy operations
is fupplied with fafety ; this is by means of a great wheel,
the circumference of which is befet with flints ; this being tiirned,
the flints ftrike againft fteels placed at the extremity, and thus
a ftreain of tranfient fparks of fire is produced : In others, the
workire:. ufe only wooden inftruments, and are cautious not to
enrer with nails in their fhoes, as a fingle fpart ftruck by
coljifion, or in the manner of flint and fteel, would fet the
whole mine in a blaze ; yet here lighted candles may be ufedl
wi:h convenience and fafety.

The furface of the earth and its inhabitants, feem much aflTeCted
by what is going on beneath in the mine ; mineral exhalations,
by their corrofive qualities, often deftroy vegetation, 5\nd taint the
•air ; from ftagnant waters a!fo, fromp luxuriant foils, irom the fea
itlelf when not fufRciently agitated, efpecia'Iy in hot climates, the
air is often rendered unwholefome ; but from difeafed and putrid
bodies of animals, the moft fubiile and noxious effluvia feems to
arife ; compared with thefe, other vapours feem grofs ami heavy ;
thefe fly every where, penetrate every where, and the vapours that
hy from a fingle difeafed perfon, foon render it epidemic. The
plague is the hifl upon the lift in this clafs of human calamities ; it
leems, however, during the laft age, to have abated much of its
violence, even in thofe countries where it is moft common ; but
difeafcs, like empires, have their revolutions, and thofe, which for a
while were the fcourge of mankind, fink unheard of to eive place

' As in the bowels

to new ones more dreadful, as being lefs jmderftood

•f

SUBLUNARY

P. 11;

of the earth, rhere area variety of operations continually carrying on,
far remote from the obfervation of man, which notwtthftanding af>
fe6t the atmofpherc he breathes, with their fubtte exhalations ; it has
been thought, that thefe temporary diforders, with other calamities,
which we can neither forefee nor preventy may be forged v. ihofe fe-
cret elaboratories, and have their duration, while the fubterraneous
procefs is going on.

10. 'Earibquakesy Volcanos.] In thofe darkfome recefles, compared
with which the excavations of art, are but as the cells of infe£ts ; the
dreadful volcanos have their beginning, and the ftill more alarming
and terrible earthquake ; the volcano difcharging, with a noife like
that of thunder, torrents of flame and fuiphur, and rivers of melted
metal, throwing out clouds of fmoak and afhes, with rocks of enor->^
mousdze to many miles diftance ^ itscatarhfts of liquid fire, rufhing.
down the fides uf the mountain, may bury plantation'., villages, and
even cities under the mafly deluge ; a province may be 611ed with con-
flernation, hundreds may perifh, and thoufands flee and find fafety y
but the terrors of an earthquake what tongue can defcribe ! the con-
vulfed region, to attempt to flee it would be in vain, the concufllon
fpreads perhaps fome thoufands of miles, and none know the place
where the earth may yawn, and fwallow up the people together with
their pofleflioiis ; in thefe awtul moments, the afloniiKed inhabitants
are alfo deprived of the means of flight, by the ihakineof the earth,
they are lifted up as upon waves, and cannot keep their feet ; the
bills are no certain prote£lion, mountains fall in and vallies arife ;
cities are buried under ground, or overflowed by water ;. iflands new
and unexpeAed arife in the fea, and refuge is only to be found in re-
lignation.

Thefe wonderful effefls, philofophers tell us, are all produced bjp
the confined air in the fubterranean regions endeavouring to get vent»
the different infliam.mables, the fulphurs, and the bitumens mixing with
the minerals, and other foflil fubftances, and being a£ted upon by air
or water, they effervefce and take fire, and the air being thus expand-
ed, its force becomes irrefiftible ; thus, it feeais, volcanos ferve as
funnels, and while they fpread partial defolation, preierve whole king-
doms from deflruflion ; fometimes, however, the explodon of the
volcano and the earthquake come together.

One might think thofe a moft infatuated people, who would take
up their refidence in the neighbourhood of a volcano ; but in this
world, a fubfiflence is not a matter of the leafl importance, and this
they have copioufly fup^lied from thefe fertile foils : indeed, it
feems to have been the opiniK}n of fome, that at the centre of the
earth is one prodigious fire ; that we owe more to this elaboratory in
producing vegetation, and keeping this earth fiom becoming one frozen
ball, than even to the fun, whofe rays are always tranfient and unfix-
ed; to fuch it may be acknowledged, that it feems pofiible^ that the
earth may be hollow, without being in danger of falling in ; as, from
its fpherical figure, attraftion might make it one firm arch, and if
once the imagination has formed it thus, it may appear as comfortable,
to (lock it with fire as any thing elfej it appears hard, however, to
imagine a fire, thus continually burning, in fo confined a lituation ; and
one would think, from the ruptures of earthquakes and volcanos> that

fire

p. ii;

iring on.
ding at-
; it has
lamities,
>hofe fe-
rraneous

ampared
£ts ; the
alarming
oife like
f melted
of enor-
rufhing.
ges, and
vith con-
1 fafety ^
the con-
oncuflion
he place
ther with
habitants
he earth,
'eet ; the
es arife;
ands new
nd in re-

uced bjT'
[get venr»
ing with
n by air
expand-
ferve a»
le king-
of the

iM take
in this
and this
eed, it
of the
tat or y in
le frozen
Id unfix-
Ihat the
»s, from
and if
fortable,
|ver, to
in; and
)S) that
fire

J5. n- .

C R E A T I O N.

•5-3

f.re under ground was actually a prifoner, contrary to the laws of
creation.

Volcanos are to be met with in every quarter of the globe : Sicily
and the fouth of Italy have been long famed for their burning moun-
tains and dreadful earthquakes; in thcfe, many af.ne city has been
{"wallowed up or overwhelmed.* *

Within this hundred years, many dreadful eruptions and earth-
quakes have happened, in parts of the world we are acquainted
with, ae at Calabria, at Jamaica, Lilbon, aiid at Sicily, where in
(693, nineteen thoufand of the inhabitants periflied ; the city of Ca-
tanea was totally overthrown; and the ftiock felt in Germany, Eng-
land, France, &c. to a circumference of two thoufand five hundred
leagues: there are few countries that do not feem to fhew marks at
thele dreadful xonvulfions in nature, in their conical hills, and cleft
and broken rocks; ancient as well as modern hiftory furniflies difmal
accounts of their devaftations ; and as voicanos are known to be in
every- quarter of the globe, and among the higheft mountains, it feems
i!0t unlikely, but their ravages may be ftill more dreadful, among
thofe extcnfive and numerous nations, who have not yet learned the
art of recording t heir hiftory.

II. Height of the AirJ\ The height of the atmofphere above the
furface of the lolid earth, is not certainly known. From the refrac-
tion of the rays of light from the -celeftial bodies, in palTing to our
world, it has been concluded, that it reaches but to a imwW diftance
in the intermundane fpace; when it is confidered, howevei-, that the
43.ir which we live in, is near a thoufand times lighter than water, and
.that the body of air iurrounding the globe, h equal in weight to an
•ocean of water, that would cover the world about thirty feet deep, ir
niuft necelTarily feem to bs fome miles in height ; but when its extreme
•elafticity is remembered, and how fenfvbly it grows lighter the higher
we afcend, we may perhaps re«fonab!y conclude, that it reaches le-
veral hundreds of miles tiom the earth's furface, and even fuppofc
that it may be poflible that the air, in its fublimer regions, diverted
of thofe grofs vapours and exhalations which arife from the earth,

may

* Ttic ancients held, that Jupiter, when he had overcome ihe.guntt, heapeS
on them thefe mountains, and fnat the ilruggles of the monfters produced the erup>
tions. Later fuperftirion feems to have gone farther} it has even called thefe the
.mouths of hell. In the records of one of the law courts in London, there ftands a
trial of a fingular kind ; a widowindi^ted t|ke captain of a veffel, returned from the
Mediterranean, for reporting, that he had feen her huftand, who died fome time
before in London, paflTing awajr to hia torture into one of thefe mountainf, the verjr
<^ay of his death. Whatever wicked confederacy, or whatever uncommon delufioa
the (hip's crew had been under, they unanimotifly fupported in their evidence the
captain's report, in all its circumilances of rom»r'tie horror: the court Aood afto-
oiihed, and liberated the tnariaer. It may feem almoft fuperiluous here, to remark*
that a native of Calabria, or Sicily, is of the fame form as an Engli/hman ; and that
fucb a perfon palling freely thtongh the fmoke of JEim or Vefuvitis, with which he
tvas familiar, to thefe fuperftitious fiiilors, that could dream of the prefence of fu«
pcroatunl firei in the eruption of a volcano, he might appear to be any perfon that
Should Alike their iniag;iiiacion. Perhaps • court of this day would have fo ordered
it towards the defendant, that the next time kc went up the ftreigbtt, if he conceits^
)»« f»w any more of his reighbours, he would keep it to himfelf, rither than diftwi
ihe peace of families by fuch idle tales,

. •*.''v*ym»tfitUtf<<m, mh ttf^w**^

SUBLUNARY

P. 11.

-y.

may be thus refined into setber, and fill the ioimeniity of fpace that
iiirrounds us *.

It. jinalyfts of Mr.] To conclude on the fubjeft of air, it appears
reducible to four grand divifions or kinds.

1 . £ther is perhaps 'a body perfe6lly elailic, and forms the bafis of
the atnjofphere.

a. The atniofphere, or common vital air, feems a general mixture
neceflary to life.

3. The fufFocating damps which extinguilh fire, called niephitlc,
or fixed air.

4, The fire damp, or inflammable air.

The rays of light alfo, the emanations of the loadftone, and the
effluvia of eledricity, all feem to find place in the air.

13. Meuors.l Enough has been faid on our compound ntmofphere,
to ihe w, that it may contain in itfelf ample materials for producing all
the various phacnomena of the meteors.

Dew is that vapour which the warmth of ihe day had exhaled from
the earth; and which condenfed into drops by the cold of the night,
fall by their weight ; and hoar is this vapour in a frozen (late : clouds
are mills or exhalations raifed on the fame principles, and collefled in
the air : rain is the cloud condenfed into diops, falling by their
weight. Hail is the drops, frozen in falling ; and fnow is the leis
compact cloud, frozen before it fell ; parhelii, or mock fiins ; parfa-
lenx, or mock moons ; halos, or the coloured circles that furround
them, and which, though always confined to our atmofphere, fome-
times feem alfo to furround the real fun and moon, and the other
heavenly bodies ; the beautiful iris, or rainbow : thefe gaudy mete-
ors are all produced by the rays of light that fall on clouds, mills, or
rains, being refleded and refrafled in palling to the eye* The aerial,
or watery meteors, are often feen with delight ; thofe of the fiery
kind aflume a more fplendid, and even a terrifying afpedl ; it is not
every one that is able to look coolly on them. The thunder and the
lightning fill the philofopher with awe, 'vhile the fluctuating dreamers,
and the traniient blazes of inflammable vapours, ftrike the fuperftiti-
ous with dread of future calamities. Lightning is found to b« a flafh,
produced by the electrical fluid, rufhing out of one cloud into ano-
ther : and thunder, the found of the rufhing torrent, reverberated
among the clouds. The fiery balls which are feen fhooting through
the atmofphere in the night, of various niagnitudes and different forms,
feem all to arife from inflammable vapours, taking fire from their fer-
menting or effervefcing in the air.

SECTION

* It muft be owned, it Aonid feem more confiftent with our ideas of the'motioni
of the planets, to fuppofe the immenfity of fpace, where they roll, rather a perfedt
vacuum than occupied, by ether or any other body that might impede their mo>
tions ; however, feme have been fo far from fuppofing this fuLtii fluid an interrupt
ttoo, that they have even confidered it as an aftive principle, in carrying on moft of
the.workt of creation, from the flow and fteady courfet of the inanimate fpherct^
to the volatile and voluntary motions of livioi creatures.

«-<

s.v.

CREATION.

SECTION V,

Hydrostatics, Rivers, Szk.

If leaving the (ludy of founds and ligbt, of msigu^ufin and ele^n-
city, the regions of the atmofphere, and the appearances ot 'the me**
(eors, we take a view of the furface of the earth; land and water
ieem to make the firft general and obvious diviiions of the globe. In
our fpeculations on thefe grofier bodies, we may flatter ourielves with
■an expeSation of clearnels and certainty ; but even thefe feem equally
evailve of human comprehenfion, and to pafs away in the contempla-
tion, IHcf themoftHeeting of the meteors. All bodies, fay.forae chy-
mifts, originate in water, and are reducible to this fluid element: by
herit, water is obvioufly diifipated into vapour j and cold ftiifens it
into the hafdnefs of ice ; but this feems only a fmal! part of its vari-
eties : according to them, water makes up the fubftance of all other
bodies, only by putting on a different difguife ; and the mountain is as
much iS body of water, as the cake of ice which melts on its brow ;
and even the philofopher himfelf, is compofed of the fame materials
with the cloud or meteor which he contemplates.

I. IVaUr^ Lruel, Experiments.} Water, whether we view it as it
diverfilies, and gives coolnefs to the landfcape, or obferve it in vefTels
for domeflic purpofes, it always when undifturbed, prefents a fmooth
and even furface ; this feems itsfirfl and mod ftriking appearance; and
indeed when put in motion from any external caule, even its waves
feem as fo many efforts to recover its level, or to fpeak precifely its
fpherical furface, agreeing vvith the form of the earth, and immedi-
ately caufed by the attraction of gravitation. On this property in wa-
ter, depend the feveral laws in hydroftatics, e. g. if a (hip, boat, or
tub, or any other body, be placed in the water, it neceflaiily puts a
part of the fluid out of its place; but the water, in its efforts to pre-
ierve its own level, li»all fuffer no more of itfelf to be difplacedf thaa
is equal to the weight of the body. If the body be wholly immerfed^
before it has difplaced its own weight of the fluid, it is heavier tkan
its own bulk of water, or fpecificaHy heavier, and confequenily finks.
In lifting fuch a body, while in the water, it fhall be as n uch lighter
than it was in air, a^; the water it has .difplaced is heavier than the
fame bulk of air. Thus, in a hydroflatic balance, a good guine&
lofes lefs of its weight, on being iaimerfed in water, than an adulte-
rated one, which being lefs denfe, and confequently taking up more
room, necelfarily difplaces more of the fluid, and, confequently, lofes
more of its weight, on being tried in the water. If a body difplace
its own weight of the water, without being totally immerfed, it is
lighter than the fluid, and (hall confequently fwim ; and a fhip with
its loading of ihe heavied articles, or a vefTel of heavy metal, as a fil-
tver cup, with its contained air, anfwcriag thi« latter defsription, (hall

»?,

SUBLUNARY

P. II.

on the fame principles nectlTarily fwim. A pipe of the form of the
letter U, for inHiance, if water be poured in at one arm to a certain
height, it fliall rife to the fame in the other; this may fliew, how
the city is fupplied with water from the bafon, and how it rifes to
rooms above ftairs. If we reverfe the pipe, already filled with water,
and put one arm down into an empty hogfhead, the other into a con-
tiguous one full of water, this (hall fei a running through the pipe
into the empty one, and continue thus difcharging itfelf, till the fluid
is on a level in both the veflels. This n»ay fhew the nature of the
fyphon : in this experiment, thft water might rife about thirty feet in
the pipe, if it were long enough, the weight of the atmofphere on
the mrface of the earth, being incapable of keeping it up higher ; in
the other, if prafticable, the tube might fink to the center of the
earth, may reach even to our antipodes.

The prelTure of water againft the fides ef the cavity which contains
it, whether tub or veflel, or a valley of the earth, is as the height of
the furface of the fluid above the part, and not as the extent or quan-
tity of the waters; hence even children, in their play, will fometimcs
vrith (lones, weed, and fand, bank out the whole waters of the fea,
till the tide, by a flow but flieady rife, having gained the fummit of
their fandy little citadels, it at once overflows them ; and hence, were
it not for the motion and violence of the waves, a flight bank might
fometimes prevent the waters of the fea from deluging a whole coun-
try, as that which confines a pond of the mod trifling extent ; hence,
on the other hand, the addition of a fingle gallon, or any fmall quan-
tity of water, applied in a particular manner, might be made to burft
an hogfliead, or to raife a prodigious weight, as eff"eftually as many
hundred gallons. PI. III. Fig. 9.

If in the top of an hogfliead, filled with water, there be inferted a
pipe of fmall dimenfions, but confiderable height, and water be poured
m at the top of the pipe to any certain height, the bottom and fides
of the veiTc! fliall be as forcibly prefTed by this fmall addition of the
fluid, as if the veflel had been continued, in its full dimenfions, to the
fame height, and been filled with water. If a huge piece of limber
lie in a ditch, juft large enough to receive it, and water be poured in,
the fmall quantity of the fluid, that the ditch can receive. Avail as ef-
feftually float it, or bear it up, as all the waters of the largefl:
lake.

If a tall and narrow veflTel be filled with water, and pipes be infert-
ed in its fides, at different heights, the force of the water fpouting
out at thefe pipes, fliall be proportionably great, as it is difl:ant from
the furface of the fluid ; and if fimilar pipes be inferted in the fame
manner, into the mod extenfive refervoir, the very fame effefts fliall
take place, without increafed force, whether their pipes be horizon-
tal, or bent to fpout the water upwards and downwards.

The very curious properly of water, prefllng only according to its
altitude, and the extent of the furface where the preflure falls, is alfo
in the air, afld the other gravitating fluids, though the etFe£ls may be
more commonly obferved in the water.

Fluids difi^er in their weights or denfities j fpirits are lighter than
water ; ftrong fpirits than weak : to determine the force of the fpirit,
or the lightfiefs of the fluid, the hydrometer has been contrived ; it i^-

ahollovir

''^'

s.v.

CREATION.

a hollow ball, with a weight at one .Ide to fink it, and a tube, mark-
ed with degrees, (landing up on the other : now according to the
ftrength of the fpirit, fo will the inftrument fink, and fo will the fluid
wet or maik the degrees on the outfide of the tube. PI. HI. Fig. lo.

2. Solidity and Force of Water, \ Water, however foft and yielding
it may generally appear, is found to be a very folid body ; bullets
fired obliquely on its furface, become flat, or are broken in pieces, as
if Bred againil (lones; and boards, on being thrown on it, ibmetimes
are broken ; and it is hardly fenfibly compreflible, into lefs room than
it naturally occupies; hence this fubtil fluid, on its being prefl*ed for-
cibly in a hollow globe of gold, by means of a fcrew, has been found
to ouze through the pores of this denfeft of all metals, and fettle on
its furface like a dew ; till at length burfling a hole in the globe, it
fpun out with great vehemence. When ftifFening into ice, it cleaves
afunder, by its expanfion, the mafllive rocks that confine it ; and fo vaf^ly
is it enlarged when raifed into vapour, and fo great is its fpring or
force in that (late, that a drop of water, when heated into (leam, will
raife many tons weight.

3. Supply of Rivers y Mineral Springs.] How rivers receive their
fupplies of water, has been accounted for in different ways by philo-
fophers ; fome have fuppofed, that, by fubterraneous channels, wa-
ter is fupplied to their fprings from the fca ; that this by being filtered
in its courfe, lofes its faltnets ; and that rivers derive but little of their
waters from fails of rain, which are accidental and inconftant ; this,
however, feems contrary to what has been obferved of the inclination
of water to maintain its level.

Others have thought, that rivers receive their fupplies moftly from
the clouds ; thefe vapours, fay they, being carried by the wind againfl
the mountains, are thereby condenfed into drops on their fummits ;
where, (inking into the earth, theydefcend in the mountain, till meet-
ing with rocks, beds of clay, or other obftrudtions, they are (lopped
in their defcent, and break out in fprings at the fides or bottoms of
the hills ; a number of thefe rills meeting in the valley, form brooks
and largel" ftreams; and thefe, colJedled together, compofe the largeft
rivers ; and hence, the largeft rivers have always their fource among
the higheft mountains, whofe cloud-capt tops never want their
fupply.

The water, in pairing through different earths, and veins of foflils,
often become impregnated with their particles ; and thus are produced
the different medicinal and poifonous fprings. All thefe, with their
various properties, together with rivers in general, falling into the
fea, foon mix with that vaft colledlion of waters, which lying in the
deep and unfathomable vallies of the earth, by the order of attraftion,
is, with all its roarings, thus flayed within bounds, and prevented from
deluging the land.

4. Sulinefs of the Sea.] The faltnefs of the fea, is a property in that
element, which appears to have excited the curiofity of naturalifls in
all ages. The ancients fuppofed, that the fun continually raifed dry
faline exhalations from the earth, and depofited them on the fea ;
the prefent eftabliflied opinion feems to be, that the fea's faltnefs is
fupplied, net only from rocks or maflfes of fait at the bottom of the
,iea, but alfo from t^e fs^lt which the rains and river;, and other

waters,

'.^

SUBLUNARY

p.n.

waters diflblve in their ptflkgc through many parts of the earth, and
at length carry with theoi to the Tea ; that nothing but the frefli wa-
ters ot' the (ea rife in vaj>ours, and all the faltnels remains behind ;
that hence the fca bec<»nies every year more and more fait. A late
philofopher has carried this idea fo far, as to fancy, that by obferving
the encreale of its faknefs during a cetiain time, the time of its ac-
4iuiring all its fajtnefs might be tound out by the rule of proportion ;
4nd this, he imagined, would give us the age of the world : But are
the fupplies from rivers inexhauftible and always the fame ? Are the
rocks or mafles of fait at the bottom for ever dilToIving, and yet un-
changeably continue to give the fame fupply ? May not the ocean,
rather by its changing currents, at one time and place, tear up from
their lowed depths, and diiTolve large ftrata of falts, at another place
or time, by the quiefcence or other difpoiition of its waters, or of
themfelves, may not the diiTolved bodies again concrete, chryftallise,
or petrify, and fettle to the bottom ? Does not the rock fait, incruft- ^
cd by the heat of the fun, evidently ^ew, that the fea does not for
ever hold in a (late of folution, tbofe bodies that have been once dif-
folved in its waters? Indeed, when we confider what fome chymifts
inform us, o/ waters being an univerfal diiTolvent, to which all other
bodies may be reduced, and of which all others «re originally com-
pofed, there feems little reafon to fear, that the ocean will at length
become a pit of fait j which we might reaibnably fear, if fome of the
preceding conjectures were juft ; and-as little ca<ufe toapprc'^end, as
iome have done, from the petrifaction of foft fubftances, that the
whole earth fhall at length become one folid (lone. In faCl, when-
ever we turn our eyes on the works of the creation, «il feem continu-
ally in a ftate of change or circulation. " The fun,^' faith Solomon,
** arifeth, and the fun goeth down, and pants for the place from
whence he arofe ; all rivers run into the fea, yet the fca is not full.;
unto the place from whence the nvers came* thither they return

again.

The faltnefs of the fea renders it more heavy and buoyant; a
greater advantage to the mariner, feems, that he is Ufs liable to take
cold, on being wet, than if it had been frefli ; by its faltnefs, the fea
is kept longer from freezing; and perhaps its faltnefs helps to preferve
it from becoming one putrid lake ; yet fait as it is, in hot climates,
after a long calm, it is found to become very putrefcent ; and indeed
it feems to owe not lefs of its fweetnefs to its continual motion, than
it does to its fait.

5. Motion. Tides.] The waves of the fea leem generally produced
by the winds agitating its furface ; there is another more general and
invariable motion, the caufe of which appears not fo obvious ; after fome
wild conjectures of the earlieft philofophers, it became well known m
the times of Pliny, that the tides were entirely under the influence, in
a fmall degree, of the fun; but in a much greater, of the moon ; but
how thefe heavenly bodies produced thefe eiFeCts, was to them in-
compreheniible ; the moderns, however, have concluded, it is by the
force of attraction and the centrifugal force. It is obferved of the
ocean, that :he part of its furface, which is oppofue to the moon, is
by the attraction of this planet confiderably raifed ; and that this fwell
continually follows the moon from eaft to weft ; or rather its place is

turned

S. V.

CREATION.

"jrned away, while the fwell itfelf remains ftationary under the moon.
U is obferved alfo, that on the (ide of the globe oppoHte to this (vreU,
there alfo the waters rife ; and the parts of the Tea, lying between
thefe fwells or rifings of the waters necefTarily fall ; thefe fwells in
the ocean produce the flowings of the tide, and the full fca or high
water, and iis intervening falls produce the e.bbs or low water, in
channels or harbours remote from the ocean ; hence it may be feen,
why we regularly have two tides in the courfe of orje lunar day : the
tide takes up fome time, in flowing to and receding from remote
channels and harbours; hence the tides happen later in thefe, thaa
in the ocean ; in fome places where the fhores are direflly oppofed
to the influx of the waters, they rife to a great height ; where th«
entrance is narrow and the fea large, as in the Mediterranean and
Baltic, there is fcarcely any fenfible tide; the water rufhing in and
out at the ftreights, bemg incapable of elevating or deprefllng fo vafl:
a body as the inclofed fea in fo fhort a time. Bcfides the tides caufed
by the moon, the fun is alfo found to produce a fort of tides, though
from its immenfe diftance from our globe, they are fo fmall as hardi/
to be noticed, and are only obferved as they afl^efl the lunar ones :
when the folar and lunar tides or fwellings happen together, which
thty do at the change of the moon, and at the full, they produce
the fpring tides ; when the folar tide or fwell falls on the lun^r ebb,
and its ebb or depreflion on the lunar fwell or tide, which always takes
place at the time of the half moon, from their counteracting each other,
we have only neap tides.

6. IVinds.] It would be far beyond the defign of this work, to at-
tempt a detail of the many wonders of the deep ; it would perhaps
be a defeat, however, to leave this element without taking fome no-
tice of its currents, its eddies, and its fpouts; and alfo of the winds,
which, though their confideration belongs properly to the ftudy of
pneumatics, yet as they were moft fteady and conftant on the
ocean, and peculiarly interefling to the mariner, philofophers have
principally built their theories on the obfervations, that thiii hardy
race of men have made upon this fluid element ; and the an?Jogy be*
tween the winds and the currents of the fea, feem. fufliciently clofe,
to confider them together. It has been obferved, that the genera]
motion of the tides, on the ocean, is from eaft to weft ; this is found
to produce one great and general current of the waters, in the fame
direction, as the manner often experiences on the extenfive main ;
but more ^fpecially in the ftreights, which conneft large parts of the
ocean together; where a large quantity of water, having to pafs
through a narrow place, it rulhes with great rapidity. Currents are
found in different parts, to run in all directions, eaft, weft, notih,
and fouth ; but thefe generally feem all but deviations from the ge-
neral current ; and chiefly caufed by jutting promontories, inequa-
lities at the bottom, intervening iflands, oppofing fhores, &c. la
like manner, on the extendve ocean, at and near the line, there is
found to be a fimilar current of the air, a general wind, continually
blowing from eaft to weft ; from the poles alfo, the air is found to
continually rufh towards the equator, which general currents are thus
accounted for ; the beat of the fun rariBes the air immediately under
it, in the tropical regions | in one diurnal revolution of the globe,

this

SUBLUNARY

PH.

this rarefaQion will evidently have obtained round the whole torrid
zone, from eaft to weft ; the rarificd air afcending bv its lightnefs,
the denfer air ruftiing in, to leftore the equilibrium, it (eenis obvioufly
clear, how thel'e current!, are .produced, and all other gales and
breezes, in ditferent parts of the v/orld, are accounted onlv accidental
ijeviations from thefc general currents ; thefe currents ot the aimof-
phere, namely, the general one I'foin eaft to weft, and the more par-
ticular ones from both the poles, may ferve to account for all the
phaenomena of trade winds ; which, if the whole furface of the globe
were fea, would undoubtedly be conftant, and for ever continue to
blow in one dire£lion ; but there are a thoufand clrcumftances to brealc
thefe air currents into fmaller ones, to drive them back againft their
general courfe, to raife or deprefs them, to hurl theui in ftorms, or
whirl them into eddie?

That heat neceiTarily produces wind, may obvioufly appear, from
the current of air that is always found prefting to the culinary fire.:
hence, exhalations and fliowers, volcanos and earthquakes, hot
fandy defarts, and bleak mountain tops, and perhaps more ih?n all
others, the prefence, abfence, or the partial diftribuiion of the elec-
trical fluid, tends to alter the temperature of the air : they confe-
<]uently all contribute to produce the flu6luating winds, while the in-
equalities of the earth's furface, and even the motion of the fea, aH
influence or vary their direftions ; but the air is fuppofed alfo, from
the fame attraftlon, to have its regular tides, as well as the fea,
though invifible to us ; hence, in "iring and autunui, or at the time
of the equinoxes, when the fun a .d moon being both on the equator
together, their attractions are moft powerfully combined together, t©
produce high tides in the fea ; at that time aVfo, the higheft winds are
found to prevail. In our climate, the winds are uncertain and change-
able to a proverb; in many parts of the world, they pay their ftated
vifits; jin fome places, they blow one way by day, and another by
night J in others, for one half the year, they go in a direftion con-
trary to their former courfe, and in fome places, as was already oh-
Served, the winds never change.

7. Whirlpools, H^flter [pouts] Moft people have obferved, in the
(Ir^am or river, when the current has been interrupted by bridge,
ftone, or fome iuch thing, an eddy or whirlpool has been formed ip
the water, juft below the obftacle ; on a much larger fcale, thefe ef-
fefts take place in the currents of the ,fea, the whirlpool Charybdis,
and the rock Scylla which produces it, in the ftreights of Meflina,
were terrors to the puny mariners of antiquity ; and their poets have
not failed in defcribing thefe dangers, to add the romantic horrors of
of fupernatural influence; they have feigned, in thefe dreaded places,
inonfters who had been metamorphofed by magic fpells, or by the will
of Jupiter; and the noife of the waves, were in their extravagant
fictions, the barking of dogs, and the bowlings of wolves. Modern
navigation, however, Teeras fuperior to any little eddies that may be
found in the Mediterranean ; yet, in the ocean there are whirlpools,
that mock the arts and improvements of man ; that called the Mael-
ftrem, or Navel of the fea, on the coaft of Norway, produced by the
ebbing of the tide, is confidered as the moft dreadful and voracious in
all the world ; whatever falls within the circle of its violence, whe-
ther

S. V.

CREATION.

thcr timber, trees or ihippin j, is fwept around hy the force of the
waters, brought nearer and nearer to the center of its dreadful vortex^
and at length fwaliowed up ; no ikill in the mariner, or (Irength of
rowing, can work an cfcape ; even whales themfelves fall vi^ims to
its fperior force, while they roar wi^n terror, and in vain attempt to
get free from its certain dettru£\ion ; what has thus been fucked in by
the ebb, is vomited forth with equal violence, on the coming or flow-
ing of the tide : in like manner, eddies or whirlpools are produced in
the air, by its contrary currents, theftr eafily whifk up light bodies, as
duft, hay or ftraw } in the deferts of Africa, and Arabia, they fome-
tmies whirl up a ')ody of fand, and bury alive whole caravans of
travellers ; upon laud they alfo feem to toll together the clouds, and
condenfe them one upon another, darting down a typhon or fpout,
even tearing up trees, and pouring down a fuddcn inundation of wa-
ters ; at fea, it is perhaps thefe whirlwinds alone, that produce the
wateifpout, fo dreadful to mariners, and fo aftonifliing to the ob-
fervers of nature : this curious phxaomenon, is common in the tro-
pical fcas, and fometimes it is feen in our own ; in the fpot whence it
afcends, the water is obferved to be agitated, $ind to rife above its levef,
with a froth or mid about it ; the n.ia is then whirled about with
ama/ing rapidity, and afcends to the clouds in a column- or canal, as
thick as a man's finger, his arm, or fometimes his whole body ; when
it has reached the cloud which hangs over it, it fpreads out like the
mouth of a trumpet, and mixes with it, or perhaps, it fometimes in
this way, altogether produces the cloud of itfelf : the canal, or fpout
in its afcent, fometimes rifes perpendicularly, at others obliquely,
fometimes it is bent, fometimes it is broken, and will join together
again ; if the cloud be carried along, the canal follows it; all which
feems to ihew, that it is entirely under the influence of the whirt-
wind, and produced by it alone ; they are fometimes obferved in calm
weather, but we know not how the winds may be raging in the up^
per regions of the air : whirlwinds are quire local temptflis, and fome-
times their force is confined to a very little fpace ; thefe waterfpouts
lad for feveral minutes, the canal then lefllens by degrees till it vanifties,
and the fea about it refumes its level ; rf one of thefe falls upon s
veflel, its waters are fufficient to break down its rigging, or fink it in
the deep ; it is faid, however, that lliips of any force ufually fire
their guns at them, loaden with a bar of iron ; and if fo happy as to
ftrike them, the water is inftantly feen to fall from them, with a
dreadful noife, though without any further niifchief.

SECTION

:-difc-v„.if^'

SUBLUNARY

P. IL

SECTION VI.

Fo S S 1 L E t.

Tf leaving the water, and fetting our feet on firm ground, we cafl
our eyes around us on the landfcape, many are the wonders that pre-
Tent themfelves to view ; all living animals, the vegetable produAions
of the earth, its unequal furface.

1. Layers.] Thofe who obferve the broken banks of rivers, or
fteepy fea fhores, or carrying their fpeculations dill farther, examine
the difpoHtion of the earth, as it appears in quarrying or digging of
mines: they 6nd it generally lyin^ in horizontal layers, or ftrata of
different kinds, like the fettlings ofwaters. The firlt layer that pre-
fents itfelf, is mod commonly the bed of vegetable earth or mold,
which generally covers the furface of our globe, and ultimately is the
fupport of all its inhabitants ; for from this vegetables derive their
growth and nouriHiment ; upon thefe live the animals, and upon one
another. As this affords to animals and vegetables their fupport, fo
the fpoils of thefe, when dead or decayed, return to the dud of the
ground, from whence they were formed, and thus keep up an un-
ceafing circulation. The moil common diipofition of the layers, is^
that under the firil earth is found gravel, or iand ; then clay, or marie ;
then chalk, or coal, marbles, ores, &c. This difpofition, however,
is far from being uniformly continued all over the globe ; in different
foils, the order of thefe layers vary.

2. Fijfures.] And they are ever at fmall intervals cracked through
as it were by perpendicular fiffures ; the earth refembling, in this re-
fpefl, the muddy bottom of a pond, from whence the water has been
dried off by the lun, and thus gaping in feveral chinks, which defcend
perpendicular to its furface. Thefe fiffures, which are to be found in
almoft f^.very quarry and every field, are many times fo, nd empty, but
oftener clofed up with adventhious fubdances, that the rain, or fonie
other accidental caufes, have conveyed to fill their cavities ; there are
fome not above half an inch wide, fome a foot, fome many yards.
In fome places they form unfathomable caverns ; and among lofty
mountains, tremendous chafms. It is remarkable, in digging deep in
the earth, there h generally found an alternation of layers ; firft, the
foil or mold ; then the heavier flrata ; then foil, mold, or turf; again
the heavier layers; afterwards earth, &c. as far as human obfervation
has yet penetrated.

3. Petri/anions.] It is wonderful, that in the different parts of the
globe, on the tops of mountains, as well as in the vnllies, at very
great depths ; and even in the hearts of folid rocks, or marble, trees
are found ; and fhells, which are lefs liable to decay, are difcovered
in aflonifhing abundance ; parts of animals alfo, corals, and a variety
of petrifactions ; all which appear as the wreck of the general flood,

S. VI.

CREATION.

or the ruins of more partial or local devaftations, as earthquakes, in-
undations, tic. Thefe various bodies, from their being found by
digging in the earth, are called foflile fubdances. Fofliles appear to
form the nioft fimple produCtiors in the oeconom/ of the cre-
ation.

4. jinatyftt ofFoftlt$.] Naturalifts confider their varieties under four
general divifions ; and each affords fubdances for medicinal as well as
other purpofes.

I. Earths and ftones in general, are, ift. Mold, the fuppou of ve*
getables; id. Clays, which mixed with water, harden in the Brc into
bricks, delph, china, &c. 3d. Calcareous fubftances, as chalks,
marles, limeftones, marbles, convertible by heat into quicklime, and
eyps into alabafter. 4lh. Talcs, which are found in flat, fmooth
faminse, or plates. Of talcs, afbeftos is the mod ftexibic, and ma/
be woven with the addition of hemp or lint, into clorh capable of en-
during violent heat ; the lint is indeed coniui^'cd, Hv.i the afbedos re-
mains. Formerly dead bodies were wrai)ped i>. (his kind of cloth,
when they were thrown upon funeral piles, to prevent the afhes of
the deceafed from mixing with the common aflies. 5th. Slates alfo
fplit into laminae or plates ; thefe, with a variety of dones from the
porotis freedone, or fand, to granite, porphery, flint,, and the dill
harder, the precious dones, are of various properties, and are accord-
ingly applied to different purpofes. Some, belides their being applied
with other dones in building, are ufed as whet-dones ; fome drike
fire with deel ; others are poudied to glitter in the drefs or furniture
of the gaudy ; aud melted by dre, they form the tranfparenC
glais.

II. Salts ztCf id. Alkaline ; thefe turn the fyrup of violets of a
green colour, ad. Acid ; thefe turn the fyrup red. The acids and
alkalies effervefce with each other.

III. InflammabltSt are, id. Sulphur. 2d. Bitumens.

IV. Mttalt are, id. Malleable metals, id. Brittle femi-me-
tals.

5. ProduQion of Fojjtles.l Fofliles have been thought to grow orga-
nically, from proper feeds, like plants or vegetables ; the obfervati-
ons and experiments, however, ofchymids, feem to diew, that there
is no circulation of humours through vefTels in the mineral oeconomy;
that they owe their exidence entirely to a fit appofltion of the parti-
cles which compofe them, and to proper degrees of heat, cold, or
moidure, to carry on the fubterranean procefs, and pioduce their va-
rieties of chrydallizations, petrifactions, and mineralizations; whether
we find them difpofed in loofe independent mafTes, in horizontal
drata, in angular columns or bafaltes, or in the difportive like rami-
fications or mootings, which they fometimes afTume ; hence we find
under ground, thofe bodies that have once held a higher place in the
creation, as animals and vegetables, have put off the delicacy of their
former conditutions, and become real done, while they have dill pre-
ferved their original forms : hence fofTils are compounded with each
other, through varieties fo innumerable, that buman diligence feems
incapable of analyflng or recording them j hence many of the com-
pounds are produced in chymidry, and many more that are not to be
met with in the earth ; hence fome of thefe fubftances are didufed

through

,;^ . v jM&'

#•

-. J

SUBLUNARY.

P. 11.

through the whole creation ; animals and plants, the air and waters,
are all found to contain, or be compofcd of earths, falts, inflaiDuia-
bles, &c.

SECTION VII.

nil

■.V

■1

>
i

IK '<

Plants.

1. ConJIitution.] Plants feem under a much nicer order and more
dclicats oeconomy ; ihcfe as well as animals, are found to be orga-
nized bodies* like them they droop under inclemencies anddifordeis ;
and like them, they look well when in health, and well fed ; like
ihem, they are tender and feeble in the beginning, and they gradual-
ly arife into vigour and beauty ; like them, are liable to a variety of
diforderj j need ^he knife, the plailter, and the proper kind of nourilii-
merit; anu likj them, in age, they totter and fall to their original

2. Proiiuiu..n.'\ Some have flrained the fimihtude fo far, as to fay,
that plants aie of different fexes; that they confummate their nup-
tials with each other : and in fupport of the fexual fyftem which they
feem to have ftrangely imagined, they appear to have tortured th^
beautiful fymetry of flowers, into a thoufand abfurd and indelicate ex-
travagancies. It is beyond the prefent defign, to enumerate the ar-
guments that have been advanced for and againft fuch a fyftem ; a
I'yftem which fo generally obtains in the univerfities throughout Eu-
rope. It is perhaps worthy of remark, howevei , that thofe plants
whi:h they have denominated male and female, are found feparately
♦o grow and flourifh in beds that are diftant miic:s from each other:
and while fome of thefe can fuppofe the winds (ufficiently fteady and
exafl, to juft W3,t the feeds from this bed, and exaftly depofit them
with minute nicety in the cups of the flowers in the diftant one ; or
calling in the aflirtance of flies, can imagine that the feeds ftick to their
little legs, while they tafte the fweets of thefe flowers, and drop oflf
when they renew their repaft at the other, after fuch a fuppofed te-
dious flight; or falling by the way, pre'.:, with other plants, a let
of vegetaible mules, hybrids, or nionfters j for fuch pvoduftions they
conceit they have difcovered. While they thus imagine, refpefting
the propagation of vegetables; we may perhaps with ethers more
comfortably conclude, that however it be carried on, thefe necefla-
ries to animal fupport, are tt^td, on laws more eftabliflied and regu-
lar, than any thing we can difcover in the flufluation of the winds, or
in the wayward and difportive rovings of flies; befides, thefe ever
bufy creatures, drefling or rubbing up their little bodies, wings and
limbs, are perhaps unwilling to carry any burthen, but what they in-
tend for their own little purpofes.

3. Gro'utth.'] The vegetation and oeconomy of plants, is a fubjeft
which has engaged much of the attention c^*" aaturalifts ; and a vievy
of the order and beauty which they difcover, did no other advantage

accrue

n. VII.

CREATION.

«5

accrue from their refearchcs, might feem an ample reward for their
labours.

The feeds of plants are of various figures and files. Moft of them
\re divided into two lobf.s, though fome have more ; and others ap-
pear undivided and iriiirej but their eflential properties, wrhen conu-
dered with regard to the principles of vegetation, are all the
lame,

The great garden bean is a feed whofe parts are remarkably con-
fpicuous:* it is covered with two coats or membranes; within thef*,
the body of the feed, divided into two portions or lobes, is externally
fmooth, from its being covered with a thin film or cuticle; its fub-
ftance is not a mere concreted juice, but is curioufly organized, ard
confifts of a vaft number of fmall bladders, filled with parenchy.na, or
pulp; arid in the heart of this lies the embryo plant. A* the thick
end of the bean, there is a fmall hole vifible to the ncifcd eye, im--
mediately over the radicle, or future root, that it may nave a free
paffage into the foil. ift. The plume, bud, or germ, and the radicle,
are in colour and confidence suuch alike, or, in other w'^rri'> tV;c»y
are the different extremities of the lame body ; till time unfolding
their parts, the radicle dekends down, and takes root in the earth,, the
l>'id arifes into all the beautiful variety of ftem, branches, leaves,
flowers, fruit, &c. ad. Within the radicle, there is coniai4ied a fub-
ftance called the feminal root, v.'hich divides into three branches ; the
middle one runs diretlly up to tlie plume, the other two pafs into the
lobes, on each fide, and fend forth fmaller branches through the body,
till their ramifications become quite minute on the furface of the lobes.
When the feed is fown, and the moillure of the earth, abforbed by the
outer coats, finds its way into the pulp or inaer part of the lobes ;

* PI. III. Fig, !i. A. The/onsnen or hole in the besn through which the ra-
dicle fhoots into the fell.

It. A tranfverfe ie£tion of the bean : the dots being the branches of the fcmina!
root,

13. A. The Radicle. B. The plume or bud.

14. Longitudinal feftion of one of the lobe* of the bfan, fliowing the fmsll
bladders of which the pulpy ur parenchymatous panis compofed.

15. x6. A, A tranfverfe feft ion ot the rddicle. B, A tranfverfe i*e£lion of the
plunne, /hewing the organs or vefTets of the feminal root.

17. Seminal root branched out upon the lobes. |S. Appearance of the radicle,
plume and luminal root when a little further advanced in growth.

19. A fmaU part of the tianfrerfe fettion of the pulpy part of a pear tnagnifieo,
ihewing A the acetary or inner parenchyma whfch joins to the core. B, The outer
parenchyma, formed of globules or grains, lignous iibres and raiiated vefTelt.
C, Ring of lap, veiTeU and ftin.

ao. A tranfverfe lediion of the root of wormwood, as it appears to the naked eye.

21, Set^ion of 20 magnified. A A The (kin with its veflTels. B B The bark;
the round holes. C C C, Are the lymph du£lt of the bark *. all the other holes are
little cells and fap veiTels. D D D ParenchTmatous infertions from the bark, with
the celts Sec. £ E £, Ther^vs of^wood, in which the holes are the air veffels.-.— .*
N. B. This root has no pith.

12. A tranfverfe fc£lion of a b,-anch of aOi, as it appears to the eye.

23, Sefiion of zi magnified^ A A, the bark. B B, Arched rings of fap velTeli .
C C, The parenchyma of the bark with its cells, D H, A circubr line of l-ymph.
dufti, E E, The wMd. F, Firft year's growth. G, Second. H, Third yeai's
growth. Ill, The true wood.K L, Air veflels. M M M, The parenchymatous
iniertione of the baik reprefented bj the white ray6. K O, The pith with its blad-
der* or cells.

r the

SUBLUNARY

P. 11.

the minute branches of the feminal root take up the moiilure, and
convey it into the main trunk, the Tap thus fupplied runs in two oppo-
fjte directions ; pan of it afcends into the plume, and promotes the
growth und expanfion of that organ ; and piirt of it defcends into the
radicle for nouiilTiing it, and evolving its varioir, filarrients j when
the radicle begins to take root in the earth, 'and to abforb fome moif-
ture, not however, in a fufficient quantity to fuppiy the exigencies of
the plume, the two lobes life along with the plume, aflume the ap-
pearance of two leaves, defend the young plume Horn the injuries of
the weather, and at the fame lime, by abforbing dew, air, &c. aflifl:
the tender radicle in nourilhini; the plume, with which they ftill have
a conne0.ion, by means of the feminal root above defcribed. But
when the radicle or fecond root has defcended deep enough into the
earth, and abforbs o( itftlf fufficitnt nourifhment for the plume ; thefe
feminal leaves, whi.h differ in fliape from the other, begin to decay
and fall off. And in this way is every p'ant growing from feed, pof-
I'efTed at fiid of two roots, bo'h of which are contained in the feed,
undergo ilie changes, and anfwer the purpofes already mentioned.
Plants, beHde their growing from feeds, are raifed ; fome from any part
of the root.fet in the gr.ouid ; others by new roots that are propagated
from the old ones, as in tulips ; others by oftsets ; in others the
branches fet in the ground, will take root and grov/ ; and lafl: of all,
grafting and inoculaiion., in certain forts, are knov/'i ways of propa-
gation.

4. Botatiij}.] Volutuin iils are the works which have been wrote in
different ages and couniri<;s, on thefcience of botany ; and the claffes
and orders, the genera and fpecies to which they have reduced the
variety of plants, Icem numerous and perplexing. However, ourbo-
tanifl in his chair, having flowers prefented him brought from America

or Jap\n -when we confidcr, that by the help of his fyflematic

divifions, he can inibnn the poor mariner (whofe allowance may b *
fometime fliort, or who may be caft on a defart ifl.md, or uninhah' x
coaft) that the plant which bears this flower, its feed will make h-
good bread, or that its leaves or its fruits he may freely make ufe of
as whol ;fomc ; on the other hand, that the plant on which that flower
makes! sappearance, its berries, however inviting they feem, he muft
be iure to avoid, as they are certainly poifonous ; when we confider
that he can diredl us, during a fcarcity of corn, to plants growing
wild in the field, that afford good nourifnment, an(^ are highly grate-
ful, which through ignorance we Hiould otherwife trample under our
feet : It muft appear that his refeaiches arc not fruitlefs and vain. It
niuft ferve the prefent purpofe, however, which is only inteaded as
a general view of things, to confider plants under three large general
divifions.

Plants may be divided into herbs, fliiubs and trees: herbs are thofe
plants whofe ftaiks are fofi, as grafs, fow-thiftle, or hemlock ; flirubs
and trees aie of a firmer texture ; the difiFerence between thefe latter
is, that fluubs grow not to the height of trees, and ufually fpread
into branches near the furface of the earth ; whereas trees generally
flioot out in one great (teni or body, and then, at a good diftance
from the earth, fpread into branches ; thus, goofb^rries and currants
^re /hrubs, oaks and cherries are trees.
■ ' , ' 5 Suhjiances

p. 11.

lire, and
fo oppo-
lotes the

into the
I ; when
me nioif-
;encies of

the ap-
ijuries ot
&c. aOift
ftill have
:d. But

into the
\e i ihefe
to decay
'eed, pof-

ihe feed,
lentioned.
n any part
ropagated
)thers ihe
aft of all,
of proj^a-

1 wrote in
the claffes
duced the
r, ourbo-
Arnerica
Vftematic
may V '
ninhah' .x
make h'.
ce ufe of
lat flower
he niufl:
confider
growing
\\y grate-
under our
vain. It
tended as
e general

are thofe

flirubs

lefe latter

\y fpread

[generally

diftance

currants

lubjiances

S. Vfll.

CREATION.

$. Suhjiance of Plants.] Whatever part of a plant we examine, we
ftiall find its whole fubftance to be a congeries of tubes, vefTels and
fibres, with their contained pulp or fluids ; the root, the trunk or ftalk,
the branches, and even the leaves, flowers and fruits, all anfwer this
defcription. The roots, trunks and branches of trees, each generally
comprehend three difFerent-^arts, the pith or core at the centre., next
to this the wood, and furrounding thefe the bark ; the bark is alfo
covered with a flcin; the pith and the bark are funiljir fubfiances,
the parenchyma or pulp of thefe, Ucms to be compofed of fmall cells
or bladders, and through the woody part of the plant, efpccially in
the root, the bark is in ferted like rays towards the center; through
the root the trunk and branches there run feveral tubes, through fume
of thefe the fap rifes, fome contain air, and fome afford guins, ballanis
or refins. The true wood is a congeries of liiefe tubes diled. Be-
tween the bark and the wood, a new ring of thefe dudts is formed
every year, which gradually lofes its foftnefs as thv= cold feafon ap-
proaches, and, towards the middle of winter, iscondenfed into a folid
ring of wood. Thefe annual rings, which arediftindly Viilble in mofl:
trees when cut through, ferve as natural marks to diilinguilTi their
age. The rings of one year are fometimes larger, fometimes lefs
than thofe of another, probably owing to the favouiablenefs or un-
favourabienefs of the feafon. The leaves, flowers and fruit of trees,
are organized like the trunks, and compofed of the fame fubdance,
difl*erently modiried or farther refined. Philofophers are greatly divided
about what they call the circulation of the fap. Some have thought,
that it returns to the root betwixt the bark and wood, and others that
the fupeifluous parts of the fap are carried of by tranfpiration. Eve-
ry part of a plant tranfpires ; but the greateft quantity goes off by the
J eaves.

S E C T I O N viir.

Animals.

I . Comparifon hetivcer animals and plants. ] We are i50w come to con-
fiJer the laft, the nobleft and the moll beautiful part of the creation :
the creatures for whom this eaith feems to hiive been entirely foimed,
and forwhofe repaft or ufe, the whole of its uninttHigent productions
appear to have been brought forth : thefe are the animated tenants of
our globe. All animals appear to be endowed with a degree of un-
derftanding or perception, and choice or will. This more than their
formation appears to diftinguifli them from the inllnfible vegetables
whereon they feed. Though there appears at firll view, this mod
evident diftinQion between an anima! and a plant ; yet fon^e of
thefe very different kinds of creatures, aflume an appearance fo ex-
;;(5lly like each other, that philofophers in confidering thjm, feeni
at a lofs to determine, where animal life begins, or vegetative ends.
Thcfenfuive plant flirinks at the touch ; but this perhaps mrchanical-
]y proceedr from the intcrtuption of the fluids in its tender vefl"els;

F 2 Som-i

Hltt

SUBLUNARY

P. II.

Some plants feem pofleft of voluntary motion, prefenting their flow-
ers to the rays of the light, and purfulng the fun from eaft to weft,
rejoicing in his beams ; but this is alfo mechanically accounted for.
it is well known, that a certain degree of heat relaxes the tone of the
vegetable organs, and at the fame time proportionably evaporates the
fluids which thefe organs contain. Now, to whatever fide of the
plant the heat is principally applied, there of neceflity muft alfo be
the greateft flaccidity of the fibres, and the greatefl: evaporation of the
fluids ; of courfe, from the law of gravitation, the flower, indeed the
whole plant, muft incline to that fide from whence the light or heat
proceeds. Vegetables alfo are fixed to one fpot, and muflrwait for ac-
cidental funplies of nourillinient. Their roots are fitted to abforb every
fluid that comes within their reach : they have been found by experiment
to imbibe fluids that aftually poifon them. The cafe appears to be very
diflPerent with animals : they have a choice in their food, and if one place
does not fupply it, they feek it in another, and take what is beft fuited to
their conftitutions ; they feek prefer vat ion from fuperior force and vio-
lence in flight, art or mutual combination : even the lowed tribes of
animals, which from their fimple formation have been called zoophytes,
a name implying a vegetable fubilance, endowed with animal life j
thefe are found to ikulk or fly on the appearance of even difliant dan-
ger : thus the polypus contracts its horns, and the ftar fifli its arms ;
the earth worm contra6ls itfelf and hides in the earth when difl:urbed :
fhell fifties and infers alfo of the moft inert kind, arc furniftied with
means of defence which they avail themfelves of with diligence : in-
fers make their way into pimts and other bodies, and there lie fe-
cure ; the Pholades fifties, merely by working with their tongues, dig
themfelves apartments in folid rocks, and even the dull oifter can opei>
or clofe up its ftiells.

2. ConjHtuiion.] It is a received opinion among naturalifts, that
an animal body is a tonipages or complicate fyflem of veflels (per-
haps we may add, with their contained circulating fluids) * varioufly
difpofed, to form parts of different figures for different ufes. The
ancients fuppofed that the heart and brain were firft formed, and that
the other parts proceeded from them ; the moderns, by help of
glafles, have difcovcred the figure of the animal at a very early pe-
lied of its exiftence ; and fome have thought, that all the parts exift
in miniature, from the fiift formation of the foetus ; but the won-
derful operations in tlie natural world, when attempted to be traced
to their fourcc, become fo extremely delicate and minute, as to
«fcape the niceft obfervations of man, afl[ifted with the moft ingenious
contrivances of art.

3., ProcludionJ] Animals, with regard to their manner of gene-
ration, are divided into oviparous, bringing fort'i eggs; and vivipai-
ous, bring forth their young alive ; the oviparous are extremely pro-
lific ; the fpawn of fifties, the eggs of birds, of ferpents, and of in
fe£ts arc almoft innumerable f thofe of the infeft tribes appear to b'
every where fcattered abroad, and by the heat of the fun, of putrify-

ing

* If It be fald on the or.c hand, that many of the fluids are excrementltioui, and
form no pert of the animal } may it not be alledged on the contrary, that others are
abfolutely neceflary to iti exiftence, and from fomc it derives its immediate anima-
tion >|id motiout

S. VIII.

CREATION.

ing bodies ; and by various other caufes, to break forth into animation
in places fo unexpefted, that fome will needs have recourfe to a fup-
pofed new creation, to account for their fudden appearance. Thefe
minute animals, make their appearance as reptiles, or as fmall hilies,
and move about for a time ; they are fliut up in a narrow cell, clofe-
ly furrounding their bodies, and under the names of aurelia, &c. feem
tombed for a feafon ; they burft their narrow manfions, take wing,
and are for ever bufy during the very ftiort peiiod of their enlarged
exiftence. The embryo of the viviparous kind, naturalilts tell us,
is aifo an egg impregnated like the other ; it appears, however, to be
of a more delicate conflitution, and only capable of being matured in
the boidy of the animal.

4. Nutriments.] The human body is accounted the moil exqui-
Hte in its formation, aud the nearer the other animals approach to this,
the higher degree of fagacity they feem generally endowed with.

Anatomifts tell us, that the food which we take, being chewed and
mixed with the falivi, and thereby rendered fit for digettion, defcends
into the ftomach; where being ftill further thinned by the juices
there, and undergoing a gentle warmth and attrition, it is di-
gefted and thrown into the guts, by the periftaltic or wormlike mo-
tion, of which, and the comprelfion of furrounding mufcles it is car-
ried along : being now mixed with bile from the gall-bladder and
liver, and the juice of the pancreas or fweat bread, the grols parts
are protruded through the bowels -, the nutriiive, or thin and milky
chyle, is abforbed by the lafteals (fmall lubes Ipread on the guts)
through which it paflcs to the receptacuium chyli, and thence throui^h
the thoracic du£t, and left fubclavian vein, mixing with thd blood, ^l
enters the heart.

5. Circulation.] And now, having got to this living and powerful
fpring of aftion, which waits not to be renewed by the application oi
winches, or the winding up of wheels ; but whether we fleep or arc
awake, by night and by day, like an unwearied and faithful labourer,
with mufcular exertions, continually diihibutes the vital dream
through our complicated frame, till their varied funftions ceafe, and
the tenement of clay is inhabited no more. Having got to the heart
in furveying the animal oeconomy, we might hence take our depar-
ture, and following the blood in its circulation through the body, we
might explore the inmoft recelTes of this wonderful piece of mccha-
nifm ; we might fee it, when all was in health and in vigour, every
part ready to fpring into adron, or all at cafe ; we might obferve the
thoufand changes it is incident to; enervated by labour, or enfeebled
by age ; racked by pain, and difordered by every kind of excefs ; we
might obferve it agitated by the paflions, oppreficid with grief, muA
finding relief in a figh or in tears i invigorated with hope ; convuik-d
with laughter, tremulous with joy, with fear or with anger, and
with the excefs of any of thefe, brought to its end. We might mix
with the features, fee them growing into expreflion, obferve palenefs
or a blufb betraying the fecrei emotions of the foul ; the eye and the
ear we might minutely examine ; fee how they convey information to
the mind, amufe it with various objeds of beauty, or captivate it with
the bewitching melody of founds j we might notice the diforder in
its motl e^cquifuc parts, when from intenle application, and various

other

-• ■/

SUBLUNARY

P. IL

other inexplicable caufes, reafon goes aftray, and the patient h
infane; but man is beyond the comprehenfion of himfelf : the philo-
fopher may enquire, and the phyfician draw his conclufion; their
theories may be fpecious and oftentimes juft, but it feems they muft
be ihort ; and the more they enter into this extenfive field of enquiry,
thf; more they will ever fee before them for examination and for con-
jecture.

The heart, as defcribed by anatomifts, is a mufcle of conic figure,
furnifhed with its cavities, valves and tubes, as an hydroftatic ma-
chine } we may conceive fome idea of its motions, by obferving the
mechfinifm and effefls of a pump, or a common pair of bellows ;
from the veins the blood enters the cavities or ventricles of the heart,
through openings called auricles ; the ventricles contrafting, the blood
is thrown through the arteries all over the body. And this circulation
may be defined to be a perpetual motion of the blood, in confequence of
the aftion of the heart and aite/ies, which impel it through all parts of
the body, from whence it is brought back by the veins. The arteries, at
tlieir firft branching out from the heart, are large hollow tubes called.
aortcC ; the veins, at their entering the heart, are alfo large hollow
tubes called venae cavz. From the minute branches or extremities of
the arteries clillributed through the body, arife the veins, and the
tranfoarent lymphatics ; the veins to receive the blood and return it
to th? heart ; the lymphatics to carry off the lymph or thinner part of
the blood, to keep it in a right temper for (lowing through the veins
and to diftribute the lymph to the chyle in its paflage to the heart, for
the purpofe of diluting and preparing it to incorporate with the blood.

Although the chyle keep perpetually flowing into the blood, yet no
redundance enfues, as the different glands are continually fecreting the
other fluids of the body from the general mafs, as, the faliva, bile,&c. Of
thefe the fweat is not the fmalleft difcharge we experience; the efiiuvia
continually thrown off by the refpiration of the lungs, we are told, far
exceeds it, butisinfaft, the fame evacuation through different chan-
nels: hence, thofe who perfpire the moft in fummer, their pores being
clofed by cold in the winter, the difcharge is thrown upon the lungs,
and they become peculiarly liable to afthmatic complaints, efpecially
if the afniolphere be already too humid to receive the difcharge.
Some anatomifts Teem unwilling toaffume a perfeft knowledge of the
ufe of the air infpired by the lungs ; it is known to be inftrumental in
fpeech, and to convey huells. When the left ventricle has thrcvvn
the blood to the remote parts of the body, and it has found the way
back again to the right auricle of the heart ; the right ventricle re-
ceives it, and throws it through the puhnonary artery, reeking into
the lungs ; here the air fecms as a vehicle to carry off the noxious
fleam ; and from the phlogifton or principle of fire it may be fraught
with, it perhaps refreihes and helps to renew the vivifying quality ct
the crimfon ftream ; before, returning by the pulmonary vems through
the left auricle of the heart, the left ventricle fends it on the fame
kindly errand it has already run through the body.

6. Will, Brainy Nernjss.\ Hitherto we have confidcred the ani-
mal fui'ftions, as they feem paffively carried on, and it is thought that
vegetation is produced in fimilar ways or operations; it is found, the
plant has its circulating fluids, and cannot live without air. But

animals

p. IL

S. VIII.

CREATION.

ungs,
•ecially
barge.
of the
ntal in
ircwn
way
e re-
into
■oxious
aught
ity ot
ough
fame

ani-

that

, the

But

imals

animals have alfo voluntary motion, and among thefe man i$ moft emi-
nently dlftinguiflied : in furveying him in this point of viev/, new
wonders arife, and ftill more incomprehenfibie ; we may have a remote
idea of the circulation of the fluids in a uniform way j we may ob-
ferve thp fwelling of the tide, the courfes of the heavenly bodies, the
growing of plants, the motion of the winds, and other inanimate bo-
dies ; we may fay it is all natural, and conceit we comprehend it ;
and indeed, even here the philofopher may lay afide his enquiries,
and iliare with us our wlfdom, without much degrading himfelf. But
when we come to contemplate voluntary action, the fage and the child
feem at once on a level ; alike unable to comprehend the powers they
enjoy, and alike capable of employing them to their likings; the child
may found his rattle, and rejoice in its noife ; the philolopher try his
experiments, and build up his tlieory with equal delight, and each
prefently tire of his toy : they fit down to their vi^Sluals, this one
knows he has to bend his arm, grafp his fpoon, and open his mouth ;
the other may fpeculate on the necelfary contruiiiones flexoruvi eii'
gitorum, et culiti, l^c. he piay have an idea of the complicate difpo-
fition of the mufctes about the jaw (with their long hard names) for
receiving the morfel; he may think of the nervous fluid or animal
fpirits, being neceflary for producing thefe adlions, and he will be as
near comprehending the matter, as his little fellow partaker of the
banquet ; however, our difordered frame may often derive relief from
his knife, and eafe from his prefcription, and, fociety will do well to
encourage his ufeful labours, and to reftiain the hardy and unthinking
empiric, who, without knowing any thing of the frame, attempts to
repair it, who brings fcandal on the profelfion. and loads with irrepa-
rable infirmity, the viftim to credulity.

Anatomifts, in defcribing the body as an animated machine, inform
us, that from the brain, whkh they imagine to be the feat of the un-
derftanding, aiife certain branches, which they fuppofe to be fafciculi,
or bundles of extremely fine tubes, fo minute indeed, that their cavi-
ties cannot be difcovered ; thefe they call nerves j they tell us, that
they are the inftrumentsof fenfalion, and diftributcd throughout the
whole frame, that whatever we feel is only experienced by thefe con-
veying the fenfations to the brain ; but, how this is done, is matter of
difpute : fome fuppofe, that however objedts affedl us, whether they
come in contaft with the hand or any other part of the body, whe-
ther their rays fall upon the retina of the eye, which is an expanfion
of the optic nerves, or their cfBuvia enter the nofe, and ftrike on the
olfadory ones, whether founds be in the ear or taftes in the mouth,
the nerves receive the intprefllon and vibrate it to the br?in. Others
objeft that they are flack, moill, and furrounded with fcft parts, and
are therefore unfit for vibrations j according to their conjeftures, the
brain is a gland fecreting from the blood an invifibly fine fluid, called
the animal fpirits or nervous fluid ; this flows continually through the
nerves, and is tranfmitted into all the parts of the frame. To all thefe
procefles in our nice elaboratory, the infant owes Irs growth, and the
man of years his continuance ; were our hands of fteel, or our bones
of adamant, they would fooii be worn out, but fitted to receive the
nutrimental fluids, they mock the violence of labour, and only gather
ftrcngth from the duties impofed on them ; by thcfc the fingers are
■ ^ guarded

y.' /•

SUBLUNARY

P. ir.

guarded with nails, and by thefe the jaws are furni/lied with teeth.
The fluid which flows with an equable motion through the nerves, is
affeded in its motions by every objefl that (trikes upon thefe ; and, as
to ftop the end of a tube, is to (lop the motion of the whole contain-
ed fluid, fo the extremity of the nerve being afl^efled, the animal fpi-
i\\% flop at once, and faithfully give to the brain or fenforium, the va-
ried imprcflions of pieafure and pain. It is when the mind willeth,
that thefe animal fpirits rufhing into the mufcles, ccntrafl them, and
thus put the body into a£tion : but here the man of fcience muft hold,
and here his conjeftures feem to have an end.

7. Definitions, Otferv/itions.] The bones fuftain the other parts
of the body, they ferve as levers foi the mufcles to a£t upon,
and defend thofe parts from external injuries, that are of the greateft
confequence to be prelerved, as the brain, fpinal marrow, heart, &c.
Every cylindrical bone contains a marrow, for the purpofe of foften-
ingit and rendering it lefs brittle ; in young tender bones, the marrow
is bloody, left being too oily, it ftiould foften them loo much; by
their being hollow they are light, yet their diameters being kept large,
they are lefs liable to be broke; which mechanifm being yet more con-
venient for birds, the bones of their wings, and for the fame reafon
their quills have very large cavities; while the legs of other animals,
and particularly of man, nave their bones more fofid for fupporting of
weight. Some infefts and fiflies have fhells inftead of bones, which
ferve them alfo for defence, their mufcles being inferted into thefe at
a diftance from the center of motion of each joint ; their motions arc
flow, ftrong and fimple : therefore, in this fort of animal, quicknefs
of motion, where it is wanted, is procured by a number of joints, as
may be leen in the legs of a flea; and variety of motion, by joints
with different directions, as may be obferved in a lobfter.

Mufcles are diftinft portions of flefli, which by contracting, per-
form the motions of the body. Tendons are the fame fibres, more
dofely connected that they may poflefs lefs fpace in a limb, and be in-
ferted in lefs room into a bone. We may confider the fibres of the
mufcles comparatively loofe, as flax on a fpinning-wheel, and the
tendons fmall but ftrong like the thread taking the fpindle.

Ligaments are ftrong tendons to bind down the mufcles, or hold
together fuch bones as have motion.

Cartilages cover the ends of the moving bones, to prevent their
attrition.

Membranes, bedewed with innumerable minute unCtuous rills, cover
or line almoft all the component parts of the body ; even our true
fkin or cutis, is a compaCl, ftrong and fenfible membrane, having
nerves terminating fo plentifully in all its fuperficies, for the fenfe of
touching, liiat the fineft inftrument can prick no where v/ithout touch-
ing fome of them ; and the outer flcin, or cuticula, is alfo a thin but
infenfible membrane; between thefe flcins is a fmall quantity of
flimy matter or mucus, it is moft confiderable where the cuticle is
thickeft, and is black, white or dufl?y, fuch as is the complexion ; the
colour of this, and the cuticle or fcarf flcin, being the only diff^ercnce
between Europeans and Africans, or Indians ; the fibres of the true
Ikin being alike in all men. If artificial machines by cafual fupplies
ci oil be made to run glib; the animal frame in this rtfpeCl feems to

,,. « have

. ./*- "

.jMStti-^fii

p. ir.

s. Vlll.

CREATION.

cover
ur true
having
"enfe of
touch-
hin but
tity of
tide is
1 ; the
erence
true
pplies
?ms to

have

have peculiar advantages, the joints are tipped with cartillage, and
furniflied with a mucilaginous matter, called fmovia, their motions
are fo fine we feem not to have the leaft feeling of their movements,
and the whole machine feems to be amply fupplied with lubricating
fluids. It is remarkable, that though our joints are fo free from
fridion, yet whether we fit or ftand, or in whatever pofition we be,
the body feems fixed and firm, without effort ; it feems the bones are
ftayed by the mufcles, as the yards in a fhip are kept fteady by the
braces j if in this the (larboard braces be let go, the larboard ones
prevail ; if in the body a mufde becomes paralytic, its antagonid one
contracts and diftorts the part. It feems the general idea, that all our
motions are performed by contractions of the mufcles, that thefe are
produced by an influx of fluids into their parts, and, refpefting how
this brings about the effect, various have been the opinions ; perhaps,
if we can content ourfelvcs to derive information from an homely ex-
ample, in the inftanceof a cord fixed at the ends, growing tight when
wet with rain, and hanging loofe in dry weather ; we may fee the
manner of animal exertions j perhaps the parts of the mufcle are more
clofely attracted to each other by the influx of the fluid, and this may
bring about the necefTary coniraftion.

To tell how the mind fetsthe animal fpiritsin motion, for the pur-
pofes of adtion, or defcribe how thefe return information to the mind,
feems infinitely removed beyond the comprchenfion of the mod fagad-
ous naturalift ; and alike eludes the enquiries of the unlearned, and the
fublil refearches of the man of flcill.

8. Comparifon of Brutes with Man] Of all the tribes of fublunary
creation, quadrupeds feem to make the nearell approaches to man, in
their ftruCtuie and in their fagacities. Of thefe, fome of the monkey
kind bear fo near a hkenefs to him in their fabrick, that anatomifts
have difcovered very little difference in their internal conformation.
Of the ouran outang, difTedled and thus compared with man, it has
been faid efpecially, the tongue, and all the organs of the voice were
the fame, yet the animal was dumb ; the brain was formed in the fame
manner with that of man, yet the creature wanted reafon j an evident
proof, that no difpofition of matter will give mind ; and that the body
how nicely foever formed, is formed in vain, when there is not in-
fufed a foul to dire6t its operations. Thefe imitative animals, from
copying the manners of man, and being fo like him in their figure,
have in his eyes a wonderful air of fagacity, which feems to give
them a pre-eminence over the other parts of the brute creation j but
they are perhaps equalled, or even exceeded in invention, docility,
and attachment, by animals that feem of a far lefs perfedt figure. If
monkeys, in making their depredations on the corn, or the orchards
of the hufbandman, plant centinels to give the alarm in cafe of dan-
ger, this policy is obferved generally by the other gregarious quadru-
peds, in a ftate of nature, and even by the birds, who might many
of them teach the ape a le{R)n of art, in the nice conftruftion of their
nefts ; and if he do attempt, as fome fay, a fort of hut, the aukward
looking beaver feems to very much exceed him. Indeed the natives
of thole countries where this little animal exerts its ingenuity, from
their leading n roving life, feem fcarcely to have leifure to difplay on
their wigwams, an archite^ure equal to that which the beavers be-
llow

^i.:

SUBLUNARY

P. ir.

(low on their huts. The aflbciating together for repelling a powerful
invader, is alfo common to the other gregarious animals as well as to
apes ; even the flieep, in a ftate of nature, unite together for the
common defence, the ewes falling inio the center, the rams taking the
port of danger, bravely defending them by help of their horns. Both
the hind and fore limbs of animals of the monkey kind, are furniflied
with a fort of hands, peculiarly adapted for the purpofes of climbing,
though in this exercife they are often feen upright in their woods, we
are told, they naturally run there upon all tours, and hence their
palms and foals are equally beaten and callous ; that when they are
taken, their hands are tied behind them, to teach them to walk up-
right ; that they learn this attitude after fome time ; and thus inftruft-
ed, they are fent into Europe to aftonifli the fpeculative with their
near approaches to humanity, while it is never confidered, how much
is natural, and how much has been acquired in the favage fchools of
Benin and Angola.

This animal, fo expert in imitation, feems exceeded in wifdom by
the unwieldy elephant ; and muft in attachment and pcrfonal courage,
yield, with all other brutes, to the dog, that faithful and conftant
companion of man, which rejoices in finding out and obeying the wilt
of its mailer. *

SECTION IX.

Classes of Animals.

I. Analyfesy Ol'/ervations, ^c] The innumerable and various tribes
of living creatures which inhabit our globe are : aerial, the birds of
the air; terreftrial, man and the beads of the field; aquatic, fiflies ;
and amphibious, thofe animals which live both on land and in the
water, as ferpents, frogs and lizards, tortoifes, &c. Infe£^s and
worms may be confidered as an inferior foit of beings, creatures to
be found in every habitable part of the creation ; and fome of them
in their changes, belong fucceflively to the waters, the earth, and
the air. Myriads of minute creatures of this defcription, invifible to
us, are found to inhabit places we might fuppofe deftitute of life;
where putrefaction prevails, thefe creatures have their refidence ;
they fwarm in the air and a variety of fluiils : they inhabit the green
leaf, the bodies of living animals, and indeed almort every other fub-
ftance that is not of adamantine hardnefs or poifonous quality. We
hardly account their jodicsas the flefh of beafts, of fiflies, or of birds;
they are without bones and blood ; and have only a white ferous
fluid circulating through theni in place of blood.

From our being accUilomed from our childhood to behold living

creatures moving in the waters, we get reconciled to the fight, and

hardly wonder how they exift without fufFocation. Were we to judge

of animal life, however, merely from the feelings we have of our

' own

3. IX.

CREATION.

own exidence, we iTiould foolidily pity them as opprefled by the
dcnfe fluid wherein they rcfide, and ignorantly account their fituation
unnatural ; a flight knowledge of anatomy, however, fhews us, that
the reverfe is the cafe,

. We have already fecn the circulation of the blood in the human
frame, how the left veniiicle of the heart throws it through the arte-
ries, to the remote parts of the body ; how the veins take it up and
return it to the right ventricle ; how this throws the crimfon ftreani
reeking to the lungs, there to be fanned by the infpired air, before it
be again returned to the left ventricle. The hearts of other animal*
that live in the air, and that have red blood in their bodies, as beads
and birds, are alfo formed with two ventricles, and their blood is in
like manner hot. The heart of fifhes and amphibia has but one ven-
tricle, and their blood is cold ; it therefore does not feem to need to
be cooled by the air, and it only runs what anatomifts call the rtiort
circulation. Thus we fee in the very different elements, the air and
waters, how their inhabitants are naturally fitted for their refpeflive
habitations.

Naturalifts, in conteniplating and defcribing the innumerable tribes
of aniiuji!'. have grouped them together in a variety of ways ; they
have clafltd them according to their places of habitation' and ways of
life, their outward forms and internal ftru£lure, their teeth or bills,
their legs, wings or fins, their manner of moving, &c. &c. but what-
ever divifions they may have made in the imment'e variety, and how-
ever obvious their dillinftions may at firfl feem to be, the gradations
between animals of the moft oppofite kinds, aie fo minute and imper-
ceptible, that in attempting to draw the animated pifture, many crea-
tures prefent themfelvesof fo equivocal a kind, it feems hard to deter-
mine, whether they are infedts, birds or quadrupeds, fiflies cr beafls : •
thus fome of the fmaller tribes of fifhes, as well as beafts, ife from
their humble flations, take wing and flutter through the air, as the
flying fifh and bat j while fome fiflies appear but like infefts or worms,
as fliell-fiflies and polypi ; thofe of the cetaceous kind, from the whale
to the porpoife, have, like quadrupeds, cylindric bones, with marrow
in them ; like them, bring forth filive, and fuckle their young ; have
their hearts fimilarly formed ; muft frequently come to the top of the
water to breathe, and would adually drown if kept long enough un-
<Ier water. Hence feme account ihefe animals rather beafls than
liilies ; and indeed the gradations between beafls and thefe kinds
of animals, are fo minute and indifl:inft, that naturalifts are at
a lofs where to draw the line bptwixt them ; thus in defcending from
the beafls of the field to the inhabitants of the waters, they are fiifl
wcb-footed as the otter; they are partly covered with fcales as the
beaver; their Ijmbs are enclofed in their bodies, the extreniities only
appern.'g in fliapc like fins, as the feal or the morfe; they live upon
fhore as well as in the water, and in fine they are without lore ieet
as tht nianaii, or are only furniflied with fins as the whale, and never
come ai'»or(. . To account for the continuance of thefe animals under
water, feems attended with more difficulty than that of the true am-
phibia ; fome have fuppofed, that during the time they ren)ain under
water, the blood accumulates in the arteries, Vhich dilate to re-
ceive it i and that by this means the circulation for a while keeps go-
ing

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SUBLUNARY

P. II.

iog on. There is another vfzj of accounting for h, which in nuiny
cafes appears to be evidently the caufe ; between rhe ventricles cl the
heart there is originally an aperture, called the foramen ovale,
through v^hich the blood is found to make the Aiort circulation, while
the animal as yet continues in the womb ; on the- birth of the animal,
when it begins to breath, the fsramen clofes up, and the blood is
thrown to the lungs, as already defcribed. In fome, however, as
feals, the foramen is found open, and thus they are fitted for remain-
ing long under water, by the blood circulating immediately through
the heart, without being thrown to the lungs. Some birds alfo lead
an amphibious fort of lite, as gulls, cormorants, ducks, geeie, (wans,
&c. they, like the quadrupeds juft mentioned, are web-footed for
rowing in the water, and like them, overtake their hihy prey in their
own element.

It is lamentably true, that in fome parts of the world, even
man is reduced to the miierable necefllty of becoming an amphi-
bious fort of animal. Perhaps the gay and gaudy fair, glittering in
their pearls, little conftder the pain it cofts fsme of their wretched
fellow creatures, to procure the little bauulc. The fhining little trin-
ket is found in the fhell, and fometimes within the body of a large
kind of oyfter. Some have imazined it proceeds from a difeafe in the
fifh. This concreted fubftance is found to be of the fame kind with
the inHde of the ihell which enclofes it, and which is therefore called
mother of pearl. There are pearl hfheries in America, but thofe of
Afia are more celebrated ; and of thefe the chief is carried on in the
Perflan gulph. The wretched people that are deftined to Bih for
pearls, are either negroes, or fome of the pooreft natives of Perfla,
7'hey dive to the depth of fifteen fathom, and continue at the bottom
an amazing length of time. Some, as we are alTured, have been
known to continue three quarters of an hour under water without
breathing ; and to one unufed to diving, a few minutes would fufFo-
cate the ftrongeft. Whether from fome effort the blood burfls the old
pailage with it had in the foetus, and circulates without going through
the lungs, it is not eafy to tell; but certain it is, that fome bodies
have been diffe£ted with this canal of communication openj and
thefe extraordinary divers may be incernally formed in that manner.
If we confider thefe wretched people in the midft of their bufinefs,
or experiencing the effefts of their unnatural employ, we can perhaps
hardly conceive a way of life more calamitous. Fu-nifhed with no
other covering than a pair of gloves to defend his hands, while he
picks the oyflers from the holes in the rocks, and a net hanging down
from his neck, to hold what he takes, the diver plunges to the bot-
tom by help of a (lone ; befides ten:pefls and other dangers he has
been expofed to, he here becomes fubjeft to fuffocation ; flaring
monflers alfo of enormous fize, affright him in this wretched fituati-
On ; and it is often in vain he labours to conceal himfelt from their
view, by flirring up mud at the bottom : he falls a vi£tini to their vo-
racity, and is delivered from his wretchednefs. Thefe divers uni-
verfally labour under a fpitting of blood ;. the moft robufl and healthy
young men are chofen for this employment, but they leldom furvive
it above five or fix years ; their fibres become rigid } their eye*balls
turn red ; and they ufually die confumptive. V/hile, from the con-

ftruAipn

***

S. IX.

CREATION.

ftru6tion of the heart and li;ings in land animals, and even in Tome of
the Bihes, we at once fee the air abfalutely neceflary for their exift-
ence ; we are not to imagine, that the amphibia, nor eren the
fiihes which conftantly keep under water, can hve without breathings
though fome of them are without any lungs at all. Thofe who have
feen a fith in the water, muft remember the motion of its lips and its

Sills { this without doubt is analogous to our breathing, for if they be
opt, it dies in convulfions. But it is not air, but water, that the
fifli a£tually fucks in and fpouts out through the gills at every moti-
on ; and how it draws its neceiTary fupply of air from the- water, can-
not be accounted for ; but if it be deprived of it by being placed in a
bafon of water under the receiver of an air pump, and the air be ex-
haufled, it inftantly dies.

Having confidered the fitnels of the feveral kinds of animals, from
their internal ftrufture, for their refpeftive tleoients, we may now ob-
ferve their aptitude in other refpe6ts to their various manner of
life.

2. ^adrupeds.] And 6rft of quadrupeds, their heads, though dif-
fering from each other, are in general adapted to their way of living.
In fome, it is (harp, the better to fit the animal for. turning up the
earth, in which its food lies, or where it finos fecuiity. ?n fome it |s
long, in order to give a greater room for the olfaftory nerves, as in
dogs, who are to hunt and find out their pray by the fcent. In others
it is fliort and thick, as in the lion, to encreafe the ilrength of the
jaw, and to fit it the better for combat. In thofe that feed upon
grail, they are enabled to hold down their heads to the ground, by a
ftrong tendinous ligament that runs from the head to the middle of the
back. The teeth of animals are entirely fitted to the nature of their
food. The teeth in gramenivorous animals, are edged before, and
fitled for cutting their vegetable food. In the carnivorous kinds, they
r.re pointed, and fitted for holding or tearing. The ftomach is gene-
rally proportioned to the quality of the animal's food, or the eafe
with which it is obtained. In thofe that live upon flefh, and fuch
nourifliing fubftances, it is fmall and glandular. In thofe that live
entirely upon vegetables, it is very large ; and thofe who chew the
cud, have no lefs than four ftomachs, all which fervc as fo many la-
boratories, to prepare and turn their coarfe food into proper nourifh-
ment. In Africa, where the plants happen to afford greater nouridi*
ment than in our temperate climates, feveral animals that with us have
four (lomachs, have there but two.

Their legs are equally fitted to their wants or enjoyments. In fome,
they are made for Ilrength only, and to fupport a vaft unwieldy frame,
without flexibility or beautiful fymmetry. Thus the legs of the ele-
phant, the rhinoceros^ and the hippopotamus, or river-horfc, refemble
pillars. Deers, hares, and other creatures, that are to find iafety only
in flight, have their legs made entirely for fpeed ; they are flender
and nervous. » ^

Their feet are alfo formed to fuit their manner of life. They are
furniflied with fingers for holding, with claws for tearing, with mem-
branes or webs for fwimming, or with hoofs for traverfing extenfive
trafts of rugged countr/. The porcupine and hedgehog, covered

'V: with

■«'>

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SUBLUNARY.

P. II.

with fliarp quills or prickles, and the armadillo with fcales, 6nd ffe-
curity in coiling thenifelves up, and prefenting thefe to the attacks of
their enemies

Their covering feems alfo adapted to their wants or fituations.
The fox and the wolf, which in temperate climates have but Aiort
hair, have a fine long fur in the froaen regions, near 'ihe pole. On
the contrary, thofe dogs which with us have long hair, when carried
to Guinea or Angola, in a Hiort time call their thick covering, and af>
fume a lighter drefs, and one more adapted to the warmth of the
country. The beaver, and the ermine, which are found in the great-
er plenty in the cold regions, are remarkable for the warmth and de-
licacy of their furs; while the elephant and the rhinoceros, that are
natives of the line, have fcarce any hair at all.

3. Birds.] Birds, next to quadrupeds, feem to demand our atten-
tion ; and tiiefe appear equally adapted to their (Ituations. Formed
generally for a life of fwiftnefs, through the air, in place of fore feet,
they are furnifhcd with expanfive wings, which ftretching out as they
ftrike downwards, and contrafling as they raife them in their flight,
th?y are thus enabled to fuppori themfelves in an element, that is fo
much lightef than themfelves. Their bodies are fliarp before for
cleaving the al: ; their legs are light and flender , and with their tails

v^ f fpread out, they fteer themfelves as with an helm. As thefe beauti-
ful creatures have to traverfe the regions of air, and regard objects
afar oflf, their (ight is keen and piercing, their hearing quick, and their
voices loud, beyond that of cuher animals. Like quadrupeds, alio,
their different tribes are fitted for their particular (lations and ways of
life. The rapacious kinds, booted to the toes, are furnidied with ftron;^
hooked claws and beaks, notched at the end for holding and tearing ;
the crane kinds, with naJced and fcaly legs, for wading in the water,
and ducks, with fhort ones and web feet for paddling or rowing ; their
oily feathers throw off the water from their bodies, and their bills are
nervous at the point, that they may feel their food in the mud or wa-
ter. Some, as the otlrich, deflined to keep on the ground, have
(Irong mufcular legs, and are furniihed with (hort little wings to help
them in running. This largcft of all birds, is faid to be rode on like
a horle, and to vaftly exceed it in I'wiftnefs. Their flomachs are pe-
culiarly formed to the quality of their food : In the rapacious kinds,
the oefophagus, or gullet, is found replete with glandulous bodies,
which ferve to dilute and macerate the food as it pa.lcs into the (Ic-
mach, which is always very large in proportion to the fize of the
bird, and generally wrapp'^-^ raund with fat, in order to encreafe its
warmth and powers of digeftion. In graniverous birds, the gullet di-
lates Jud above the bread bone, and forms a pouch or bag, called the
crop. This is replete with falivary glands, which ferve to ojoiften

I. and foften the grain and other food which it contains. After the dry

food of the bird has been macerated for a convenient time, it then
pafles into the belly, where, inflead of a foft, moid dogiach, as in the

^■' rapacious kinds, it is ground between two pair of mufcles, conmionly
called the gizzard, covered on the infide with a fto.iy ridgy coat, and
ahnod cartilaginous.

• 4. ^m-

bul
tcr

■ X

S. IX.

CREATION.

4. Amphibia J The animals which compofe the true amphibia, are
but few ; a fhort defcription of each kind may therefore here be at-
tempted.

Tortoifes chiefly live upon vegetables, but are alfo thought to eat
infefls, fnails, &c. Thefe harnilefs crefttures drawing in their heads
beneath the Jliell, which covers them hke a pent-houfe, find in it an
at'ylum againft the attacks of their rapacious enemies ; they are divided
into two clafTes, the land tortoife and fea turtle, from the places
where they are chiefly found; their limbs alfo corrcfponding to their
refpeftive ftations, in one being clawed for walking en the land, in
the other forming a ftrong kind of paddles, for urging their way in the
deep ; both however are found to be amphibious.

Frogs and toads, while in their tadpole ftate, live upon the weed
their pool fupplies ; when grc^wn to maturity, their food is infefls
and worms, for which they leave their native elemeni, and come up*
on land j there they lurk beneath the cool canopy of an herb, and
waiting for their prey till it comes within their reach, with the moft
unerring aim, dart out their long and forked tongue, which is co-
vered with a glutinous fubdance ; to this the little animal adheres ,and
is thus drawn into the jawsof its devourer. It is entertaining to ob-
ferve, how differently frogs are regarded in this and the neighbouring
ifland. In this country, where we have neither toads nor venomous
creatures, girls at their hay-making will take them up, and play with
or flroalf them as they would little birds. In England, many turn
fioni them with averfion, and* generally they are cautious in handling
them, for fear of meeting with the toad through millake. The ag^•
Hty of the frog, however, and its bright and polirtied flcin, might ob-
vioufly diftinguifti it from the dark and crawling toad, were there real
danger in meeting with the latter; but the toad is found to be harm<
jefs and inofl^enfive, fometimes taking up its refidencc near the habi-
tations of man, and if encouraged to it, even venturing into his dwell-
ing, 10 be fed at his hand ; however naufeous or fqualid they may
aopear to people in health, they are applied to the relief of women
hbouring under the painful diforder of a cancerous breaft ; and while
they afford fuccour to the patient, die on the fore. The frog is re-
markable for changing with the weather, its colour becoming dull
when the atmofphere is d-ry, and it wants the grateful humidity
which moiftens its [kin, and renders it alert and aflive. It has been
kept and fed to anfwer the purpofe of a weather glafs, being heard
to croak at the ^ppro9ch ot wet weather, but mute as a filh when it
threatened a continuance of fair. But of all the wonders related in
natural hiftory, that of the toad's being found alive and healthy in
the heart of trcs and folid rocks, without the fmalleft ifluc from its
cell, feems the moft aftonirtiing ; there it has been fuppofed to have
had a torpid fort of exiftence for ages; but how the egg or fpawn
which produced it, firft found admittance, is not eafily accounted for.
Into ftone we muft fuppofe it found its entrance, while the fubftancv
was yet foft and unpetrified ; but how fliall we account for its find-
ing its way into a tree ? Cabinet-makers remaik, of fo clofe a wood
as mahogany, which grows in fandy foils, that the fand which has
|;ot into the fubftance of the wood, foon dulls the edge of their plane

' irons

■^

SUBLUNARY

P. II.

f-..

irons; tnd if thisafcends with the juices fupplied to the tree, may not
the minute and embryo toad find a (ImUar admittance.

Of the lizard kind, the animals are various; in this clafs we find
crocodiles, dragons, falamanders, and cameleons, creatures whofe
real hiilory may afford entertainment to the contemplative ; but to
this, romance has added much of the marvellous. Thefe who have feen
the little four-footed newt or arglogher in our ditches, with its body
terminating in a tail, may from it lorm a pretty jud conception of the
figure of thefe animals, from the alligator of the river Amazons, of
twenty-feven feet, to the fniall cameleon but one inch long. The
cameleon is fomeiimes eleven inches long. It has been faid to feed
upon the air ; from this it feems to receive great refQediment ; it is
fometimes feen as it were blown up for two hours together, and then
it continues growing lefs and lefs infendbly, till it appears quite lean
and emaciated ; but the air only gets between the mufcles and the
ikin ; for the mufcles themfelves are never fwolien ; it is hardly ever
obferved to eat any thing, except now and then a fly, which it takes
half an hour to fwallow ; like the frog, it takes the flies with its
tongue, which is as long as its whole body. As this animal's (kin fuf-
fers fuch changes, from its being puffed up or only contracted ; we
need not fo much wonder when we are informed, that though natu-
rally of a grey colour, it exhibits, when placed in the fun, a greater
variety of colours, than are feeninfilks of^themofl; variegated colour-
ing. It is perhaps the moil extraordinary part of this animal's hiftory,
that it can move one eye fingly, or turn them both in diflierent direc-
tions, thereby looking two ways at once. The leiTer lizards appea-r
generally to be harmlefs playful little animals, though, like the toad,
they be accounted venemous. Of this clafs of creatures is the flying
dragon; its wings are very thin, refembling^ thofe of a flying fiih ; and
about its neck are a fort of wattles, not .unlike thofe of a cock ; this
harmlefs little creature, which lives .chiefly upon infers, and
even feems to embellifli the foreft with its beauty ; we can hardly
Aippofe that it ever gave birth to the fiery dragon of romance ; this
death-dealing creature feems rather to have taken its rife from the
ravages of lerpents. Salamanders appear lefs a^ive and beautiful
than the lizards of the cameleon kind, but equally harmlefs ; with ap-
petites and manners nearly the fame, though fear has charged them
with deadly venom ; and imagination has even given them an habita-
tion in the fire, a place they can endure about as well as $i
fiffi.

The iguana is a lizard about five feet long, and the body about as
thick ss one's thigh } the fkin is covered with fcales like a ferpent, the
back furnifhed with a row of prickles, that fland up like the teeth of
a faw, and the jaws are full of very (harp teeth. This animal, though
apparently formed for combat, is a harmlefs creature, fporting in the
water, or living amoiig trees, feeding upon the flowers of the mahot,
^nd the leaves of the mapou, that grow along the banks of the dream,
and repoiing upon the branches of the trees that hang over the water.
Its flefh may be confidered as the greatell delicacy of Africa and
Americaj and the fportfmen of thofe climates e^ifily take it by help of
ft noofe and a flick. The fcaly lizaids are of various Hzes, from the

iguana

rel

hi{
ful

nar
ed

,#'

4'r

S. IX.

CREATION.

iguana to he rorniidable crocodile, that unpeoples countries, and makes
the mod navigable rivers defart and dangerous.

But of all the animals that frequent the waters, or inhabit the fo*
reds, ferpcnts feem mod to reprefs the audacity of aoan, and to reftrain
his vagrant ezcurfions. Againil the force or rapacity of other dread-
ful creatures, arts and arms have been oppofed with fuccefs. The
monfters of the deep have been drawn from their watry element,
and their fpoils converted to many ufeful puipofes in life. Lions and
tigers, with all their ferocity ; the elephant and rhinoceros, cncom-
pafTed with (Irength } and even the crocodile , with all its terrors,
have been taught to fubmit to the rein, to fwell the pomp of mo-
narchs, or rage among the tumults of mankind ; but ferpents, furniih-
ed at once with the mod dreadful weapons of annoyance, and the
mod elufive means of efcape, feem in all ages to have baffled the
prowefs of the lords of the earth. It is the moft ftriking charafter in
the natuial hiftory of this ifland, that it does not give birth to thefc
venomous creatures. Superftition has defcribed this privilege we en-
joy, to the prayers of the Miflionary Patrick ; but as this is an ifland
cf hefbs, poifonous as well as nutritive and medicinal, perhaps there
only wants an importation of ferpents, to ihew, that Ireland is as li-
beral in the fupplies of life, as other countries are. The frog was de-
ft,;nedly introduced into Ireland, and foon multiplied to an amazing
decree ; and were accident or defign to bring vipers among us, we
might foon have to be as cautious in piercing through a wood, or
lolling on a bank, as other European nations. The ferpents of Eu-
rope, however, are few, feeble and diminutive, compared with thofe
of the other quarters of the globe. In the warm countries that lie
vithin the tropics, where the climate fupplies warmth and humidity,
thefe creatures grow to an enormous fize, and multiply in aftoni^ing
abundance. All along the fv/ampy banks of the Niger and Oronooko,
they are feen twining round the trunks of trees, and carrying on an
unceafing war againft all other animals in their vicinity. Againft one
of thefe dreadful mongers, grown through fuccefllve ages to one hun-
dred, or one hundred and fifty feet long, the lion, or the tiger, and
even the elephant himfelf, ihould feem but feeble opponents. We
need not therefore fo much wonder at the accounts of the ancients,
of a whole nation fometimes fhrinking from the ravages of a Hngle
ferpent, when as yet they had not learned to combine their efforts
together in oppoHng it. Even in more improved antiquity, we are
told, that while Regulus led his army along the banks of the river Ra-
grada, in Africa, an enormous ferpent difputed his pafTage over, and
deftroyed many of the army ; and was not fubdued, till the batter-
ing engines were brought out againil it. Thefe ailailing it at a dif-
tance, it was foon deftroyed. Its fpoils were carried to Rome, and
the general decreed an ovation for his fuccefs. We are aiTurcd, that
it was one hnndred and twenty feet long, by Pliny, who fays, he him-
felf faw the (kin, which was kept in the capitol. And we have recent
accounts from travellers, that there are ferpents at this day, which, in
fpite of all oppoHiion, combat with and xicftroy the tiger and the buf-
falo. In this dreadful engagement, their teeth are but of little ufe ;
it is by the ftrong verberation of the tail, by twining its body round

G that

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SUBLUNARY

P. II.

that of its aniagonift, and drawing the knot with convulfive energy,
the enormous reptile breaks every bone in the quadruped's body, and
then at one niorfel devours its prey. In fa£l the largeil kind of fer-
pents r none of them venomous, and many of the fmall kind are
barmlefs and inofFenfive. In Africa, they are received under the pro-
tection of the natives, and are feen in their houfes clinj,ing to the
roofs, unmolefting and undidurbed. In fome parts, they are idolized
as the tutelar deities of the country, and have their temples, their
priefts, and their facrifices. In Afia, thcfe beautifully coloured ani-
mals meet with equal kindnefs ; and even in Italy, the Efculapian
ferpent, which is one of this kind, is confidered as a ufeful donieftic
for deftroying the mice ; there it is fufFered to :rawl about the cham-
bers, and fometimes it even creeps into bed to the people.

I'he venomous fnakes are diftinguidiable from the other, by two
large teeth or fangs, that hang out beyond the lower jaw ; they grow
one on each fide, and fometimes two, from two moveable bones in
the upper jaw ; by Aiding thefe bones backward or forward, they have
a power of ere^ing or deprefllng the fangs at pleafure. The glands
that prepare the venomous fluid, are fituated on each fide of the head,
behind the eyes, and have their canals leading from thence to the bot-
tom of the fangs in the upper jaw, where they empty into a kind of
bladder ; the fangs are hollow within, and have an opening towards
the point like the flit of a pen, through which, when the provoked
animal erefls thefe dreadful weapons, ilrikes them into its enemy,
and thus prefles them down upon the bladder, the venom makes its
way into the wound. It is remarkable, that this venom, a fmall drop
of it thus inflicted, fhall contaminate the whole frame, if a cure be
not adminiflered { yet a quantity of it nfiay be taken inwardly without
any harm ; but in fa£t to introduce any fluid into the circulation of
the blood, .hat has not been prepared in the elaboratory of the fto-
xnach, and fecreted by the ladteal veins, is enough to deftroy the
body ; even milk, that feems the mod mild and nourifliing of all
fluids, if it be injected into a vein, it will quickly become fatal,>and
kill with more certain deftruCtion than the venom of a viper. Ser-
pents have a mod wonderful capacity of fwallowing creatures of
greater thicknefs than themfelves ; their jaws are held togethei at the
roots by a ftretching miifcular flcin ; by which means, tliey can open
them extremely wide ; the throat, like ftretching leather, dilates to
admit the morfel ; the (lomach receives it in part ; &nd the reft re-
mains in the gullet, tiH putrefaction and the juices of the ferpent's
body, unite to diflblve it. After thus gorging itfelf, the animal be-
comes quite heavy and torpid; the naked Indian then ventures to af-
fail it, and deftroys it at his pleafure. Thefe animals, though thus
voracious, are capable of enduring the longed abftinence.

From the long and flender form of the ferpent, we might be in-
duced to imagine, the motions and druCture in it and the earth-worm,
were fimilar to each other ; in thefe, however, they ire very differ-
ent. The ferpent has a great number of ribs, and a back-bone with
numerous joints, which it cannot ihorten or lengthen, though it has a
power of bending it in every direction." This animal, therefore, in
Its progreflion, umd bend its body, and throw itfelf forward by its

• * Spring.

S. IX. CREATION. I3

fpring. The earth-worm, on the oiher hand, has no back-bone, but
a number of rings, or a fpiral inufcle that runs round its whole bod/
from head to tail ; it therefore can lengthen or contract itfclf; can
flretch out the flimy fore-part of the body j with this (lick to the
ground ; and then by contradling itlelf, bring up the rear. The am-
phibia are remarkable for frequently cafting their (kins. Many are
the creatures which idle curiofity has put to the torture, in order to
try how much they could endure ; ar.d in fuch cruel hands, the am-
phibia have proved themfelves extremely tenacious of life.

5. Fijbes.] Fifljesr are a clafs of creatures, that appear, both in
(Iruflure and fagacity, quite inferior to other animals ; though capa-
ble of enduring famine an amazing length of time, they appear mofl:
voracious creatures i a ceafelefs dedre for food feems the ruling im-
pulfe of their actions ; and their lifs one continued fcene of violence
or evadon.

Fiflies are formed for making their way through the water, in a
manner fomewhat fimilar to birds for cleaving the air ; in place of
wings they have tins) they are alfo furniilied with a fpreading tail;
this lail feems to give the grand impetus in their motions ; and to this
the fins feem fubfeivient in lleering the animal. We have feen among
the amphibia, a kind of animals furni/hed with venom without being
themfelves deftroyed thereby. Among filhes, the torpedo, and fome
others of the ray kind, aflford fomething dill more wonderful in their
hillory; thefe animals have the power of (Iriking the perfon who
handles them with numbnefs ; if he even but touches them with the
end of his (lick, he feels the fhock; which from its etFefls, and from
this ciicumftance, appears to be electrical; but how the animal pre-
pares the charge, and how it keeps it from difcharging in the derife
fluid it reiides in, feems quite unaccountable.

Filhes and amphibia are produced from fpawn, from eggs, or are
brought forth alive.

It IS remarkable of many tribes of the brute creation, efpecially of
the lower orders, that at certain feafbns, efpecially on the approach
of winter, when they are debarred from food by the feveriiy of the wea-
ther, they feek themfelves retreats, and go to deep ; where they con-
tinue in a torpid tlaie, apparently dead, till the con)mg of Avartn vvea-
ther, which again calls them, to enjoy a more aftive, enlarged life;
and to feed on the banquet the feafon fcts before them. In this way,
fillies are faid to be bound up by the froft in the northern rivers of the
woild, till the return of the fun thaws their prifon, and reftores them
to their former liberty. We may perhaps conclude, however, that
they are rather lying dormant in the water under the ice, than frozen
up in it ; fo great an excefs of cold, fhould feem loo intenfe for any
defcription of anlmallife to endure.

6, Infedis and IVorms-l Infefts, and animals of the worm kind,
feem to form the lowed order among the various tribes of living crea-
tures which inhabit our globe : of this defcription we may reckon
all thofe which have not ted blood circulating through their bodies,
whether it be the kraken of the Norway feas, a mile and a half in
circumference, railing itfelf in the water, its antennae or arms, at firft
appearing like a number of fmall iflands, and then like a foreft of pro-
^ G z digiotis

•it? \

• -^

*•>

*V'_

§^ SUBLUNARY P. n.

digious large trees; or the animalcule, that from Its minutcnefs,
efcapes cur (ight, and which in flaking our third, we may fwallow
by thoufands ; whether it be the fnaii or the lobfter, the flea or the
I'corpion, tb'.' worni or the fly.

Whatever has been related of the voracity of the amphibia, their
tenacity of life, or their frequently calling their flcin, feems peculiarly
to hold in the lower clafs of animals ; among thefe, the tearing away
of a limb, appears to be but a fmall calamity : the lobfter, the crab,
the fpider, and others, frequently in their combats meet with lofles of
this kind ; but they foon grow again. This feems extraordinary ; but
what flull we fay of tho^ that (eem to multiply even by deftruftion ?
The earth-worm, when cut in two, is feen to become two diftinft
creatures ; from the head end a tail is foon found to ifliie ; and from
the tail part, by flower degrees, a new head proceeds : but animals
of the polypus kind, feem to offer in their hidory fomething flill
more aftoniiliing : thefe creatures, which appear like vegetable fub-
(lances floating on the w^ter, are found to be real living animals hunt-
ing their prey. The bod^ of this animal appears like a bag, fur-
rounded at the mouth with a number of antennae, or arms, with
which as feelers, it finds and draws in its prey ; thefe it can contradl
or lengthen at pleafure, and indeed its whole body feems capable of
the fame dilatation or contraction ; fo that its form is (carcely fixed
or certain, but changes in fize and figure according to its motions, or
the variations of heat and cold. On their bodies are difcovered a
number of wart-like protuberances, which are found to be themfelves
young polypi, feeding and fiiliing for themfelves, while they at the
fame time derive nutriment from the parent ; thefe every now and
then drop off to make way for others, and to become themfelves the
beads ofumilar colonies, which even begin to bud before the fepara-
tion from the parent in maturity. Some may wonder at the magni-
tude of the elephant, and others be aftonifhed at the fmallnefs of the
animalcule ; but of all the animals that are found in the creation, the
polypus f^ems mofl a prodigy to the philofopber ; it has been twifled
and twined, and turned infide out ; it has been cut to pieces both
lengthways and croflTways,^ (lill it was found to retain its vivacious
principle, each part becoming an aiiimal of itfelf, and like its original,
the parent of a colony. As thefe animals feem the mofl imperfed
in their formation, fo they offer a wonderful variety in their fize and
their fhapes. The kraken is faid to be an enormous polypus, and
fponges with tht flirange variety of coralline fubflances which appear
like plants in the fea, and in Tome parts obflru6l navigation by their
growth, are all accounted the fabrications and cells of minute crea-
tures of the polypi kind. To underfland how they are capable of
rearing fuch works, and indeed how all fhelled animals are iurnifhed
with their covering, it is neceffary to obferve, that their bodies are
fupplied with a flimy matter, which as it ouzes out, and fometimes per-
haps joins with extraneous fubflances, acquires the coralline confiflency,
the toughnefs of fponge, or the hardnefs of fliell. In this way the
lobfler obtains its cafing ; and in this way the fnail is obierved, as it

Srows bigger and bigger, to add layer to layer to the mouth of its
lelli until it has obtained its largefl volutions.

Among

P'
c

S. IX.

CREATION.

Among the amphibia, we have feen ferpents furnidied with venom t
among infefls there are creatures furniitied with (imiiar weapons :
the fcorpion has been noted from antiquity for its vrnom } ar^i the
fpider, however harmlets it may appear to us, is furniilied with a poi-
fon under its claws, fuificiently dedruAivc to the minute creatures it
preys upon ; but of all the fpiders we have ever heard of, the iiiofl
extraordinary things have been related of the tarantula ; this animal
is about three quarters of an inch long ; and in the Hclds of Ttuly,
fometimes bites the peafants as they are mowing down the grals ; a
flight inflammation enfues, as from any other pun£lure, which heals
without danger; they affeft, however, to feel, on this occafion, a
variety of extraordinary fymptoms and paflions, only to be removed
by the powers of muficlc. This deception has lorg betn iinpofed
upon the reft of Europe, but is now well known to be all a coliulion.
The credulous traveller, however, who wiflies, when from home, to
fee all that is marvellous, may at this day, for a trifle, be entertain-
ed with the extraordinary farce: the a£lors produce this famed little
infe£l, and one of them fuflx-rs himielf lo be bit ; he alterniitely ap-
pears to be convulfcd with laughter, and deprefled with melancholy;
the (idler then adminiders the never-failing tune ; he -begins his air
eafy and flow, and rifes and quickens by degrees, till at lad he fees
his dramatic patient dancing on the floor ; and thus concludes the un-
becoming farce.

Many are the volumes that have been written on the hiftory of in-
ie£ls ; and fome have been fo much 'enamoured with the fubjcdt, as
to purfue it with a diligence, equal to that of the bee or the ant they
contemplated. They have minutely examined the formation of thefe
little creatures at the feveral periods of their exigence ; they have
obferved them as worms breakmg from the egg, or the body of the
parent ; as crawling about in their reptile form; as being entombed
for a time in their aiirelia or chryfalis ftate ; as burfting from this pri-
fon, and enjoying an enlarged exigence ; and as bufily employed in
depoftting their eggs in the earth and other places, to be ripened into
life by^ the return of fpring ; their aflbciations and animohties, their
arts and, their manners, they have watched and defcribed, and the
picture is fomewhat fimilar to that of the higher tribes of animals :
among thefe, there are grameniverous creatures, harmlefs and weak ;
and among thefe, predacious and vindictive deftroyers, furni/hed with
formidable weapons, and cafed in dreadful armour, which unrelent-
ingly deal death among the feeble and the helplefs. Some of thefe
minute animals have been rendered fubfcrvient to the ufes and lux-
uries of man, as the cantharides, the bee, the filk-worm, and the
cochineal fly ; but in general, from the havock they make among ve-
getables, he regards them rather as enemies than friends.

Infe6ls feem fome of them to have no eyes at all ; fome appear to
be furniilied with two ; and fome with a great many ; but, like the
fillies, without any eye-lids : their mouths, in general, opsn in a di-
rection contrary to that of other animals; and fome of them are fur-
niihed with a probofcis or trunk. Other animals generally breathe
through the mputh, thefe are found to breathe through openings in
:their (ides ; but of all the marks whereby they (land diftinguiihed

from

■ #.<i.

.^'#S

SUBLUNARY

P. II.

from tnimals of the higher orders, a perfeft want of docility, or an
utter ignorance of and inattention to the will of man, appears the
mod ftriking. X^adrupeds and birds have been brought to be very
tra^blc and attentive to inftruflion ; and even ferpents have been
taught to come at a call, and perform a variety of motions at com-
mand ; but thefe unintelligent creatures, and with them we may reckon
fiHies in general, feem altogether incapable of varying their ac-
tions, or of fubmitting to inftrudion, and only regard man like any
larger animal, only obferve him to fly from hh prefence, or to feed
upon his body.

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PART III.

PICTURESqUE AND GENERAL SKETCHES

n f T H I

DIFFERENT PARTS of the EARTH;

A N B TUB

VARIED APPEARANCES or its INHABITANTS,
novH MAN AND BRUTE.' , .

• • • I •(■•.'
Jc'. .. . : - h •

SECTION.!.

.-..-.... ,' I ...
Diversity produced by Climate and Domestic ation. -^

\. A general ▼ F we take a general view of the regions of the
Sketch.] X earth, we (hall find, that from the variety of
climates, of foils, and from many other cnufes, life and its conveni>
cnces are varioufly fupplied, and in very different nieafures, in the fe-
veral habitable parts of our globe: from the prodigious lidgy moun-i..
tains, and extenfive fandy defarts, or the ever flourniing and l«7(urH,.
ant landfcapes at the equator, where the mod exquifite frOits ^nd'>^'~ '
licious viands fpontaneoufly grow in exuberant profufion ; wh«feth.e| ,
waters and the favannahs, the fields, and the forefts, all teem yvith-
life, from the multitudes of their inhabitants. From thefe glowing
climes, to the cold and frozen poles, where life and vegetation feems
quite extinft, and the earth and the waters are ftifFened in frigidity ;
all along the convexity of the globe, the Icene is ever changing, and
man as well as brute, and bealts as well as plants, all are influenced
by the variety.

2. D'werfuj of Figure in Man and ^adrupeds.] The changes that
the human fpecies have undergone, from the difference of climate,
foil, food, manner of life, and other accidental caufes, are aftonifh-
ing, infomuch, that fome have called in queftion our univer&|^
delcent from Adam, the common father of mankind; howev.e«,i
when we confider how regular and flow the gradTtions are from fc?
black complexion to the brown, fiom this to the fair, generally vai"/-
ing by imperceptible degrees with the climate, we fliall perhaps fjnjl.
but little reafon tu join thefe in their opinions : and the Icriptures of
itruih, which account for the diforders in the creation," the variety of

langua^e^

Uy ■•■■*■

•»;n^ .-.

SKETCHES OF

P. III.

'., 1

« I

s s

languages, and many other things which fall under the obfervation of
the philofopher, nmy in this particular, as well as others, even on
mere rational principles, maintain their ground againft the doubts of
the fceptic.

That climate is capable of operating very powerfully upon man,
vcAf rather ceafe to be marvellous, when we confider how much more
the lower orders of the creation are aflfeded by its influence ; in faA
manyof the(e are confined to particular countries and climes, and are
found no where elfe, while man, the child, of every climate, and te-
nant of every foil, inhabits the feveral regions of the earth, from the
accumulated fnows of the cold and frozen poles, to the glowing tra£ts
of the torrid zone. It is true, he has many arts of evading the feveri-*
ties of inclement (kles, with which the brute creation is unfurniflied ;
and this feems to give him a fuperiority, which alfo domeftic animals
derive from his protection, and are thus enabled to a.ccompany him in
his peregrinations. By his fuperior intelle6ts, rather than finer for-
matioh, he is enabled to become the lord of the earth ; by thefe, by
afTociation, and by labour, which is his lot, he has reduced the beads
of the field to his obedience ; by thefe, the bowling favage, that would
alike prey upon him and his flock, he has driven to thediftant receiTes
of the wildernefs ; by thefe^ he is enabled to form £ind guide the
crooked plough, the canoe, or more (lately bark ; to traverle the ex-
panfe of unfathomable waters ; to draw bread from the thiftle and
thorn-producing ground, till he return thereto ; and by thefe, not-
withftanding the creatures, and even the elements, feem to offer vior
lence to his perfon and bis labours, he finds the earth lias been given
him for his habitation, and the fea for an inheritance. To delcribe
the perfons of the people of our own nation would be exceedingly dif-
ficult, and might here feem fuperfluous ; as the beft method of ac-
quiring the information, is by looking about us ; it is however curious
to obferve, in thofe countries where arts and fciences are cultivated,
and where the manner of life is confequently various among the in-
habitants, the variety of figure, (Mature, and complexion, that is found
in their perfons. How difl^erent in appearance is the man who works
in the fields, or at fome laborious bufinefs, from the (ludent or minute
artift, effeminated and pale by their employ within doors, or the ci-
tizen, grown quite fat with luxurious living. What different habits
are impofed on their conflitutions, and how different the effeds they
naturally produce : but thefe different diflindions, however, they may
hold in general, they do not invariably mark the individual ; this in-
deed can hardly be expefted, where thefe different defcriptions of peo-
ple are fo conftantly intermixing with each other. Among thefe,
therefore, we fhould hardly expe^, that their outward figure fhould
nationally chara6terife them. Though the Frenchman feems to differ
rather in perfon from his neighbours, the Hollander or Spaniard ; and
though the mofl ancient inhabitants of thefe iflands, may fometimes
be thus diflinguilhed from the more mixed and later Englifh, yet the
difference feems often io minute as to efcape defcription, and what an
afliinilation in their manners, feems continually to render lefs and lefs
diflinfl. It is among people that are colle£lively alike in their man-
ners and circumftances in life, we may look for national characters {
and thofe nations that Jive more at large than the fons of Europe,

,: that

S.I.

THE EARTH.

that individually draw an eafy fubfiftence from the kindly foil they in-
habit, or equally labour under the feverities of inclement climes ; that
without dininftion haften to the waters, or join in tbechace; they
feem generally to be ftrongly marked with figure, complexion, and
features, chara^eriftic of the climate or foil they inhabit. Befides
this, particular tribes, and fometimes whole nations, are attached to
particular habits and cuftoms, which affe€t their perfons, and particu-
larly charafterife them, as a people diftinft even from their neigh-
bours, whom perhaps only a river or a mountain divides from them.
Thus feme nations, as the American Indians, have for ages been en-
deavouring to extirpate the beard, by plucking it out by the root ;
fome, from a favage idea of finery, or to prevent the fwarms of infefts
from annoying them, by bedaubing their bodies with tar, fat, or paints,
have given their complexions an artificial hue of darknefs ; fome by
boring and continually drawing down their ears, have at laft got them
to touch their ihoulders ; the nofe, in like manner, and even the
whole head, as well as the feet, by a variety of bandages, or by
fqueezing between boards, when in an infant (late, and capable of re-
ceiving the impreffion, without deftroying the fubje£l,-^he (kull| has
been brought to aiTume artificial deformities; and thus we may ac-
count for the flat heads of Canada, the conical ones in Afia, the flat
nofes of the negroes, the fmall ieet of the Chinefe, and many other
varieties, that have been at Frft introduced, not without violence,
that cuftom has kept up, till grown into a fort of conftitutional ha-
bit, and which it would perhaps take fome generations to wear out,
if the reftraint were removed. But what are thefe artificial varieties,
compared with what have been impofed on domefticated animals >
Thele, our humble partners in the creation, appear often to be fo
changed, both in fhape and in habit, from what they were in their
native wilds, as to look like quite different creatures. By the aflidu-
ity and art of man, the horfe is improved in fpeed or in (Irength, to
fuit his convenience ; the fheep becomes helplefs and covered with
long wool, to furnifh him with raiment : the cow, that is a fierce
and bellowing biute, when in the foreft, becomes, under his care,
gentle in its manners, and fupplies him with milk, or bows its necic
to the yoke{ in Ethiopia, it has been taught to tend him his fheep,
to tread out the corn, and like the elephant and ihinoceros, to fight
him his battles : and the Jog appears to have gone through innume-
rable varieties, to fuit his different purpofes, and gratity his hu-
mours.

Fo obferve more particularly the influence of climate on the dif-
ferent orders of the creation, man, though he appear to be very much
aflt.'£ted thereby, will perhaps be found lefs fo than moft other crea-
tures.

3. General Diviftons of the Diverftty in Man.} If we take a look
around us on the people of our own country, we may pretty much
fee the appearance of all the polifhed nations of Europe ; pretty much
the fame features appear to mark the northern nations of Africa, and
thofe alio of the weftern parts of Afia, from the borders of Europe to
the Indian ocean. As thefe nations collectively include moft of the
people we have read of in the records of antiquity, whether Jews or
Egyptians, Babylonians, Medes or Perfians, Grecians or Romans ; as

Adam

;

SKETCHES OF

P. III.

I'rf

Ji'-

Adam appears to have been created, the ark of Noah to have refted
after the flood, and the nioft important eveiits to have happened the
human race within the countric they inhabit, efpecially flh Afia ; in
the perfons of any of thefe people, thus widely difleminated, v/e may
perhaps fee a pretty good likenefs of the Brft ages of mankind, if we
make an allowance for the caprice of drefs, and for the taking off or
fantaftically disfiguring the beard. Of the numerous people here men-
tioned, the nations of Europe, the Moors and Egyptians, the Arabs,
Tuiks, Pcrfians and Indians; if we regard merely their colour, this
varies by flow and imperceptible degrees, from the fair complexion of
the northern nations, to the fwarihy Spaniird and Moor ; and from
thefe to the olive-coloured and black Afiatic. In the countenances of
all thefe, however, there feems a beautiful fymmetry," or a certain
neatnefs and delicacy of feature, which does not appear to us either in
the flat nofes or thick lips of the inhabitants of the torrid regions of
Negroland and Guinea, or in the broad faces and high cheeks of the
Laplanders and little Tartars, of the bleak and frozen zone.*

But while we imagine we difcover a certain beauty and delicacy
of exprellion in the features of this widely diffufed people, and a.j
ready to account thofe of the Negroes or Greenlanders as coarfe,
rude, or deformed, and as produced by their fufferinij the laft extre-
mity of heat or cold the human conftitution can endure, and by their
leading a favage life ; perhaps either the hardy little inhabitants of the
frozen zone, or the full-grown negroes, under the line, might with as
much fitnefs account us deviations from the proper human figure, ami
elleem all the delicacy we difcover in our fliapes, as only the etFeCts
of domefl:ication and elFeminacy. However, let nations contend how
they pleafe for fuperiority of feature or figure, ,this is found to depend
merely on the clime they inhabit, and their manner of life ; and as
European adventurers are found to lofe their fair complexions in a
few generations, and become fwarthy or black in hot climates, or little
and fluntedin cold ones, their features at the fame time correfpondent-
ly changing, fo alfo the inhabitants of cold or torrid regions, are found
in a fimilar way, to lofe their original complexions and features, when
under the climate and cuftoms of the temperate zone.

To fpeak of the human form thus fufcepiible of change, and like an
humble plant depending on the foil where it grows for its appearance,
may to fome appear rather degrading ; but when the lot of human
beings is confidered, what different countries we have to inhabit, and
what various modes of life to purfue, we fliall have reafon to admire
the flexibility in the conftitution, which adapts itfelf to the duties and
I'ibits impofed on it, and thus fits us for undergoing the many irregu-
larities infeparable from this life. While the human figure is found to
vary all over the earth, from different caufes, and that by fuch flow
and imperceptible degrees, by paffmg over the leffer varieties, and re-
garding only the moll obvious divifions, we may perhaps with fouie

.fitnefs

,; ■ ir ■ , - .

* It 18 the persons of thefe the flatuary and painter hare taken at models in their
fineft compofitions ; froin tbefe they feem to have derived all that they term fublitne
and beautiful in tjte human figure ; from thefe the ancients fculptured their idols }
and from thefe the moderns have, with the addition of birds wings, defigned their
fanciful reprefentations of angels, and the queer bodilefs little moiiftertf to whicb
they give the name of cherubi.

.^.

S.I.

THE EARTH.

fitncfs confider the whole human race under the three following dif-
tinft appearances : the Citizen, the Tartar, and the Negro,

I. Under the citizen may be included, the numerous nations already
named, inhabiting Europe, the northern parts of Afiica, and the wef-
tern parts of Afia, to the Indian ocean. Though fome of thefe, as a
few tribes of Arabs, dwell in tents till this day, and lead a roving life, yet
they generally anfwer the defcription of '.v hat iscalleda poliflied people;
and fome of them feem to have done fo fince the days of Abraham
and Lot ; thefe are the people, however, different in complexion,
whom we account regular featured.

II. The Negro, under the line, being daily expofed to the diredt
rays of the fun, and going almofl naked, varies from the citizen, in
being quite black, in having fliort woolly hair, a broad flat nofe,
and large tumid lips. From the equinoctial line fouthward, to the
Cape of Good Hope, thefe charafteriftics feem. gradually rather Icfs
diflinfl; and on the north, roving tribes of Arabs in the defart of
Zaara, feem to form the fliade between thefe and the Moor.

III. The Tartar, of the polar regions, between 4 and 5 feet in height,
feems, from his bleak (Ituation, to becpme lefs in ftature than the reft
of mankind ; the feverity of the cold producing cfFtfts. in his com-
plexion and features, fomething iimilar to thofe endured by the Ne-
gro : the vifage in thefe little men is large and broad, the nofe
flat, the mouth large, the cheek bones high, and the complexion
dark.

This defcription of people is found to Inhabit the northern regions
of Europe, Alia, and America, all round the pole, and comprehends
the Laplanders, Efquimaux, Indians, Samoicde Tartars, the inhabi-
tants of Nova Zembia, the Borandians, the Greenlanders, and the
natives of Kamtfchatka ; the features of this people feem to prevail
through the different tribes of American Indians ; they are alfo feen
to faintly have place in the perfons of the Chinefe and Japanefe, and
in the fouthern trafts of Afiatic Tariary, and the northern re-
gions of Europe, to blend imperceptibly with thofe of the ci-
tizen.

The broad features and dark complexion, feem alio to obtain in
the fouth fea iflcs, and indeed in all parts of the world, where the pec-
)le have for ages led a roving kind of life, or been continually expofed
to the open air.

4. Longevity.] It is remarkable, that while the human form under-
goes fuch changes, from climate and other caufes, length of life feems
)retty equally diftributed among different nations and orders of men :

[the cit, on his turtle, and the peafant, on his vegetable fare, the
Greenlander among his native fnows, and the African in the torrid
[zone, they all appear to grow old together, and the period of
Itheir years feems more nearly equal than might have been ex-
[pefted.

5. Loicer Orders.] The diminution of ftature that the inhabitants
[of the polar regions undergo, from the feveiity of cold, feems fmall,
[when compared with what the lower orders of the creation endure,
fin general warmth and moifture feem favourable to growth, as well
[among the animal as vegetable tribes of creatures. Infe£ls as well as

herbs, that with us appear of a tolerable fize» in the ar£lic countries

feem

■A

:^-

1 ^.. -w^-*^

■ 1

SKETCHES OF

P. III.

feem quite diminutive; while in the luxuriant regions of the torrid
zone, they encreafe to an amazing (ize ; there the fpider grows to
the fize of an hen's egg ; the butterfly fpreads an expanfe of wing as
large as a fparrow ; the toad appears as big as a duck ; the oyfter is
a meal for eight or ten men, and the fhell is in diameter like a fmall
table : there aifo the bat, in fize like a rabbit, is found a formidable
enemy, and has been thought to be the original of the fabulous harpy
of the ancients ; the largell ferpents and crocodiles, the huge hippo>
potanius, elephant and rhinoceros, are all of them natives of the tor-
rid ZQne. With the fpotted (kins of the favages of thofe glowing re-
gions, the fliowy horfeman adorns his fteed ; while the women are
fupplied for convenience or drefs, with the more delicate furs of the
little quadrupeds of cold and frozen climes.

The cold climates of the north, however, are not without their
produflions of magnitude; witnefs the timber their foiefts fupply to
the fouthern dates of Europe; their feas alfo produce filKes of the
largeft (ize ; and on land, the white bear is an animal of great mag-
nitude and ftrength, and untameable ferocity ; their deer are alfo of a
very large fize; while the chrevotin of Africa, or little Guinea deer,
about feven inches high, and twelve inches long, with legs almoft as
fmall as the /hank of a pipe, this neat little creature, looking like a
(lag in miniature, may mew, that the torrid zone is not without its
minute productions.

To uirvey at large the ftveral nations of the world, and their va-
rious manners ; to take a general view of the curioufly diveriified
quarters of the globe, we may fet out in imagination on a tour through
the earth, and fweeping round the terreftrial ball, (ketch the various
profpe6ls that arife as we pafs along.

6. Tran/portatiw of Convi^s to Botany Bay."] From the remote (itu-
ation of the fouthern parts of the world from the nations of Europe,
we have as yet but little acquaintance with thofe didant regions;
but from the refolution of government to tranfport convi6ls thither,
it may appear fomewhat probable, that the language and manners of
our nation, may fome time hence obtain among a people that are
nearly our antipodes ; and many of the people of thefe iflands may be
highly intereded in what is going on in the parts of the earth oppofite
to our feet. Botany bay lies in the fouth fea, on the eaft coaft of
New Holland, (which appears to be an ifland almoft as large as all
Europe,) a voyage of about thirteen thoufand miles failing, from this
part of the world, is the place intended for colonization by the En-
glifh. However we may regard this determination of the legiflature,
with dubious fentiments and expectations, whatever feverities might
feem due to the delinquents, it v^ere to be widied, greater honour
had been done to the requefts of their wives : the public papers in-
form us, that numbf>rs of thefe a(Hictcd women came to the ports
where the ve(rels lay ready for failing, and olFered to accompany their
hufbands to their exile ; their requelt could not be compliea with ;
they were ordered to their pariHies. What a pity it was they were
not indulged ! Through thefe faithful women ready to follow their
hufbands, it might be literally faid, to the end of the earth, wh^t
migh*^ we not have expeCled ol'^reformation and refinement amoiig the

degraded

\ 1

S. II. T H E E A R T H. 9|

degraded members of the infant colony, now doubly mortified, and
perhaps made more defperate.

What may be the event of this extraordinary embarkation, we mull
leave for a future day to unfold. It is time to enter more generally
on the propofed (ketch of the earth ; the accumulated accounts of
travellers through many ages, furnif. out fcenery very amply ; but of
the multiplicity of the objedls that offer themfelves for exhibition, in
the varied picture ; to fele£l the mod proper, and group them fitly to-
gether, fcems a tafk indeed arduous.

SECTION II.

South Seas.

T. Polar Regions^ Mountain and Flat Ice,] The fouthern parts of the
globe endure a longer winter than we do in the northern hemifphere;
and thofe that have attempted to navigate their (eas, have found the
way embarrafled and blocked up, by vail fields, and prodigious moun-
tains of ice, before they reached latitudes equal to Tome that are an-
nuallj( paffed in the northern ocean ; fo that whether it may be fea
or land that invefts the fouth pole, mud remain in uncertainty ; and
indeed it feems of little conlequence to know the afpefb of thole parts,
where life feems to be fhut out by the rigour of froft. Navigators,
however, have failed far enough fouthward to get within the conti-
nual glare of the fix months day, and gaze on the dreary profpe£t of
ice and of fnows, that feem for thoufands, and tens of thoufands of
miles, to encompafs the pole. The mountains of ice, that rear
themfelves to aftonidiing heights above the furface of the waters, and
that meet the mariner's eye at a great diftance, feem to be fome of
the mod curious appearances in nature. Thefe unliable hills are (een
alfo in the northern feas, fometimes floating away to the warmer cli-
mates on the fouth, to be melted down and mingled with the waters
of the ocean ; at other times arrefted by obftru£ting ihores, they take
a fixed (lation, and appear higher than the mountains aihore. Na-
turalifts in accounting for the origin and accumulation of thefe enor-
mous mafles, obferve, that the flat and the mountain ice are of dif-
ferent kinds, and differently formed ; the flat ice is the furface of the
fea congealed by cold, which on being difTolved, is found to be fait ;
on the contrary, the mountain ice has only a thin fhell of falty ice
over it, formed from the fpray, or waves of the fea, wafliing againft
it': it is principally compofed of frefh water, intermixed with grave!,
earth, brufhwood, &c. and produced upon land, efpecially againd
the fides of hills, where thaws of a fhort duratiog^..^metimes take
place ; on thefe occafions, the water runs down frotii^.the fprings and
melting fnows at the top, but is prefently ftiffened'by the froll: by
depofitions of this kind, and by frequent falls of fnow and rain, the
mafs continues to accumulatei till forming a tremendous precipice,
. j^ .. ^';.. , ^. • r-^. -' over-

."T.

.?hA

mlHi0

-<m

r /

S K E T C H E S OF

P. IIL

overhanging the deep, it at length tumbles down, with a noife hke
thunder, and with a force fufficient to overfet a poor Greenlander in
his little boat at a very great diftance. From this account of the ori-
gin of ice mountains, it fhould feem pretty clear, there mud be trafis
of land about the fouthern pole : indeed it feenis poHlble there may
be not only land, but even numerous nations, who may enjoy thefe
native fnows, as much does the Greenlander, though appearances it
mud be owned are againft this fuppofuion, as the difcoverable lands
which lie neareft the fouth pole, have been found barren, bleak, and
deftitute of inhabitants; and fome feem to think, that the flat ice,
broken as it generally is by perpendicular iifTures, may accumulate
into thofe enormous mountain-like maflcs, by being dafhed one
againll another, and by being heaped one over another by the com-
motions of the fea; thus by the vad tra6ls of the ice driving one againd:
another, enormous lumps of it are fometimes feen to be raifed out of
the water, tumbling one over another, cracking, breaking, and fliiver-
ing with a noife like thunder.

2. South Sea JJlands.] Leaving however thefe regions of conjec-
ture, and taking ''ur departure from the enormous barriers of ice
which have, blocked thenitp from the view of European adventurers,
the fird lands that offer themfelves to view, are the iflands of the
fouth iea ; thefe exhibit fcenes intereding, beautiful, and curious;
here no longer dreary iradls of ice and folitary wilds affail the eye,
but beauteous profpefls of verdant ifles, enlivened with columns of
fmoke, which befpeak the haunts of men at hand, and diverfify the
face of that world of waters, cheer the drooping mariner, and pro-
mife him a recruit from his Hcknefs, and a refpite from his toils.
This larger half of the earth, the great fouth fea and pacific
ocean, was long unknown to the nations of Europe, even after the
difcovery of America ; and during this uncertainty, theorids amufed
themfelves with fancying that there mud be a fouthern continent, to
balance, as they exprefled it, the northern parts of the globe. To
find this terra incognita audralis, has long been the employment of
fome of the abled navigators in Europe. Aiuong thefe, James Cooke
has perhaps been mod eminent; in faft, he has hardly left unexplored
a trafl fumciently large to merit the name of continent, even on the
fuppoHtion of its being all hnd.

^, ProduGions.] A few of the iflands that lie in high latitudes in
the fouth fea, have been found defolate and uninhabited, except by
animals of pafTage, as birds and feals ; and thefe from their being un-
acquainted with man in thefe folitudes, were io tame as to let the
failors come and knock them on the head, without attempting to flee;
The other ifles are generally fertile and pleafant, their hills being .
covered with verdure, and pouring down pleafant dreams, the foii
producing fpontaneoufly bread-fruit, cocoa-nuts, bananas, nuts, ap-
ples, plantains, fweet potatoes, yams, fugar-canes, and other vege-
table fare; the foreds furnifli large and valuable timber; the feas
fupply a variety of delicious fidi ; their fowls are numerous, and of
various kinds ; their land animals, beddes a few rats, are hogs and
dogs ; the dogs are fed upon vegetables, and make a part of the food
of the natives, a part not at all inferior to Englidi lamb, if we may
take the opinion of the Englifh, who partoojc with them of the ban-

S. II.

THE EARTH.

quel ; and ihofe iflands that are not very remote from the continent,
as New Holland and New Guinea, feem to afford a variety of other
animals. Happy ides ! where the fabltd golden age feems in many
parts to be realized; and where in others a very fmall labour of til-
lage might more than fupply every deficiency : and what, thrice hap-
py people ! fecluded from the tumults that diftraft the ancient world,
and deform the page of hiftory, are the poffcfFors of thefe
ifles?

4. Manners] The tender-minded and peaceful may obferve with
concern, that in thefe fequeftered fpots, evil prevails as well as in the
more bufy parts of the world. The adventurers generally on appe? '-
ing on their coafts, found thefe fimple people, though unacquainted
with metals, were not without their inftruments of war, which they
ventured for a while to oppofe to the more deftruftive arms of the
Europeans ; and though the expeditions appear to have been rather
intended for the promotion of fcience, and the extending of com-
merce in a peaceable way, it is to be lamented, that the Indians,
many of them, loft their lives in the unequal conteft. Thefe poor
people, whatever opinion they might entertain of the ftrangers, at
firft generally came down on the beach to oppofe their landing,
with arrows, ftones and lances ; they fometimes even ventured m
their canoes to furround ehe vefTels, and heave in their cffenfive wea-
pons among the people, which were anfwered by others more alarm-
ing and efll^ftive ; and when they came to a better underftanding of
the defign of the Europeans, even then thty fcrupled not to take from
them by fteallh, and fometimetinjes by force, whatever they could
carry off; they would fnatch the hats off their heads, whip the hand-
kerchiefs from their necks, and carry off with amazing dexterity eve-
ry little implement they could lay their hands on, as clothes, knives,
pirtols, the mathematical inftruments, they even ventured on their
boats and guns; and thefe depredatio is brought on contefts, which
fometimes terminated in bloodihed. But ot all the baits that ever fell
in the way of the poor Indian, nails appear to have been by far the
moft alluring ; while their larger tooL, their hatchets, or axes, for
forming the canoes and other weighty -peraiions, were made of bard
ftones ; while for points to their arrows, their lances or fifliing, tQols,
they had prepared fharp pieces of hard wood, and bones of firties ;
while theie, little ftones, fliells, and human bones, formed their ap-
paratus of drills, chizels, razors, &c. nails according to their different
fizes and ftiapes, might themfelves appear fulled to anfwer every pur-
pofe. For naili they fold their pigs, plantains, cocoa nuts, and other
pioduce : in faft nails and European hatchets, together with beads,
glaftes, or trinkets, became the medium of tiade, or the fpccie of the
iouth fea.

The furprife with which thefe fimple people were ftruck, on their
firft becoming acquainted with a variety of things, with which we
are familiar in Europe, affords fometbing amufing. 'i'he officers aie
at breakfaft, and fill the pot, by turning the cock of the tea-kitchen,
the Indian turns it alio, and holds his hand to receive the war r ; he
is fcalded, fcreams out, and by the painful experiment, finds there
are other veffels befides thofe of cocoa-fliells, that they may be fet on
the fire and that water may be made hot : he attempts to ufe their
:. _ knives

:|^"

SKETCHES OF

P. in.

knives and forks, but when he fets about to eat, his hand indeed
comes very naturally to his mouth in the old wa^, but the meat on
the point of his new fangled tool, pafles off to his oppofite ear : he
looks through the teiefcope, and fees objedts at a didance, he with-
draws his eye, and is amazed they are vaniflied : he fcampers off af-
frighted, or (lands in filent horror, when he views the formidable
gun, dealing death at a diftance, and bringing down from their heights
the fleeted paflfenzers of the air : he is aftoniflied at the fudden ap-
pearance of the Indian in the looking-glafs ; he looks behind it, and
finds nobody there; he Heals another glance ; the glance is returned ;
he gets familiar with the image, and cannot but fmile ; the (hadow
fmiles alfo, and he laughs out immoderately. Thus childifh appear-
ed the conduct of the inhabitants of the iouth fea iflands, and welt
would it have been, if they themfeives had been as innocent, as their
manners feemed (iniple \ this however was fo far from beinz the cafe,
that their hiftory affords perhaps one of the mod melancholy pi^ures
of the depravity of mankind, to be met with upon earth.

Some geographers and hiftorians, a little before their difcoveiing
thefe iflands, feemed beginning to treat as fabulous, the accounts of
Anthropophagi, as handed down by the ancients, or related by modern
travellers, and fitted only to furnilh with the marvellous, the roman-
tic page of a Robinfon Crufoe. In the hiftory of fome of thefe ifland-
ers, however, we have a melancholy proof of the exiflence of can-
nibals, and indeed of many other defcriptions of barbarities. In their
wars with each other, they give no quarter, but with a favage fero-
city, cut up the bodies of their enemies, and devour them ; fatiating a|
once their hunger and revenge ; for as the Greeks believed thofe to
be doomed to wander folitary ghofts on the banks of the Styx, whofe
remains were let to lie unburied on the earth, thefe hold, that the
fouls of thofe whofe bodies have been thus devoured, fuffer torture
in the other world, of which however their notions are very confufed :
they cut out their under jaws, and hang them up in their dwellings,
as trophies of victory : they offer up human facrifJces to their Etoo
or God, and the vidim to thefe gloomy and horrid rites, is a crimi-
nal, a (droller, or one of the pooreft clafs of people, any helplefs or
friendlefs poor fellow, whom the chief may think fit to mention, and
to whom his fervants only give the notice, by knocking him down,
and immediately putting him to death by clubs and flones. As offer-
ings to their deity, they alfo knock out their own teeth, and cut the
joints from their fingers. As the eree or king may order his fubje^s
to be facriBced, fo thofe of the lower orders may jcill a thief with ira-
punity ; and for the life of a flave, a prefent to the ma(!er, when his
anger has fubdded, is found to be an atonement. With people vho
heiltate not to appear naked in public, and who uncover their whole
bodies, both men and women, by way of refped, as Europeans take
off their hats, we fhall hardly expe^ to meet with much tendernefs
and delicacy of the connubial kind. Among thefe polygamy is prac-
tlfed by both fexes ; in their tents or fheds, whole families fleep to-
gether upon one commmon floor or bed, and their actions and their
words are barefaced beyond exprefHon. This is not all ; the fathers
proftitute their daughters for hire, >and the purchafer may keep her
for his wife, or may kill the children and put her away, or the mther
% - * will

'^f^ '

r
|r

til

THE EARTH.

will take her from him if he get a more lucrative offer. In the vio-
lence of grief for the death et a friend or relation, or in the excefs of
joy on their return from afar, or from dangers, they weep profufely,
and beat their cheeks and breads, or (Irike a fliark's tooth in their
head, and mingle their blood with their tears.

At (his affefling fcene, the natives are often unconcerned i and the
a^ors themfelves, when the moments of paflion are over, plunge into
the fea to waili tbemfelves, and feem to forget it. A people thus
Violent and unfteady in their temper, mud neceflarily be unfteady and
fickle in their conduct ; this, poor Cook, in his lait voyage, fatally ex-
perienced among a people, with whom he had been on very friendly
terms, and who revered him as a god ; he fell a victim to their fudden
rage, and was facrificed or devoured.

They are yet without the knowledge of preparing by fermentation
liquors that intoxicate; their diink bein^ principaUy w,ater, and the
inilk of the cocoa nut ; they however, like other nations, have their
favourite beverage, with which they entertain their friends ; the
*name they give it is kava. The kava is produced from ike root c:*a
kind of pepper, in a Angular fOrt of way ; the people take each a
piece of the rbOt in their mouths, and chew it like tobacco, till the
faliva flows; a bowl is then handed about for each' of them to fpit
into ; when a fufficlency of the decoftion is thus got together, the
veiTel is handed to the chief and his guefls to regale themfelves there-
with ; and however naufeous we might account fuch a potion, they
it feems prefer it to the liquors we make ufe of. The kava, how-
ever, is tound to impair the conftitution, and when taken to excefs,
will produce even madnefs.

Such of them as wear cloaths, iife ilieni generally as a loofe n)an«
tie ; they are made of (Irong grafs, braided together or wove like
iilk mats, and of a kind of cloth which they make of the bark of the
mulberry, or cloth tree, by taking off the hard outer rind, fleeping it
in the water till it is foft, and then beating it out with a fouare
wooden beetle, which has longitudinal grooves on its difTerent udes,
from coarfe to fine, and thefe leave a grain on the cloth, like that on
paper, but a great deal more coarfe ; they then bleach and dye it of
diiferent colours, and in curious patterns. Beiides this, and trinkets,
and dreifine the hair, and decorating it with feathers, they have other
methods of making themfelves fine, beyond w^hat any European nati-
ons pra£tife; thefe indeed are painful, but their effects are lafling ;
they tattow their faces and different parts of their bodies, in lines and
curves, and checks and volutes ; this they do by puncturing the fkin,
and rubbing in paint ; and this fixes an indelible flain. Their huts
are framed with pods and wicker work, and covered with bark and
leaves ; their cloth and mats they alfo ufe as carpets. They have
their games or athletic exercifes, in which they fhew uncommon agi-
lity, and great good humour, boxing and wrcdling with adonifhing
violence, fo that the failors did not chufe to accept their invitation to
partake in the fports. They have their dramas and dances, and con-
certs of vocal mufic ; to thefe they add a kind of drum, and a whidle
made of reed, and which they found by applying to the nofe. They
bake their meat in ovens or boles, which thejr dig in the ground, and
line with ftonesj in thofe they kindle a fire, and when the place is

H f\ifficiently

* i

i».

I'*

SKETCHES OF

P. HI.

fuficientTy hot, they remove the afliet, and put in the meat, fome-
timet a whole hog. wrapt up in leaves, and then cover it op with hot
ftonei and earth i in this manner it retain* its fucculency, and is found
fup erior to the cookery of Europe.

Thtre art phiMbfheri who may tell u; *< That much •# ear abhomoca
of ihe cuftoati of thafa paoploi orifinate only in our nunner of adacadoa { that
Ihay ara ona with «■ in difliluag a? cry maaBcr of crvalty, violanca, and bloodflied ).
yar our abhorriag tha praAica of htiing oa hamaa llaa, ia altegathar a wuknefai
ahat the body of a man afford* at good aooriftaaanl aa that of • pig{ aad that it ia
no greater fuflfitrcr from bciog dclboyad ia this wajr, thaa oa the niaaral pile by fire»
or ia the grave by putrefiiAioa aad worms i" they auy fay that the ofa of eloatha
•ught to depend eniircfy oa the Umperatara of the climate) and that iaeoaatriea
that are hot, they aro only a fupcriluity { that our objeQiom againft tha maoaera
of other nati' ni ia point of draft, ara aathiog at tha bottom but prejodica and ha-
bit ) that chafti'Y ii foaad where they make ao ufa of clotket, aad tha rsverfe, where
attiie form* a principal part of their pleafurei and employment.

It muft be owned^ that the eflFcAaef aducatioa ara geaerally very powerful en the
manaeri and habiti of mankind ; tad that we may oftea imagine we are aAing from
principle, when in hdt w are only copying the ways of thofe that are about ui } yet
the foberly kiarriag of the reoMiae of our fellow mortait, and the eloathiag of tfacA
bodies whililB the way to their di£(blation, have an origin, we muft acknowledge,
in drceacy sad religioa, at wctl as mare eoavenience, when particular duties do aoc
difpenfc with'the oMtgation. It may be laid, that Adam waa on^nally naked, and that
the prophet Ifalah weat without aay clothes for the fpaca of three years, by fpacial
command } but the other propheta who were aot uader the fame iajuaAioa, like
otber people, wore their cloaths) and oar iirft parente, whea oaca they had left
ikeir tanocence, were covered with ftioa. aad thst by their Creator. The ladiaas,
therefore, that rejeAr all covering, as weM as thofe that ufa it for flow, fees, ac-
cording to the fciipturei, to have departed from the Divine appointnaeat, while
aiany of the Aflatics, ia ftutting up their wem^a, aad keepiag them covered ia
thdr veils, feem to have deviated as far oa the contrary eatrcoMf aad thus to have
Aut up muck of tke fwecta of fociety. Tke prsAice of eating human iait^ vritb
the circomftaaces of cruelty that ufually accompany it, aecd only to be naaMd, to
convince ui of the evil t- however, if we regard it ia a more favourable poiat of
i^w, it will nerhaps better become us to fufpead oar judgment. If we figure t»
•orfthrei the ateatioa ofa veflel et fee, radoeed by famine to the left extremity, aa4
MC of the erew become a corpft through teal want of provifioa } ia fuch a cafe, it
Aould f«cm beft to leave it to every man'a own fecKag , whether it ihould feem right
•o him to meet tke epproeckai of dcatk, or prolong a life ufeful to hit family or fo-
dtety,, by feeding on the body of his fliip-mate; aad the conclufion he would come
•e at lb awful a OMNaeat, might perhaps be cxaftly the reverfeof what he imagined
whea afiiore, ftoat end aatiied| perhsps he would tura witk abkorrcace from fuch
»BMtl|.fickeaaad did

. 3 -

SECTION

-i^t-'K^ "::'*.vrT'r

S. Uh

THE EARTH.

/y^

6^99

SECTION III.

Abstract p/ Cook'* Voyage.

A very Oiort (ketch of the laft voyage of James Cook, may perhaps
here be rather interefting, and may I'erve lo convey a farther account
of thefe people.

1. N»rth Pajhge to InJia-l It had long been thought, if a paflage
could be difcovered between the Atlantic and Pacific ocean| on the
north, the navigation to China, India, and the other diftant parts of
the world, woiHd thus be much fhortened, and that commerce would
confequently benefit much by the event. It was imagined, that as
the utmoft bounds of Hudfon's and Baffin's Bays were not yet known,
a pailiige through thefe to the Pacific might pcfTibly be obtained : it
was thought alk>, that the communication between the two oceans,
might poflibly be open acrofs the noithern pole. Under thefe ideas,
many adventurers both public and private, attempted the navigation t
thev generally found the way blocked up with the ice, and were
obliged to return ; fome got fo embarrafTed in it, they found it diffi-
cult to get clear i and fome there were that peri/hed in the hardy at-
tempt, and never returned.

In order to determine whether fuch a paflage could be effected, the
Refolution, Captain Cook, and Difcovery, Captain Clarke, were
equipped, with fuitable (lores, in a very plentiful way, and fent to the
fouxh fea; it wal ordered, that they (hould there make any further
difcoveries in theif power, diftribute among the iflands, for the benefit
of the natives or future navigators, the variety of domeftic animals
our country aflTords, and which the King George, had munificently
fupplied ; leave Omai'at home, who had heretofore come with them )
from the ifland of Otaheite ; and thence proceed to the high tatitvdes
on the north, there to attempt the much defired pafTage to the At-
lantic ; and in cafe they (hould fail, return home the old way.

In the year 1776, a little after midfummer, they fet fail from Ply.
mouth, and on the coming on of our winter, we (ind them beginning
the fummer of the fouthern hemifphere, at the Cape of Good Hope.
The whole year 77, within a few days, they fpent fouth of the line,
and viTited fuccelllvely New Holland, New Zealand, the Friendly
and Society Ifles, befides other detached iflands.

2. NtK') Holland 1 After leaving the Cape, and pafllng, or barely
touching at fome bleak and uninhabited ifles, It was early in the yeftr
they arrived at the moft fouthern part of New Holland ; here they
recruited their (lock of wood and water, and cut fome grafs fsr th^ir
cattle, the country indeed affording little more for their refreftunent ;
the ^i^le wi(hes of the natives, however, feem but equal to the fiip-

' ply. The philofopher Diogenes, who lived in a tub, and in his zeal
againft ImtHfyj threw away his di(K, when he faw that a down Could

100

SKETCHES OF

P. Ill,

take a drink at the brook in the hollow of his hnnd-^had the cynic
been here, he might have thought he abounded in luxury and fuper-
fluity. Of all the people who inhabit the world, theie natives of
New Holland are perhaps the mod eafily fupported, they live without
cloaths, without houfes, without bread, or a fupply of vegetables;
they arc without canoes, and unacquainted with the method of catch-
ing large iifh ; they derive a frugal fubflftence from the ihell-fini they
€an pick up from the fliore ; they lie down and take their repofe on
the grafs, or like the fauns of the ancients, take up their abode in hol-
low trees.

The Engli/h, on their arrival among thefe fimple people, obferved
their manners to be mild, unfufpeAing, and unreferved ; they handed
them bread, but this they threw away ; they offered them filh, but
this they refufed ; they prefented them fowl, of this they ate, and
figniliM they liked it i they (hewed them iron, and what was fur-
prizing, they cared not for it, yet they had a fort of lances, but fhewed
no great (kill in u(ing them ; they have alfo a method of hollowing
out the trees, by cutting or ga(hing them out with (lones ; one (ide
of th. trunk they leave pretty ftrong ; the cavity is large enough to
Jet fix or feven of them (it down in ir, with a (ire in the middle } and
the tree thus excavated, is notwithftanding fufficiently fupplied with
verdure. Their Teas abound with fifli, their forefts with fowl, but
the quadrupeds are few. Some were fo debafed as to offer prefents
to the women in order to feduce them, but thefe they fpurned from
them with indignity. It will be well if their manners be much im-
proved in the end, by the intended colonization of their country with
delinquents.

44. New Zealand.] The adventurers after leaving a couple of pigs
in the wood for the improvement of this land, proceeded on their voy
age to the iflands of New Zealand : here the fcene waj wonderfully
changed, and the people fecmed to have made confiderable advances
in the arts of life » they had contrived to build themfelves (lately ca-
noes, though without the ufe of metals ; and fo clever were they in
creating their habitations on (hore, that in the fpace of half an hour,
they would both clear the ground, that was matted and embarrafled
with (hrubbery, and build on it a town, or cover it with their huts :
they had a fort of regular fortifications to flee to, built on the tops of
hills, or entrenched in the lower grounds : they praflife a little til-
lage, and their nets for hauling the feyne are of vaft extent, and the
common property of a town:,hip or diftri^. Their fendnefs for carv-
ing, and dexterity in that art, appeared as well in the curious tattoo-
ing of their (aces, as the manner of ornamenting their canoes and
dinerent utenfils or weapons : there is a certain etiquette or decorum
of manners obferved amon^ them ; they join their nofes together by
way of falute : they ar? kind and hofpitable to travelling Grangers .-
thefe people wear cloaths, and the women are diflinguifhable from
the men in their manner of drefs, their lower garments being always
faft bound about them : yet here the mofl implacable ferocity was
found among the men, and unchaftity in the women, with the pa-
rents concurrence. The New Zealanders towards their enemies, are
perhaps the fierceft and mofl: defperate of all mortals ; they give no
quarter, and feed upon the flain. Inured from their infancy to the

prafticc

•"••^^ *.

S. III.

THE EARTH.

101

pra£lice of war, they (eem habitually fufpicioui, and ever on the
watch ; they feldoni lay down their arms, and then they take eare
they iliall be within their reach, iind ready for a fnatch. As fighting
forms a principal part of their employment, fo alfo it appears to be
their delight. They join together in the war-fong, and animate each
other in norrid concert; with mufcular exertions, they diftend their
eye- lids, diftort their features, put out their tongues to an enormous
length, and ftare mod hideoufly ; and the children are adepts in the
iiranners of their fathers. It was thefe people, in a former voyage of
Cook, that cut off the Adventure's boat's crew, and fed on their
mangled bodies ; and thefe are the people mod nearly our antipodes.
The animals of New Zealand are rats, and a kind of fox dog. The
country is hilly, and therefore not well adapted for agriculture. The
forefts are grand, (lately, and luxuriant.

4. Frienaly ami Society IJles."] On the coming on of our fpring, or
the autumn of the fouthern hemifphere, the naviz^tors departed from
New Zealand, and proceeded northward to the Friendly and Society
Ifles ; thefe they enriched with their prefcnts of animals and various
ufeful plants. In thefe parts they fpent moft of the remaining part
of the year, mixing with the natives in their feftivals, cuftonis and
ceremonies : here they met with kindnefs, generofity, and friendship,
and lamented that the bloody praftice of offering human facrifices,
Should obtain among a people m other refpe^s benevolent and hu-
mane : however if we except the cuftonii of devouring human flcfli,
they too much anfwer the general defcription already given of the
iilanders. After compleating their agronomical and nautic'obfervati-
ons, and fixing Omai in a comfortable houfe, with his cattle about
him, and his garden in a thriving way, at the latter end of the year
they took their departure, proceeded towards the north, and croffed
the line. The whole of the year; ySand 79, they fpcnt in the Pa-
cific, north of the equator.

5. Sandnuichlflands.] Early In 78, they fell in with another clufter
of iflands, fertile and pleafant ; thefe they named after the iiCarl of
Sandwich. The people the/ found friendly like the generality of the
iilanders, and much the fame in their manner of life ; others had re-
ceived our ftrangers by reciting fongs in concert, thefe welcomed them
by extending their arms. The men fliewed the mod tender affection
to their families, relieving their wives in the tending of their children.
They feemed mod ingenious manufacturers of their cloth, equalling
in their colouring the patterns of Europe and China ; they excelled
in vocal mnfic, and were fond of pantomimical drollery, putting
gourds over their heads by way of mafques. They have a variety of
other diverflons among them, as a fort of chefs, bowls, quoits, and
the toffmg and catching of a number of little balls in the air; but
their greateft diveriion teemed to be in the water, on a little bit of
board, and in this they fliewed fur prizing addrefs, agility, and cou-
rage. Their method was, when the fea was uncommon rough, and
a prodigious furf was raifed among the rocks, they went out with their
piece ot board, and watching the approach of the billows, they dived
through them without being taken up by them and daflied againft
the fhore; when they had paffed the furf, and fixed themfelves to
itheir liking on their little board, they then watched the coming of a

- , , . - prodigious

SKETCHES OF

P. iir.

101

prodigious furell. and artfully giving themfQlves up. to It, were
Qoroe aloft, and carried on it to land ; and in tlie midft of fuch
a flight, when the Englifh would be fearing their fudden deilruc"
tion, they would dexteroufly evade the danger, by giving up their lit-
tle carriage to be at once dafbed in pieces againft the rocks, to the*
aftonilTiment of the failors; the women would take their children in
their arms and fwim afhore from the fliips, through tremendous bil-
lows ; and on the overfetting of i canoe, even the four year old chil-
<^ren would play a hundred little tricks in the water, till the' veiTel
was righted.

6. M^ejiern Shore of j^merica.] The adventurers foon departed from
Sandwich Ifles, and reached the weftern (bore of America early in the
fpring. They explored this remote coaft, unknown to Europeans, to
a very high latitude, in fearch of a paflTiige to Europe on the (north
eaft ; here the natives were clad in (kins, and fold their furs to the
ilrangers for iron and trinkets; they offered them alfo for fale, human
(kulls, and hands not [yet (tripped of the fleib ; they feemed fonder of
disfiguring their bodies than even the New Zealanders; thofe had flit
the ear, which is a cartilaginous fubftance, in fuch a way that it an-
fwered as a belt to flick a knife in. Thefe American Indians flit the
under lip' in fuch a manner, they appeared to have two mouths.
They had alfo holes bored through their cheeks, in which they placed
ihells or teeth, flicking out.^ They alfo cover themfelves with
inafques, and go on all fours, in order to fteal upon their game in the
woods.

7. Vicinity cfAfm and America.'] The adventurers fell in with fome
)fles far to the north, where they met with fomeRuflians, who had fettled
therefor the fake of the fur trade; from thefe they received fome infor-
mation re(pe6ting thofe feas, a couple of letters to take to Kamichatka,
apd then proceeded north till they found the continents of A(ia and
America within forty miles of each other. Having paiTed theie
freights, which lie clofe at the beginning of the frigid ^one, they
found a large fea, but blocked up and embarraflfed with ice. After
fome fruitlefs efforts to make the paflage on the north, and conflder-
ing the fummer was now almoft fpent, they returned to Owyhee, one
oft he Sandwich Ifles. "^

8. Onxybee^ and Death of Janus Cook.] Here the people well
pleafed with their return, received them with fongs and fhoutings of
joy { they met them in their canoes, and crowded on board the vef-
fels, fwarming on the decks and rigging like bees, infoniuch, that the
Difcovery f^eined to fink with their weight. Multitudes of women
and boys who could not get canoes, came fwimming in fhoals round
the veflTels; and when they could not get on board, they kept play-
ing the remainder of the day in the water. The mofl unreferved and
adlive friendfliip feemed mutually to fubfift between the natives and
the vifitants during their flay ; and on the latter leaving the ifland,
and intimating to the others they would never more return, their de-
parture was accompanied with lamentation and tears. It happened
that the weather came on fomewhat ftormy, and the foremaft of the
Eefolution was fprung in the gale. This made it neceflary for them
to return to their former flation ; but how great was their furprize
when they entered the bay, which before had been alive with the

" .: T^ • multitudet

•■*^-

p. iir.

s. in.

THE EARTH.

ini

multi^ides of the peoplepaddling about in the water! it now appear-
ed one foHtary fcene. There was no canoe came out to meet them
with fongs and fhouts to hail their return. This feenied unexplica-
ble. It was found, however, that the bay had been tabooed or for-
bid ; that their friend King Tereaboo had removed to another part of
the country^ and that the people had confequently departed from the
coaft. It fhotrkl feem alio, that the natives might be very much fur-
prifed at their fuchl^n return, and might apprehend that they had
broken their word, and 4u(d fome evil defign. Be this how it may,
matters remained not long th««4 a commerce tvas once more efla-
bliihed between .them ; the coaft, the bay, aad the veflels, became
crowded { their pigs and their plantains were brought down from the
country as before ; the;King and his family did our people the honour
of their vifits ; b ' .theiprieils became their moft particular friends : to
fecure the workmen in ,thetf neceflary operations afliore, from the
depredations ot fuch as were difpofed to pillage, they topic up their
abode with them, ai)d (l;uck up their wands to taboo the place from
the incurfions of the natives^ the chiefs and:<he people, however, were
not all thus civil, but rather feemed to difcover fome marks of impati-
ence and diflike. Some of them ;|iad the audacity and addrefs to carry
oflf the cutter; and when the c^immander at the obfervatory a/hore,
where the priefts atten4ed, carwe on board to complain of hoftilities
offered by fome of the natives, he found the Captam, James Cooke,
juft loading his double-barrelled piece, and preparing a party to ac-
company him aihore, to demand the cutter to be returned. He
had heretofore in the iflands, on (imilar occafions, fecured their .cl^iefs^
and detained them till reftitution was made ; and this way of prejqe-
•dure he had found eafy, ejcpeditifus, and effeftual. Intending the
fame condu£t on the .prefent occafion, the captain arrived at the houfe
of Tereaboo, and re^uefted that he would come on board. To this
the old King made^o objeAion. His two fons were not within, but
hud been fought for aiid fcnt before, and the father rofe up and ac-
companied the Captain. The boats of the Englifh had been ftationed
to guard the bay, and prevent any of the canoes from eicaping, till
the cutter fiiould be brought back, in the me.xn time, the mother of
the boys, obferving the military appearance of vhe captain and his at-
tendants, had taken the alarm ; the fears of the <voman foon fpread
among the multitude, and the chiefs would not kffer their King to
proceed. The Captain feemed willing to forego hi^ delien for the
|>rerent, rather than accompliih it with the fpilling of blood. His
little party feemed likely to be embarra:fled by the muliituJe, and the
officer propofed drawing up his men along the rocks, by the water's
edge, that they might have an opportunity, if neceiTary, of uHng their
arms : this was approved of, and done, and the Captain left alone.
At this unfavourable jundure, an account arrived, that one of the
chiefs was juft killed by the boats of the £ng4ifli, which had fired at
Ms canoe, and the people became outrageous, determined, and bold.
One of the moft hardy of them confronted the captain, and brandifh-
ed his weapons in a menacing manner ; in vain the captain defired
him todefift; he at length Bred upon him, but his mat was proof
againft the rtiot. The people, enraged, bore hard upon the captain.
He Hiot one of the forcmoft; immedlMtcly followed a volley of ftones,

^ which

4" '• "^*-

104

SKETCHES OF

P. Ill

which was anfwered with the firing of the boats and marines ; the
captain dill fironting them, retreated towards the boats; and while
be thus continued to face his aiTailants, they Teemed none of them to
have the courage to fall on him ; the boats were in the mean time
keeping up a fmart fire on the natives ; but while the captain, at the
water's edge, was calling out to them to defid, the Indians ftabbed
him behind ; he fell into the water : their vengeance ftopt not here ;
they fet up a fhout, dragged oflF his body, and cut it to pieces. Th**
marines and their officer, when they had difcharged their pieces, had
not time to load again ; the multitude ri)flied upon them with difmal
yells, and killed four on the fpot { the reft leaped into the water, and
got off under the fire of the boats ; one man, however, who was but
a bad fwimmer, continued flruggling in the water, with his difmally
fierce purfuers at his rere. The officer, lieutenant Phillips, could not
enjoy his own fecurity, while he faw his comrade in fuch perilous dif-
trefs; though already wounded, he leaped out of the boat, and
though he then received a blow on the head from a ftone, which
nearly fent him to the bottom, he fnatched the poor fellow by the haijr
of his head, and dragged him off.

The rigeing and aftronomical apparatus at the village, on the other
(ide of the Day, where the kind and friendly priefts refided, being fpee-
dily got on board, the reft of the day was fpent in endeavourmg tp
bring the natives to a parley. ■ They demanded the dead bodies, efpe-
cially that of Cook, and threatened vengeance if they were not re-
turned; but the people treated them with mockery and con-
tempt.

Great were the military preparations on board, that followed thefe
calamities ; the Englifh, apprehenfive of an attack on the veilels un-
der cover of the night, were all ofi the watch; they had their boats
ready armed, and rowing at feme diftance round the veffels to preven^
the cables from being cut, and they found the natives were equally
bufy ; a prodigious number of fires were kindled upon the hills ; and
they had reafon to believe, that at that very inftant, they were offering
up the flain as a facrifice.

They remained the whole night undlfturbed, except by the howl-
ings and lamentations that were heard on the fhore. The next morn-
ing they heard conchs blowing in the different parts of the coaft, as
the challenge to battle ; and large parties were feen marching over
the hills.

The Englifh learned from the priefts, who fent fecret meflages to
them by night, that the flefh of their flain countrymen, together with
the bones of the trunk had been burnt ; that the remaining bones o^
the captain had been diftributed a iiong the chiefs, thofe of the others
had been given to the multitude. They kept uf *he demand for the
remain^ of their late commander, and continued to ;nake the neceiTary
preparation for fea. The priefts remained their unalienable friends,
and others kept up their hoftilities and infults, till at laft they made
them feel fome of the weight of their refentment. The men hud all
along fhewn themfelves prompt to revenge the death of their much
lamented commander, and when the natives ftill continued to harafs
and annoy them at their taking in of the^water, they at length had
leave given them 10 fet fire to fome of their houfes; they were but
■' -■ ' .;. xnfn.

*sJv

s.ni.

THE EARTH.

los

men, and fufccptible of fudden paflion ; they killed feveral of the peo-
ple indifcrinilnately, tl. / made a general conflagration ; and the
houfes and the goods of the kind priells were confunied, and the coaft
was filled with groans, howling, and lamentation. Among the number
that were killed, the Englifli had to lament the lofs of many of their
good friends; and many of the natives bewailed in tears the death of
the captain, as well as that of their own countrymen.

When the Indians had been made to feel, that the forbearance of
th« Engliih had not proceeded from debility or fear, they at length
laid afide their animofity, and became once more their fiiends. The
remains of the poor captain were gathered together, and brought on
board the veflel j they were committed *o the deep with the umal fo-
lemnity, and no doubt with aching hearts, though with military pa-
rade. Provifions were again brought down as before ; and at laft on
the adventurers taking their departure, their farewells were received
with every mark of affeflion and good will.

9, Kamtjchatka^ the Return.] It was in fpring they departed from
the Sandwich Ides, once more to attempt a paffage to Europe on tlie
north; they proceeded to Kamtfchaika, a country which forms the
caftern coaft of Aiia, far to the north. This part of the world, though
fo extremely remote from the nations of Europe, acknowledges the
arbitrary fceptre of the Rufs ; here in a land of ice and of fnows, of
bears and of wolves, and where the natives adopt ihe aukward gel^
tures of the beais, in thi^ir merriments and dancings ; and where they
acknowledge them as their preceptors in furgery and phyfick, having
oblerved and adopted the herbs they have recourfe to when languid
or wounded ; here they experienced politenefs and hofpitality. After
fpending fome years in folitary feas, and among nations of Indians,
even the infant advances that were made in arts and refinement, in this
dreary land, muft have given it an air of Europe, and revived the
ipirits of the failors. On this bleak coaft their eyes were fiift feaft-
cd, after leaving the ifles, with the view of a light-houfe ; it ftands
on the bluff head, at the entrance of Awaifka Bay, and is lighted
when Ruffian velTels are expedted on the coaft, other fhips fcarcely
ever appearing on thofe folitary feas. On their gaining the bay, and
coming to an anchor, they examined every corner with their glaffes,
in fearch of the St. Peter and Paul's town, a place they conceived to
be of fome ftrength and confideration. At length they dilcovered a
few miferable log-houfes, and fome conical huts, raifed on poles,
amounting in all to about thirty ; which from their fituation, not-
withftanding all the refpeft they wifhed to entertain for a Ruffian
Oftrog, they were under a neceffity of concluding to be Petropau-
loufkoi.) They could not for a lon<j time perceive any fign of a living
creature in the place. The next day, however, four of our people
being fet on the ice to go to the town, after obferving fome men hur-
rying backward and forward, they law one of the inhabitants coming
down on a fledge, drawn by dogs ; he gazed a while at the ftrangeis,
and then fet off back again. Another driver came down in like man-
ner, and called out to them ; they held up the letters they had re-
ceived the preceding tummer from the Ruflian fur-traders, addreflfed
to the commander at Petropaulowfkoi, and the governor of
Kamtfchatka ; upon this the driver turned about, and fet off back

again

i'- '

so6

SKETCHES OF

P.m.

again in full fpeed : a guard of thirty foldiers then met them on the ice,
and thefe they accompanied to the Oftrog> where they wjre kindly
entertained, when once they had made them underftand they had not
come as enemies. On their leaving the village, each was accommo-
dated with a fledge, dogs, and driver ; one was allotted alfo to carry
the two boat hooks they had brought with them, at which the Tailors
were highly diverted. At this place they got a fupply of cattle and
flour, and experienced extraordinary kindnefs from the people, elpe-
dally from the governor, the major Behm; confidering the fervice
they were engaged in, as of general advantage to mankind, he
thought that in every country they were entitled to the privileges of
citisens, and would not receive pay for the articles fupplied. *' I
cannot,'* fays he, ** foreet my miftrefs's charader, or my own honour,
fo much, as to barter tcr the performanceof a duty : befides, he re-
marked, that the Kamtfchatdales were but juft emerging from a
fiate of barbarity j that they looked up to the Ruflians as .their pat-
terns in every thing, and he hoped that in future they might look up-
on it as their duty, to afllft ftrangers to the utmoft of their power, and
believe that fuch was the univemi praAice of civtlized nations. The
adventurers after leaving this hofpitable port, proceeded northward,
and paiTed the ftreight between Alia and America. After reaching
about as far as they had done the preceding year, and encountering
many difficulties and dangers from the ice, which they found extend-
ed from continent to continent, and effe£tua]ly prevented them from
cffeQing the paiTage, to the unfpeakable joy of the whole company,
the iignal was made to return.

They were now heartfick of the hardfhips, the danger*, and the
anxieties, to which they had been continually expofed, and for
which their reward had been only difappointment ; they now faw the
end of their outgoings, and every future ftep as bringing them nearer
home ; and theugh they had a difficult and tedious voyage Hill ber
fore them, the fudden joy on this occaiion, that brightened the coun-
tenance of every individual, was perhaps greater than they would
have experienced on a view of their own native ftiores, after long
looking out for and expecting the land. Our navigators now returned
to Kamtfcbatka, where they again met with a kind and friendly re-
ception, recruited their naval uores, and repaired the damages done
to the ibips ; here alfo they interred the remains of the captain,
Clarke, who had been on the decline from the time of his leaving
England, had borne his fuiferings with great patience and refignation,
and died a fliort time before their return to this port. From hence,
taking their departure to known lands, and frequented feas, they
coafted along the ifland of Japan, and met with two of .the craft of
that nation, but declined approaching very near thenn^ for fear of
necdlefsly intimidating them, efpecially as they expefted they might
have an opportunity of an intercourfe with the natives j in this howr
ever they afterwaids fail.d, as they never got alhore at all, but pro-
ceeded on to China, where they landed at Canton in the latter end
of 1779: from this they proceeded to the Cape of Good Hope; and
fiom thence to Great Britain, where they arrived in the latter end of
fun^mer, 1 7B0, after an abfence of four years. It is remarkable, that
ill the whole of this tedious voyage, wherein theyv yiiited almoft, or

altogether,

6. HI.

THE EARTH.

107

ftltogetlier, every habitable climate of the earth, there were but five
that died of fickneit, three of whom were ill before they left England ;
and it is equally remarkable, that the two fhips were fcarcely ever a
day without a fight of each other, during all that time.

10. Ohfervations."] We may now take our leave of this well con-
duced navigation, by obfervmg, that this very voyage, in account-
ing for the peopling of the remote parts of the world, may ferve the
moll incredulous, as a cord, to bind together all the nations of the
earth, into one great family, defcended from one common ftock. It
had long been wondered how America came to be peopled ; and ftill
more how the widely diflfuled iflands in the great fouth fea were found
(locked with inhabitants.

Our navigators found Afia and America very near to each other, in
a high but habitable latitude : they learned alio, that when the inter-
vening fea was open, iit was croifed with canoes ; when frozen, with
fledges drawn by dogs. This folves the wonder refpefling the Ame-
ricans } the extreme diftance of the fouth fea iflands from the conti-
nent, and the fmallnefs of the veflels which the natives were capable
of conftru£ting and navigating, feemed incompatible with each other ;
It was thought that canoes could never have brought them th jujh
fo immenfely <li0ant a voyage ; late difcoveries, however, fhew, that
the iflands though generally very remote from the continents, yet they
are not.all fo 1 they are very numerous, and widely diffufed, in fome
parts in dufters, \n ethers in detached ifles; the neareft didance,
therefore, from land to land, is not fo great as was at firft imagined ;
befides, there may be hundreds of them yet undifcovered by the Eu-
ropeans, which may ierve as links, to bring nearer together thofe
yrhich may appear to us the mod diftant ; and, that even canoes may
ibmetimes go a great diftance by fea ; and that therefore the iflands
may in this vay have been peopled from the Continent is clear, from
an incident that happened during this voyage. At an ifland two
hundred leagues diftant from Otaheite, Omai, to his great furprife,
met with fome of his countrymen. It appeared that about twelve
years before this, a number of them had been crofling in a canoe from
one of the Society Ifles to another, but had been blown off by adverfe
winds I after enduring great bardiliip, and mod of the people dying,
they were at laft caft upon this ifland, whence they knew not how to
return. The fimilitude between the language and manners here, and
thofe of their own country were fo exa€t, they were foon naturalized
to this place, and they had now become fo attached to it, having
formed new connections here, that when Omai propofed getting
them brought back to their native home, they declined the offer.

To conclude the flcetch of the iflands in che South Sea, there is a
great fimilitude prevails in the manners of them all, however remote
from each other, and their language is generally a dialect of the
Malayan Tongue. So that India appears to have furniflied the South
Sea Iflands with inhabitants, as Tartary on the north, has peopled
America. ,. -i

• Ik,/* '

•^

SECTION

V I

t»$ • $ K E T C H E S O F P. JII.

SECTION IV.

Asia.

As in this profpeft of the earth, we have not to wait the delays of
the traveller, or the difappointments of the mariner; but, fleeter than
the wind, we may flcim along the convexity of the globe, and view,
in imagination the varied fcene, which it has coft them hardships and
pains to defcry. Taking oyr departure from the iflands of the
Pacific, we may rife on the wings of the morning, and behold the
eaftern fliores of Afia with the firft dawning of the day.

I. Tartary] The hiftory of Afia affords an extenfive and varied
pi£ture of climates and foils, of manners and men, of living crea-
tures and natural produ^ion. The nations who firfl receive the
light of the morning, are the Tartars on the north eaft ; and in fuc-
celTion the Japanefe, Chinefe, the natives of India, the Perfians and
Arabians.

The Scythians were celebrated in antiquity, for being a hardy race
©f people, living in tents and leading a roving life ; their defcendants,
the Tartars, anfwer the fame defcription to this very day. In bodies
of fome thoufands, with their families, their cattle, and all they
poflefs, they wander about in the vaft folitudes of the Afiatic Conti-
nent, from the confines of Europe to the great Pacific Dcean. Oa
ineeting with a fituation fertile and pleafani, they pitch ,their tents,
and continue in the place till the gral's is confumed, when they again
fet forward in fearch of another inviting fpot. Their principal food 19
horfe flefh and cheefe, or dried curd made up in little balls, which
they crumble into water, and then drink or lip it up. Their jackets
are made of deer (kins with the fur outwards. Their chief employ-
ment from their infancy, is the management of their horfes, hunting
and the tending of their flocks, few arts being cultivated, except the
making of arms ; and, in the ufe of thefe and in riding, they (hew un-
common addrefs and agility, cleaving a pole at a confiderable
diftance, with an arrow, in full gallop. Hoftilities often happen
between the different hordes and their chiefs, and mark the life of the
Tartar as a ftate of continual warfare. If he perceives a tnck, or
hears a found as he croffes the defart, he is all upon the watch, and
ejfpedls that a foe or booty is at hand, for robbery they account con-
queft, yet are remarkably hofpitable to their friends , and likewife to
ttrangers who put themfelves under their proteftion. Their filial af-
fedtion is very great, yet if the parent become infirm by age, or be
feized with an incurable difeafe, they build him a fmall hut, near fome
river, into which they put him with a quantity of provifions, and then
leave him to die, alleging, that they have done him a great office iit
fending him to a better place. Their women are remarkable for their
niodefly and fidelity, adultery being a crime fcarcely ever heard of
- - among

.h^aHHk-

„;'*• '

S. IV.

THE EARTH,

109

among them, yet they are to be met with in the feraglios of Turkey
and Periia, having been bought when children from their unnatural
parents.

The Tartars feem generally to profefs deifm or idolatry, and fome
are To fuperftitioufly attached to certain forms in their whiflcers, they
declare enmity towards others, as not obferving the orthodox cut. A
people however fo widely difperfed over atraft of country, reachingfroni
Perfia and India on the fouth, to the regions of the pole ; and com-
prehending in itfelf a variety of climates; fo uncoIle6\ed as they are,
and fo mixed on their extreme confines, with nations of very different
manners ; from their different fituations they naturally deviate from
the general defcription. Thus, far to the north they dig fubterrane-
ous habitations, to fcreen themfelves from the cold and feverity 'of
winter ; and their name Samoiedes, (ignifies men eaters ; while on the
fouth, particularly at Aftracan, they praflife fomething of agriculture,
manufacture and commerce : they alfo, accordingly as they oorder on
or commix with the Ruflians, the Turks, Perllans, Indians or Chinefe,
profefs Chriftianity, or the doctrines of Mahomet, Zoroafter or Brum-
ma, Fohi, Confucius or Li Laokun.

2. Southern Nations.'] The numerous nations on the fouthern parts
of Ada, from the iflands of Japan, to the river Euphrates, and Medi-
terranean Sea, are like the Europeans, advanced in agriculture,
commerce, arts and manufactures ; but the profefllon of idolatry fliil
prevails among them; and in Perfia andTurkey, the do6trines of Maho-
met. The Europeans are to be met with here as in other commercial
parts of the world, efpecially in India and the adjacent idands ; where
it is well known they have made confiderable fettlements. The
Chinefe, but more efpecially the Japanefe, are too jealous of their
machinations, to allow them much footing in, or knowledge of their
empire.

3. Arabs."] The different tribes of Arabs, anfwer both the defcrip-
tions given of the other Afiatics ; fome roving like the Tartars,
others living in towns. In all thefe countries, and wherever the doc-
trines of the Alcoran prevail, the happinefs of the marriage unity i»
baniflied by polygamy. |

The Arabians art Mahometans ; fome of them however ftill conti-
nue Pagans. The .vandering Arabs fubfift principally by robbery, on
their fleet but docile courfers, which feem to underftand the voice of
their mafters, and wait at the door of their tents all day long, fully
equipped and ready for mounting ; they traverie the deferts, and hover '
round tlie caravans to plunder the merchants, and the MufTulnians, oiv>^
their pilgrimage to the tomb of Mahomet, at Mecca. Some think ■
thefe the defcendants of Ifhmael, and in them fulfilled the prophecy
to Hagar. " And he will be a wild man ; his hand againft every
man, and every man's hand againft him : and he fliall dwell in the
prefence of his brethren." When the children of Ifrael were brought
out of Egypt, and through the Red Sea, which was divided, and
the waters made to ftand as an heap ; forty years long they
were miraculoufly fupported in this wildernefs, where the rocks
were cleft ; ftreams alfo were brought out of the rock, and waters
caufed to run down like rivers ; and manna was rained down upon
them to eat, and the corn of heaven given them. The offspring of

Abrahaai

k--

••^

SKETCHES OP"

?. UL

Abraham was eftablifhed in Cainian,and the heathens driven out } but
the Turks are now in pofTeflion o'' Paleftiiie, and the tribes of thr
fons of Jacob, are fcattered to c*..y quarter of the elobe, and the
moft of them having loft then- name, and the remembrance of their
origin } thenifelves and their manners feem to have mixed with the
nations of the eaft, and their idolatrous rites.

SECTION V.

Africa.

I i

If continuing our imaginarv tour round the earth, we pais the
Ifthnius ot Suez, to the Continent of Africa ; the route which the
merchants of old purfued with little Jofeph, the fon of the Patriarch
Jacob, whom they bought from his envioua brethren, and fold to
Potiphar,, captain of Pharaoh's guard ; the track alfo which the car-
penter, Jofeph, afterwards followed ; when being warned in a dream,
he took the young child and his mother, and fled by night, from the
rage of king Herod, and the land of Judea; on our leaving the (kirtt
of the wilUernefs which form the Ifthmus, the plains of Egypt rife on
the view.

1. Egypt. Barhary.'] The Egyptians and the Moors, along the
northern coafts of Africa, from the ihores of the Red Sea to thofe of
the Atlantic Ocean, are acquainted with arts and manufa£lures. In
antiquity, the Egyptians were famous for fcience, the Carthaginians
for commerce and navigation; and the ruins of their former magnifi>
cence aftonifh to this day ; but the reveries of aftrology, is the
fcience of the modern Egyptians, and piracy the employment of the
marine of the Moors. Chriftian churches were alfo gathered in this
country at an early period^, as well as in Alia, and the fouthern parts

. of Europe ; but here, as in Afia, the doctrines of Mohammed haVe fu-
perceded the profefTion of chriftianity. In the other parts of Africa
they feem very generally in the pra^ice of idolatry ; but the inner
parts of this country are but little known to Europeans ; they all ap-
pear however almoft wholly ignorant of fciences and arts ; and their
chief barter are confequently natural productions ; as gums, bees wax,
Animals, elephants teeth, gold dud, &c.

2. Ethiopia.'\ South of Egypt lies Ethiopia, a tra£t extending
an its largeft acceptation, to the Cape of Good Hope ; its borders on
2he weft, as undetermined as thofe of ancient Scythia ; and in its differ-
ent countries of Nubia, AbyiTmia, Zanguebar, Caifraria, Lower
Guinea, &c. &c. including, perhaps, a greater variety of manners and
men than Tartary itfelf. The jealouly of the AbyfUnians, and the
prohibition of the Turks, who claim their borders on the Red Sea, and
mgrofs their traflick of gold, emeralds, horfes, rice, &c, for the manu-
acfures of the loom, prevent us from knowing much of thenifelves,
re have learnt however, tliat their profeflion is a mixture of Chrifli-

■m ^^#^

S.V.

THE EARTH.

III

anitf tnd Judaifm. South of this, in Monoemugl, it is faid there are
Cannibals who oflTer up human facrifices, fparing none who are bardf
enough to venture through their country. All along the coaft ^
Zanguebar, on the fouth eaft fide of Africa, the Portuguefe have cpn-
fiderable fettlements { and in fome parts have commixed with the
natives, and prevailed on them to adopt the European mode of
drefs. At the Cape or mod fouthern jpart of the continent we meet
with the Dutch ; thefe cannot boaft a nmilar acquifition. The Hot>
tentots are fo entirely attsiched to liberty, and their ewn manner of
life, t^'at they have not yet any of them become converts to Europeaa
cuftoms ; liice the Tartars, they move about in companies, with their
huts ; like them expofe their infirm and aged parents to perifti ; the
fame feverities they ufe to infants that are born twins, and fometimeslo
female children. They befmear their bodies with greafe and (bot,
and put heaps of it on their heads which, when clotted and hard*
forms a filthy fort of cap ; they wear mantles of fheeps (kin with the
wool outwards; and wrap thongs of half dried (kins round their legs,
which makes them walk like a tiooper in jack boots ; they have parti*
cular dances when the moon is new or at full, which looks like ido-
latry. They punifh murder, adultery and robbery with death,

3. Negroland and Guinta.] Along the weftern coad of Africa, alio,
on the mores of Negroland and Guinea, the Europeans have many
iettlements : hence they bring gold duft, elephants teeth, gums and
drugs } their traffic ftops not here j alas, they make even man an arti-
cle of commerce.

4. Enflavement of the Africans. "l Parents and children, partners
and friends, and every individual. How would you like to be torn
from your every neareft and mod tender connection, and from your
dear native home ; and carried into bondage ye know not whither s
by people whom ye never injured ; and with whom ye have no ac-
quamtance ? yet fuch is annually the lot of thoufands, and tens of
thoufands, of the poor natives of Africa ; and it is a lamentable truth,
that their oppreffors are thote who make profeflion of the chriftian
name, and that the legiHature of our nation encourage this bufinefs.
It is to be l^pcd, in charity to the king and his counfellors, that they
cannot be fully fenfible of the fufFerings of the poor opprefTed negroes;
for if they were, furely they couM not Bnd peace of mind till thev
put a ftop to fuch iniquitous proceeding, the very relations of which
might make the hearts of the peaceful melt with pity, and thofe of
well-meaning zealots, burn with indignation ! While we live under
a government, the mildnefs of which allows us thus with impunity, to
fpeak of its imperfections ; and plead without reflraint, the caufe of
the opprefled ; an a€t which the religious, in good will to mankind,
have fometimes found it their duty to perform in oppoHtion to human
laws, and through much perfecution and fufFerings unto death : while
thus eafy and free is the lot we enjoy ; and while it is a maxim in the
laws of our land, that its air is too pure for a Oave to breathe ; or, ia
other terms, that the inftant a Oave fets his foot down amongfl us,
whatever may have been his condition before, he that inftant becomes
free : how extremely unjuft and inconfiftent mufl it appear, that
countries abroad,, which own no other government, ihould be under
ib very different a predicament ; that men are there bought and fold

. like

<'■

■3

i^4&-

SKETCHES OF

P. iir.

\t.\

.^■*i^"

like the beafls of the field ! and how much of felfiHinefs and oftenta-
tion mud we fufpeA in the boafts of the Englifli, that their laws are
thus free, and declarative of the natural rights of mankind, while the
very fame laws hold thoufands in a bondage worfe than that of
Pharaoh, who, with his numerous hod, was fwallowed up in the Red
Sea, for hardnefs of heart.

It is faid by fome of the traffickers in the human fpecies, that the
'negroes are brought from a wretched cruel country ; and, that they
profit much by their being tranfported to the more humane European
fettlements. Guinea is not free from the calamities of human life, any
more than other countries ; but alas \ how has the catalogue of thefe
been fwelled, by their intercourfe with white people j and however
diligently thefe may propagate reports to excufe their traffick, and
palliate their crimes; whatever they may perluade themfelves in jufti-
fication of this fhocking trade, the fa£ls related by humane obfervers,
and even by fome of themfelves, might feem fufficient to pierce the
moll unrelenting breads ; but the love of gain has deeled the hearts
of thefe wretched people againd the impremons of pity, and blinded
their eyes that they cannot fee the beauty of judice, mercy and truth ;
and their hidory affords perhaps, the mod melancholy piflure of the
depravity of mankind, to be met with this day on the face of the
earth. Happy the man ! who, feeing what lengths thefe poor people
have got to, by giving way to avarice and the violence of their pafli-
ons, takes warning againd the evils of pride and felfiffinefs. Happy
he, who, feeling the infirmities of human nature, learns to pity this
mod lamentable defcription of people, whofe (ituation is more depio-'
Table, infinitely more fo, than that of the poor innocent negroes, who
endure their oppreflion ; who look forward with hope, to the awful
period which delivers them from their bondage, and meet it with
joy and fmiles on their countenances. An account of the black
people in their native country ; the manner of their capture ; their
treatment on the voyage, and afterwards in flavery ; may piteoufly
fhew what caufe there is given for the preceding refledlions and
remarks. *

" Which way foever I turned my eyes on this pleafant fpot," fayj
M. Adanfon, in his account of Goree and Senegal, *' I beheld a per-
fefl image of human nature : an agreeable folitude bounded on every
fide by charming landfcapes ; the rural fituation of cottages in the
midd of trees ; the eafe and indolence of the negroes, reclined under
the fliade of their fpreading foliage ; the fimplicity of their drefs and
ma>>ners ; the whole revived in my mind the idea of our fird parents,
and I fev-med to contemplate the world in its primitive date : they
are, generally fpeaking, very good-natured, fociable and obliging.**
This defcription appears equally applicable to the other parts of the
country.

Guinea feems generally very populous and well cultivated, in (bme
parts looking like an entire garden, interfperfed with villages and
towns; wild fowl and poultry are very numerous; their meadows
feed vad herds of large and fmall cattle ; the low grounds, in fome
places, divided by fniall canals, are fowed with rice ; the higher land
is planted vi^ith Indian corn, millet and peafe of different forts; they
are plentifully fupplied with potatoes and fruit. The natives are gene-
rally

s. v>

THE EARTH.

115

rally a good fort of people; honeft in their dealings; fiicndlyto
ftrangers ; of a mild convcrfation ; afFable, and eafy to be overcome
with reafon. The more difcerning of them account it their greatcft
iinhappinefs, that they were ever vifiied by the liuropeans, the Chrif-
tians having introduced the irafficlc of flavc" and baniflicd that peace
from amongrt ihcm they formerly hvtd in.

The calamities to which ihefe poor people are expoftd, in every
ftage of this iniquitous traffic, feems to be unparalleled in the hirtory
of any other nation, whether ancient or modern. Iron and other nia-
nufiiftures of Europe, are the articles given in exchange for the poor
(laves; for thefe, the corrupted Afiicans will pradife every violence
and cruelty on their countrymen. If a fliip come in fight, it is confi-
dered as a fufficient motive for a war, and as a fignal for an inftanta-
neous commencement of hoftilitics. They fall on the neighbouring
nations for the purpofe of making prilbners or flaves, and in the tu-
mult of war, their rage often predominates even over motives of
avarice ; in the height of their fury they nialTacre their opponents ;
if a king fails in making prifoners of his enemies, he furrounds, with
his army, one of the towns of his own fubjefts, fets fire to the houfcs,
and picks up the people as they attempt to efcape from the flames.
Thefe evils aie not merely confined to the coafts ;' the negroe fpftors
go many hundreds of miles up the country with goods, bought from
the Europeans, where markets of men, are kept in the fame manner
as thofe of beafto with us. When the poor (laves, fuch as furvive the
fatigues and harddiips of the journey, are driven down to the fea
iliorc, they are ftiipped naked, and ftriftly examined by the European
iurgeons, both men and women, without the leafl diftinflion or
xuodtfty ; thofe which are approved as good, are marked with a red
hot iron with the fliip's mark, afier which they are put on board the
ve(rels, the men being fliackled with irons, two and two toge-
ther. Befides thefe methods of procuring flaves in multitudes, the
favors, or free negroes as they are termed, who live on the coaft, and
luow how to fpeak the European languages, are furnifljed with
'Wms and ammunition ; and thus equipped, they fally forth into the
country and kidnap numbers of children of both fexcs, which they
find on the roads or in the fields, where their parents keep them all
day to watch the corn ; for thofe whom they meet with ftrong and
grown up, they look for a clog of wood, and fallen them to it by the
wrifts with (tap'es, and thus bring them to the vefTels labouiing under
the load. In . ain the parents b'ewail the lofs of their offspring; or,
in vain the tender family at home in the village, expert the coming
of their fiie, with the approach of the night ! the flieH muft no more
be enlivened with their prefence, nor their labours be alleviated by
their company in the fields. So enormous are the praftices ye have
ftirred up, ye degenerate fons of Europe, among thefe well-meaning
people, and fo bitter the affliflions ye have ftrewed round their dwell-
ings !

Leaving thefe regions of forrow and defolatlon, we may expedl

the Icene to brighten, on contemplating the farther lot of the captives:

but alas ! their fulTerings feem only beginning. Under the weight

^of affliftion, fome being fnatched from all that was dear to them upon

earth, and under the dreadful apprehenfion of an unknown perpetual

- ^ I flavery;

«M

j^j ^

■^-

lii

SKETCHES OF

P. III.

' i

hi h

flavcry J pent up within the narrow confines of a veflel, fometimf s
fix or (even hundred together, they are often reduced to a ftate of
defperation, wherein many have leaped into the fca, and kept them-
felves under water, till they were drowned i otheri have ftarved
themfelves to death i for the prevention whereof, fome maftera of
vefTcls have cut oflT the legs and arms of a number of thefe
defperate poor creatures, to terrify the reft : great numbers have
alfo frequently been killed, and fome deliberately put to death
under the greateft torture, when they have attempted to rife, in
order to free themfelves from their prefent mtfery, and the flaver/
defigned them.*

It may be faid that they are plentifully fupplied with food on the
voyage, and that every precaution is taken that can be conducive to
their health ; the failors it is true^ often complain that ihey themfelves
are fadly pinched ; fome having been inveigled on board i and then
detained againft their wills, they are obliged to make it out as well as
they can by getting in with the negroes, who are well provided for ;
the captains wiih, fay the crew, to bring the (laves in good order to
market," and to make us fo tired of their ufage that we may defert
them in the Weft Indies, and fo lofe our wages ; thus do crwAty
and fraud mark the manners and habits of thefe wretched people ip
every ftage of this inhuman buflnefs.

That their care of the negroes proceeds not from good-will, may
lamentably appear from their inhuman treatment of them, fometim^s
when they are quiet and not attempting an efcape ; if there (hould be
any necefiity, from lempeftuous weather, for lightening the Hiip; or, if
it be prefumed on the voyage, that the proviiions will fall fliort
before the voyage can be made, they are many of them thrown over-
board ; indeed, fo lightly have their lives been efteemed, that they
have been taken away upon a fpeculation, that it would be more pro-
fitable to drown them, than to run the hazard of their dying. In
1781, one hundred and twenty-two were thrown overboard, from
one veflel ; ten others, who were brought upon the deck for the faine.
purpofe, did not wait to be handcuffed, but leaped intq the fea, ana

fiiared

:;?

li!

- ^Ji^. .

* A mafler of ■ veflel, who brought a cargo of flfcvrs to the i/Iand of Barbadoei,
being aikcd what had been the fucccf* of bit vovage f he afifwered, * that he had
found it a difficult CMtter to (si the negroes a fighting with each other, in order Co

Eocure the number he wanted, but that when he had obtained this end, and bad got
• veflel filled with fla^eit, a aew difficulty arofe, from their refufal to take food ;
thofe defperate creatures chof^ng rather to die with hunger, than to be carried from
their native ceuntry." Upon a farther enquiry, by what means he had prevailed
upon them to forego this defperate refolution ? be anfwered, << that be obliged all
the negroes to come upon deck, where they perfifting in their refolution of not
taking food, he caufed the failori to lay hold upon one of the mod obftinate, and
chop him into fmall pieces, forcing fome of the others to eat a part of the mangled
body ; withal fwearing to the furvivors, that he would ufe them all one after the
other, in the fame manner, if they did not coofent to eat." This horrid jxecuttoo
he applauded a* a good aft, it having had the defired effeft, in bringing them to take
food. A fimilar cafe is mentioned in Aftley's colleAion of voyages, of one veflel, in
which feveral of the men flavet. and- a woman flave had attempted to rife, ia order
to recover their liberty; fome or whom the mafter, of bis own authority, fenteoced
to a cruel death ; making them firfl: eat the heart and liver of one of thofe he killed.
The woman he hoifted by the thumbs, whipped and flailied with knives, before the
Mhtt flavcs, till flie died.

»*»

.«

ii^p^'

8. V.

THE EARTH.

tii

pro-
In

(hared the Fate of their companions, vet the people !■ the fliip had
not been put upon fliort allowance ; but the wretched captain madt
this ezcuie on board, for his condudl. " That if the flaves, who were
then Hckly, had died a natural death, the lofs would have been the
owners } but, at they were all thrown alive into'the fea, it would fall
upon the underwriters." Thus, ye infurers, are ye liable to be de-
frauded, by meddling in this iniquitous traffick ) and th>is do ye
yourfelves, ye inconfiderate men, defraud the negroes of their
lives.

The preceding fa£l was proved in your law-fuit with the owners,
itt Guildhall ; the horrid deed is recorded in the annals of that court i
where,- perhaps more enlightened generations to come, may look back
with horror, on the rude practices of their predecelTirs. Hundreds can
6on>e forward and fay, that they heard the melancholy evidence with
tears ; though the perpetrators of the murders, efcaped the puniih-
inent due to their crimes.

If the fliip ihould arrive fafe at its deftined port, a circumftance
which does not always happen, (for fome have been blown up, and
many loft) the wretched Africans are again expofed naked, without
uny diftindion of fexes, to the brutal examination of their purchafers.
In this melancholy fcene, mothers are feen hanging over their daugh-
ters, bedewing their naked breads with tears ; and daughters dinging
to their parents, not knowing what new ftage of diftre(s muft follow
their feparation, or, if ever they (hall meet again ) and here what
fympathy, what commiferation are they to expert ? why indeed, if
they will not feparate as readily as their owneis think proper, the
whipper is called for, and the laih exercifed upon their naked bodiet,
till obliged to part. Having been brought from a country where a
very fmall labour of tillage lupplied them abundantly with the necef*
faries of life ; the hardfhips ^hat are impofed on them are often more
than they can bear : under thele, together with change of ctimate, they
droop and die in very great numbers ; thofe that furvive the (irft two
years, are faid to be feafoned, or fitted to be put into a gang to under-
go the labours and hardfhips of flavery. When thoufands have been
llaughtered on the African Continent through this initj^uitous traffick ; it
is eftimated that ioo,oooare notwithftanding annually brought off* from
their native country ; two thirds of thefe by the fliips of the Englifli j
that fifty thoufand are deftroyed on the paiTage, and in the
feafoning : Woful havock of the fons of men ! Fifty thoufand then
annually furvive, to work and people the plantations. How muft
thefe and their offspring, baniih fotitudefrom the filent tracts that have
been laid wafte by the fwords of the Europeans, and fupply inhabitants
in abundance, to^ the iflands that have loit even the remembrance of
their native Indians ? as the fame climate in a few generations lightens
the blacknefs of their complexions, and throws a ihade of darknela
over that of the Europeans ; how muft both by degrees, be aillmilated
in their perfons ; and, how muft they at laft imperceptibly coinmix
with each other, and the unbecoming diftin^on of mafter and
flave be quite worn out ! We may amufe.ourfelves with fuch reflec-
tions as thefe, and wiili to fee this aggravated evil in the moft fa«
vourable point of view. But aias ! ihe catalogue of fa£ls that ftarei
us in the face obliges us to forego much of the pleafure we might

J 2 derive

ii6

SKETCHES OF

P. iir.

i! '^

derive from fuch flattering e::pe6laiIons. Thefe defirable effefts but
very partially take place; the flaves, continually expofed to the feve-
rity of the climate, retain much of their native hue, from generation
to generation; while the planters, fcreening themfelves from the heat
of the fun, and liviiig at their eafe, ftill raain fomething of their light
complexion | and the negroes, inftead of encre?fing, in their flavery,
and peopling the folitary waftes the Europeans have made, are
worn down by the rigour of the labour impc'ed on them, and by the
accumulated hardihips they are conftantly expofed to, their days are
ihortened, and their generations become extindl ; infomuch that in one
of the weftern colonies of the Europeans, fix hundred and fifty thou-
fand flaves were imported within an hundred years ; at the expiration
. of which time, their whole pofterity were found to amount to one
hundred and forty thoufand. There is perhaps no part of the earth
where beafts of burden are fo much oppreffed as the negroes are in the
{ugzt plantations. They are fixteen hours, including the two inter-
vals at meals, in the f»rvice of their cruel mafters ; and the fliouts of
their drivers, and the cracks of the whip on their naked bodies,
which cuts out fmall pieces of flefti at almoil every ftroke, are heard
all day long in the fields ; when wearied with this, they arc employed
three holirs more in making the neceflary provifion for themfelves,
five only remain for fleep, and their day is finiihed. During the
time of crop, which lafts many months, they are often obliged
to work all night in the boiling-houfes or mills. The whole gang,
as the planter calls his collection of flaves, is divided into two or
three bodies, and each divifion takes its nights by turns, in the works :
this is a dreadful encroachment upon their time of rcll. Thofe who
can keep their eyes open during their nightly labour, and are willing
to refill the drowfineis that is continually coming upon them, are
prefently worn out; while (bme of thofe who are overcome, and
who feed the mill between afleep and awake, fufFer, for thus obeying
the calls of nature, by the lofs of a limb, an hand ur an arm being
frequently ground off.

To fupport a life of fuch unparalleled drudgery, the mafl:er
allows to the flave for provifions, clothing, medicines, when fick,
&c. no more than thirty ftiilliiigs per annum upon an average, and
a fmall fpot of ground, which he gives him leave to cultivate on the
day called Sunday: prefl*ed by hunger, he eats the vegetables which this
produces before they are ripe, and contrafts difeafe. His own fpot
IS perhaps exhauflied, and he has the fame appetite to be fatisfied as
before ; perhaps he creeps out clandcftinely by night, from his hut,
to go in fearch of food, into his matter's or fome neighbouring plan-
tation ; the watchman, to fave himfelf from chaftifement, is vigilant
to deteCl him, and muft: punifli him for an example, not with a llick,
nor with a whip, but with a cutlafs. Thus it happens that thefc
unhappy flaves, if they are taken, are either fent away mangled in a
barbarous manner, or are killed on the fpot. Perhaps the poor ne-
groe, in the midft of his.labours and prefTed hard by famine, is found
eating the cane which his own hands have planted: this is fure to be
followed by the whip ; and fo unmercifully has it betn applied on
fuch an occafion, as to have been the caufe, in wet weather, of the
fufferer's death. Knives, or any thing that palfion could feize, have

been.

jI.

s.v.

THE EARTH,

117

been fnatched in the fit of phreiy, and ufed as inftruments of punifli-
ment. In their flavery ears have been flit, eyes have l^cen beaten
out, and bones have been broken. And fo frequently h's this been
the cafe, that it has been a matter of conftant lamentation with
difintercftecl-perrons, who, out of curiofity have attended the niatkets
to which thefe unhappy people weekly refort ; that they have not
been able to turn iheir eyes on a>ny group of then) whatever, but
they have beheld thefe inhuman marks of paflion, defpotifni, and
caprice.

On their being firft fct down in the plantations, after all the cruelty
they have undergone in being foiced from their native country, hardly
one in a hundred have fears to (liew they were prifoneis of war ; they
are generally fuch as have been kidnap;;ed, or fold by their tyrariis
after the deftruftion of a village. The flaves are men, they wifh to
be free ; they fly fometimes to the receffes of the mountains, where
they choofe rather to live upon any thing that the foil affords, nay
the very foil itfelf, than to return. It fcmttinies happens, that the
manager of a mountain plantation, falls in with one of thefe; he im-
mediately feizcs him and threatens to carry him to his former mafter,
unlefs he will confent to live on the mountairt and cultivate his
ground. When his plantation is put in order, he carries him home,
abandons hin) to all the fuggeftions of defpotic rage, and accepts a
reward for his honefty. The unhappy wretch is chained, fcoarged,
and tortured ; and all this, becaufe he obeyed the diflates of nature,
and wanted to be free ; if he has been abfent fix mo.nths he falls a
viflim to impious law ; he is confidcred as a criminal againft the ftate ;
. he is tried and condemned, by two or three jiift ices of the peace, and
without the intervention of a jury : the mar/hal, an officer anfwering
to our iherifi^, fuperintends his execution ; and the mafter receives
money, as the price of the flave, from the public treafury. Perhaps a
reward has been ofi^ered for him dead or alive ; in that cafe he has
not fo much time allowed him ; his mercilefs purfu^rs overtake and
ilioot him ; they cut oflF his head, and exultingly bear it away ftill
reeking with blood ; this they produce as the proof required by laro^
to entitle them to the reward. The Africans are men, they have
fomeiiiiies ventured to refent their abufes, and refill their oppof.rs :
What has been the confequence ? they have been murdered at the
direction of their matters ; for in thofe rueful countries the life of a
negroe is only valued at a price that would fcarcely purchafe a
horfe. The mafter has the power of murdering his flave if he pays a .
moderate fine ; and the murder muft be attended with uncommon '
circumftances of horror, if it even produces an enquiry. Many are
the advocates that have of late appeared, both on this and the
other fide of the fea, to plead the caufe of thefe poor opprefled peo-
ple ; and they have ably confuted the arguments of the oppreflbrs,
however phufible they njight appear ; they have fbewn, that it is
in vain the oppreflors pretend them to be the offspring of Cain, who
was curfed from the earth, becaufe of his brother's blood. All the
people on earth fince the flood, have been the defcendants of Moah.-
But if this fubterfuge of the oppreflbrs were true, it would by no
means juftify their conduft. Cain was to be a fugitive and a vaga-
bond, not a flave on the earth ; and whofoev'er Gtw Cain, vengeance

^vas

■■^

lit

vii

SKETCHES OF

P. III.

was to be taken on him feven-fc^d. When Noah awoke from his
wine and knew what his younger Ton had done unto him, he faid, ,
*' Cuffed be Canaan, a fervant of fervants fliall he be unto his
brethren." The oppreflbrs lay hold of this, as a plea for their con-
duft. The advocates fhew, from hiftory, that the other fons of
Ham, peopled the Continent of Africa j that Canaan abode in
Paleftine, the Canaanites. many of them fell by the fwords of the
Ifraelites j fome, as the Gibeonites, were made hewers uf wood, and
drawers of water ; but becaufe of Saul and his bloody houfe. whp
flew the Gibeonites, there was a famine three years, in the days of
David, year after year. Thofe of the Canaanites that were driven
out of the land, feem to have fettled along the coafts of the Mediterr
ranean fea ; they were the mod celebrated traders and navigators in
antiquity, under the name of Phenicians } fonie think tb^y reached
as far as Britain, and helped to give birth to jthe nations of Europe,
who pretend to fulBl the prophecy of Noah, in opprefllng the
Africans. The negroes, fay their oppreiTors, are an inferior link in the
chain of human beings, and intended for flavery. It may feem
fuperfluous to difintereued people to contradi£t fo abfurd a poHtion :
it may be remarked however, the defcendants of the Portuguefe in
Zanguebar have become fuch a people, their heads having grown
woolly and theii completions black, while thofe sf the negro "^ m the
northern p^rts of America, and alfo in Europe, have gy. hi ■. ',<air
and fair complexions. But it Is well known that the nc^to^b have
capacities like other men ; that ihey become expert workmen, and
fine writers both in prole and verfe, when t hey h^ye ^n opportunity
of learning.

The following little extrafl from the writings of an African girj,
may perhaps ferve to fliew, that neither geni\is nor yet deyotjo/i ji^
peculiar to the people of white complexion :

From an Hymn to the Morn i kg.

Fill'd with the praife of him who gives the light^

And draws the fable curtains of the riight.

Let placid (lumbers footh each weary mind

At morn to wake more heavv^nly and refin'd i /

So (hall the labours of the dry begin,

More pure and guar4ed from the Inares of fin. i(C.

The authorefs of thefe lines was Phillis Wheatley, negroe flavc to
John Wheatley, of Bofton in New England. She was kidnapped
when only eight yeara old, and in the year 1761. was tranfported to
America, where flie was fold with other (laves ; fhe had no fchool
education there, but receiving fome lirtle inftruaion from the family
where (lie lived, fte obtained fuch a knowledge of the Englifh lan-
guage, within fixtcen months from the time of her arrival, as to be
able to fpeak and read it to the aftoni(hment of thofe who heard
her. She foon afterwards learned to write, and, having a great in-
ciination to learn the Latin tongue. (h« was indulged by her matter
and made a progrefs. Her poetical works were publi(hed in the year
J 773, when (lie was about twenty years of age. They contain
thirty-eight pieces on diflFerent fubjeds. While the hiftory of this
young woman (hews that the negroes are not a net i}f beingt infe-
rior

^^--X

S. V.

THE EARTH.

115

rior to white people, it aflPords vs the pleafure al(b of obferving,
that they do not always fall into the hands of inhuman tyrants ; proba-
bly many have been in the pra£lice of purchafing thefe poor, forlorn,
expatriated people, from motives of benevolence, or to prevent their
falling into the hands of cruel talkmailers.

Since the late devaftations of the fword on the American Continent,
the lot of the negroes appears in fome places to be growing fome-
what more tolerable. In America feveral members of the churches
of Rome, of England, o^ Scotland, of Independents, and others, have
liberated their flaves, convinced that it is wrong to rob innocent
people of their liberty ; the Society of Friends have done this in a
colle£live capacity. It had been the religious concern of feveral
members of this fociety, to bear tcftimony againft the trafficking in
men. In thefe pious labours, John Woolman and Anthony B?ne-
vtet, both public friends or minifters, were confpicuoufly eminent;
the former travelled through many parts of North America on foot,
and teftified againft the injuftice of flavery, not only in words, but in
the exprefTive language of condu^: when thofe who kept Haves
Jiindly received and entertained hira on his tn vels, he was not free to
accept their kindnefs, as it was liberally offered $ he confidered
what he received as the produce of the labours of the (laves ; and
however trying this might be^o him, he found it his duty to leave
the value in money, of what he had taken, that he might de-
part from the houie clear in his teftimonj. The latter kept a
Ichool at Philadelphia, for the education df black people ; often
pleaded in their behalf; publiilied feveral treatifes againft flavery,
and at his deceafe left what he had i fupport of that fcbuol,
to which he had devoted fo much of his time and attention
when alive. It was the happinefs of the friends univerfally to have
their eyes opened, to iee the impiety of retaining thofe in involun-
tary fervitude who had never given offence. In 1727, the church at
large afTembled at Philadelphia, had declared againft the iniquity of
the African trade ; in 1754, they teftified, that to live in eafe and
plenty by the toil of thofe, whom fraud and violence had put into
their power, was neither confiftent with ".hriftianity nor common
juftice. All the Quakers accordingly liberated their flaves; and,
though this roeafure appeared to be attended with conflderable lofit,
yet it is remarkable, that in the end, it became ultimately beneficial
to them, even in a temporal capacity. Moft of the flaves who were
thus unconditionally freed, returned without any folicitation to their
former mafters, to ferve them, at ftated wages, as freemen. The
work which they now did, was found to be better done than before}
it was found alfo, that a greater quantity was done in lefs time :
hence lefs than the former number of labourers was fufficient.
From thefe, and a variety of other circumftances, it appeared, that
their plantations were confiderably more profitable when wor,ked b/
freemen, than when worked, as before, by flaves; and that they
derived therefore, contrary to their ezpeftations, a conflderable advan- *
tajge from their benevolence. As it has been the happinefs of the
fiiends, to be religioufly convinced of the injuftice of enflaving man-
lundj fo confiftent with thefe principles, the«iembers of the comihunity

IMlL

are

•^„

ISO

SKETCHES OF

P. III.

If r.

are liable to be difowned, if they are any way concerned in the
flave trade ; and accordingly it becomes the care of every particular
meeting, as well here as in America, to fee that its membels keep
clear of this traffick, as well as of other fpecies of injuftice, and de-
partures from the principles they profefs.

We might now take our leave of the fubjedl of flavery, and the
parts of the earth it has fo hideoufly deformed j under the comfortable
information, that the evil has rather abated, and under the pleafing
hope, that[it will at length entirely pafs away: however, before
we enter upon the lands of greateft liberty, the interior trafts of
America ; where the natives feem unreftrained and free, to a degree
of wildnefs; where the fenate, while it debates on the interetl of
the tribe, leaves individuals to decide their own contefts between
themfelves ; and where the children muft not be coirtded, for ft;ar
of breaking their native fpiiit of fieedcm ; a very lliort hiliory of
flavery in general, may perhaps be entertaining.

5. Slavery in Antiquity.] Befides the bond fervants we read of
in antiquity, who found protedtion and a comfortable provifion in the
houfli VJ*! of the patriarchs ; and fuch as fold all that they
had, tL ! 5 and themfelves, to Pharaoh, for corn, in the time of

famine, u Jofeph was governor ; who removed them to cities
from one end of the borders of Egypt to the other; and gave them
feed to fow the land, and made a law, that Pharaoh fhould have
the fifth part of the increafe, and four parts Hiould be their own, for
feed of the field, and for their food, and for them of their houfholds,
and for food for their little ones ; befides thefe, we read of il.ives of
other defcriptions, at very early periods. It was generally cuftomary
with the nations in antiquity, to lead their prifoners of war into cap-
tivity ; and thefe, with their offspring, were detained in fervitude.
The Goths alfo in later days, on the fubverfion of the Roman em-
pire, impofed on the people they had conquered the feverity of fer-
vitude. It is thought that this clafs of flaves had its beginning as
early as the days of Nimrod ; and the horrid practice of kidnapping,
or ftealing off and felliiig the human fpecies, appears to be of equal
antiquity. The l^ory of Jofeph, as recorded in the facred writings,
fhews, that there were men, even at that early period, who travelled
up and down as merchants, col!e6ting, not only fpicery and other
wares, but the human fpecies alfo, for the purpofei of traffick.
Homer mentions Egypt and Cyprus, as common markets for flaves,
about the time of the Trojan war ; and Zenophon, in defcribing the
dramatic Giecian dance called Harpea, gives a mod lively picture of
the rueful days of antiquity ; when the ftealing of men, as it was
accompanied with danger, was accounted valour ; and pirates fought
at once emolument and honour, in the equally hazardous and iniqui-
tous bufinefs. The figure of the Harpea was thus : one of the aflors
or Grecian foldiers, in the charader of an huflsandman, is feen to till
his land, and is obferved, as he drives his plough, to look frequently
behind him, as if apprehenfive of danger ; another immediately ap-
pears in fight, in the charafter of a robber ; the hufbandman haviiig
feen him previoufly advancing, fnatches up his arms; a battle enfues
before the plough. . The >yhole of this performance is kept in perfeft
time witii the mufic of the flute. At length the robber having got
'. "■ . ■ %: '-t the .

■M

S. V.

THE EARTH.

121

the better of the hu(bandman, binds him, and drives him off" with his
team. Sometimes it happens that the hufbandman fubdues the rob-
ber ; in this cafe the fccne is only reverfed, at, the latter is then bound
and driven off by the former. Tkis entertainment, it may be obferv-
ed, was taken from real manners.

We learn from Thucidides, that the Grecians themselves, in
their primitive ftate, as well as their cotemporary barbaiians who
inhabited the fea coaft and iflands, gave themfelves '\vholly up to
piracy, as their only profeflion and fupport. As well whole ciews
for the benefit of their refpeftive tribes as private individuals, em-
barked in this fhocking bufinefs ; they made defcents on the fea
coafts, carried off cattle, furprifed whole villages, put many of the
inhabitants to the fword, and carried others into flavery. The Jews,
who appear to have been ufed as a fcourge to the idolatrous dcfcend-
ants of Canaan, by divine appointment, held fome of the heathen in
bondage; yet were leilrained by the law from abufing their peifons,
and were obliged tj^ive them their fabbaths and jubilees. It was
appointed, that their iliould be one law, one lule ot juftice for the
native and the ftranger ; and they were repeatedly called on to
remember, that they themfelveshad been flavcs in F.gypt and Grangers
in their land. Such were the rcftriftions the Jews were under in their
condudt to the Heathen flavcs, thoVigh only under the law in which
many things were permitted, becauie of the hardnefs of their hearts.
It remained for chriftianity, the laft and moft glorious difpenfation,,
which breathes peace on earth and good will to man, to abolifli the
diftindtions between Jew and Gentile, Greek and Barbarian, Bond and
Free. The firft converts to the holy faith, were confpicuoufly a
family of love, averfe from the vain dillinftions of the world, having
all things in common ; and the commiffion of the everlafl;ing gofpel,
was extended to mankind without the diftiniStion of nation or pro-
feflion ; even in after ages, when the glory of the moft holy religion
feemed much obfcured in its profeflors, the principles of benevolence,
which it inculcates, generally prevailed at kngth, againft the barba-
rous univerfal and ai^cient practices of holding lervants in perpetual
bondage, and which had long deformed the Gothic times, (Pro
Amore Dei, pro Mercede Animac, or, for the love of God, in the
good of the Ibul). Charters were granted for the manuiuiirior of the
flaves, which then compofcd the majority of the people ; and about
the dole of the twelfth century, a general iibeity prevailed over the
wefl: of Europe. But alas I the proftfTors of the chrillian name, when
thefe happy reformations had been wrought at home ; many of them
abroad renewed the piratical manners of antiquity : the Fortuguefe
led the way, our nation, the Spaniards, French, and other maritime
powers foon followed the example. Within two centuries of the
preceding happy era, which fo generally aboliflied flavery in this
part of the world, the Europeans made their defcents on Africa ; and
committing depredations on the coaft, firft carried the wretched inha-
bitants into flavery ; the natives, terrified, fled in confufion from the
coaft, and fought in the interior parts of the country, a retreat fiom
the perfecution of the invaders. The Europeans purfued ; entered
their rivers; failed up into the heart of their country ; furprifed them
in their retreats, and dragged them ofF. Again the nativesfled in confter-

lintion,

«^

1 1

■//

111

■Xi

'\\l

122

SKETCHES OF

P. iir.

nation abandoned the banks of the rivers, and left the robbers without '
a profpjed of their prey. The hooters now adopted different meafures ;
they built themfelves forts and fettled in the country : with the gaudy
trappines of European art, they excited the wonder and curionty of
the Africans ; by prefents and every appearance of munificence, they
fisduced their conhdence and attachment ; they found out fuitable
tools for their iniquitous defigns ; put thefe upon furnifhing them with
their countrymen for flaves, and thus, when ihey themfelves could no
longer be thieves, they at lad became receivers.

SECTION VI.

America.

We niay now confider the Aborigines of America, or the native
Indians of the new world. It might feem almoft fuperfiuous to men-
tion that the Europeans have fettled here in far greater numbers per-
haps, than in all the other parts of the earth ; a view of thefe people,
however, is naturally included in a (ketch of the nations of Europe.
It is not fo much their different manners, as different iituations and
political divifions, that feparate them from each other.

I. CtmpUxhn^ FeatureSf i^c.'] As the Continents of America are
extended, through every uninhabited climate in the world, we mny
naturally expert to meet with every variety among the leveral trib^
who inhabit this largeft quarter of the globe. From the froffs and
fnows, however, which defolate its moil Ibuthern extrem'ty, all acrofs
the torrid s.une, and quite away to the polar regions on the north,
there feems to be le(s difference in the features, complexion, language
and manners of its feverat tribes than of any other nations, compre^
hended in an equal extent of country. As they appear to have de-
rived their origin in very remote antiquity, from the Tartars on the
north, or the clans of wandering Scythians, that were the farthefl
removed from the arts and manners of the poliihed nations in anti-
quity, and quite beyond the notice of all hiftory ; as they feem to
have continued, with inviolable attachment^ many of their ancient
cuftoms to this very day ; in the hidory of one of thefe we fhali
often ftpe a juft picture of the refli, and perhaps, a moft lively repreien-
tation of the manners of fame of the rude nations of the earth in the
days of the ancients. As this widely difperfed people generally lead
a wild and roving life, cbntinually expofed to every feverity of cli-
mate, and alfo anoint their bodies with fat or greafe, and colour
them with paints, they are of a dark complexion even in tempe-
rate climates; on the other hand, the hotted parts of America
are refrefhed by breezes, or cooled by the fnow-covered mountains,
which arife there to an aftonifhing height : this prevents the natives
from becoming perfectly black like the negroes ; and efpecially as the
country h not overftocked with people, and the inhabitant* have an

opportunity

^fim^'

U.'

.'■<tl

«.Vl.

THE EARTH.

««3

opportunity of chooling the mod pleafant fituations. The natives of
Aaierica feem to differ more in (ize, than in features or complexion ;
indeed in this refpe£t, their extenfive country of many climates, feems
to aflford a greater variety than the whole earth beiides : who, for
tnftance, are more diminutive than the little Greenlanders, and their
neighbours at the Polar regions ? between four and five feet in fta-
ture ; and what nations are fo (Irong, a£tive and gigantic as the tall
tribes of Indians that have been feen in Patagonia ? among whom
the tailed of the Englini adventurers under the commodore Byron,
appeared but like pigmies.

2. Intercourfe luith Europeans ] Before the Europeans arrived in
America, fome of the natives, efpecially the Mexicans, had made con-
liderable advances in the arts ; they had canoes, ftone houfes and
regular towns ; they had temples, but their profeflion was idolatrv.
In their pi^urefque and emblematic drawings they had made an eifay
towards the art of writing or record : but unhappily they had
gold and valuable jewels ; to rob them of thefe, and rake poflefnoii
of their country, the cruel Europeans put millions to the fword^
reduced others to flavery ; and deftroying their improvements, toge-
ther with their government, threw the reft again upon their native
wilds : though fome of them have been bowed to the yoke of
Slavery by the Spaniards ; and fome of them, corrupted by the Dutch,
have adopted the practice of the African kidnapping ; while others
have been reduced to civilization by the Jefuit-profeflors.

3. PajjtMfor Liberty^ Thefe Indians are generally enthuHafts for
Jiberty. Their principal bufmefs is hunting, fifhing, or war ; agri-
culture and domeftic concerns devolve upon the women. When a
child, is born the mother and the infant are plunged in'o the water,
the mother attends to bufmefs the next day as ufual ; the child is
tied or fwathed down to a piece of board ; the board, together with
the child is hung upon a branch, laid down upon the ground or taken
up by the mother as occafion may require ; in this ntuation the in-
fant is taken care of without much trouble, till it gets ftrength in its
limbs, it is then loofened and let to crawl about : as they are brought
■up without corredion or reftraint, their paflions feem to grow violent
with their years, and all their a6tions feem carried to extremes.
Their reyenge feems implacable, their friendfhlps unbounded ; their
prifoners of war are adopted into their own families and confidered as
one of themfelves, or elfe they are put to death with the moft ire-
jenting cruelty ; (b little idea have they of flavery or fuboiuina-
4ion, and to marilced are all their actions with the extremes of
iiatred and love.

4. Public j0emblies.'\ Upon (erious occadons the Indiaiw are very
grave; they are obfervant of thofe in company; refpe^ful to the
aged ; they never fpeak before they have well confidered the matter,
and are fure the perfon who fpoke before them has entirely finifhed :
hence they have the gre'ateft contempt for the vivacity of the Europe-
ans, who continually interrupt each other, and frequently fpeak all
together. In their aflemblies and public councils, every man is heard
jn his turn, according as his years, his wif'om, or his fervicea to his
country, have ranked him. In fome tribes they have a king, and in
iovat a fort of nobles; but their power is rather perfuafive than

coercive i

. ■«».

SKETCHES or

P. III.

i •!

I '

.*!!

i -

.My

coercive ; they are rather revered as fathers, than dreaded as lords.
The young attend the public councils for inlliudlion ; here they learn
the hiftory of their nation ; here they are inflamed with the fongs of
thofe who celebrate the heroic ilceds of their ancedors; here the
orators cxprefs their thoughts in a bold and figurative manner,
ftronger than the refined nations of Europe can bear, and with
geftures equally violent, but often extremely natural and expreflive :
here the interefts of the nation are debated on and refolved, they
regulate whatever regards the internal peace and order of the Hate,
and determine on future expeditions ; the bond of friendfliip unites the
fociety ; every one haftens to execute the orders of the fenate, and
fo unanimous are they in their condufl and in all their manners, that
in the hiflory of the tiibe we may read the habits of the individual,
and, reciprocally, in the life of the Indian we have the hiftory of
his nation.

7. Moi/e offVar^ Cruelty.] When a war is refolved on, the princi-
pal captain fummons the youth of the town to which he belongs ;
the war kettle is fet on the fire ; the war fong and dances commence :
the hatchet is fent to all the villages of the nation, and to all its
allies; war fongs and hideous bowlings are heard day and night over
their traft of the country ; the women add their cries t6 thofe of
the men, lamenting the friends they have loft either in war or by a
natural death, and demanding their places to be fupplied by captives
from the enemy. None are forced into the war ; thofe that have a
mind to iliare in the expedition give fmall billets of wood to the war
captain, they are then confidered as enlifted, and it is death to recede.
The warriors have their faces blackened with charcoal and dafhed
with ftreaks of vermilion. The nations of Indians in America are
feparated by vaft defert frontiers, and embofomed in thick and
gloomy forefts, tliat muft be pafled before they meet with the nation
whom they intend to attack ; thefe are fometimes wholly ignorant of
any danger, the enemy having waited whole years to attack them by
furprize, and it falls an eafy prey to the unexpected fury of the inva-
ders : but it more frequently happens that it has notice of the defign,
and prepares to take the fame advantage of the leaft want of vigilance
in thofe who mean to attack them. They light no fires to warm
themfelves, or drefs their victuals, but fubfift on the fruija! pittance
of a little meal mixed with water ; they lie clofe to the ground
during the day, and march only in the night, and even then with
the utmoft precaution. When they difcover an army of the enemy,
they throw themfelves f^at on their faces among the withered leaves,
from which they are hardly difcernible, their bodies being painted of
a colour to refemble them. They generally let a pan pafs unmoleft-
:fd, and then rifing a little, and fetting up a moft tremendous
.Ihcut, which they call the war-hoop, they pour a ftorm of mufket
bullets upon the enemy. The party attacked return the fame cry,
and every man flielters himfelf behind a tree, and fires on the adverfe
party, the moment they rife from the ground to give the fecond
volley : after fighting for fome time in this mmtner, they leave their
covert, and rum upon each other with fmall axes or tomahawks; the
conteft is foon decided, and the conquerors fatiate their favage fury
with the moft horrid infults and barbarities on the dead bodies of

their

S. VI.

THE EARTH,

12$

their enemies : they cut off the fcalps and carry them ofF to their
huts to hang up as trophies of their valour and victory. The prifon-
crs are otfeied to thole who have loft frit-nds ; and, he is received into
the family or fentenced to death ; if the former, he is confidered as
& father, a fon, or a hulband that is loft, and no other mark of cap-
tivity remains than a prohibition of returning upon pain of death ;
but if the prifoner is refuled, it is no longer in the power of any one
to fave him. The nation is aftembled ; the fcafFold is raifed, and the
prifoner is faftened to a ftake ; he immediately opens his death fong,
and prepares for the enfuing fcene of cruelty with a moft undaunted
courage, while his perfecutors make ready to put it to the iitmoft
proof, by every torment which the miad of man ingenious in mifchief
can invent: the prifoner endures all their tortures with afionifliing
conftancy and refoluiion, not a groan, not a figh, nora diftortion of
countenance efcapcs him ; he pofreff'is his mind entirely, in the midft of
the moft exquifite anguiili, and only feeks relief from his mifery by
infuliing his tormentors, and endeavouring by the moft contemptuous
reproaches to provoke their rage, that they may at once put him to
death in the height of their fury ; this he fometimes effefts j and this
horrid tragedy, at the recital of which hiunan nature is ready to flirink,
is finally clofed.

6. Unreferved Friend fhip, Funerals y^c] As the feverity of their
temper on thefe dreadful occafions, feems unparalleled in the hiftory
of any other nation, fo the enthudafm of their friendlTiip feems equally
violent. They delight in their family and friends while they are
Jiving, and when they are reojoved by war or natural death, they
regard their remains with friendfliip and affe^ion : the lofs of one of
their people is regarded by the whole town to which he belongs ;
no budnefs however important, is taken in hand ; no rejoicing how-
ever interefting the occafion, is heard, till they have performed their
ceremonies in honour of the dead : thefe are executed with a great
folemnity. The body is waflicd, anointed and painted ; it is follow-
ed by the whole village, with mourning and lamentation to the
grave, and there interred in the moft pompous ornaments of the de-
ceafed. His bow and arrows, together with the things he moft valu-
ed, and provifions for the long journey they fuppofe he has to take,
are placed by him in the grave. After the funeral thofe who are
nearly allied to him, conceal themfeves a coniiderable time in their
huts to indulge their grief. On thefe forrowful occafions their neigh-
bours come to condole with the afHi£ted, and amufe or cheer them
with prefcnts. After fome time, they revifit the grave, they renew
their lamentations, they clothe the remains of the body in new or-
naments, and repeat the folemnities of the firft interment. Every
eight or ten years they celebrate a feftival, which 'they call the
feaft of the dead, or the feaft of fouls ; the day is appointed in the
public council ; the wealth of the nation is exhaufted on the occa-
sion, and a't the ingenuity of the Indians difplayed ; the neighbouring
people are invited to partake of the feaft, and be witnefles of the fo-
lemnity. The bodies of all thofe who have died fince the laft fefti-
val, are now taken out of their graves ; thofe who have been interred
at the greateft diftance, are diligently fought for by their relations j
who, far from being ditcoura^ed by their infupportable ftench^deanfa
them from the worms, and bring them on their fhoulder.*; throngh

tiroiblQe

•■■■i

i»6

SKETCHES OF

P. III.

■I

fome journeyi of feveral days, without fufFering any other emotions
to arife, than thofe of regret, for having loft perfons who were (6
dear to them in their lives. When all the bodies are collected toge-
ther, they are dreft in the Bneft (kins they can procure ; the featt i«
lield ; their greateft actions are celebrated, and all the tender inter-
courfes that took place betweeri them are recounted. A large pit i$
dug in the ground, and the bodies reinterred with poiup, with
mournin?, and with lamentation.

The Indians of America hold a future (late of exiftence ; they
make an offering of their Brft fruits ; fome feem to hold in venera-
tion the fun and moon. They have their priefts, their conjurers,
their fortune-tellers and doctors, who are regarded by the credulous,
as poifefTed of fupernatural powers. They regard dreams, and the
finging and flying of birds, as omens of future events. Some tribes
are peaceful and averfe to the bloody builnefs of battles, other*
facrince or devour their prifoners of war. Some derive much of their
food from the waters, others principally feaft upon venifon ; fome wear
ikins of beads, fome a kind of cloth which they make from cotton,
and others hardly ufe any covering at all. Before they were vifited
by the Europeans, their tools and arms were like thofe of the South Sea
iuanders, with the addition of the bow and arrows ; like the iflanders
alfo, fome of them disfigure their bodies, to make themfelves look
fine ; they bore the note, the lips, and cheeks, they draw down
their ears to touch their ilioulders, and by prefiiire they deform the
whole head.

SECTION VIL

Lands round th£ North Pole.

Having now completed an imaginary tour, round, by far the
greateft part of the earth, and obferved a variety of manners and of
men ; before we make our defcent on the poliihed nations of Europe^
wf may leflTen our airy flight, and fweeping a fmalier circle on the
Acrth, furvev the nations of little people that furround the
Northern Pole.

I. Superftithnsof ihe Greenlanders,'] Thefe nations feem generally
immerfed in the groflTeft fuperftitions, from Greenland the moft
faftern part of North America, weftward, round the globe, acrofs the
northernmoft wilds of America, Tartary, and the trails of Lapland
which form the fartheft parts of Europe, that are waflied by the
Frozen or Hyperborean ocean. To the regions beyond the grave,
^^ thefe romantic people transfer the employments which g've them
delieht while here upon earth. There they imagine, in the abyfles
S^ of the fea, an elyfium of perpetual fummer, of plenty of feals, rein-
^ - <Jcer ant) wild fowl, that are to be hunted without toil, that are even

already

j*>w.

S. VII.

THE E A R T

wftich has hereby been cnv*.r.!i • ^t. '"^ ^^^W'' * rugeed rock
ihofe ands nf «,-/ covered with blood and ««« ** l . >

!W"g» that .hcy «, • TL-r""" "• "" "'"'f'. a'nd «rSe
>"». .re both accompanied „S Z'TZ" f^ '•"P«'fti.io»"«*!
nianj- romant c tales of (iLn , '"""'' "f « «iran) Th.. t.?.

crs &c. During an eclipfe of tL m'' ^^f' ^^^-hunters, feal-catcfc?
on the top ot the houfe, and fattH"^ u'^ '"""y '^'^^^ and klnt
the moon back to if. J . "'® *"<* beat uoon th^^m t« <• • l *

of S 'and a""S"='' *'"> » journey '^o""tP''t"'' '<"
good luct f„ ,k """2* '""P^Si'ious S' t? l*' bened aion.
iknerr' *" """ -PW"..».». anrrre"„t; &°V"

.oXa'/m^°'^ ?'■"'' before L"„t, ?" '" "■= boJk;

■#

the

««?•

128

SKETCHES OF'

Pt iii<

I • )•

the middle is n hole, into which the Greenlander Hips his feet and
fits down, he tucks the under part of his watcr-peli or great coat
round the rim or hoop at the hole, that the water cannot penetrate,
and cockles along with great parade, his fable fea-veftments be-
fpotted with whiteiiuttons, giving himaHiewy appearance. He has his
harpoons and lances at hand, which are ver/ ingenioufly contrived,
and curioudy nude, and his line coiled up before him, for llriking the
feals ; but it is with his pautik or oar, that he navigates his little
vefTel ; this he lays hold of with bpth hands by the middle, and with
great regularity and quicknefs, he ftrikes the water on both fides,
and rows along with great velocity j he darts over the boifterous
billows like an arrow ; if a wave breaks over him he is prcfently
again (kiiuming along the furface ; if he be overturned, and his
head be diredlly downwards, with a fwing of his pautik he recovers
his former (lation ; but if he lofes this he is commonly lod himfclf:
it is on this trying occafion he creeps out of his knjnk and calls aloud
for help; 'if none be at hand to come to his alTiilance, he binds
himfelf to his boat, that his body may be found and interred.
Their umiaks or womens boats are (imilarly formed, bur large and
open at top, thefe are rowed by the women, but the men in their
kajaks at hand, fhelter it from the greate(i waves, and in cafe of
need, lay hold of the gunnel with their hands, to keep it on a balance.
They coaft along in thefe boats, voyages from two to four hundred
leag les, with their furniture and fubftance, at the rate of twelve
leagues a day. At every night's lodging they unload oitch their
tents, drag their boat alTiore, turn it upfide down, load the

beams fore and aft with ftones, that the winds ma blow it

away.

If at any time the coaft will not permit them to pafs, fix or
eight of them take the boat on their heads, and convey it overland
to a more favourable water. Some of thefe nations fliew uncommon
agility in fcowring over the encrufted fnowon flcates, of deal or ribs of
animals ; with thefe they run down the beafts of the chace, they even
overtake the fleet deer ; they fcale the hills and Aide down precipices :
in thete exercifes they make ufe of a j&velin or pike, and with this
they kill the animals theypurfue; even the women partake in thefe
labours, and are themfelves fo ftrong they will one of them carry a
beam which it would take two men of the more refined nations of
Europe to lift from the ground; yet hardy as thefe people are, and bold •
amid the dangers they have perpetually to encounter, in procuring
their fuftenance, they have generally been accounted a timid race, in-
capable of being embodied as military troops ; indeed they feem fo
much attached to their own native fnows, and their own native man-
ners, they have very little idea that happinefs can be found in the
lands or the purfuits of any nations but their own. And if they
lliewed as much wifdom in all their partialities as they do in avoiding
the horrid praflice of war, we might certainly account them the
wifeft and happieft nations among mankind ; but the ftran^e mixture
of good and evil in their manners in focial life, render their national
character equivocal and undetermined.

3. Houfrt

:U)

■M-

S. VII.

THE EARTH.

I2C)

3. Houfts, Tents, an J Ft a lis ] Thefe people chan^^c their habirati-
on» according lo ihe fcafon, living in houl'es in winter, in fummer in
tents. Their hnufes nre built with (lones and tods; thcfe are loofed
with beam* and ral'ters, and rmall wood between iheni ; over thefe
are laid bullies and turf, and fine earth on the top; they have neither
door nor chimney ; the ufe of both ihefe is (upplied by a vaulted paf-
Jagc, four or fit yards long, entering the middle of the houle in the
front ; this is fo low that they mutl neatly cr<'ep on their hands and
feet, efpecially when they firll rtep down into the paflage, either from
within or without. The walls are hung on the iiiddc with old flcins,
to keep out the damp ; the roof on the outHde is covered with them
alio. From the middle, all along one (ide of the houfe, there is a
bench of boards raifed ?bout a foot high, and covered with fkin ; this
is divided into fmall apartments, refemblin^ horfes ftalls, by flcins
(Iretching from the wall to the polls that iupport the roof in the
middle; each family has a (lall, and the number of families in orie
iioufe are from three to ten. On thefe floors ihey fleep upon pelts,
they alfo fit on them all day long ; the men foreuioft with theii legs
hanging down, carving, their tackle and tools; the women behind
them minding their fewing, thefe alfo cook the .vidluals. Oppofite
to ihem on the front of the houfe are windows, made of feals guts
und halibut's maws, and fewed fo neat and tight, that the wind and
inow are kept out while the lightjs let in. A bench runs along under
the windows, the whole lengia of the houfe, on this the (Irangers lit
and fleep.

By every poft is a fire place, of a .curious and fimple kind, for the
ufe of each family ; it is nothing more than a lamp hewn Out of a
kind of chalk or foft marble, they fill il with train of feals, and ufe
fine mofs inftead of cotton : over this they boil their meat in. a fort of
kettle of the fame fubftance with the lamp ; over all they fade n a
wooden rack, on which they lay their wet clothes and boots to dry.
During their dark and tedious winter the lamps fuflficiently enlighten
the houfe, and warm it more equally than a German (love-heated
room. ,-

On ihe coming on offpring when the fnow begins to melt and
threatens to lun t'lrough the roof, they move out of thefe huts, rejoicing
lo fpend the fuinuier in tents. , Their tents are framtd with poles,
and covered with fltins ; the order of their tents is nmch the (ame as
that in their houfes, but they are much more cle.mly ; and in thefe
they endeavour to dilplay fome finery and tafte. On occafion of a
villt,* the guerts or vifuors are welcomed with finging and prefented
with a loft pelt to fit upon ; the men talk very gravely and con-
fiderately of the weather, of huntii^g and fiiliing ; the women firft
mutually bewail their deceafed relations with an harmonious howl,
and then dive t themfclves with all manner of little (lories, mean

. _^ K ^ while

* The following is a catalogue of the difhes at one of their moft fumptuout
feaftt: t. Dried herrings. 1. C ?d feal fifli. 3. Boiled ditto. 4. Half raw and
rotten ditto, tnikiak. 5. Boiled wiilocki, a kind of birds. 6. A piece of half rot-
ten whale's tail, a diih in as high repute, as the haunch of venifon is here, when
kept till it has got the epicurean relifli or gout. 7. Dried falmon. 8. Dried rein*
deer venifoii.i> 9. A defert of crow- berries, inixcd with the chyle out of the rein-
deer. 10. The fame, enriched with trun oil. .,

■m

130

SKETCHES OF

P. 111.

while the horn with the fnufFgoes conftantly round : when the ban-
quet is brought in the guefts let the hod prefs them often, they
pretend indifference about it, left they Ihould appecir poor or half
ftarved.

Their table talk they can prolong for feveral hours. The
grand fubjeft of their converfation, is their adventures in feal-catch-
mg. The left-hand perfonates the feal, and reprefenls the various
leaps the animal took this way or that: the right difplays the motions
4nd evolutions of their kaiak and their arm ; how they extended their
uplifted arm ; how fteadily they aimed, and how forcibly they im-
pelled the fatal dart. If Europeans are prefent, they like to hear them
repeat fomething of their country. They are told that fuch a city
has fo many inhabitants ; thitt fuch a numoer of whales would be re-
iquired to feed them for oiie day ; but they however eat no whales,
they eat bread that grows Hke grafs out of the ground, and the fleih
of divers creatures, Tome of which have horns ; they are alfo carried
from place to place, either on the backs of very (Irong beads, or in
vehicles drawn b> them. Then they think they know it all » and
accordingly, bread they call grafs ; oxen rein- deer ; and horfes huge
dogs, for thefe are what draws then, over the ice and fnow. They
admire all, and exprefs a dcfire of living in fuch a fine and fei tile
land ; but their courage fails when they are told that it fometimes
thunders there, and that there are no feak to be caught.

4. Manners dvverfe] Though feveral different families with their
children, of divers ages live in one houfe together, they are fo ftill,
circUmfped, and peaceful, fcarcely any difturbance is heard amongft
them. If a man returns home with provifion in the evening, efpeci>
ally with a feal in winter, which are then fcarce and hard to be
cauzht, he gives a portion to all in the houfe, even the poor widows ;
and mvites fome neighbours bolides to partake of their good cheer.
Hofpitality is pra£tiled all over the country, both towards their ac-
quaintance and ftrangers. Their children run about as quiet as lambs,
and their fond attachment to their parents grows with their years ;
V they are brought up without chaftifement, and treated on the footing
of friends; if^they are defired to do any thing contrary to their
minds, they fay, without any ceremony, I will not ; the parents pot
up with the refufal till the children fee their error. When a young
man takes a wife, both himfelf and his bride are fpbjeft to his mother,
as head of the houfhold aflfairs. They feldom tell an untruth know-
ingly, particularly when they are to (hew a traveller the way j nay,
they will rather go a piece with him. Cheating and ftcahng are
hardly known amongft them ; violent aflfaults or highway robberies,
are quite unheard of. Among fuch people a legidature might feem
fuperfluous, in fa€t, they are governed rather by manners than by laws;
and their drum dances fupply every want of political indiiutions ; in
thefe dmple republicks, perhaps older than Athens or Sparta, they
find an Areopagus, or judice hall ; a gymnafium or place of fports,
and a commercial fair for bartering their little wares. Befides
(heir drumming and dances, they play at ball by moonfhine :
they have alfo games for trying one another's drength or hardi-
nefs : for indance, two- competitors drikc one another fHccelTively
on the bare back with the fid, and he that holds out the longed

S. VII.

THE EARTH.

«3f

iP§C

is the conqueror. Again, they fit dqwn^ and Jink legs and arms, or
hook fingers together, and he who out-pulls the other is mailer.
Strange diverfion ! ainioft as (Irange, but not quite (o dangerous is
the fport ofwreftling, or tise game of throwing one another dr ,n.
But the method in their affemblies of deciding difputes between plain-
tiff and defendant, is the mod ftrange and extraordinary : if a Green-
lander imagines himfelf injured by another, he betrays not the Itaft
trace of vexation or wrath, but compofes a fatirical poem ; this he
repeatf fo often, with finging and dancing in the prefencc of his do-
mefticks, and efpecially women, that they get it in their memory ;
then he publiihes a challenge, that he will fight his antagoniil, not
with a fword, but with a fong: the refpondent betakes himfelf to th«
appointed place, and prefents himfelf in the encircled theatre: the
the accufer begins to fing his (atire to the beatof the drum ; his party
in the auditory accomp^.ny him in the fofig, and back every line, with
repeating in chorus the words Amnaaiah : he thus expofes the deed>i
of the aggrefibr, and the audience laugh aloud : the defendant then
(leps forth, anfwers the accufation, and endeavouis lo ridicule his op-
ponent, in like manner; all which is coiroborated with the united
chorus of his party, and the laugh changes fidec. In the fanne odd
manner the plaintiff replies ; the defendant rejoins ; with the mod
cutting things they can think of, only there mud be no mixture o^
rudenefs or pafilon. The company at large conditute the jury; the
the vidlory is publicly declared ; the delinquent endures the punijh-
ment of expofure, and the parties become friends.

Thefe finiple people do not like to conlradidt, interrupt, or out-
brawl tone another in difcourfe ; they have not a (ingle word in their
language by which to utter abufe or curling. They laugh at the
formalities and compliments of the Europeans, at a man's uncovering
before his fuperior in rank ; and wQ.nder to fee a mader drike or
maltreat iiis fervant. They difcover not the lead trace of obfcenity
in their conves fation ; and on obferving the foreigners iramodcd or
prophane, they dood amazed, and knew not how to account for ip,
bur by faying : " thefe people have lod their underdanding, the mad
waters," i. e. the drong liquors, *' have made them infane." So
amiable appear thefe people, amidd their darknefs and fuperditions,
when we furvey them in the mod favourable point of view ; on the
other hand there are many exceptions to this general defcrip-
tion.

It fometimes happens that when the father of a family dies, the
poor forlorn widow has no near jelations, die lies on the groun,d
with her children about her, bewailing the lofs of her hud)and ahnod
to didraflion ; gudes of an evil defcription pretend to condole and
fympathife with her in her afiliftions, but at the fame time clan-
dedinely bear away the effefls of her late hufband ; flie perhaps en-
deavours to ingratiate herfelf with her created plunderer : he has a
right to maintain her according to the ufages of the place, but when
he is tired of her, flie and her children are again left helplefs. If
none want fervants, or be difpofed to protect them, a little longer
perhaps they protract life, by eating fifties, mufcles and fea grafs,
but finally they mud darve or be frozen to death, having neither
cloathing nor lamp-oil. If the orphans furvive, perhaps thejr are

K% unfurnifhcd

ii.

'#»

_ I

13a

SKETCHES OF

P. iir.

iinfurnirtied with a kajalc, and what is ftill more unproniifing, they
are uninftiu£led in the difficult bufinefs of managing them ; they mud
ftay on fhore and join in the drudgeries of the women. If people
on fhoie fee a kajalc overfet at fea, and the poor man is no relation, nor
has particularly ferved them, they behold with infenfibility, nay, with
a certain entertainment, how he druggies in vain to fave himfelf ;
it is too much trouble to flep into their kajak, and haden to his
help I and fhould they be incommoded with the (hrieks and cries of
their female relations, they flink away.

The fpirit of revenge lieems to be as ftrong in thefe people as in
the other American Indians ; like them alfo they keep their dreadful
refolutions inviolably fecret, till an opportunity offers of wreaking their
vengeance on thofe that have oflfended them ; and tbipir enmities are
conveyed down to their children and grand-children. When a
murder is committed the aflaflln generally perpetrates ihe deed at
fea, in a treacherous manner, by overfetimg the Greenlander in his
kajak and drowning him, or by throwing a harpoon into his back
behind. If the friends of the murdered man difcover the ruffian,
they ftifle their anger, nay, they do not fo much as let a word about
it tranfpire, for fear that he or his fpres and accomplices might
difpatch them too, to fecure himfelf; yet they will not forget to
avenge their friend's death, when they meet the murderer albne,.
even though thirty years fhould elapfe before they can eflfefl it.
They generally attack him on fhore, declare the reafon in a few
words, then done him or run him through, and cafl his body into
the fea ; or if they ar2 very much provoked, they hew him to pieces,
and fwallow a bit of his heart or liver, becaufe they think his rela-
tions will by that means lofe their courage to fall upon them. Some
{)0or creatures, for the fake of procuring themfelves refpefl, or a
ivelihood among the people, pretend to the power of witchcraft ;
fometimes however, they are blamed for having bewitched fome
perfon that has died, on this occafion the country will join to flone
them, and they are thrown into the fea or hewn to pieces. Some-
times, when fuch poor wretches find there is no pofTibility of cfcap-
ing, they plunge themfelves into the ocean, to elude the weapons
that would hew them in pieces, and leave their difnie mbered carcafe
a prey to the ravens. However, if the perfon cut off leave any near
relations, they endeavour to avenge the death ; and thus the tragedy
iffues in a prolonged feries of murders.

Poliganiy is not very common among them, yet fome have more
than one wife. When the women cannot be prevailed upon to
marry by kind and courteous perfuafions, they are compelled to it by
force, and fometimes by blows. The matrimonial contraft is not
fo irrevocable with them, but the man may put away his wife,
cfpecially if fhe has no children : this he does with little ceremony,
ho only gives her a four look, marches forth, and does not return
again for fcveral days ; fhe perceives his meaning direftly, packs up
her clothes, and removes to her own friends. The women before
marriage, are fqueamiilily fliy, they would account it an affront or
an injury in company, if a young fellow was only to offer them a
pinch of fuuff. The women that are repudiated or divorced from
theirMfbands fometimes turn proflliutes ; and, as for the married
W - "^ people^

S. VII.

THE EARTH.

»J3

people, fome are (o ihainelels tliat, if tliey can, they break the mafri"
inonial obUgation on both fxles without a blufh. When a mothe^
dies and leaves a helplefs babe behind her, if the father has no one t^
nurfe ir, he cannot endure to fee the infant's diftrefs ; he buries it
alive along with itb mother ; they are wrapped up in (kins, carried
to fonie high place and covered with broad ftones to keep off the
birds and foxes : thofe alfo that become old and infirm, and have not
friends to fupport them, are treated like the infant. Though tliey
are generally honed among themfclves, the indigent and lazy are
fometimes on the watch for llealing, efpecially from unknown travel-
lers ; but if they can rob a foreigner, either by craft or force, they
glory in the faft, as a mark of their fuperior abilities j therefore the
Eurapcant place no great coiifiJence in them, becaufe they have been
cheated by them many liujes ; nay, have b^en decoy«?d alhore, and
then bafely murdered, and robbed of their ^oods. Thus gloomy are
the fhades in the Iketch of thefe people.

5. Tartars, Laplanilers ] What has here been related is peculiarly
applicable to Greenland ; the other Americans, and the Tartars of
Afia, however, who inhabit the fame high latitudes, are, from their
fimilar fituations, put upon the fame habits and 'manners of life ; to
procure themfeJves fubfiftence they mud neceflarily be hunters, fifli-
ers, or fowlers ; and in winter, they muft betake themfelves to their
clofe and warm houfes : from the little that we know of them, their
conceptions or fupeiftitions feem even grofllr than thofe of the
Greenlanders. But of all thefe natiens^f little people, the Laplanders
appear the happieft, mod provident, and mod improved, in the arts of
fife. The rtin-deer, which the other thooghilefs people have only
fought to hu^t and kill for hnmediate ufe, the Laplander has wifely
reduced to domedication and fervitude ; and,-in thefe creatures alone, he
finds alniod every thing his (imple wants require ; they feed bin) ; they
clothe him; with their (kins covrrs his tent, and of their (kins be
makes his bed ; of thefe he makes his fnow flioes, and witli ijuie his
fledge is (hod ; of their milk he makes clieefes, and puts the whey to
immediate ufe, or boils it with wood ol urrel, till it c >^ulates, and
then keeps it wider ground in calks or deei (kins, to i. e uftd as a
delicacy in winter ; he preferves alfo the blood to mix with 'he mar-
row as a fauce in ^ring; even their intedines, when drclRd atd boil-
ed, make him a diili he highly edeems : He conv rs aimed every
part of this valuable creature to fome ufe or other : ilieir linews make
him bow-drlngs, fprings for catching birds, and threads for fev.-ing ;
their horns he fells to be converted into glue; their (kin alfo, and
their tongues, which are accounted a gteat delicacy, n' icni to the
fouthern parts of Europe, and procure hiri foreign tc;s and luxuries:
this is not all, the rein-deer carries him his journeys ; it is yoked to
the .fledge, which is extremely light, by means of a drap which goes
round its neck, and comes between its legs ; the man guides tlie ani-
mal with a cord, which he fadens round the horns, ard encourages
it to proceed with his voice, and drives it with a goad. Some of the
wild breed, though fsr the drorged, are yet found refraflory, and
often turn upon their drivers ; who have then no other rdplkurce ^i^tr
to cover themfelves with their fltdge, and let the animaE'Yt^jtj'J^fi
fury upon that; but it is otherwife with thefe that are tamej^iia

creature

'i ,■*

V V]

■1

■I

I ^

134

SKETCHES OF

P. III.

*'--

creature can be more aflive, patient and willing ; when hard pufhed,
they will crot nine or ten SwedifTi miles, or between fifty and fixty
English miles at one ftretch ; but, in fuch a cafe, the poor obedient
creature fatigues itfelf to death ; and, if not prevented by the Lap-
lander, who kills it immediately,' it would die a day or two after.
In general they can go about thirty miles without halting, and this,
ivithout any great or dangerous cfForts. The food which this faith-
ful domeftic lives upon is mofs ; and while his fields are cloathed
with this, the Laplander envies neither the fertility nor the verdure
of the more fouthern landfcape. Wrapt up warm in his deer flcins,
he defies the feverity of his native climate ; and, in the midft of
fnows, fearlefs and at his eafe, he drives his herds along the defart,
and calmly fubfifls where another would perifh ; his hardy cattle
too, root up the frugal but favourite fare from under the white de*
luge { while his faithful dog prevents them from wandering. Cara-
vans of thefe fimple people diverfify their long and tedious winter
in excurfions to the Finland fairs ; and on the return of fummer, in
their own land of fowls; they indifcriminately prepare for thofe
exercifes of the field, which, in our lands of liberty, are by lay, ap-
pTopriat,ed only to the man of wealth ; but which in theirs, fupply
plenty and variety to their tables for one quarter of the year.

SECTION vnr,

Europe.

We may nOw come home to the poliflied nations of Europe. Europe,
though by far the leaft quarter of the globe, its political powers
have now, for more than two ♦'"■'•'>rAi years, cut the greateft
figure in the annals of mankind ; thefe lands alfo bore the honor-
able title of Chriftendom, when Mohammed and his enthufiafts had
fpread their ravages and their dodlrines over the nations which firft
heard the Chridian name.

To attempt to exhibit the nations of Europe, and their varied
manners in one general (ketch, may appear prepofterous and vain ;
however, it is but confident, with the prefent dengn, to attempt the
defcription ; and, as wonder ilricken travellers have generally furnifii-
ed the fcenery of the views we have already taken of the other parts
of the earth ; it iliduld feem eflential, in order to impartiality, that
we (hould thoroughly divcft ourfelves of national habits and preju-
dices; nay, in faft become asftrangers, ready to admire and gaze upon
every ihing as new, while we furvey the manners of thefe renowned
nations. Leaving therefore, the fuperftitious Laplanders on the
north, and on the call the followers of Mahommed, the Othman
race or Turks ; of Afiatic drefs, extra<^ion and manners. The
Europeans feem drikingly didinguiflied frotn the reft of the world, in
their advances in arts, Icience, and comtrerce ; and in their nationally
„ profefling chriftianity. Their profefllou and their improvements,
r together with colonies of tbemfeives, they have dilTeminated to all the
^"''^-"■■i;..' ^ . ■ different

• ., / ■ '

d, VIII. T H E E A R T H.J 135

different quarters of the globe : thus, acquainted with the peaceful
and benevolent do^rines of the chriftian religion, and in poiTcffion
of arts, which enable them to elude many of the calamities to which
improvident and lefs improved nations are often expofed : how-
peaceful, how refined, how thrice happy, mav we expcft this dif-
tinguifhed race of the fons of Adam, to be aoove the reft of man-
kind ! The nations of Europe however, on ^n impartial furvey, will
be found in their manners of life, and in their enjoyments, much like
other men.

1. Arts and Sciences \ If we fweep round their parts, we fliall find
their ports crowded with veflels, and the produce and luxuries of
every climate upon earth, landing on their quays ; adiore are heard
the hammer and the axe of the mechanick ; and in the fields the
voice of the huibandman. Water, air and fire, are called upon to
impel their maflive machines, their engines, or mills, and alleviate
their labours ; while the fmaller works of the handicraft, the artift,
and man of letters, fupply many little conveniences and elegancies,
never dreamt of among nations unacquainted with nice arts. That
little inftrument the watch, which he carries about him, informs the
European how time is going on ; by the help of printing, he can have
in his pocket, records of fcience unknown to the learned pbilofophers
of the ancients ; by this, he learns what is going on in every quarter
of the globe, and in fine, he dips his pen, and converfes with
his abfent friends though widely difperfed over the face of the
•earth.

2. Manners.^ The Europeans begin their week by devoting
the firft day to public worfhip ; other Teafons are alfo appointed fpr
limilar purpofes ; the feventh day dofes their labours, and their week
is done. As afylums for the weak and he]ple(s, the (ick and the
poor, they ereft buildings like palaces, and liberally endow them ; or,
they fupport them by frequent charitable contributions: yet, among
thefe very people, evils fubfift as in other parts of the world. As
firft on the lift, we may reckon the horrid praflice of war, with the
ills it induces : the nations of Europe, though profeffing the moft
holy chriftian f'.ith, quarrel with each other, and decide their dif-
putes by force of arms ; though there are but, comparatively, fevy
immediately engaged in this bloody bufinels, yet the evil fpreads far;
individuals, remote from the field of battle, talk over its tumults and
carnage unconcernedly ', or, partial to the a^ms of their own particu*
lar nation, with & degree of enthufiafm, rejoice in their fuccefs, and
wifli deftruftion to ihofe who oppofe them. In Europe there are
gaols crowded with criminals, and on thefe are infli<Sled the puniflv*
ment of whips, racks, gibbets and fire ; nor have thefe feverities
been confined to thofe who have become pefts of fociety, the inno-
cent and the faithful have alfo endured them, for the fake of a good
confcience. In Europe, notwithftanding its inhabitants are fo im-
proved, there are many of them fuffer poverty, and fome die through
want ; if their improvements were confined to the good of fociety,
fiire many oF thefe evils would hardly be known ; but they have
formed themfelves unreal and artificial wants, and for the fupplying
of thefe fociety is opprelTed. It is far beyond the defign of the pre-
isfA undertaking, to attempt a catalogue of the luxuries and fuper-

fiuitiec

'T/

*:i

i-r

S'r, "

136

SKETCHES OF

P. III.

fluities of the nations of Europe. It«fnay certainly be accounted an,
evil if thefe take hands from ul'eful labour ; and, that they do, may
appear evident if we do but look about us. It is a common-place
argument in favour of fuperfluities, that the luxuries of the lich give
employment to the poor ; but if thefe vanities had not a tendency to
corrupt the minds of us poor mortals, and to mark out di(lin£lions
which flatter pride, the bane of human kind ; if they did not natu-
rally produce thefe evils ; let the ufeiefs attendance beftowed on the
wealthy, be but given to the labours ef the plough or loom ; can any
thing be more evident than, that, under providence, the good things
cf this life <.vould more plentifully abound, and the opprefllon of the
poor be coni'derably alleviated ? Infafl it appears, wherever the Tons of
Kurope have fcattered defblation and wretchednefs about tRem, it
has been from ir.otives of avarice, or for the gratification of unreal
wants.

3. Remarks and Reflexions.] Having now taken a general though
very (light furvey of the nations of the earth, as they occurred
in our imaginary tour round the globe, we may again fet out in a
fimilar way, and as we pafs along take a profpe6t of the lower orders
of the creation, as varioufly diverfified in the diifercr.i legions of the
earth; however, before we quit this nioft important part of geogra-
phy, the defcription of the human race ; a few refledlions that natu-
rally prefent themfe1ves» may perhaps here appear becoming, rather
than niperfluous and impertinent. We have already feen in the ac-
counts that travellers have furniihed, that there has nQ nation run fo
wild, but its hiftory generally affords alfo a view of fomething that is
amiable, in the niidft of all its rudenefs and fuperflitions ; ;^nd
were wonder-flricken travellers ftill better acquainted with the man-
ners of the people they have defcribed, and were they more divefted
of national prejudices! we fhould likely ftill hear more of what is
agreeable ; on the other hand, we majr find many evils prevail among
nations which make the higheft religious profeAion, and which are
generally accounted the moft civilized ; what delicacy then does it
require to defcribe the manners of men, or to draw national cha-
racters ! and bow carefully ought we to remember, that general
defcriptions can never be universally applied. In every nation there
appear happy exceptions to barbarous and unbecoming cuftoms ;
among every people woeful declenfions from manners that are
virtuous and principles that are fublime.

" *

#^ -'^

SECTION

I ,

^"^ Vv.

4-V .

%i-t

'h --^mv

^mL.:.

S. IX.

THE EARTH.

SECTION IX.

137

Different Appearances of the Earth.

We may now furvey the lower orders of ihe creation, as they are
varioufly diveriified in the feveral quarters of the globe ; and, as man
is highly interefted in thefe, we may often oblerve him in a con-
fpicuous point of view, in the vaiied picture ; we may fee how his
habits and manners are often influenced by his particular (itua^ion ;
how he avails himfelf of lae advantages it aflFords him, and how he
evades the inconveni^ncies to which it expofes him ; and fomething
Umilar may fometimcs be obferved in our humble partners in the cre-
ation, the beafts and birds. As the different parts of our terreftrial
ball receive the rays of the fun in various directions, and confe-
quently its heat in very difl^erent proportions, they accordingly put
on very different appearances; a polar profpeA and a landfcape
at the equator, are as oppofite in their appearances as in tiicir
Situations.

I. Polar Regions] The polar regions, that receive the folar beams
in a veiy oblique direction, and that continue for one half of the year
in night, prefent a pidture bleak and hideous. The ground which
is rocky and barren, rears itfelf in lofty mountains and inacceflible
clifts, and meets the mariner's eye at even forty leagues from ihore ;
ihefe precipices, frightful in themfelves, receive an additional horror
from being conftantly covered with ice and fnow ; which daily feem
to accumulate, and to iill all the vallies with encreaiing defolation ;
the few rocks and cliffs that are bare of fnow, look at a diflance of a
dark brown colour, and quite naked ; upon a nearer approach how-
ever, they are found replete with many different veins of coloured
ilone, and here and there fpread over with a little earth, and a fcanty
portion of grafs and heath. The internal parts of the country are flill
more defolate and deterr'.n?. In wandering this folitude, fome plains
appear to be covered with ice, that, a't firfl glance, feems to promife
the traveller an eafy journey j but thefe are even more formidable
and more unpaffable than the mountains themfelves, being cleft with
dreadful chalms, and every where abounding with pits that threaten
certain deftruCtion. The feas that furround thefe iohofpitable coafls,
are flill more aflonifhing, being covered with flakes of floating ice,
that fpread like extenfive fields, or that rife out of the water like
enormous mountains ; thefe, which are compofed of materials as clear
;ind tranfparent as glafs, exhibit a variety of colours, and affume many
llrange, phantaflic, dazzling, and fometiuies dreadful appearances.
Some look like large iflands, with plains, valleys, and hills, which
often rear their heads more than a thouland feet above the level of
the fea, and fink three hundred fathom under water. Some look like
arches, rocks, caftles, towers and fpires ; and thefe floating about give
jthe whole fcene the appearance of enchantment and illufion. Some

look

<>i>'.

^'Wm

t*, .,

1»

tJi

138

S K E T C H E S .^O F

P. III.

look like fhips in full fail, and people havi^ often liven themfelves
the fruitlefs toil to attempt piloting the imaginary veffel into harbour i
this may appear incredible, but when it is confidered, that the fhips
in thefe feas, rigging and all, are fometimes all over encrufted with
ice, vrc may better account for fo extraordinary a n>l(lake.

In the arflic regions the meteors are alfo leen under a thoufand
ftrange and rom:intic appearances, aftonifhing to travellers, though,
from their frequency, difregarded by the natives. *' Nothing more
£irprifed me, or entertained my fancy more," fays David Grants, in his
hiftory of Greenland, ** than when on a fine, warm, ferene fummer's
day, the Hookoernen, or the iflands that lie four leagues weft of
Good Hope, prefented a quite different view from from what they have
naturally. We not only faw them far greater, as through a mag-
nifying perfpedtive glafs, and plainly defcried all the ftones, and
the furrows filled with ice, as if we ftood clofe by; but when
that had lafted a while, they all looked as if they were but one
contiguous land, and reprefented a wood or tall cut hedge; then
the tcene fhifts, and fhows the appearance of all forts of curious
figures : as (hips with fails, ftreamers and flags ; antique elevated
caftles, with decayed turrets, ftork's nefts, and a hundred fuch things;
which at length retire aloft or diftant, and then vanifli ; commonly
a couple of hours afterwards a gentle weft wind and a vifible mift
follow, which put an end to this lufus naturs." This illufion feems
to proceed from compreft and fubtle vapours, intervening between
the objects and the eye, and afling like different lenfes or
glaifes.

It is perhaps owing to thefe different vapours, that the coafts of
Greenland, which are not themfelves enormoufly high, are feen to the
amazing diftance, failors fay, of near fixty leagues ; they are at firft
feen as if raifed in the fky confiderably above the horiaon ; as they
are ap|»roached they appear to lower by degrees. . and fettle in the
water. In the polar regions the froft often makes the fea fmoke
like rm oven; when the, mift congeals in the cold air, the fubttl
icy fpicula may be difcerned like nne needles, or glittering atoms ;
it feems to be condenfed mifts or clouds of this kind, that reflet
back the images of things on earth, like mirrours, and under the
name of the blink of the ice, give notice to the mariner at a con-
fiderable diftance, by gliftening, that the ice lies below, when other,
wife he might have dafhed his veffel to pieces againft it. In thef«
regions of mifts and fogs, the aerial or watery meteors ot every kind
are frequent. The folar rainbow is often leen different from
ours ; inftead of a pleafing variety of colours, it appears of a pa(e
white, edged with a ftreak of duiky yellow ; the whole being refteft-
ed from the bofom of a frozen cloud : a lunar rainbow alfo is often
(ecTtf of a pale white, ftriped with grey ; parhetii, parfalenae and
haloes, are alfo frequent here ; and balls ot fire are feen ffiooting
through the air. Sometimes whirlwinds happen that draw ,up water-
fpouts from the fea ; and hurricanes, that drive the fea-water upon
land, and fcatter it about like fnow ; duft, ftones and earth are torn
from the ground, and mounted up in the air; the houfes of the
poor natives, quiver and crack ; the tents and lighter boats are
I'wept away. However, neither fiorms nor fudden rains are very fre-
*v». queni

s
S.IX.

quent here

THE EARTH.

•39

>re; the lightnines flaih with Ihtle or no noife, and the
northern lights which ftrike the nations of Europe with ptutentoua
terror, ferve to cheer thefe people during their tedious winder, and
light them to their bufinefs or their fports. The aurorae, the ftars
and the moon, which, when at full, keeps up for days together
in the winter ; thefe, their reflection from the ice and fnows, and
the refracted rays of the fun, which are often feen to redden
the tops of the mountains, afford a light fometimes fuflicient to
read by.

2. 'tropica! Climates,'] It is in the torrid zone the meteors and
tempefts aiTume the moil terrific appearances, and it is there their ef-
fects are by far the moil dreadful ; the landfcape aifo differs from
the profpeft of the polar rv?gions. In the countries under the line,
the fun, darting his beanu directly dc'.vr.v/arris. the lighter foils
are burnt up into extenitve fandy defarts ; on the other hand, thofe
tta£ts which are moiil and fertile, teem with vegetation, eveh to a
noxious degree. The grafs rifes to fuch a height as often to re-
quire burning ; the foreils are impalTible from underwoods, and fo
matted abovr, that even the fun, fierce as it is, can feldom penetrate.
The banks therefore of the rivers, often lie uncultivated, and ferve
r.i retreats for beafts, infects and ferpents. The fmell of fome of
the plants is fo powerful that it is haidly to be endured, and
European adventurers that have failed up the Senegal, aicribe the
unwholefomenefs of the voyage to the vegetable vapour ; at the
fame time the beauty of the profpefls thefe climes afford, exceeds de-
fcription and the utmoft art of the pencil. A fpacious glaiTy river,
with its banks here and there fringed to the very furface, by the
mangrove tree, that grows down into the water, prefents itfelf to
view ; lofty green plants, and the moil gaudy flowers t beafts and
animals of various kinds, that iland upon the banks of the river, and»
with a fort of wild curioiity, furvey the mariners as they pais, con-
tribute to heighten the fcene.

The differeni temperature of the air at the poles and the equator,
produce very difft rent effeCts. In the cold arfticregions,an!mal fubilances
are fcarcely ever known to putrify, and meat may be kept for months
without any fait at all ; on the contrary, in tlie tropical climates,
fuch are the puirefcent qualities of the air, that white fugar will
fometimes be full of maggots ; drugs and plaifters lofe their virtue
and become verminous. In fome places they arc obliged to expofe
their fweetmeats by day in the fun, oiherwife the night air would
quickly caufe them to putrify. Silks and cloths, if expofed to the
air, foon lofe their colour ; copper and iron are quickly eaten with
ruil; even .the inilruments, knives and keys, that are kept in the
pocket, are neverthelefs quickly cncrufled ; and the great guns, with
every precaution, after fome years, become invalid.

Upon the approach of our fummer months, or the winter ones as
they are called under the line, the (ky from a fiery brig' tnefs, begins
to be overcail, and the whole horizon feems wrapt in a muddy
cloud; miils and vapours Hill coRtinue to rife; and the air, which
fo lately was clear and elailic, now becomes humid, obfcure, and
ilifling : the fogs become fo thick, that the light of the fun feems in
a manner e;;tcluded : nor would its prefence b& known, but for the

intenfe

•I'

•t

;ir

140

SKETCHES OF

P. Ill*

intenfe and fufFocating heat of its beams, which dart through the
gloom, and, indead of diflipating.only ferve toencreafe the niift. After
this preparation there follows an almoft continual fucceflion of thunder,
rain and tempefts } during this dreadful feafon, the ftreets of cities
flow like rivers, and the whole country wears the appearance of an
ocean ; the whole iky all around feems illuminated with unremitted
flafhes of lightning ; every part of the air f»ems produAive of its
own thunders, and ev^ry cloud produces its own Hioclc ; the ftrokes
come fo thick, that the inhabitants can fcarce mark the intervals ;
but all is one unremitted roar of dementary confufion. When thefe
terrors have ceafed, with which however, the natives are familiar,
meteors of another kind begin to make their appearance. The in-
tenfe beams of the fun, darting upon (lagnant waters^ that generally
cover the furface of the country, raife vapours of various kinds, which
give birth to balls of fire or floating bodies of it ; thefe from their
accidental forms, rather than any real difference between them,
receive the different names of the draco volans, or flying dragon ; the
ignis fatuus, or wandering fire ; the fires of St. Hehno, or the mari-
ner's li^ht, &c.

At "a the water-fpouts are feen in all their terrors, and large
cnoug . to dafli fhips tc pieces ; and in thefe parts of the world tem-
j)efls put on the mofl dreadful forn)s. The Cape of Good Hope, as
vrell as many iflands in the Weft Indies, are famous for their huiri-
canes, and that extraordinary little cloud which is faid to produce
them, but which is perhaps rather the vapours (that happening tp lie
within the fphere of the growing tempeft) that have been condenfed
as in the vortex of a whirlwind; this cloud appears when fii ft feen
like a fmall black fpot, on the verge of the horizon, and is called,
by failors, the Bull's Eye, from being feen fo minute at a vaft dif-
tance ; all this time, a perfedl calm reigns over the fea and land,
while the cloud grows gradully broader as it approaches ; at length,
coming to- the place where its fu-^y is to fall, it invefts the whole
horizon with darknefs : during all the time of its approach, an hol-
low murmur is heard in the cavities of the mountains; and the affright-
ed animals, fenfible of its approach, are feen running over the h^lds
to feck for flielter. The violence of the blaft is dreadful when it
begins. The houfes in thofe countries, which are made of timber,
the better to refift its furyi^bend to the blaft like oziers, and again
recover their reftiiude. The fbn, which but a monient before,
blazed with meridian fplendour, is totally iTiut out, and a midnight
darknefs prevails, except that the air is inceffantly illuminated with
gleams of lightning, by which one can eaiily fee to read ; the rain
falls, at the lame time in torrents, and its defient has been refembled
to what pours from the fpouts of our houfes after a violent fliower.
The Europeans, when they firft vifited thefe regions, were ignorant
of its efrefls, and the figns of its approach ; their fhips, therefore,
were dafhed to the bottom at the firft onfet, and numberlcfs were
the wrecks which the hurricane occafioned ; bur, at prefent, being
fore-warned of its approach, they ftrip their mafts of all their fails,
and thus patiently abide its fu^y. Thefe hurricanes are common in
all the tropical climates. On the coafts of Guinea they have fre-
quently three or four in a day, that thus fhut out the heavens for

a little

*«»

...v .

S.IX.

THE EARTH.

I4t

a little jpace, and when pad, leave all again in its former fplen-
dour. They chiefly prevail on that coaft, in the intervals of the
trade winds, the approach of which clears the air of its meteors j
and in general when they ceafe, thefe irregular tempefts are found to
exert their fury. All this is terrible ; but there is a temped known
to thefe climates dill more formidable : this is called by the Spaniards,
a Tornado : as the former was feen arriving from one part of the
heavens, and making a line of dedru6tion ; lo the winds in this., feem
to blow from every quarter, and fettle upon one particular place
with fuch fury, that nothine can refid its vehemence. When they
have all met m their central (pot, then the whirlwind begins with
circular rapidity ; the fphere every moment widens, as it continues to
turn, and catches every obje£t that lies within its attra£lion : this, alfo,
like the former, is preceded by a flattering calm ; the air is every
where huflied, aud the fea is as fmooth as polifhed glafs. All along
the coads of Guinea, beginning about two degrees north of the line,
and fo fouthward, lengthwife, for 'about a thoufand miles, and as
many broad, the ocean is unnavigable, upon account of thefe tor-

nadoes, and intervening calms ;

among

which, whatever fhip is fo

unhappy as to fall, is totally deprived of the power of escaping.
In the torpid repofe of all the elements, the folitary vedel is obliged
to continue, without a (ingle breeze td ailld the mariner's wi/lies,
except thefe whirlwinds, which only ferve to increafe his calamities :
this part of the ocean is therefore avoided.

In Egypt, a kingdom fo noted for its fertility, and the brightnefs
of its atmofphere ; during fummer, the fouth winds blowing from
the continent, are fo hot that they ainiod dop refpiration ; befides
which, they are charged with fuch vad quantities of fand, that they
fometimes darken the air as with a thick cloud. If they happen to
continue any length of time, they produce epidemic difeafes, and are of-
ten followed by a great mortality : in the fummer alfo, a very danger-
ous wind prevails all along the coads of the Periian Gulph, which
the natives call the Samayel. This terrible blad, which was perhaps,
the pedilence of the ancients, indantly kills ihofe that it involves in
its pa(rage, whether beads or men. It is faid to frequently alfuiiie a
vifible form, and dart along the furface of the country, in a kind of
bluiHi vapour. The natives, not only of Perfia but Arabia, talk of
its efFcfts with terror ; and their poets have not failed to heighten
them, with the aifidance of imagination. They have defciibed
it as under the conduct of a minider ©f vengeance ; who governs its
terrors, and raifes or depre(res it as he thinks proper. Thcte deadly
winds are alfo known along the coads of India, at Necapatan, Mafu-
Jipatan, and Petapoli ; but luckily for mankind, the Ihortnefs of their
duration diminidies the injuries that might enfue from their malig-
nity.

But of all thofe terrible tempefcs that deform the face of our globe,
and repreG human prefumpt'on, the fandy tempeils of Arabia and
Africa, are perhaps the mod terrible, and drike the mind with the
greated awe. To conceive a proper idea of thefe, we are by no
means to fuppofe them refembling thofe whirlwinds of dud that we
fometimes fee (catteiing in our air, and fprinkling their contents upon
our roads or meadows. The fand dorm of Africa, exhibits an appear-
• • . ance

.*.

. ,'yj-

142

SKETCHES OF

P. in.

ance more I'^ke a troubled Tea : as the fand in excefTIvely dne, and al>
moil refeinblei the parti of water, its motion eniirel/ refeinblcs that
of a fluid ) and the vhole plain feenis to float onwards, like a flow
inundation ; the body of fand thus rolling, is deep enough to bury
houfes and palaces in its .bofom : travellers who are crofling thofe ex-
tenrivedefaits; perceive its approach at a diilance, and in general
have time to avoid it, or turn out of its way, as it generally extends
but to a moderate breadth ; however, when it is extremely rapid, or
very extenflve, as fometimes is the cafe, no fwiftnefs, no ait, can
avail < the pilgrims and the merchants, their elephants, and their
camels, with all their attendants, find one common tomb under the
delusc of fand.

The rivers that have their fource in the Torrid Zone, are the
largcft in the world ; and, as the rainy feafons there are periodical,
the rivers have their dated inundations, vbich deluge whole coun-
tries > and drive the inhabitants to the hills: compared with thefe,
the rivets near the Pole are but as brooksi or rivulets : The moun-
tains alfo on the equator, are the loftieft in the world j much of the
magnificence of the hills near the poles, js only feen through the
deceptive medium of vapours and fogs ; the mountains on the line are
known to rife three miles perpendicular above the bed of the ocean ;
and thofe who climb them fee meteors,, which never appear in the
plains below. When the traveller has afcended above the regions of
florms, and, as is frequently the cafe, fees the clouds below him,
and hears their thunders rolling quite beneath his feet ; from this
airy height he beholds the rainbow, not merely like a fplendid arch
reared in the flctes ; he fees the (hining circle complete, fweeping
down into the vallies, as far beneath his feet as it rifes above his
bead ; from this romantic fituation he fometimes fees the fhaclo . af
the mountain projected upon the body of the air or mift ; and on an
oppodce cloud, views his own image, as in a looking-glafs, but fur-
rounded as with circular rainbows. It is renmrkable if there be a
number of people in company, m lucli a fituation each fees this beau-
tiful and fplendid illufion, with regard to himfelf, and not that relat-
ing to others; ; or he Cees only his own fbadow, adorned as already
defcribed. The plains near the line are alfo vail and extenfive, and
he who traverfes thefe, knows ihe benefit of a water-brook, and of
the ihadow of a tock in a defart and weary lar i.

^. General Ohfervations on the People.] In contemplating thefe op-
pofite extremities of climate, how naturally are we led into flattering
refleftions on the happy temperature of our own. In our happy land
the mountains arife and improve our profpefts ; their brows rre
clothed with verdure, and their fummits colleft enough of waters to
cool and divcrfify the landfcape below viith livuleis and flreams,
and to anfwet the purpofes of manufadlure, navigation and com-
merce, without deluging the plains and fweeping off the inhabitants:
here alfo the meteors put on a kind and friendly appearance ; the rain
falls in refreibing ihowers, to fertilize the earth; our fnows afford a
kindly prote<£lbn to the ground from the rigour of more piercing
frofls ; and, even our thunder and our tempefls, ferve to purify our
atmofphere. On the banks of our rivers and in our forefts, we need
neither fear the windirg ferpent nor the lurking crocodile, the prpwl-

, ing

p. in.

and al-
lies that
e a flow
to bury
bofe ex-
gcneral
extends
apid, or
art, can
fid their
)der the

are the
iriodical,
e coun-
th thefe,
! nioun -
\ of the
)ugh the
: line are
; ocean ;
r in the
egions of
Qw him,
roni this
did arch
weeping
ovc his
iado". af
d on an
Ibut fur-
re be a
h beau-
It relat-
[already
e, and
and of

;fe op-

[ttering

\y land

rs rre

Iters to

reams,

com-

Itants :

\e rain

ford a

jrcing

our

need

rpwl-

ing

S.IX.

THE EARTH.

•43

ing wolf, the Hiagg/ bear, nor the Ittil more fierce and cruel the
fpotted favages of the torrid zone. Our landfcapes are enlivenev^ with
animals of a very different kind, the bleating of flocks and the lowing
of herds, banifli folitudc from our walks, and found the voice of
plenty in our ears i they take their fodder from the hufbandman,
and give their dugs to the milk-maid i the horfe rejoices in his
(Irenzth, and retains fome of his native fire, he paws in the valley,
and bounds ovei the patlure ; again, he hears the voice of his mafter,
and gives his head to the reins ; fo beauteous are the profpeQs our
land atfords ) yet, let it be remarked, a native of the Torrid Zone,
or, of the cold Ar&k. regions, generally fees more beauty in his own
native climes : this one fkims along the defert upon his flcates, or
drawn by his rein-deer or dogs, without reftraint he hunts, fiflies and
fowls I again, the temped comes on, he betakes hiinfelf to his hut,
and hugging himfelf in fecurity, hears it fcowling over his head : the
African alfo delights to throw himfelf upon the exercifes of the field;
he endures the blaze of noon which would ficken an European,
and encounters with animals of the foreft, ihe glare of whofe eyes
might petrify one with horror ; he plunges into the waters, and ven-
tures fingly to attack the monfters of the deep in their own native
element ; he evades the deftru6tion of their yawning jaws, which
would crufh him to pieces and fwallow him up ; he plunges his knife
into their bodies with mortal force ; he fixes a noofe round his enor-
mous prey, drags it to the iliore, and proclaims a feaft to the village ;
or he draws an eaiy harveft from the foil he inhabits ; and, ftretched
under the (hade ot the broad fpreading plantain, or the fever-cooling
tamarind, happy and at eafe, and unenvious of other climes, he lolls
away the feverity of noon, or drinks the refrefliing juice of the un-
numbered fruits, of keen delicious tafte, that wave over his head ; or,
that fanned by the breeze, are fcattered about him in profufion.
Thus, we fee the pleafures of this life are more impartially diftributed
to the different quarters of the globe, than might at firft be imagined,
and as there are every where inconveniences to be experienced, it
feems happy for man he generally prefers even of choice, thofe which
his fituation oblige him to inherit ; this difpofition feems not only to
obtain with nations at large, but alfo among the different orders of
men in particular countries: thus, the mariner braves the tempeft and
calmly endures the complicated hardfliips his way of life expofes him to ;
it is entertaining enough to oblerve him when fafe into port ; his perils
with the remembrance of them, are together fufpended ; he looks
about him on the toils of the landfmen, he pities their fuiferings, and^
as if he had made a difcovery, he feelingly remarks, one half of the
world knows not how the other half lives: while on the other hand,
the landfmen hear the whiflling of the winds, pity the poor fallor,
and think how happy it is for them their lot has been caft upon land.
Thus, the man of manual labour admires the patience and perfeve-
rance of the minute artift, the accomptant, and the man of abftrufe
learning ; he recoils at the idea of purfuits lb tedious, and drives with
pleafure, his teani z field ? or contentedly toils with the hammer,
the hatchet, or fpade ; while thefe lift up their eyes on the variegat-
ed landfcape, and fee in towns and villages, in every hedge apV
ditch, in every ridge and every furrow, the marks of labour and t/ \

.^,

/...I

144

SKETCHES OF

P. IIL

which they think it has been tMlir pecuh'ar privilege to efcape. If we
carry dill farther the comparifon between the different orders of men,
it will appear of how little confequence it is, what may be a man\
outward fituation in life, and how the caufe of pleafure or uneafi-
pe(s moftly lies in the mind. The governors of the earth un-
der the weight of their cares and folicituues for the /elfare of
the people, their countenances are fometimes feen brightened with
fmiles; while thoughtlefs individuals, in more humble llations, who
find the proteftion of laws without much confider'ng whence tiie
benefit is derived, their brows are fometimes feen lurrowed with
cares and anxiety for the piovifion of the day.

SECTION X.

Diversity of An'imals.

"<r

To furvey more generally the lower orders of the creation, we may
imagine another fort of tour round the globe. In our view of the
nations of the earth at large, we took our departure frpm the barriers
of ice that furround the fouth pole ; in this furvey we may take our
departure from the fimilar embarrafTmeniis that block up the much
defired paflage to the Pacific on the north.

On quitting the accumulated inalTes of ice that invert the Arflic re-
gions, ihe bufinefs of whale-fifliing riles on the view. When the fun
gives to Europe the advantages of funnner, the northern icy feas are
involved in the glare of continual da}' ; there we may meet with
^European vefleis all engaged in this hardy adveuture ; and there the
little Greenlanders every piece as bufy in their fmaller rraft.

f. IVhale Fijbery.] For the cncouiagen)ent of this buGnefs, the
Britiih goveinment give a bounty to the veflels ; it is regulated by
the number of her boats : for every hundred ton the veflel is of bur-
den, as meafured by the officers of the cuftoins, flie carries a boat ; to
each boat there is an harpoorcr and a crew of fix or feven ; when
they are arrived at a proper latit»u!e the/ are all upon the wa^^h, and
fome of them every . ow and then run up into the rigging for ?. better
look out ; one boat, or perhaps more, at the fame time keeps rowing
at a diftancc fiom the veflel; when a whale is difcovered by its
fporiting up of water, the boat direftly rows up to its fiJe ; the
harjiooner, v'ho (lands Pt the prow or bow of the boat, plunges Lis
harpoon in its body ; the boat iintiie«iiately hurries off, for iear the
fift> ihould dafli ii in pieces by the flouncing of hs tail ; they t!ien
hoift a little flag, which when difcovereii on board, the fignal is given,
by calling out, F; II; the other boats, which bad been flung on the
fides of the veffcl equipped with all their tackle, and ready to be
lowered into the water at a moment's warning, are immediately let
go J in leap the crews, and row off with all hafte to the a ~ftance
of the other boat. It i: fome time before the whale <"<^ems to feel the
blow, and the animal continues for a while motior.iefs on the water ;

the

*~^

.;^,T

^4"

S. X.

THE E A * T K.

the fhaft continues to plerc? deeper and deeper into its body j at length,
roufed from its Teeming lethargy, h'dam down into the -water with
amazing rapidity ; as it makes off,. it draws after it with fuch velochy
the line or cord of the harpoon, which is coiled up in the boat, that
cne man has to ftand by with an axe ready to cut it if it fbouid en-
tangle, left the boat mould be overfet, and they be all drawn down
together ; another with a mop, keeps condantly wetting the edge of
the beat, where the line runs over, to prevent its being fet en -fire by
the friction of the rope ; in th? mean time the beat purfues as faft as
they can row, the direction of the line j the others follow, and the
iliip as well as it can, for there are but v«ry few left on board, bringi
up the rere. If the fifh n not mortally wounded, he can flounce
about in the deep for an hour, and draw a line of two thoufand
iathom yards sifter it, in which cafe the other boats haften up and
add their lines, and fometimes it gets off by diving under an ic^
ifland, but commonly it is killed : the enormous animal has to come
up to the top of the water to breathe j the crews are ready to
renew their attacks; they dart their haipooniuto its body; it again dives
and rifes again ; they repeat their "blows till the whale begins to
be quite enfeebled and fpent, when they plunge their longer ipears
into various parts of its body ; the enormous animal expires, and the
ocean feems dyed with blood. When the whale is dead its beljy
turns upwards, the boats tow it away, and it is lailied alon^HJt; of
the fhip ; the Brft work is thea to go with a boat into its jaws, and to.
cut out tlie whale-bone barders very cautioufly from kcs gums, <with a
long bending knife, and to draw them up at the capftain. This
enormous beaft of the ocean, which meafures from fifty to eighty feet
in length, which was found to reach two hundred feet, when the
Bifcayneers, in the beginning of the fourteenth certtury, firft led the
way into thefe feas, and the animal had time given it tp cometo iti
«»rviwth ; and which Pliny reports to be nine hundred and fixiy f^iH
long ; we may vtry naturally fuppofe it ^muft devour a ^reat 'c^uantity
offiines; their throat however is fo'ftrait it would not admit a -fim '
larger than a herring to enter ; it lives ijpon IHtte iiifftSls^thait'tVtf <
fometimes feen floating in clufters on the furface lof the wattfj «nd
though the whale is a gregarious aniipal, berng'fotrrS'ip-gi'eiit'hierds,
it is upon this minute food it acquires fatnefs ; for feedmg -upon -thtffe,,
teeth would be unneceffary ; in place of thefe, it.h is in its upper javf, '•
the barders, blades, or, whilkers as they are vaiieri, fof%Ruifirigxir de-'
taining its food ; thefe compofe what we call the vrhale+bone: they *ipe
of din^rent lengths, like pipes of an organ ; they fliOt into the tinder
jaw, which is a little hollow, as into a ftieath, they sun it fovlong the
tongue in a longitudinal direftion The great toothlefs or prOjpefGritenw
land whale, anfwers this defcription; there are plfhtrrorts'thJItliiaW'
teeth, and purfue their prey, thefe are more miffchte.vous afcd fal^^
in their habits. When the beft ofthe barders are cut out, tO^eaBhifiWt
of many hundreds, they cut off the blubber from tlie tongue, ftrtdtTv^,
that proceed to ftrip the whole bo.'/ of the fat, beginning i^h lity
the head and tall at once, and ending in the middle ; the naj^|ilij[Ht
(land on the fifli have fliarp irons on their ftiocsto prcvertt therff'p'cJh^
flipping, they cut off the fins and tail to be converted hito^be, «fld
lallly, they ftrip off the fat on the middle part of its body* all the'

L while

A-tv

146

SKETCHES OF'

p.m^

Bl!'

5 • '^

while removing the ropes wherein it is Hung, as occafion may require.
When the mountain of flelh is thus dripped of its fat, it lofes its buoy-
iancy ; it is turned adrift, down goes the carcafs or fcrag into the
deep, with a general and joyful huzza of the crew. In a few days it
burfts and rifes aeain, and ferves to regale the iilhes, birds; and bears
vrith a profufe feuivity. Some nations alfo are fond of the flefli of
the whale ; the people near the fouth pole, as well as thofe of Green-
land, are fopd of it to didraftion ; the French feamen are now and
then found to drefs and ufe it as ^heir ordinary diet at fea j but the
Englifli and Dutch f^ilois fay it is hard and ill-ta(ted. The value of
a fingle fiih is ufually about one thoufand pounds.

The method of the Greenlanders in taking the whale rather ditFers^
from that of the Europeans ; both men and women compofe the par-
ties, the budnefs of the women is to row, and to mend the feamen's
jackets and the boats wherever they are damaged. For good luck in
the expedition, they drefs in the bed manner they can, fuppoilng the
fqueaniiih whale would efcape, or if dead, that it would (ink, if any
one wore dirty clothes, efpecially thofe wherein he had handled a dead
corpfe. When they fee a fifli, they make boldly up to it, in their
mens and. womens boats, and flrike it with feveral harpoons, to which
bladders are hung, made of great feal-fkins. Thefe lo encumber and
impede the whale, that it cannot fink deep : when it is tired out, they
difpatch it with their little lances. The men then creep into their fea
jackets, which are made of feal-flcin, and anfwer as ihoes, (lockings,
gloves, coat, cap, and all in one piece : thefe they faften tight on their
Beads and leap fearlefs on the fi(h and into the fea^ The air in the
jackets prevents their finking, and enables them to (land ereA in the
water. They ftrip off the blubber, and cut out the barders. As every
fpt^ator may claim a (liarc in the fpoil, the fcene is forr^etimes very
diforderly: men, women, and children tumbling in heaps one over
another, each with a knife driving to fecure a portion of the enormous
prize* T^y confider the acquifition as a happy circumftance of their
Uves : they encamp befide it, and feldom remove till they have left
nothiog but t|ie bones.

2. Mti«r Regions. J. Befides the fpouting of whales, and the bufinef»
of taking them, which prefent an intereding fcene in the icy feas, the
number of anisnals,. the fea fowl, feals and bears, which are feen there
in great piiiibers, enliven ihofe dreary folttudes, and animate the
chilttng proipeft. How thefe can endure the feverity of the climate,
and feem to enjoy life in Che regions of fro^, will perhaps be one of
the firft of our wonders in contemplating on r.hcfe creatures. They
find a plentiful fupply from the (idies-of the fea, and are armed againd
the CQld. with fat and a warm outward covering. It is remarkable,
th(it the furs or feathers of many of the animals of the cold not thern
M^otif of the earth, become white in winter : we might imagine,
that, as thfi l^air in the human fpeci:.'s becomes white in old age, whea
there is a deficiency of the juices of the body, the feverity of the
cold had the fante e(Fe£t on thefe, and produced a premature or rather
temporary old age, in their coverings ; however this be, as we find in
the different orders of the creation wliethcr beads, birds, or fifhes, the
attacks of the rapacious kind, are obviated by the tueans cif cvafion. or
ihc faperior facundity of thofe they prey upon, and thus the different

j * ' specie*

A.i;:.si-

S. X.

THE E A R T a

'47

fpecies are prefer ved from generation to generation.. Perhaps thefe
anjmals are white, that they may be lefs eaiily diflinguilhable from the
fnows, ancTconfequently lefs expofed to the attacks of their enemies.
The land animals that 6nd fubfiuence in the cold regions of the north,
are many, and of various fizes, from the hare to the elk or moofe deer,
which (lately creature approacheth in Cue to the elephant, with its
horns fpreading out to the extent of ten or twelve feet, and from the
cleanly little ermin to the ingenious beaver, the fox, the larger vvolf,
and the great white or Greenland bear, which reigns the unrivaled
monarch in the icy mountains of Greenland and Spitfberg, as the lioii
is the tyrant of the burning defarts of Zaara. The great white bear
three or four yards long, feems to have acquired llrength, hardinefs,
and courage fuperior to the reft of its fpecies, whether we confider
them as found brown in the Alps, or black in the foreft of North Ame-
rica. Thefe aukward looking creatures are expert at climbing trees,
in the hollows of them they fometimes make their dens, at the height
of thirty feet from the ground. The Greenland bear robs the nefts
of fowls, and devours both the eggs and the birds ; the deer affo
fomttimcs fall under his dreadful jaws. In the fcverity of cold he re-
tires to his den, to pafs away the winter in a deep or torpid kind of
fiate, living upon his fat : for in this time his exuberance ofilefh is
wailed away ; when the winter is paft, and he feels again the calls of
hunger, he roufes from his lethargy to feek for his prey. In this fa-
miflied date he fnuffs at a diftance the habitations of men ; he fome*
times ventures on an attack upon thefe, but is commonly killed, and
becomes the food of thofe whom he attempted to deftroy ; fometimes,
however, his oppofers, fome of them fall under his death-giving
gripe : but it is from the water this formidable animal chiefly draws
its fuftenance ; there it is feen ffoating on flakes of ice, many leagues
from the land, in purfuit of feals and fmies, he even ventures to plunge
into the fea, and attack the flouncing whale and the morle vvith its
formidable tufks, m their own element ; but he generally falls iii the
Unequal confllA.

3. Migrations of Birds.] "The vatiety of fowls and filhe* fhat only
appear on our fhores or in our feas at particular feafans; their dated
departures, and their regular returns, have employed much of the at-
tention of the curious ; thefe may be called animals of paflfage.
Among iiihes, the cod, the haddock, the whiting, the mackarel, the
tunny, the herring and the pilchard are all of this kind. Befldes quails
and fwallows, which feem at the clofe of our fummef to depart for
warmer climates, not without firft conferring in clofe debate on the
adventurous pafTage, and which, it is agreed, are feeh at fea, both oil
their departure and return, in fiich prodigious flocks, as to appear like
clouds on the horizon ; among birds, we may reckon an innumerable
quantity of water fowl, with woodcocks, and a variety of other
birds that make their apptarance here in the winter ; thefe and the
fiihes generally vifit us from the north. When uTicttltivated trafts of
woods and marflies formed a coniiderable part of our iflands, many
fpecies of birds which now migrate remained with us throughdUt the
year : the great heron and the c an'j that have now forfaken thefe
countries, in former times bred familiarly in our marfhes, and feemed.
to animate our fens. Their ncfty, Hke thofe of moft ctoven- footed

La water

*■

."»?■'

.5K,

t4S

SKEtCHES OF

P. in.

water fowl, were built on the ground, the furrounding marih de-
fended thein jfrom carnivorous quadrupeds, and their own ftrength
from birds of ^rey ; but fince thefe countries have become populous,
And rural tecbnoiny has encreafed, by a long feries of alarms, they
have at length been obliged to feek, during the fummer, fome lonely
habitation at a fafe diftance from every dfiftroyer. Thefe, and nume-
rous other kinds, form thofe amazing flocks which annually repair *o
the dreary lakes and defarts of Lapland from the more feuthern
tountries of Europe. In thofe northern defarts, the lands of lakes
And rivers, of fwamps and mountains covered with thick and gloomy
forefts, where the ground remains moid and penetrable during the
fummer, the woodcock, the fnipe, and other flender-billed birds, feed
at their eafe ; while the web-footed birds find more than fuflicient
plenty of food from the number of infe£ts which fwarm there to an in-
credible degfee : there (hey perform the duties of incubation at theif
eafe, and encreafe in fecurity. We are not to be aftonifhed, there-
fore, at the amazing numbers of fowl that defcend from thofe regions
kt the approach of winter ; numbers to which the army of Xerxes
w^s but trifling in comparifon ; and which Linnaeus has obferved for
eight ^'hole days and nights to cover the furface of the river Calix.
'This migration from the north ufually begins at the clofe of fummer.
When they qtiit their retreats, and difperfe themdelves all over the
£)Uthern part's JDf Europe : On their firft arrival they circulate round
eur Ihores, and, when compelled by fevere froft, faietake themfelvee
tb our lakes and rivers. Some, indeed, of the web-footed fowl, of
'hardier cdnftitutiohs than the reft, abide the rigours of their northern
cliiiiate the whole winter : but when the cold reigns there with more
than ufoal feverity, they are obliged to feek for more fouthern fkies ;
lb that the diver, the witd fwan, and the fwallow-tailed fliell drake,
Vtfit but coafts-bw letdonr, and that only when compelled by the fe-
Venty of their winters at home. It has often appeared a matter of
iiftohifliment, how animals to all appearance (o dull and irrational,
fliould perform fuch long journeys, 4iould know whither to fteer and
Wheti to fet but upon fuch a great undertaking. What then ihall we
think of the fiill more diftant migrations of the fifties?

4. Migration of Fijbes.] The unnumbered flocks of fowl that en-

.■ *^Ven the bleak and chilling profpe6ts in the Ar£lic feas, are fbmetimes
ieen pofting away to the fouthward ; fifties are their prey> and thefe
they are purfuing. The iliOals of filhes that annually come out from
under the Ice at the pole, ahd migrate towards the fouth. feem nume-
rous beyond conception, and various have been the conjectures on the
Caufe of their migration. It has been thought that they breed there,
that, the ice protecting them from the larger fifhes, and the feas fup-
^lying a great quantity of the infefl food, they multiply beyond ex-

'.pifei^ph; and that on account of their numbers, they are compelled
to ieek tor other retreats, as with bees from a hive. It has been ima-
gined they are all engaged in evafion or purfuit, that the lefs fry only
vifit us as they are chated upon our ftiores, the larger fort as they pur-
fue. It has been conje^ured, that they come on account of a defi-
ciency of food in the icy fea ; and, it has been concluded, perhaps
rood rationally, that their adventurous migration is for the purpo^f^ ol^
depofitihg their ^awn in our warmer feas j their welcome vifits fdim.

ftated

O. J\t

THE EARTH.

dated and regular ; accordingly the feafon for cod, mackarel, whit-
ing, &c. are Bxed and known ; but bow and when they return to the
icy Teas, or whether they ever return or no, feenis one of the won«
ders of the deep, which the mod flcilful icthyologifts have not difco-
vered. Of all migrating fifti, we feem beft acquainted with the ad-
ventures of the herring and the pilchard. The great colony of them
is feen to fet out from the icy fea, about the middle of winter ; com-
poled of numbers, that if all the men in the world were to be load*
ed with herrings, they would not carry the thoufandth part away.
But, they no fooner leave their retreats, than ••''(lion* of enemies ap-
pear to thin their fquadrons. The fin-Bfh and (he cachalot, fwallow-
barrels at a yawn ; the porpcs, the grampus, the (bark, and the
whole numerous tribe of dog-fi/h, find them an eafy prey, and delid
from making war upon each other : while the unnumbered flocks of
Tea fov.'! that chiefly inhabit near the pole, watch the outfet of their
dangerous migration, and fpread extenfive ruin. In this exigence
the defencelels emigrants find no other fafety but by crouding clofer
together, and leaving to the outmoft bands the danger of being Brfl:
devoured ; like flieep that always run together when frighted, each
finding iome protection in oeing but one of many that are equally lia-
ble to-invafion. The innumerable company firfl: divide into two great
ffaoals, one body moves to the weft, and pours down along the coafls
of America, as far as Carolina, and but feldom farther. In Chefa-
penk bay, the annual inundation of this fiih is fo great, that they cover
the fhores in fuch quantities as to become a nuifaiice. Thbfe that
hold more to the eaft, and come down towards Europe, endeavour to
fave themlelves from their mercilefs purfuers, by approaching the firft
fliores they can find ; and that which firfl: ofl^ers in their defcent is the
coafl of Iceland : in the beginning of fpring, upon their arrival on
that coaft, their phalanx, which has already fuffered <:on€derabIe di-
minutions, is, neverthelefs, of amazing extent, depth and cloienefi,
covering an extent of ihore as large as the ifland itfelf? the whole
water feems alive ; and is feen fo black with them to a great diftance,
that the number feems inexhauflible. There the porpus and the
fliark continue their depradations : and the birds devour what quan-
tities they pJeafe. By thefe enemies, the herrings are eooped up into
fo clofe a body, that a rtiovel, or any hollow ve^Tcl put into the water,
takes them up without any fartlier trouble.

, Their defcent on our coaft: is later in the year, about Midfiimmar :
their arrival is plainly announced by the number of Gannet„ the Gull,
the Shark, and the Porpoife. When the n»i. In body is arrived, its
breadth and depth are fuch as to alter the very appearance of the ocean ;
it is divided into diftin6t columns of five or nx miles in length, and
three or four broad, while the water before them curls up as if forced
out of its bed : fometimes they fink for the ipace of ten or fifteen mi-
nutes, then rife again to the furface, and in bright weather tefled a
variety of fplendid colours like a field bcfpangled with purple^ gold
and aaure. Among the conjetlures on the caufe of that extra jrdina->
ry phanoraenon the Aurora Borealis, fome imagined it proceeded fi;om
the reflexion from thefe flioals^ while others fuppofed it produced by-
the flames of burning mountains, till later difcoveries acr.ounted for it<
by eleftricity. ;

'»^' '

'JTt^"

»5o

SKETCHES

^» the innumerable flioal* fnli l ^- ^W-

. Jtind fe^mc P'*>^'."g "Pon each other twl r .• ^"^ ^''^^s m the

viett^, thofeur.VK?!. . ® already defcribed nr»r ^/ Pursuit and:±,
large; kind Thnf ^''^'^^^ft "souths andS. Fn T 'J^*^"^'"^'ves .to ^
frv LJ ' ^°. ^'''o^e "ioutbs arel.r i- .'*"^*^'' *"d devour the

fiiDDlS^ .; ^^^ ^^^«'« da« upon ih^r fi P^" ' ^"^ ^o'^ts of fowl

^"ing or purfSrh ' ^"J ^"'^ ««^e and fecurir j r ^ '" "'°"°"' and
^ ^efe^inlt W ?^^ ^'^ ^'^" continual/ , f n S ° r '^"" ^"^«^^ P"^ "

<^"ts its way tt,\ '"u^ ^"'■"'■'^ed With a fufj In '°"^' ^^*^°'

nnW in Z I? . "^^ '^e water while it IZ l 'V"S ^^^ter its prey

are now exerfed in t hI^T" '^ S^°^ ufclefs n hi "'^ ''^
«ion from that in whioT f, ^'^^fent manner and \^ ff 'T^'^'''

means the timid ll» ''^'^^ ^'^''^ employed in fwf •''"^^"^c-

jts furface for two or ff, '"?'^ '"'^^ ^^^'^ wate? '^^^^^ ^ ^>' ^'""^
n moving hi . • ^^""^^ hundred yard, WliTi? ^"."^ ^"""s over

new,;g^ht%tm'°^r^^' they five nSt;"^'""^^°'^^^^^^
ferny keeps it i^ yf^'lL ^ ^^'™.'"'"S' «'" howeyfr th?^JJ-°"

' , feem

:;J

S. X.

THE EARTH.

tit

feem alfo combined againft ir, (6 that its double powers appear toex-
pofe it a greater variety of dangers, for though it (hould eicape from
Its enemies in the water, yet the tropic bird and the albatrofs are for
ever upon the wing to feize it ; thus purfued in either eremcnt, it
fometimes feeks refuge from a new eneniv, and it is not unfrequent
for whole fhoals of them to fall on f>iipboard, where they furni/h
man with an object of curlofity. Thefe are but a few of the obfer-
vations that have been made on the inhabitants of the iea, and it feems
highly probable that man has drawn but a few from their watry beds,
and that there are numerous tribes of them in the fecret receiTes of
the deep, with whofe manners and forms he is utterly unacquainted;
there living for ages undidurbed, they may acquire dimendons of ^hich
v/e have no conception, and exceed what has been told of the kraken
booking like an ifland, or of the fea-ferpent with its long white mane»
•reajing its head or tail to an amazing height above the furface ofthe
^ea, and rolling its enormous folds on the water like great floating
caflcs, or like an hundred dung heaps that lie in a row on a field to be
ploughed, as far as thefe reports exceed the common belief. By help
ofthe plummet we have learnt that the bottom ofthe (ea like the
land has its mountains and vallies, but the plummet only Teems to an-
fwer comparatively in the Jliallows ; the deep of the fea we cannot
found at all. Where the plummet can be ufed, and in ftill le(s depths
where the eye can reach, the bottom of the fea preients very different
appearances, as it is compofed of rocks, clays, uiells, fands, ftc. In
many parts near the coafts of America it is covered <with vegetables,
which make it look as green as a meadow, on which are feen thou*
fands of turtles and other fea-animals feeding; in others, as along the
coafts of Africa, in the Periian gutph, &c. but efpecially in the Red
Sea, it is literally fpeaking a foreft of (ubniarine plants, and corals
formed by infe£ts for their habitations, fometimes branching but to a
great extent, and at lad, with the accumulation ofthe wreck the fea
depofits upon them, forming lands and iflands for the habitations of
men, and bold ihores or reefs of coralline rocks which are dangerous
to navigation, but which maintain the acc|uiiitions made from the
ocean, while it heaves againft them a prodigious weight of waters,
which, being dafhed into foam by the abrupt oppoHtion, is called by
the mariners the furf ofthe fea ; theie are the interruptions that make
navigation fo dangerous on the coafts of the Eaft Indies and among
the South Sea iflands ; with thefe however the natives are familiar,
among thefe they have the art of fwimming and navigating their little
veflels where an European would be fure of being darned to pieces.

6. Africa.] If we leave the tropical feas i.o take a view of the
animals of the tropical countries, Africa feems to offer the greateft
variety. In this quarter of the globe where many nations feem to
lead a wild and roving kind of life, but little acquainted with the be-
nefits of arts and aflbciations, the favages of the foreft feem. to difpyte
the poflTeflion of their native wilds with the lords of the earth : among;
the rivals 6f man in thofe extenfive deferts, we may reckon the Ron,
4he tiger, with the other beafts of prey ; the ferpent and the croco-
dile, thoie fierce and cruel ^emies ; the elephant and the rhinoceros,
formidable when attacked, and even the ape, which in feme parts
£rows to the aipazing length of % and feven feet,, and proves- his

1 V '^'■-•y ■*"*'' "*^'*

^5«

S K E T C H E

Pja«t, which'the/bSr -^r."*^ "'"cyV tt, ,?" ^P«ci" rename
of the foreft which nf "^"^ *^^'> ciub* J.?oM- ^'^ ^"^^^'^ «fce eiJ

Negro can fubfift ornrl^ ^.*. '««^/ to wond^ il "!*"^ fi«^<^« or

J« feeble airs caS on/ r ^^'"' "'"'"»' comeflT »fl^ ?""^ ^''"run by

'''.go to hh ttRih^ i'*' of the day ha, fubfil^ "^'**- At night?
«fhoes to a varic'f^ nf^'i? *^^ '^^^ft''"'/ Teidn, rlf' '".^ '"^« Prepare,
^e iion are helrd^ l ^ ff^'^nt i^owl,L /^J" ^ ^ ''^^^^ forjft then

kind, purfuc their mi, •"' ''^^ ^^ena and orkf. >^eHings of the ijaer

f»"»a?eeachotTef Zitr^*' *"^ "'^^e the for^^A^'' °^ '^« ^og
«^e ferpent* aifo of 1» • ' ^^VS^es of the chafe bvf?*.""^ ^^'^^ they
»^e cveniW bu rk • "°''' ^"^^ t^at beJn ll • ^ **^'^ "'"^ual cries,
"r 'fa«« thf 'b,Ss t'o ''•"' ^<imnl nfZ '^" <=f f at the cJofe rf

f^« ;'ver, ritt'orfafr-'^''* *»- ""'^g , Vr?hV°"'tl'^^^^^^^
Jioftile tribes draw »1 f'^\'^ "'oft efbecifi/y ih/^f "^'S^^^rhood
«'r, where the fun ! • ""' '*^ «"gPgeiS ^/„ .u^i**^* ^'^ere thefe
J-i'en what had'the ^T "^ '^^ ^*ter for huidrS'^^"^''''"g ooun-
beco.,,, i„ fumnt%^P/J,^^«"^t f ^S^^^' ri" ef „'^J^ "'''fs round,
. tftat IS never dty or "l f'^ ^«^ of /and • „ r k r ^^ '■*'°3' f«afo«

V at>ima/ as the ,7n/> /J"'^*'^ '^^^ »s perenn/a / • °^V°"«t*'es a /aU
t/'e heat of ,hi ^^S '^^^'■^We acqui/Itio? ?'! ' '? *^^"^^red W ever^

*;^^'" a'teuiprin^ t^" J5 ^ ^*^^ ^^'foovered h^ .^ ^^"** »o find out a
/.ftoufanj, Sf an/ma/Ti7"-. 0" tteb^Xo/rF? c?*^ deter the,,'

feived in a lonJTj'^ *° fe/ae their prev %u ''^?'"«-<nK to quench
• the buffaioes afe ril"'''i^'"£ ^0^/ ti,e^l7^^ "^^Phants are pe'^

S. X.

THE EARTH.

•S3

gloomy reccfTes, and foinetinies make theii depredations on the ftocky
or herds of the huftandman » and while ev«n the fleet deer have been
domefticated and eoclofcd in parks, fome of the cow kind«^ unreclatm**
ed by man, flill run wild and bellowing in the forefts. But it is in the
wilds of Africa that ali^ the tribes of the cr«ation feem to enjoy their
native fredom ; there the borfe, the afs, and the zebra, in. unnum^
bercd herds, fcour a^rofs. the defart and own no mafter's ftali ; there
the cow»th« iheep.and the goa.t bound over the hills, they wait not in
thofe fruitful regions to be fupfrfied with fodder at the band of man-,
or u> be penned up in folds : the flocks unite in their cooimon ds*
feivce, or feek fafety in flight.

8. Afiu^ IJlmds ofihi Paeijtck.] Tlie wilds of Afia on the fouth
feem to prefeat a picture fmiilarly favage, and the animals which com-
pole it are foufld: extended on the north injEo Tartary and China«
The iflands of the Paciflck iS'e unfurnifhed with thefe creatures.

9. AMtnca,] In America, however^ we meet with fome of thefc
foiffiidable animaJs, but tt is remarkable t^ey generally feem feeble
and diminutive if compared with thofe of Africa and Afia. Tbt
Tapir bears fome resemblance tOv th* mule, i< chiefly refides in the
wa^er, but comes aihore to. graze oa the banlES, and may be con&>
dered as the river horfe of Amettca j but what is- its ftrengia and what
are its dimenfions when compared with behemoth or the hippopota-
ntos of the Nile Niger or Zaara, above feven feet high and ok a pro*
portion euery way fitted for ftrength, whofe jaws open about two feet
wkle,whofe tore teeth ate above a footlong, whofe difpofiiion however
feemsas inoifenfiveas its force is prodigious, and wluch feldom ventures
frou) the liver fide bM when preflTed Uy the neceflities of hunger, or of
bringing forth its young ? There feems ftill a greater difproportion
between the caoiel and the American lama. The Uon of 6iiidu]ge«
rid is faid to be nearly ^ve feet high, his outward form ieems to
fpeak his interna.! generollty ; his 6gure is Uriking, his looks, confident
and bold, his gait proud, and: his voice terrible ; when he prepares
for the combat he fummons up all his terrors^ he then lafhes his
fide^ with his long tail, which alone is flrong^ enough to lay a man
level, he moves his mane in every direAiom, it (sems to rife and (land
like brill les round his head^ the fkin and roufcks of his face are all in
agitatbn, his huge eye- brows half cover his glaring eye-balls, he dif-
cover* his teeth which feem rather formed for deflru^fcion than chew^
ing h$ food, he fhews his tongue covered with points, and extends
his claws, which appear almofl as long as a man's fingers. The tiger
of Bengal, of flill more untameable ferocity, though not fo tail as the
lion, has fometimes been known to meafure twelve feet in length
without including the tail, while the cougar or tiger of America lel-
dom exceeds three, and the licna, which has received the name of
the American lion, is a creature ftill inferior, being extremely co-
wardly, climbing trees for its prey, and fubfifting rather by its cun-
ning than its courage. The difference (ieems le^ confiderable be-
I ween the jaguar or panther of America, and the leopard or great
panther in Afia, and between the lynxes that are chiefly found in the
northern parts of Curopet Afia and America ; but there are (bme
animals that appear peculiar to America ; thefe feem almoft wholly
dedi^^e of the j^ower of defence, their figure ungainly, their limbs iH

, . " proportioned.

»■:

) 'J.-'

\% SKETCHES OF P. III.

proportioned. Some among them, as the h'ttle ant-bear and the
iloth. appear fo miferably formed as fcarce to have the power of
moving nnd eating, they feem only capable of maintaining their lan-
guid exigence in the mod defart folitudes, and hence perhaps they
have been totally extirpated in thofe countries th.it are more popu-
lous or more largely furniflied with the fierceft beads of prey. Why
the quadrupeds of America are generally found lefs than ibcfe of
Ada or Africa, may very naturally excite our enquiry : perhaps they
are the progeny of fome feeble kinds that were beat out ofthe fouthern
parts of Ana { or that wandering to the north throueh fcarcity of
prey, or from any other caufe, in fome generations became dimi-
nifhed through the coldnefs ofthe climate, and pafllng over to Ame-
rica on the north, in its cooler regions, have never regained their
original magnitude, or that which diftinguiilies the fame fpecies c^
lavages in the torrid wilds of Africa iund AHa ; or perhaps they
are of a different fpecies, and their kinds are extirpated in the more
populous parts of the world. The ferpent, however, and alligators
or crocodiles in the warm rivers and fwamps ofthe New Wc Id, feem
pretty much the fame with thofe of the Old ; and thofe animals that
are fond of the mod cold and northern fltuations, as bears, ^eer^ an4
wolves, feem exadHy the fame all round the Ardic Pole.

We might clofc this little (ketch of the lower orders of the crea<-
tion, and our defultory courfe through the different quarters ofthe
globe, by obferving, that the birds, which are animals of paflage
and unconfined to tolls, maii. in their utmoft magnitude and ferocity
in the regions of America, as we And efpecially in the enormous con-
dors, which fpread an expanfe of wing of twelve feet from tip to
tip, whofe beaks are fo ftrong as to pierce the body of a cow, and two
of thefe tremendotis animals are able to devour it ; they render the
mountains terrible to birds, beads and men ; they fometiines defcend
from their heights to fpread defolation and terror in the lower grounds,
and when their prey happens to fail them upon land, they comedown
to the fea fhore to feed upon dead (ifh and fuch other nutritious fub-
ftances as the water throws up : That in America alfo birds of the
fmalled (ize are found, as the little humming bird, which inferting its
bill into the cup of a flower and fucking out the juices, the powder
or the pulp, while it keeps fluttering over it, feems to approach in
(ize and manner to the bee : That the birds of the torrid regions are
remarkable for the fplendor and beauty of their plumage ; and thaj;
thofe of the temperate zone excel in fong.
■:•:;=,.- ., ... .... - V-''V '. ' ■

SECTION XI.

J*.

Manners of Animal?.

■> '

However, before we quit this entertaining part of geography, the
view of the different tribes of the creation, which the life of*^ man,
find all the volumes he could write, would never fully unfold ; it

may

SXI.

THE EARTH.

may perhaps be interefting juft to take a curfory .Airvey of their ha- "
bits or manners, as they are influenced by their fubjcAion to or iiide-
pendrnce of man, and by their aflbciations or animofities with each
other.

I. Care «/ ihtir Toung.] All the purfuits of the whole brute creation
feem naturally to be diretled to the prefervation of themfelves, and the
propagation of their fpecies } and every deviation from thefe appears
to be but fport or a temporary relaxation from the btidnefs ot their
lives. It has become a proverbial Uying, that felf prefervation is the
firft law of . ature ; the care of then young, however, feems happily
with,fome tribes of animals, a bufmefs of more importance than even
tlie prefervation of themfelve**. To defend thefe they feem to brave
every danger. The rapacious kinds, whether beafts or birds, as the
lioneis and the eagle, acquire new terrors, and become more than
commonly formidable t on this important occafion, they undauntedly
attack thofe that annoy them ; they prowl about for fupplies for
their favage and hungry brood, and bear away, to the neil or den»
their mangled prey, yet throbbing with life, thus early accuftoming
them to habits of flaughter ^ even the weaker and more harmlels
races of animals feem to aflume new habits, and acquire a courage
and a coniequence unfelt before. The timid creature that would at
another time fly in an agony of dillrefs, on a diftant appearance of
danger, (lays by its young till their enemy is clofe upon them, or it
meets his approach and ventures to give him battle, or throws
itfelf in his way, and draws him on to follow it, thus decoys him to
a diftance from its infant treafure, then fprings oflFat once, and mocks
his vain purfuit. This latter defcription of temporary courage and
little arts of elufion, feems to hold with mod of the feebler kinds of
birds, and with the timid deer and others of the fearful beafls of the
field. The amphibia and BHies feem moftly a heec'lefs tribe of crea-
tures leaving their fpawn or eggs in the water or on the banks to be
brought forth without their afliitance by the heat of the fun's tepid
beams : fome, however, feem pofllffed of finer feelings > among
fifhes^ the whale, with fome others, Hiews a tender concern for its
young one, grafping it in its fins, and bearing it off from the attacks
of their enemies ; and while the crocodile, among the amphibia, lies
under the imputation of thinning the numbers ot its own young, in
common with their numerous other devourers ; the open bellied cro-
codile, is thought, like the opoflum of the Weft Indies, to afi^ord a
fhelter to its young ones, when in danger, in that extraordinary ca-
vity or bag, which it has under its belly, with its opening outwards :
it has been thought that it brings forth its young ones alive, like the
higher races of animals, and that it nouriflies them in its falfe belly,
when they are yet too feeble to provide for themfelves. In thefe
anxious lolicitudes for providing for their young, the male ai^rang
i^aadrupeds feldom bears a part ; he feems oftner to prove a fornniwt-
ble enemy. Thus, among thofe of the rapacious kinds, the lionets
and tigrefs, with the greatell caution, conceal their retreats from the
males, to prevent them from devouring their cubs. It is otherwife
with the feathered tribes of the creation, among them we may often
fee a beautiful leiFon of domeftic fidelity. The male fliares the labotir
jQf building the neft, he induftrioufly (iipplies provifioji to the hcn^

wbil^

'ft

SKETCHES OF

P.m.

while performing the duty of incubation i or he takes her poft while
{he fliet abroad in queft of food for herfelf ) while (he is on the ne(l
he alfo afts the part of a trully centinel, and cheers her with a fong,
with a note that informs her that no danger is at hand. If an enemy
approacheth, his voice is fuddeniy ftopt ; and this is the fi^naj that
puts his mate on her guard. When the sera which fulfils their patient
expedtations, and compleats their happinefs has at length arrived, and
the callow brood burns from the fhell, the raptures of the male feem
not lefs than thofe of the mother. They both feem, at that feafon,
ttanfported with pleafure : every action teftiBes their pride, their im-
portance, and tender folicitude.

This defcription of connubial fidelity feems generally applicable to
all the tribes of the fowl of the air, excepting fuch as the cuckoo, that
deftroys the eggs of others, and leaves its own in the place j and thofe
of the poultry kind i with thefe the tedious duty of incubation, and
the care or protection of the young clutch, devolves entirely upon the
hen, wbofe concern at this ieafon is to avoid the cock as an enemy.
Even the drake, in its (late of liberty or wildnefs, is fometimes known
to fupply the down from its breaft for lining the neil, when that of
the duck has failed, by its having been often diflurbed while building.

The parental affeClion feems happily to hold no longer with the
tribes ot the brute creation, than the wants of their tender oflPspring
require their care and protection : when the young ones are fledged,
and prepared for flight, the parent birds bring on their little charge,
and fhew them the place and manner of feeding; they reconduct
them to the nefl, and backwards and forwards they pra^ife them in
this way till they appear nble to provide for tbemfelves ; they then
again lead them out, and leave them with the wide world before
them; all connexion feems to be at an end, and every one fmgly or
uniting in flocks, prepares to fliift for itfelf. Thefe manners are ob-
iervable among the little fongflers that make vocal the hedges round
the habitations of man. Thole of the rapacious kinds that build their
nefts on inacceffible clifts and in diflant foiitudes, as the eagle and the
falcon, though they mix not in flocks like other birds, yet live in
pairs from year to year, with (lri£l fidelity, and mark out a rock for
themfelves, not allowing others to encroach on their territories ; their
ferocious habits foon feem to overcome the feelings o the parent, they
drive off'their young at an early period to fhift for themfelves, and when
difappointed of their prey, they fometimes kill theoi in a fit of fury.
But of all the feathered tribes of the creation, thofe of the pie kind
feem by far the moft induflrious, the mod faithful, the mofl conftant,
and the moft connubial ; they live in harmony with each other, and
cherifh their young to the lafl. With reipeCl to man, they feem ra-
ther noxious than beneficial ; he often conGders them as a chattering,
noify, troubleforoe fort of neighbours, that only approach him, like
robbers, to commit depredations on the fruits of his labours ; but with
lefpeCt to each other, no clafs of birds are fo a£live, (b ingenious, or Co
well fitted for fociety. In fa6l, they fometimes live in focieties ; and
in thefe are general laws obferved, and a kind of republican form of
government eftablifhed among them, they adminiflcr caftigation to re-
traClory individuals, and join together to repel the flrangers that come
to fettle amon^them ; if the emigrants however can fight their way;

5*.>'

S.XT.

THE EARTH.

VS7

get a tied built in ihcir territoriei, and onCe enter on the duty of in*
cubation, they are then confidered as members of the ftatc, and re-
main in undillurbcd pofTefllon of their acquifitions. Of the pie kind
■re reckoned the niagpye, the raven, the crow, the woodpecker, the
parrot, &';. And o? this kind is confidered the fwallow of ternate,
or the beautiful bird of paradife, which fome have defcribcd rs an
inhabitant of the air, livmg only upon the dew of heavt.i, and never
rcfting bilow : as fuch it appears in paintings or Japanned wares, with-
out either feet or wings, but with a long buHiy tail, and as fuch it is pre-
fentcd to us in Europe, when ftuflFed or preferved, where we muft not
look for the remains or (lumps of its limbs, for fear of rufflins; or tearing
off its beautiful plumage. Time, however, has difcovered that this bird
not only has legs but very ftrong ones for its fize, that the natives df
the Molucca iflands, of which it is an inhabi':i.it, oeing very little
ftudious of natural hiftory, and perceivi..^ •'lie inclination the Eu-
ropeans had for this beautiful bird, carefully cut off its legs as its
greateft deformity, before they brought it to market, and then alTerted
It had none. The birds of paradife, which in flocks enliven with their
brilliant plumage the fpicy forefts, they inhabit, being feen, like the
fwallow, almoft ever on the wing, may appear foir.e apology for
European credulity. The phcenix of Arabia, which almoft every
body has heard of^as a bird which lives for a thoufand years, then
makes itfelf a bed of fpices, as a neft and funeral pile, commits itfelf
to this, takes fire, and expires } another phcenix fpringing out of its
aihes, to be, contrary to the order of the creation, a folitary inhabitant
of the globe, and the only one of its kind for another thoufand years.
Thou^ it may in thefe enliehted days feem fuperfluous to coritradidt
this fabulous and unnatural hUlory of the phoenix. It has been gravely
treated of in former times, and this romantic creature of the ifflagina>
tion been confidered as a bird really exifting.

Birds vary in building their nefts, according to the different tempe-
ratu|p of the climate, the duties they have to perform, the mateilals
they have to work upon, and the enemies they have to encounter
with. Where the eggs are numerous, it is then incumbent to make
the neft warm, that the animal heat may he equally difFufed to them
all. Thus the wren, and all the fmali birds, make the neft very
warm : on the contrary the plover, that has but two eggs, the eagle,
and the crow, are not fo folicitous in this refpeft, as their bodies are
capable of being applied to the fmall number upon which they fit.
Some birds that with us make a very warm neft, are lefs folicitous in
the tropical climates, where the heat of the weather promotes the
bufinefs of incubation : on the other hand, the water fowl, that \inth
us make but a very flovenly neft, are much more exaidl in this parti-
cular, in the colder regions of the north. They there take every
precaution to make it warm ; and fome kinds ftrip the down from
their breafts, to line it with greater fecurity. Thev vary their nefts,
According as they find a fupply of materials. The red-breaft, in
fome parts, makes its neft with leaves, where they are in greateft
plenty; in other parts, with mofs and hair. The fwallow with us
builds its neft with mud and grafs ; on the coafts of China and Coro-
mandel, from the foam of the fea water dalhing againft the rotks,
they gather a certain clamn>v, glutinous matter, perhaps the fpawn

■ of

■'T'T'.T t^ ^,Jw:*''V*J ^y "1

I5S

SKETCHES

6 F

of fi/hes, of this tUv LuiM »k • ^ ^ ^- ^^f^

from the rocks anH k^ ^ ^^"" "-^s* Thefe th*. P/,- r ,
fell tl *' *"° onng ihem in ar^-ar . V ^'^ ^"« Chmefe d ucfr

O'ier fowl for |i,,„'L ;{ ^L ' **'''' " <^<^'"' t"er ado ed ,[° *""'

, '"mm , fmalftep XV'b 'J^' '"""' ""■" -^^'r W ^ f^

K otherw fe vvh-re .V h. u ?• ^^^ ground ferves it fnr ;., V.

cavfH ■/ ' • , .' ""'> "s bores itfclf „ i,„f "^"""'"S danger. The

»void ,hofe form daW=an"il°AH"«»'!"g wa'r whS «£' ""'"^
'f flies tofily abom ° q™ft''17''"r°^"'«=' ">= «">ry 1 «fe,,I°

enr.r o^ • ^ pouch, from the ooinr !^f »u l ^' " wmed, that
° ri^'eXS? "°'"'"'"^"'""8 "- «"'X .^t'S.-

■%'.,.

feca

p. Ill

S. XI.

The £ a r t

republick of ants and he ±''''>'/ ^< «ven amonfTnfeart rJ^

which s fubieft ^n fil ^ °"'Wing a da«i ; but ifk ^p ^ j*'^^/' "Pon 3
broad at thp hofo .*" '^""dred feet Inn » . » ' ^"'^ dsui

where ;■ is„oft lhJC'\T'J'^"f '«= <i»» « uflTlv bn'l'^ *
Jig hy the fidf r,f »i, I* ^ where fooje gieif fr^^ • r^ ,^* '*

and therefore thev take th? / ^^'''^ ^^ acconi«li,l,ed as i!„ ^"'
ihdr mortar oa the r talc ^^/\"^^ge of its increafe .,d r«? "'
places where there si''"^ '^^'^ '^'^'' b«ween the "tl^!'", ^V^^ '

either by the forr/nf .? ^ "'^"^O" for them Jf rh '• ^^''l ^° ^^^e

'■me. or elfe abandon he J wort. ""• ,'^'^ '""'' °»h'ntl'X?

^™.'.ed,t.or ."''"■""^'^■•^^-^-•f-'^-t; .

^pari tuJJ of water; the other two ' ..
j\r.. above /'''

s6o

SKETCHES OP

P.m.

above it. This little fabiick is buih in arery firm and fubilamial
manner, on the edge of their refervoir, and always in fuch divifions or
apartments as above-nnmtioned, that in cafe of the water's increafe,
they may move up a ftory higher, und be no ways incommoded.
When they have buiK then- lodges, they mix i^p fome clay and dry
grafs together, they work h into a kind of mortar, and with this, by
the help of their tails, they plalfter ailiheir works, both within and
without. Eight or ten beavers live in one houfe. If the number of
inhabitants increafe to fifteen, twenty or thirty, the edifice is ertlarg-
ed in proportion : it feems, even four hundred beavers have been
difcovered to refide in one large manfion-houfe, divided into a vaft
number of apartments, that had a fire communication one with ano-
ther. The beavers, during the fummer.are perfeft epicures ; and re-
gale themfelvijs every day on the cboiceft fruits and plants the
country afFord"s ; in winter they eat the wood of the birch, the, plane,
and forae few other trees. They have maga7rnes or wood yards
wherein they lay up their winter's provifion ; in procuring of this, each
takes a diflrerent way, and has his proper walk aifigned him, in order
that one labourer fiiall not interrupt another in the profecution of his
work: the fmaller branches are brought home by^ the individuals
fingly, that goaiyed ihem down ; thofe of larger dimenfions are con-
veyed to the ftore-houfe 'by a whole body ot the beavers. Thefe
logs are not thrown up in one confufed irregular aeap, they are piled
up one acrofs another, with intervals between them, fh order to take
out, with the greater facility, but juft fuch a quantity as they ihall
«vaDt, for their immediate confumption, and thole parcels only,
which lie at the bottom of the water, and have been duly fteeped.
This timber is cut again in fmall pieces, and conveyed to one of their
largeft lodges, where the whole family meet to confume their rcfpec-
tive dividends, which are made impartially, in even and equal porti-
ons. Sometimes they traverfe the woods, and regale their } • ng.
with a more novel and elegant entertainment. Such is the pi6. • jf
brutal fociety, the manners of thefe little animals, prefent li; the
remote parts of An>erica, and whererJindifturbed by man, they have an
opportunity of aflbciating together ton the other hand, where he makes
his aDpearance, and the dread of his prefence breaks up the foci-
ety, I he timid little creatures each individually (Crives to fliift for
itfelf. Their talents are entirely rcpreflcd by lolitulde. The beaver,
when alone, has but little indutlry, few tricks, ad it is without cun-
ning fuflScient to guard it againft the moll bungling fnares laid for it
by the hunters. /

3. Influtnced hy the Human Race.] We may now clofe this (ketch
of the earth, by fonfidering the different orders of living creatures, as
they are particularly influenced hy the dominafion of raao, or as they
call for^h his arts, to fubdue dif^m to his lirvice, or to fupprefs their
hoftijities; and in this iniercfting view the fcc^ie is highly diverfified.
It has been imagined, there is foinething peculiarly augufl: in the up-
right figure of man ; fomething that naturally ftrikes the moft favage
bead? of the foreft v^'ith awe, and teaches them fubmini:;n to the
lord of the earth ; it is found, however, he owes more of his fuperi-
orlty to his intelleftual powers, than to any advantages he derwes
merely from his outward forni j and, accordingly thofe animals which

have

S. Xl.

THE EARTH.

lot

have not yet become acquainted wlih his prowcfs, and which have
only been accullomed to engage with creatures of inferior ftrengih,
ihey meet his full attacks with the moft hardy prefumption. The
albatrofs and the v/iiaie only flee from his prelence when they have
learned, by fatal experience, the fuperiority of liis arms; the bear in the
moft fohtary regions of the north, and the ferocious anintjals of the
unpeopled defaris of the torrid zone, at firft meet man without fear ;
thus the lion of Zaara, accuflouied only to conquer, ventures fingly
to attack a ca'avan, confitling of thoufands, and, when repulfed by
numbers, and obliged to retreat, heftill continues to face his purfuers;
it is otherwife in the mod populoui parts of Africa, where he has
been often courfed down by the hardy inhabitants ; there his dread of
the human kind is fo great that the Hght of a child puts him to
flight. It has been remarked, that, in all countries, as man is civiliz-
ed and improved, the lower ranks of animals are reprelfed and de-
graded ; either reduced to fervttude, or treated as rebels, all their
Ibcieties are diflolved,and all their united talents rendered inelFeftual;
their feeble arts quickly dilappear, and nothing remains but their
folitary inftinfls, or thofe foreign habitudes which they receive from
human education ; thofe v/hofe favage or timid natures admit not of
domeftication, feet, in the moft diftant receiTes of the foreft, or the
moft impregnable faftnefles of the mountains, protedlion from an
<enemy, whole fuperior fagacity difcovers their little arts, and finds
out their retreats ; who entraps them with his fnares when not pre-
lent himfelf, and who undifcovered flays them at a diftance. Thofe
which have been brought to yield- to domeftication or fervi-
tude, have loft, with their native fpirit, much of their original habits
and forms : we may perhaps difpute however, whether domeftication
has invariably degraded the lower ranks of animals ; fome, under the
care and proteftion of man, feem to have increafed in fize, in ftrength
anci in fwifinefs j and thofi* that he has treated wiiih fanu'liarity and
afFet^^ion, as the dog and the horfe, feem to have acquired a courage
end a generofity they never knew in the foreft : thus, horfes and
dogs, aniii^ated by the prefence and fliouts of the hunters, are brought
to attack and purfue the moft formidable animals ; even the tremen-
dous lion, the gl.'ire of whofe eyes would have petrified them with
horror, or irade them to flee in an agony of diftrefs, when in a ftate
of wildnefs, they freely encounter when encouraged by the company
of man.

It feems indeed, that man maintains much of hi$ dominion ovef
the headlong tribes of the creation, and effects many of his greateft
works and defigns, by the help of thefe two faithful domefticks : in
the tending of flocks and tilling the ground they alleviate his la-
bours ; and, in countries where he combats with the boftilc kinds of
animals, or draws much of his fubfiftence from the capture of the
tim'd creatures, that run wild in the foreft, in his horfe and his dog
he finds willing partners in his toils : thefe however are far from
being the only fliarers in his labours and purfuits ; and our concepti-
ons of what lie has efF.-fted, in fubjefling the tribes of ihe brute cre-
ation to his fcrvice, will be very confined and inadequate, if we take
our idea merely from what we have an opportunity of obferving in
our own particular age and country ; in fa^, there does not appear

M to

■'^^4

i6z

SKETCHES

i; *

"..^

yield fn \- j^^^ ""^^e almoft everv Uin^' "^ "^^^^ '» moft ex>
domiLt'\:"7^^«^^nt^. Apes iai^^^^"."}!^'"^ duties, or coS

deeper and » f' ^^^'" ^^^^en younl k 7 'u "^*^^ '" "^^'''ng
"ot the car .J ^ ^u '"^^^^^ ^'"^ ft>/h"s L M "^^' '^ ^^ ^^r it!

™on. wirii the ftrena?i f '^^ ichneumon af E^lnr .u ^f,^^^^^
equally lurL\ * ':'^'' «''ce, birds, ferpents S ^i'^*^ °^ P^^^rs

«ffeas of [heir r«l • l""^ "'^^ ^^^ that whenlu ' '^^"^"'O"*
Jndians ca I aL iff ' " ^^' '^^^^rfe to a Te " n ^^'"' '''J'^' ^^«
tfae afp or thl V- "^'"^' ^"^ aSri to be anlnt'^ '°?^ ^^'^^'^ tbe

jn Africa. paSM^^^^^ ^^ ^va,\Td fu"^-^ '" ^!!

Serviceable to the fZ • ^^^.^«Pe of Good Hone ;. • • ^^""'^

the crocodile .if fif;'',^"' '" '^'^covering and 5!flrl '" P?''^'cu]arly

able to reach IkI ^^° ^'"' '^^ young o"fs rht f °^'"S '^^ ^SS^ of

fabJe. it hath bL"^?^^ ^^^ a^trufh go^ often 1' T" 'J ^"^^^"

^!b«..

S. XI.

•7-<

HE EARTH.

163

To tell the arts whereby man has reduced the many and varied
tribes to his fervice, to delcribe the various manners of capture he
makes ufe of, whether he takes them by ftratagem, hardinefs or force,
would require whole volumes, and unnumbered are the treaiifes that
have been wrote on thefe fubjefts. We have already feen how he
calls in one kind of animals to help him in purfuit of another : there
is another method he pradlifes with equal and greater fuccefs, this is
by fetting tamed animals to allure wild ones of the lame fpecies into
the fnares he has laid for them; in this manner ducks are taken by
thoufands in decoys ; and in this manner the elephant, wifeil of
brutes, is reclaimed from the foreft, and made a willing fervant,
attached to its keeper, intelligent in underftanding, and faithful in
obeying him.

4. ProFvoefs of man.\ Thus we fee that all the lower clafTes of
animals, whatever may be their powers Wihen oppofed to each other,
are brought to feel the fuperiority of man. This lord of the
creation maintains his dignity among living creatures, alike in the cold
frozen regions of the north, and in the hot and burning defarts of the
torrid zone. The lavage and hoftile tribes of creation — they may
for a while hold his empire in difpute, but their oppodtion and their
force feem but to ferve to awaken his ingenuity, and to call his powers
into aftion, rather than to reprefs them. Thofe that fall under his
protection from the earlieft period of their lives, as the tame ox and
ufs, are through long domeftication brought to know their owner, and
their matters crib ; upon thofe that he brings roaring or bellowing
from the foreft, and upon thofe that he brings down fcreaming from
their airy flights on high, he at 6rtt impofes the feverity of fat. i:e,
watching and fatigue, to fupprefs their favage habits and reduce them
to obedience ; he holds at his own diftribution the rewards of their
fervices ; he fupplies them with their food, and fecures their attach-
ment; or he fcours with alacrity the wilds they inhabit, deals death
among them, and converts their fpoils to his ufes j the roaring of the
ocean ftays rot his purfuits ; he draws the creatures from the deep {
and, with a hardineis ftill more defperate, he climbs the craggy cliffs,
or, lowered from the airy tops of tremendous precipices that over-
hang the waters, he feeks the nefts of the unnumbered water-fowl
that fluttering, chattering, croaking or fcreaming, fill the air with
their cries. From dangers of this kind he, in many parts of the
world, draws the principal means of his fupport ; and as labour pro-
duces health to thofe who have to endure it ; fo thofe whofe fituati-
ons expofe them to particular hardfbips, acquire peculiar habits of
courage, and agility, become fitted for, and partial to, their own parti-
cular fituation, and enjoy it, without reoining at the feemingly hvtppier
and eafier lot of others.

M 2

PART

f i«4 J

P * R T

IV.

SUCCESSION OF EMPlR

ES.

li ' i

Mo!

SECTION r.

to have armoft precludirf ? '^T ^'^^ rueful feats «?''"; ^"^
counted a'^te^p^^^^^^^^ ^-e^^^i^^^^^^^^^^^^^

eut bat a poor (iZ. iPT"'". with all thtir nf.f > 1 1"" '"'"'"J-

nations; hence hh&V ^'^^' mounted on rronJ? f°' ^^^ man
than a cataloLe^r,' *° "^ deling mind Jift" ^he wreck of
rands devofedTthe ftr;" Tf ^" o- p"e ^^^J^ ^'"^^ ?»ore
pence of blooH Jk- i. °™' ^"'^ fhe vigor's rrJ.f,! T .5^" ^®^ ^hou-

romamic gulden «t^ ? P^^'^^u^ar happy fno,, 1 i^°°^'' ^'^ ^ears |

/ "an. Jn a (Fate of innocence

S.I.

SUCCESSION OF EMPIRES.

165

our firft parents lived, and were happy, till by their difobedlence
they loft their peace, and were driven from their blifsful manfions
in the Garden of Eden into the wide world, now rendered a wilder-
nefs by their lamentable fall. The offspring of this couple foon prov-
ed themfelves the branches of a depraved (lock ; and Adam with his
confort lived to fee among other melancholy cffe£ls of then- woeful
declenfion from the truth, the untimely death of the pious Abel,
flain by the hands of his brother the wretched Cain.

Not two thoufand years after the creation, the earth was corrupt
and filled with violence, and it was decreed that man fliould be de-
flroyed. Noah and his family only furvived the flood, of all men liv-
ing; they, with ihe creatures after their kind, were preferved in the
ark from the devaftation of the univerfal deluge.

2. Origin of different Nations and Tongues ] But the offspring of
Noah feem to have foon forgot this awful judgment ; they attempted
to build a city on the plain of Shinai, and a tower whofe top
might reach unto heaven, and to eftablifh to themfelves a name j
their vain defigns were fruftrated, their langufige confounded, and
they themfelves fcattered over all the face of the earth. This feems
to have been the beginning of the different nations; tongues and peo-
ple upon earth. If it were poflible now to take a retrofpeflive view
of the world at that day, it appears likely that we fliould fee it peo-
pled in parts widely remote from each other, by a number of families
fliut out from all communication with each other, ftill more by dif-
ference of language than by diftance of place *•

Languages and people appear to have continually "fl'-fiuatedfince
mankind firfl became divided into tiations. Sometimes neighbouring
nations have, from their vicinity, naturally commixed in fpeech and
manners ; often they feem to have rudely jumbled together in the diF*
tradtion of war, fometimes a people has been rent in pieces by intef-
tine divifions, at othe s they have been obliged to bow to a foreign
yoke ; generally the conquerors have impofed, together with their
government, their language and their manners, yet fometimes the
rude ravagers of a refined and ingenious people have thought it worth
their while to copy the manners and improvements of the van-
quifhed.

3. Remarks] Were all the records of hiftory complete in infor-
mation, and to be depended on as true, to dpclare the complicated
revolutions of all nations, either by defcription or delineation, would
be a talk as perplexing to execute as tedious to perufe ; but from adu-
lation or envy the deeds of men have been often mifreprefented in
their own time, and faithful hiftorians could only afterwards glean up
the truth by probable conjefture. In this work a general view of the

I fucceflton

* It appears probable that thei'e would be in a lew generations, according to their
'different fituations on the globe, food, manner of living, ftc. conftitutionaily im-
freffed not only with different complexions, features, &c. but with concomitant
xharaAerifticks of genius and temper ; this idea, however general, obfei nation
-feems to warrant. As this people ail the world over gave way to evil dtfpofitions,
(here would be a dinger of poAerity being hurt by the force of example, and a«
they yielded to the principles of benevolence, future generations would derive fa-
luUry benefits from their virtuous education, and hence the moft Arikipg features
in the charaflers of many nations, as favage or humane, courteous or rude, were^
probably derived. ^

>*f

i66

sue

CESS

fuccefllonofonlv the nr;«.- i 'ON ' p. iv.

Olher nations we find ih/ .jl" r ™'™.on "' Kifea „ .,„, i

fcendants of Dhmael the fon o/ Ahri'""'"^ '""??<>'"-'' » be the de

language and their ntmeTlhnn^^^r^P^' ^° ^^''^ ^^'''y preferv.'n^ .». •
'nar, with their coevalT tL A r ^^^ ^'"""''^^ ^'d^l/ over ^h "^ ^^l'

feed ng their flnrlTc r *"^ '^"'^ of Go/Iien H« lir • '^^ ^'^

_-^- "'"»=\?"t let of men the Shenh^r^ ir- ' ^"^ 'and pf Egvnr .
pJS;.tc„.n?",S e't J"- ?-^^ »d"?nd^¥-

'^ him

8.1.

OF EMPIRES.

167

him from the enemies of her people, /he took for him an ark of bull-
ruHies, and daubed it with (lime and pitch, and put the child therein ;
and die laid it in the flags by the river's brink ; the daughter of
Pharadh coming down to wafli herfelf at the river, found the babe
and had conipafllon on him, and he became her Ton. Thus was
Mofes preferved to be the leader of the Hebrews ; who, after great
judgments wrought for their prefervation, and the deftruftion of their
enemies, were (about 1450 years before the chriftian jera) brought
from under the burdens of the Egyptians, and from the houfe of bond-
age, with a mighty and (Iretched out arm ; through the Red Sea,
and the wildernefs, this highly favoured people were condu£ted, and
eftabliflied in Paleftine, a land flowing with milk and honey. When
Mofes, and after him Jofhua, were dead, Judges were raifed up for
their deliverance. About 1 100 years before the birth of our Saviour,
at the importunate deHre of the people, to have, like all the nations,
a king over them to judge them, go before them, and fight their
battles ; Saul was appointed to reign over them. After Saul, David
was appointed king over Ifrael : this is he who, when but a (Iripling,
ilew Goliah, the giant champion of the Philiftines j 'twas he took
Jerufalem from the jebulites, which continued afterwards to be the
capital of Judea. Solomon fucceeded his father David, in the go-
vernment of this people ; he built at Jerufalem, the celebrated tem-
ple, which had no le(s than 163,300 men employed. in the work,
and yet it was feven years in building ; according to fome, the height
of the principal tower from the ground, was above qJip thoufand
fee* ; and, by Jofephus's account, the ftones of which the buttrefles of
the building were compofed, were about eighty feet long, twenty-
four thick, and (Ixteen high ; of fuch exquifite workmanfhip that
when put together they appear like one continued polifhed rock of
marble.

*' And the houfe, when it was in building, was built of ftone made
ready before it was brought thither: fo that there was neither
hammer nor axe, nor any tool of iron hea>:d in the houfe while it
was in building."

7. Separation ofTeti Tribes.] Upon the death of Solomon, all Ifrael
were come to Shechem to make his fon Rheoboam king ; but he re-^
Jefting the advice of the old men that ftood before Solomon, his fa-
ther, while he yet lived, anfwer-ed the people roughly, and fpake,
after the counfel of the yx)ung men, in threatening words : '• S»
when all Ifrael faw that the king hearkened not unto them, the peo-
ple anfwered tbo king faying. What portion have we in David ? nei-
ther have we juiierifrtnce in the fon of Jefle : to your tents, O Ifrael;
flow fee to thine own uo'ife, David : fo Ifrael departed unto their
tents." It feems the g' neral idea that Judah and Benjamin only ad-
hered to Rheoboam ; that the other ten tribes, falling into idolatry,
were, in lefs than 300 years carried into captivity by the Aflyrians,
fcattered abroad, and never afterwards gathered. It appears how-
ever, that a remnant of the people remained ftedfaft to the houfe of
David, and the fons of Aaron, with others of the tribe of Levi, con-
<inued to offer facrifice in the temple of JerufaliJii, when Ifrael was
j;encrally overrun wilhgrofe idolatry.

8. Captivity

C E S

lowed up in ,ti*"'""""r' '" •■ '" 'dol."? of ,L '"^ ''"P"'*'' A^"

^aid, many ftoured f? ' "T^^" ^'^e foundation nf^u" ?^ >'"^a-
and the chief of rfw. fM^^' ' ^"^ others of rhl 2 ^ n'*"* ^°"fe was

waseiedledon thealfar ,. P'*^PO'/utef we ar/.toM.L "'on

Jupiter Olympu When ^n'^'t "^ ^^^"ficerofFered °^ »'!.'' .' '^^^"^
?;eat perfecuL'. drparted'''>'^\^«d no,v Tny of thi'^' ^?^
Idolatry, Mattarh .. f • ■ "^O'" t^e true «,^.7- "^'"' "»fough

«" fc'3 nation and people £?i^'°" °^ ^^^^ ^on'ft tn fc^^ ^'^

"c i and feeing on^ Jt ^'° ^^P"t from th^ I ' '^*^ *'^ough

5^ an ido/, Te%ew h^ " ^"""tryn'Jen abo^t to fl?« ^'^ ^°"'d "ot

foon found hi,f,felflt Z\^' 7'" «^<i^red?n thV l' k' J." '^^ ^''^r

V his example H r ^^^^ ^^a" army of k- ^"^ *'>' ^^/cs, and

came triU:;\t^r Rr^p^"'^"^' -^^^^^^^^^^^^

^ 'heir own kings. ' ^°'"^"'> ""^er whom a fo the v f' ''" ■ ^''^^ ''^-

proved every iherp viA ■' " ^^s when thp R«

>now„ world jwhcn '?"°"'.' '""^ ^^'«"dTd their r?'" 'n''"' ^^ving

of war; when n,de, wf r'""'^ P^"^^« ^^^ fucceed d ^il'^"''^! ""''' '^'
people were hft 1 ^as now reduced to a R« '''^ '^"-e ravages

and after hiu. Tiberiul 1 ^''°^'' ^'"S^ of ruder T'^^^'P '" '^e

appeared in the tfh 'rhJ' r^'^orslt Rome the S^'" ^"^"«"^>

Mefliah a temDoJ/ • "^ '"Situated TewQ ^ ^^ 'Saviour of men

them in wSytl^'T* "^^^ ^^^'d dS t?^'^'"^ ^^ ^^"^ in^"

eftablift his peS "^^^^^^^ '"^ead of wSg for??"'""' ?"^ ^^'^

^Pfpired the lorappet^^^r hearts V the chiT/ ^''°.'^^"'^'

h«m and crucifi^-H ff i ^* '^'^ »he Ton of inn„ , .^ - '■^" of men •

»o the huma?tr. ' J" ^'^''^ awful event of ^'"',^'^'^ed hands on'

providential har^of h'^'^'' '^^'"°" have we eo';'''-'^'"^ '"'portance

;/«nnghteousm: t ht;'^^^^^^ -^ich°t t" tt' ^^''%^ ^hj

'hX"a"rth'"^! »=- S"ft^1te^7f-^^^^

■ -'■■'" ^^"^'- "■ ■ v and :'

S.I.

O F

EMPIRES.

169

and which, though invinble. the righteous feel fupport in, when the/
may appear to the world to be totally abandoned. The Jews, how-
ever, did not all rejeft our Lord ; of his own nation he had many
followers, who, in declaring bis name to Jew and Gentile, fealed the
truth of their teftimony with their blood.

10. Roiaan War and Siegt ofjerufalem ] It was not long after the
crucifixion of our Saviour, till thofe calamities which he had foretold
would fall on Jerufalem, when they would not be gathered by him,
even as chickens are gathered by a hen under her wingx, began to be
aecompliihed.

In the year 67, began the fatal war with the Romans, which wts
only to terminate in the deftru6lion of Jerufalem, and the fubverdon
of the Jewirti nation. At firft their fnccefles were various, and in
their mutual contefts thoufands were duin on both (ides ; dreadful
dilTentions in the mean time breaking forth among the Jews: the
Chriftians, mindful of their Lord's predidion, fled to Pella be-
yond Jordan, and were fecure ; and many others, judging what
would be the conlquence of the Romans difpleafure, retired from
the city.

In the year 68, Vefpafian entered Galilee, at the head of a power-
ful army ; one city after another fell viflims to the Roman venge-
ance, and the people, in prodigious numbers, were either put to the
fword, or carried into captivity ; among the latter was Jofephus,
the Jewiih hiftorian, who/ afterwards, being in favour with the Ro-
mans, accompanied Titus, Vefpafian's fon, at the fiege of Jerufalem,
and recorded their wars.

This devoted nation was now divided into two very oppofite par-
ties : one was for fubmitting to the Romans, and obtainii g peace ; the
other was compofed of zealots, who affirmed it would I te ofTering the
greated difhonour to God, to fubmit to an earthly potentate, and
efpecially to heathens. Under the name of religion, the zealots com-
mitted the moft horrid cruelties ; they began their outrages by mur-
dering all thofe that oppofed them in the country round about ; they
entered Jerufalem, but met with a (lout oppofition from the oppofite
party, who had taken up arms to defend themfelves from the violence
of thefe fierce periecutors. The zealots got the upper hand, and
1 2000 perfons of rank in the city, in the flower of their age, fell
viftims to their wanton cruelty : barely to put thefe to death was
thought too mild a punifhment ; the fell bigots made it their diverflon
to inflidt the mofl: exquifite tortures they could invent, on the helplefs
victims of their implacaUe fury. They next began to wreak their
vengeance on the multitude, who were obliged to flee Jerufalem, and
feek refuge with the Romans, though the zealots had placed guards
at the avenues, who were fure to deftroy the miferable fugitives that
fell mto their hands. Vefpafian waited at Cefarjea, knowing that
t!)eje^<'s were waifting their flrength, and rendering themfelves an
cler fey to the Roman arms.

When the zealots, under John, the fon of Levi, who had heretofore
fled from the fiege of Gifchala, had deftroyed or driven out all the
oppofite party ; thefe violent people turned their rage againft each
ot^er. The Idumeans,- who were of John's party, had complained

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170

SUCCESSION

P. IV.

of the numbers put to death ; bbt John, by his tyranny, forced ihem
to revolt, and turn their arms againft him.

One Simon alfo, who had his head Quarters at MafTada, had form-
ed a party, and in his turn had mamtcred, plundered, burnt and
deftroyed almoft all before him. Through fear of the greater fiiry of
John and his zealots, Mrho(edrong-hold was the temple, and who it
was feared would fet hre to the reft of the city, the gates of Je-
rufalem were opened to Simon and his followers ; another faction
was alfo raifed m the city under Eleazar, but this was of no long
continuance, till the different parties were all refolved into the two
factions of Simon and John.

In 72 the Romans began their march towards the capital of Judes^
wafting the country and deftroying the inhabitants as they went along,
and in 73, (at down before the walls of Jerufalem. The general, Titus,
afterwards emperor, repeatedly by Nicanor, Jofephus, and in his own
perfbn, made offers of peace to this infatuated people ; but they were
rejefted with contempt, and Titus was, with relu£lance, obliged to
begin the (lege in form. With incredible l?':our of the Romans
trees * were cut down, houfes levelled, rocks cleft afunder, and
vallies filled up, towers were raifed, walls built, and battering
rams erefled, with' other engines of deftrudion againft the devoted
.citv.

Within, the fa£tions of John and Simon were mutually deftroy-
ing each other ; the parties were unanimous in the defperate fallies
they made upon the Romans ; and when returned within the gates,
with equal rage they turned their arms againft each other, in tboi'e
parts of the city which John had heretofore laid wafte in his fury j
whi' > fuch of them as fell into the hands of the Romans^ were cru-
cified in view of the town.

The Romans, after feveral bloody conflifts, and extreme fatigue,
make a breach in the walls and force a paiTage ; the Jews abandon-
ing this enclofure retire to the next | with ftill greater pains the fe-
cond is forced, the Jews retreat, and are ftill enclofed.

In the mean time famine and peftilence reign within the city, the
rage of the factions increafe with their calamities ; they force the
houfes of the inhabitants in queft of vi£tuals ; if they find provifi-
ons they kill the people for not apprifing them of it ; if none, they
inflict on them the moft excruciating tortures, under the idea or
pretence of their having (bme concealed ; the zealots wer. not reduc-
ed to real want, but they had the horrid fatisfadion of ftarving what
they called ufelefs perfons, and thereby keeping up their own ftock.

The general, knowing their miferable condition, and wifhing to
fpare them, gives them four days to cool, and in the mean time
diftributes provifions to his army in view of the belieged, who flock
on the wails to behold it ; he makes frefh' offers of peace, to which
bitter inve^ives and renewed hoftilities are returned; from theoHFers of
Titus, which they attribute to cowardice rather than compafTion, and
from the cruelties of the zeajots, great numbers are induced (thouj^
defperate the attempt) to fteal away privately to the Romans ; while
many are only rendered more defperate and refolute : and even in the
Roman camp they met with their deftruflion. From a notion the fol-
diers had taken, ^hat they had fwal lowed great quantities of gold*

a^ooo

S.I.

OF EMPIRES.

'7«

jiooo of them were ripped open in one night, to come at the fuppofed
treafure. Titus, apprized of this bloody bulineis, would have con-
demned the murderers, but they proved fo numerous, he was obh'g-
ed to forego the deHgn, and content himfelf with ifluing a proclama-
tion through the camp, thrt whoever Hiould henceforward be fuf*-
pefled of fuch horrid villainy, fhould be put to death ; yet tin's did
not prove a fufficient protection ; many of rhem afterwards were ic-
f retly murdered, through the faid greedy defign. The calamities of
the Jews continue to encreafe.—— Without, the Romans throwing
up a wall in about three days, near five miles in circuit, thereby
cut off from the befieged the polfibility of efcape by flight, as well as
help and provifions from abroad ; fuch was their ardour to haflen the

de{lru6tion of this deftined nation, Within, heaps of dead bodies,

rotting above ground, and dying mortals, defolate the ftreets of Jeru-
falem ; the inhuman zealots making the miferies and dying groans of
their (larving brethren, the fubjefl ot their cruel miiih, and even wan-
tonly killing them by ftieaihing their fwords in their emaciated bo-
dies, under pretence of trying their fharpnefs.

Oh Jerufalem ! great were thy calamities ihdeed.

" I fliould undertake (fays Jofcphus) an impofTible taflc were I to
enter into a detail of all the cruelties of thofe impious wretches « it
will be fufficient to fay, that I do not think that, iince the creation,
any city ever fuffered fuch dreadful calamities, or abounded with
men fo fertile in all kinds of wickedneG."

When the zealots faw they could no longer, either by their fevc-
rities or the greateft vigilance of their guards, prevent the .defection
of the people, or their flight to the Romans, they had recourle to
another mod impious (Iratagem : A fet of wretches, pretenders to
prophecy, was hired to go about the city crying out, that a fpeedy
and miraculous deliverance was at hand ; and this for a while afford-
ed deluflve hopes to the miferable remains of this infatuated people,
when an affair hap^iened in Jerufalem which filled the inhabitants with
confternation and defpair, and their beiiegers with horror and indig-
nation. An unhappy woman, reduced to the laft extremity by
pinching hunger, facrifices the feelings of a mother to the voracious
calls of appetite, butchers her child, and feeds upon the body.

When news of this unnaturaLikflFair was fpread through the city,
the miferable inhabitants then be|^fl to think then.felves forfaken by
Divine Providence, and to expecl the moft dreadful effects of hi»
judgments ; and when Titus heard, with horror, the difmal account,
he m bis anger refolved on ihe extirpation of the nation : ••Since
(faid he) they have fo often refufed my proffers of pardon, and have
preferred war to peace, rebellion to obedience, and famine, fuch a
dreadful one efpccially, to plenty, I am detinintfxed to bury that
curled metropolis under its ruins, that the fun jj^jr tifrver (hoot his
beams on a city where the mothers feed on the flefh of their children,
ana the fathers, no lofs guilty than they, choofe to drive them to fucb
extremities, rather than lay down their arms."

Titus, notwithflanding this declaration, ilill inclined to compaflioii-.
ate this deluded people, and while one part was yielding after ano-
ther

C E S

*7i S U C V.

^^P^rahioXr^fh''^''' plundering S ve v^/^"', ^^^^^'P i but
"on, and wLh!! *** " »*«•> Aire defcnr?^ '?'!1»''^' which ihev

Selves were «Jtr^ ^^^ ^a"«*s of the hLX **.** ^^^'j' to be ever
. Jher is fet fire totX b7 ^*«" '" J"S' on^^^ ''?"«^^-

^» yet entire bur ? r ""^ ^*'^'-°/^d on S V/"*^ ' V^« ^'^ad-
reftrained /one ofttft^'y ^^. '''^^ afl-ailants cJt,d «' ^?^ ^'^"'P^
comrade, threw a Ki ^"^V" ^^^^^'^rs gettW n„ 1"°.? "° '«"ger be
wh,ch foonferrS te.S ^''ebrand in " / J- j''*' "*°"'*^"» of his
'•n which irhadfot^;'ts •" « ^anie" on thTft'^^^^^ ^'^'^ »«"^pfe
„,7«us, wJ:^trbt'„»5- burnt b, NebucttL'r "' "^°"^''
"C'fe, "nmediatelyron ," .^P'"« '" ^is pavihon »? l
^ain^ he caJl J L J* ^'^^ order* to havl S ' ?^a^«ned by the
'hey; in tS^g'lerte r'^^*^^"^^ ""d ev:„\:!;SS!;!«^ed. bj;t i^

, Jews or increffine 1 Sf °°' '^*^'*^ '«<> errneftlv I !"" !^'" ' ^"t

their general n^.u S^"'^* ^o either henr « ^ '^^"^ °" '^'"'ng the

RomaSTord ihth'^n^' ^^f«"» from the batZ'^ ^^^ °^^^^» of
^o^an, the Wy £ J''*'"^^^^ all it « « ti h ™l"'';: '"^ ^r ^^e
f "'Ued, and amV?h;f "*" '^' '"^^^' ^ilTm^tf^'' "'an or
'educed there by th/fir^"P^*^<^s of 6000 n.S ^T' ""'"hers

^\^us dehVeraTc^on IrP'^^''- ^^^ h°d p&^,^k° ^^^ '^^^^^
whole days on the k ?** ''®''3' day. Some nr?u^ ^^^"^ a mira-

-They fhenfo^rrh^rrer^ guarded. r„7the7co'.W "'" "^^ '"'<>

of the city, fi.o„; wW. t'I'*^^" as they can o„,k"°/ «"' °«-

general, they areliW.r ^'^J '"^ ^'^on defire a n, ?* '°".'^ ^^^^

Pf fo much bCd/h5?nJ • '^^' ^''0"gh they had ^'^"^^'th the

Jay down their arnuH '"'"• ^^'^'^' hyes Z,, k . '^^ ^aufe

»-etire to the mo.,n?o" "* "^^'^r to furrend^r ^'??1'^ themfelvei

the fury of fh! r u-^"""' °'' ^''^ ^^wer c\t. '

Satiable We Vh^r' ^^o plunde^bu n^'and"" V''^"^^"^^ t<,

the upper fL '^S*^ ^^aJois, who are lefr fl ,^ /"afTacre with in-

^ ' -■ - like

s.ii.

OF EMPIRE S.

«7S

like madmen with defign to attack the wall of circumvallation, in
order to efFeA an efcape from the citj, but being repulfed, they A/
to the public finks, common fewers, and every fecret recefs they
could find ; thofe whom the Romans can find are maflacred, and the
city is fet on fire. John being pinched with hunger comes out, begs
his life ; this is (pared, but he is condemned to perpetual imprifon*
ment. Simon's retreat being better ftored, he holds longer out.
Simon and John are faved with 700 of the handfomeft Jewifh cap-
tives to attend the triumphal chariot ; after which Simon is dragged
through the ftreets with a rope about his neck, feverely fcourged,
and then put to death ; and John is ^ent to his punifliment. Three
caftles ftill remained untaken, Herodion, Machoeron and Maflada ;
the two former capitulated, but Maflada held out. The place was
very ftrong both by nature and art, defended by a number of zealots
under Eleazar. The Roman general having in vain tried his engines
and battering-rams agitinft it, furrounded it with a high wall, and
fet fire to the gates. Eleazar in defpair, perfuaded the garrifon firft
to kill their wives and children, and then ^3 choofe ten men by lot
who /hould kill all the re(^ and laftly, one of the furviving ten to
difpatch them and himfelf, firft fetting fire to the place before he put
an end to his own life ; this was accordingly done, and when on the
morrow the Romans were preparing to fcale the walls, (urprized to
neither fee nor hear any thing ftirring, they raifed an hideous outcry,
on which two women, who had concealed themfelves in an aquedud,
came out and acquainted them with the defperate cataftrophe of the
befieged.

The whole number of Jews who periihed in this war wras computed
to be upwards of 1,400,000, befides vaft numbers who periffied in
caves, woods, wilderneflies, common fewers, &c. of whom no account
could be taken. Of the number of prifoners, amounting to 97,000,
(beiide 1 1,000 who were ftarved through negle£t, or died pro^bly of
extreme grief) a few were refervcd to grace the viftor's triumph,
and great numbers fent to the different cities of Syria, to be expofed on
the public theatres as gladiators^ or be devoured by wild beafts, ac
cording to the barbarous ufages of the times.

Thus were fully compleated all the woes denounced againft this
rebellious city and nation, fince which time their remains have bcea
fcattered over the face of the earth..

SECTION II.

Ancient History.

A circumftantlal defcription of the various revolutions of the fe-
veral empires of thp eaft, would exceed the defign of this work ;
and a few general outlines of antiquity, will perhaps be more inte-
refting to the g,enerality of people at this day, than a minute detail
tf remote tranfa£tions of whatever importance they might be at tht
time they happened. - -

;, I. Scjfthiam,

»..c .

C E s

'?♦ * U c ^ e,

*•".•(- about J h^'^^ri"?/""!,'"'- ''""to'™" "«'°"'"f

Pelied from the nnr»i, "*' °^ Egypt th^ C^ ,°* ^"^ir countru

• "■« *» a^Vc™?]'^'^^''"?'.'*^"''^. "^^ r' -'^ prefer?" ie
!»>> confer on ".llir"' ?i* =" ">« de°„fi,! "V" *"<<». 'wfore

•key could dei„„ufl?T!?'' T'"'^'" 'We,p,te "«•■''''••«»<'-
their wives and f,° 7 """e "''■en attackwl f„ ? ? "''^ '» 'ie cliafc

rea,o.e perX &,?''/'''• '^«^P'''»^ - t"7o?J"!"'^'t
Puired, purfued o„^ ^ ^» ^'^ving invaded 7u • ? ^°'^' »" a verir

"»ia^?ofs '"■ "" " '^■'■^tr;^::^

8'"ed. The defc »" r^ "^'°8 ""ei Seceflirr."" '"e k^
"^^ ' veri?l

S. II;

OF EMPIRES.

»7J

verfal mon.rchy; and accordingly we find the government of the
Eaft lucctifively in the hands of the Aflyrians } of the Medes, and
Babylonians; of the Periians; and, of the Macedonians, under the
impetuous Alexander the Great.

3. Romans t Goths^ Fandalst l^c. Mabomtt.] While thefe magnifi-
cently deftru^ive changes were revolving in the Eall, about the time
of Judah's being carried into captivity, the foundations of Rome
weie laid in the Weft (by Romulus and his banditti, delcendants of
the Trojans, who under iEneas, after the burning of Troy, found
an afylum among the Latins) ; an empire under whofe prowefs the
multiplied janglings of contending petty nations were filenced and ex-
tinct, about fix centuries after the founding of the city. The govern-
ment of the empire was at firft in the hands of kings ; the confuls
were next at the head of afl^irs, and after thefe the emperors gave
laws to the world, from the Britifh ides to the borders of Perfia, and
from the wilds of Scythia to the Lybian fands ; till, in the beginning
of the fifth century, the feat of government being removed to Con-
(lantinople, and the weftern part of the empire overwhelmed by in-
und-'tions of the wild, uncultivated people of the North, a» the
Goths, Vandals, &c. their poflefllons were limited to that part of
the world we now call Turkey.

The Perfians were not at all fubdued, they were now pow'
erful, and contended with the emperors for fuperiority. It was
when thele two contending powers had enfeebled each other by
their mutual divifions, when that deluge of barbarians which had
fwept away multitudes of the ancient mhabitants of the Weft was
now much reduced by a rapid fucceffion of revolutions among them-
felves, charadteriftic of the fickle and ferocious temper of thofe un-
refined nations, of whom 'tis faid, they were in danger of ftarving
through ignorance of agriculturr, ; they broke through their moft fo-
lemn engagements, when it feemed to ferve their turn, and always
accounted victory a fufficient apology for violence and injuftice. At
this calamitous period, when the race of men had been much reduced
by the devaftations of continual war, the fierce and enthufiaftic Arabs
or Saracens, under their fell leader the deftruftive Mahomet, fpread
their conquefts far and wide ; the kingdom of Spain was brought
under their government, and the continents of Africa and Afia, from
the Atlantic to India, were fubdued by the caliph, and under the
baneful influence of his hurtful dodlrines.

4. Conjiantine^ Bijbop of Rome ^ Charlemagne.^ About the year 300,
the emperor Conftantine had profefled himfelf a believer of the Chrif*
tian faith, and from that time the bifliops of Rome feetn to have ac-
quired great influence in temporal affairs. For a time they continued
under the power of the emperors, like his other fubjeAs ; but in the. 1
year 800, after great difputes between them and the emperors, re- ''
fpefling the ufe of images in worihip, and much blood fpilt on both y
fides, we fee this overfeer, under the name of Pope, polTefling exten-
five dominions in Italy, and conferring the empire of the Weft on
Charlemagne. This period hiftorians account tl^e clofe of the ancient,
and the beginning of modern hiftory.

^ 5. Grecians^ Carthaginians^ Gauls, \ As great a figure as the Gre-
cians cut in ancient hiftory, their contefts appear to have been too

local

■^

/ I7<S sue

CESS

coinbined ftaL «?' A '''''*'" >'"'^ "'ge, burnt «»K *PP**"» «he
Gaulf had done rr'**'' »'^'"»ened th^r utTJT^'I:- ""^ ""^^

'1 .■ , i*..^

S EC TI ON Ui. ,

Modern History.

"he ''«7»o&S,*f,'^f *<>*.« it appear. i„ ,h, „„ o
accounted to heoin a ., '¥'""'• wl"" modern hiflu,. • "*"• <"■

-i-fc. w.r;|e,.e""t-k! ""'i" "^ "" '•'fto'-a". we a- rj'"^''- '"^

'r Jen ""' " ^"*"'" -"-^tinajf^jj

wcftern empire, ,|„ chriflkn u"b '^"'^'"^ ' '» •*«. «»ern a^

' '" ■ ■'" —■ ■ Mahomet ■

[hit

S. III.

OF E M P I R F.' S.

177

Mahomet had not taken care to name a fuccefTor, and hence arofe
wars and jangling^ for ihe Caliph.it. In Europe the coniefts lecin to
have been equally bloody. The BrltHh iflcs, divided inro many petty
dates, whether under the Saxon heptarchy, viz. ftven kingdoms, or
the ancient princes, were peculiarly obnoxious to intclline divif.ons. On-
the death ofCharleinagne, the empire being divided among his children,
falls under the fame grievous evils, while the heptaichy bt-ing diflulved
827, England is reduced urder one head, in king Egberr. In this infant
ftate of the European powers, the contefts of neighboujing ftates
were calamitous and many ; the depredations made on>them by the
Danes and Normans were wide and deftrudlive, and :he bickerings
between the powerful barons and , their fovereigns frequent and,
bloody.

Perhaps a period more calamitous than this now mentioned is not
to be met with in hiftory. In vain had Mahomet broken down the
altars of idols, aboliilied their facrificcs, taught mankind to believe in
the true God, and his Son Jefus Chrifl ; he had fet iiimftlf up as a

frealer prophet than our Saviour, mixed monftrous fictions with the
criptures of Tiuth, preached perfccution and conquert to his deluded
followeis, and was in himfelf a bloody and cruel example of violence.
The mod peaceful Chriftian religion, which breathes good will to
men, and teaches us to love our enemies, through the degeneracy of
its profelTors, who had lamentably fallen into grofi fuperftiiion, feived
as it was now profeiTed, to warrant and foment the horrid practice of
waf.

When continual divifions, both in Europe and the Mahometan
world, feemed to threaten the deftru£lion of the whole human race, a
new conteft arofe which refolved the different contending power* into
two grand parties. Paleftine, the fccne of our Saviour's life and nu*-
racles, was regarded with partiality both by the Chridian and Maho-
metan world ; they called this territory the Holy Land, and their
contefts for the pofleffion of it they deemed Holy wars.

The Caliph Omar, fuccefTor of Mahomet, had formerly invaded
this country, and taken it from the Eaftern empire ; and from thj
fame zealous motive, the Chrillian powers combined to letake it from
the Saracens. In this undertaking, the ultinjaie o'ljefl of theChriftiars
moft ardent wiHies feems to have been the pofllflion of the igpomint-
ous tree or crofs whereon the Saviour of men deigned to fufferj de-
ipifing the Hiame.

On this occafion, nmltitudes of adventurers from thefeveral king-
doms of Europe flocked together, to partake in the expedition or cru-
fade. With impetuous fury they attacked the Saracens, and were
oppofed with fimilar fpirii. Deluges of blood were Ipilied in their
conflids, and few that had left Europe ever returned to their native
countries. The enthufiafni of thofe ages was not eafiiy fubdued, and
one crufade after another was undei taken with zeal. Jerufalem,
which had been rebuilt by the emperor Adrian, was accordingly in
ihe hands of the different parlies fuccefliveiy.

But while the Saracens and Europeans are confuming their ftrength
in the fmal I province of Paleftine, the more eaftern nations of Afia
feem threatened with total extirpation.

JM , ,' ; ., 2. Tartars,

'" SUCCESS, o N,

t ^anef fu3j''^"'^"'^» ""der Hulaku and t « o^' ^'S'"' ""^er

— J t "^••n'erert at the a» «t --■■ ...vc m me ao
i »ncl began his criidti,., utf • '""y ' "I'" l>e rodt
chaldron, ofboihni ia'.er r?'";'"^ ""''■ ''Venty chiefs im„ ; —'■

^ before the kl.,; I. ^j".'^''"" '"•< >>» followers „„'2^.A°<'-?'"' P'ifc.n-
■ f°«"c,-g„ i„ favor of his deift", I'L" ,. ^""•"*" bloZ^'^^,'^1 " /""

'f "">■ Prefcnl themfelves to ,h "" "*" ' «">"?» odhtlfr'^-

»4porablV '^^["''V '^'=- ^'"■'S infbr„,erof ,v '''Pl""''''«'"-
5"n<^>eds^ ir'of h„:f L""/'' "'diftraaifn of id^, re,";''" ^"'''"'•

. '^ ^"*^» and even toot

S. III.

OF EMPIRES.

«7f

and pillaged the city of Mofcow in RuHla. The commotions of the
Tartars in the eaft, had driven from their confines, the inhabitants of
Tuikeftan ; and while the reft of the world were fiercely deftroying
each other, thcle vagrant Turks fcem to have been acquiring pofl*e^
fions and power. Renowned for their courage and iinpetuolity in
war, they were at firft employed only as mercenary troops in the
armies of contending powers but this did not long fuffice them, they
foon commenced conquerors for themfeves, and reduced their former
mafters, the Saracens and Perfians, under their own dominion. On
the other fide of the Hcllefpont, they were formed into a nation,
with Prufia, in Bithynia their capital, under their leader Othman,
one of the greated warriors and politicians of the age ; and hence
they were nifo called Othmans or Ottomans.

This people, Tamerlane or Timur Beck, in his weftcrn excurfions,
found befieging the remains of the Caftern Roman Empire, now pent
up in the city of Conftantinople.

If the profeflion of Chriftianity could not fecure the Euro: ?ans
from wars and janglings among themlelves, the doflrines of Ma-
homet were far from preventing his followers from deflroying each
other, among whom were now the Pcrfians, Turks and Tartars, as
well as the Arabs or Saracens.

Timur accordingly attacked the Ottomans with his ufual ardour, cut
their army in pieces, and in the infolence of conqueft, carried away
captive their Sultan Bajazet, bound in an iron cage. The empire of
the Tartars however, foon after the death of the conqueror, became
again divided into a number of ftates ; while the Turks, recruiting
their ftrength, renewed the attack on the Greeks or Eaftern Roman
Empire, in the year 1452, fubdued them, took the city of Conftan-
tinople, and there fixed the feat of their government ; and in the begin-
ning of the fifteenth century their dominions included Greece, Afia
Minor, Paleftine, Syria, &c. with Africa, from the Red Sea, along
the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean. Thus fell, about the
middle of the fifteenth century, the lafl feeble remains of the once
great and imperial Rome ; and the empire, whofe nod had heretofore
made the nations of the earth to tremble, bowed at the feet of the
vagabond and overbearing Turks.

3. Modern Europeans.] After this period the revolutions of empires,
appear to have been of far lei's magnitude than thofe that had here-
tofore happened ; fome of the Stjltans, 'tis true, while the Euro-
' pean powers were weakening each other with continual broils, fre-
quently brought their arms againft them, and alfo led their Turks
into Perfia with fuccefs ; but powerful as the Ottoman Empire has
been, however fierce and refolute their Sultans in bailie, and with,
whatever enthufiafm the Muflulmans have devoted their lives in the
wars of their Sovereign, the dominions of the Grand Seignior have
been thought to have long fince had their utmofl: extent. The bufi"
nefs of war having afltimed a very mechanical form fince the inven-
tion of gunpowder ; the fcience of maihemaiicks has given to their
more cultivated opponents on the weft, a vaft fuperiority in the modes j«
of attack and defence, efpecially by fea ; the policy of the Porte or
Turkifli court, in the government of the temote parts of their terri-
*:piieR, as in Egypt and « fmall part of Arabia, is to avoid heavy taxes

N z \Qx

I So

s u c c

E S S I

for fear of a r#.v«N j . ^ ' O N p ,,

out of their m.irf^ ^ '*"* *^o"q"ered their !?.'^ "'^^ '^*^'''^"'. "n-

Jrom Spain, and b«o„,. i ^""""'""d P-oyZlTu'' ""I"™ '"
have grown inro -;. r ' ""P"'ianl ftar^- -?.,'""' ""'« rew> tn|

'•"<'.'/>= li gdorff"..'!" ri! P^'i'icalconri tr"-"';?"-'"
•niongihellire,,!^ •■"''""' 'aj been r, m 1» „ ' omhe olhfr

"cld a, lar,? "' "">" <^''ang„, whK .oo";""? '"'' «*.
, B"! itthc°.„odern F ' '" '"^"^ ">«

^^^■ranceftoishad
nijprovcinents

•'•under fa'„;/,,„;ral7rr";""'" na ga"™ T„T ' ""y >""
I'-ver heard of , , ^ ■ """'■''awn in part. 2,1 l' , "° gunnery, m

"'« »'lan«nline rl' .r f 'V' '"'""'"" of cfnl?' '',""'"' I'-'

:'!int>' ■

S. III.

OF EMPIRES.

i8i

day. How is the world at this ciine divided ? and who are the budeft
aflors on the prefent fti*gc ?

The northern partv ot Afu o uniier the RufTians, from Europe
to the Piicinc Ocean ; and the utinod extent of the land, it appears
from Cook's late dicoveries, is within forty niilei of the nioll wellern
extremity of the AMi',.*rican Continent. The Turks poiTcfs Afia Mi-
nor, adjoining which are the Arabs on the South. The Chinefe pof-
fels the caftein parts ot Adi : to the fouth well and fouth of thefe he
the kingdoms ot I'hibct, Pegu, Siam, and Cochin China ; and dill
farther eaft the illandi of Japan, all but little known to the Europeans.
In the central parts of the Continent, rove the Tartars ; fouth ot
which lies Pcrfia, and alfo India or the Mogul's Empire, in which
the maritime powers of Europe have polTcflions, as well as in the Eail
India Ifl's.

The Turks feebly fupport a fort of claim to the northern parts of
Africa, from AbyiTinia on the ead, to Morocco on the weft { thefi:
two empires we are not much acquainted with, and ftill lefs with the
iiiteiior parts of the country. In AfM'"i alfo the Europeans have
Ictilemcnts, both in the idands, and along .'ie wellern, fouthern and
carter n coads.

Rut in America it is that the dominions of the Europeans are mod
extenfive ; there they lay claim to territories which it would take all
Europe to people ; numerous tribes of Indians and the American
Slates occupy the reft.

Europe is the fn.alleft quarter of the globe, but from the (kill of
the people in arts and fcicnces, it is of^ greater importance, in a political
capacity, than all the reft of the world collectively. The empires
in the eaftern parts of it, derive a confequence from their nu-
merous armies and military (kill ; but the maritime powers, or thofc
on the weft, have been by far the moft enierprizing in their projefls.
Thefe are the nations, whofe language is heard in every quarter of
the globe, and whofe Heets have urged their adventurous way through
oppofing difticulties, exploring the utmoft boundaries of Tea and
land, through every climate of the world. Among thefe adventuring
powers, we may, perhaps, without partiality, place our own nation,
amongft the foremoft in hardinefs of enterprize ; and among their
boldeft expeditions, may be reckoned their attempts to difcover
and effc&. a paffage through the Northern Seas to the Pacific
Ocean.

■! •

PART

I tSi J

^ A R

T V.

CHANGES Tur,^

^S THROUGH DIFFERpx,^

- ^iiRENT AGES

'»r THE

BANNERS o

^ MANKIND.

S E

C T I

O N

Ancient Times.

ever, a variety of orh«..*^ orhiftory. ther« L * ^"'« nece/Tan/J
PPened through different iiS i l'"^ "* the ch?n? •^f'"' ""'"■

■i £sf ,£'«■■'. ".'i'Er '5~a.'*" '■••

«"d t" oireri„gTer" 'h^w'""?' «"™^lyL^^"'"S "<" '*e perf„„
was, "Why tn,k ^^ "<P'& unto ,fc ^P'"^' for whifc aI ?

"Whfn%t'-^''**-^^^

'• . ' . "The

«■:-'-» V'

S.I.

CHANGING MANNERS.

183

The faith of Abraham was tried in a remarkable manner; he was
called upon to take his only fon Ifaac, whom he loved, to get into
the land of Moriah, and offer him there for a burnt-offering, upon
one of the mountains. The father of the faithful built an altar there,
and laid the wood in order, and bound ifaac his fon, and laid him on
\he altar on the wood, but his hand was (layed, and a facriiice was
prepared, which he offered up in the ftcad of his fon.

At Beerlhtfbd Ifaac builded an aliar, and called on the name of the
Lord.

At Bethel Jacob fet up a pillar of dene, and he poured a drink-
offering thereon, and he poured oil thereon.

It appears thefe facrifices of ihankfgiving in the patriarchs were ac-
cepted, and the outward revelation*! of the divine will to them, was
generally by angels or celeftial nielTengers ; after this, the law came
bj Mofes, which was alfo delivered by anii^els, as the apoAle tell*
us. Thefe fliadows of the good things that were to come, were •
continued amohg the Ifraelites till all were fulfilled, as the prophets
had foretold, in the one great facrifice that was once offered up for
every man. The other nations of the earth almofl univerfally fell
into idolatry, though many, in thofe days of darknefs, feem lo have
been raifed above the grofs fuperflition, as the pious Socrates and
I^lato, with numbers of others in different ages and nations.

It does not appear that the wickednefs of the antediluvion world
was the worfliip of images ; lewdnefs and violence feem to have
brought on them the divine judgment. Soon after the flood, how-
ever, idolatry appeared in the world j for when Jacob departed from
the houfe of his father-in-law, his wife Rachel took the images and
hid them in the camel's furniture, and Laban complained, " Where-
fore hafl thou flolcn my gods ?" And when Jacob was cotnmanded
to go and dwell at Bethel, and make an altar there ; the patriarch
had firfl to cleanfe his houfehold from idolatry ; " And they gave
unto Jacob all the flrange gods which were in their hands, and alt
their ear-rings which were in their ears ; and Jacob hid them under
the oak which Was by Shechem."

Refpedling the origin of idolatry, various have been the conjec-
tures as is fubfequently mentioned.

2. Origin of Arts and Letters.] It appears from the fcriptures
that the arts were in a degree of cultivation before the flood. Of the
offspiing of Cain, Jubal was the father o^fuch as played on the harp
and organ, and Tubal the intlruCtor of every artificer in brafs and
iron, if we may believe Jofephus, the pofterity of Seth alfo obferv-
ed r' e order of the heavens, and the courfes of the flais. The fame
author fays, that the Affyrians and Chaldeans were the firfl after the
flood, who applied themfelves to the cultivation of the fciences.
Their king, Belus, is faid to have converted the celebrated tower of
Babel into an obfervatory, and to have made the firfl aflronomical
obfe.'vations in it, and the Chaldeans accounted him the author of
that abfurd, and now exploded, fyftem of aflrology. The Jewifh
hiftotian alfo informs us, that thefe fciences, which the Egyptians
cultivated with renown and fuccefs, were derived from the patriarch
Abraham) who brought them into Egypt from Ur of the Chaldees.

' Adef^re

■

I $4

CHAN

I the nr/.vc».' - - :'"* 3t-

S:tt^^''^^' '--^^^^^^^^^ /'^-^'^'et;'^^^^^^^^^^ buried'

warcis laftm? meninr.fr ■'^' 5'" » further an.i „ *^^'®"^a"ons of a6>«

'"^'^'^ to the S'^iV"'^ according ; ^"^ Z(l fi"^^^ ^^'^t ,o!
record; thefeareadv,„ ' *^^aw m? is afr"' ^'^.^b/e endeavours

•iiiiiBiigii

k^rcdy left «.o„d„?' ,J' «"nlr;„ and remm/ '° """"unicanT
* j1" ■ ', "'■ '■"■"•d- e/tlD Ilf'r " "fgi'-ing Srt,^" '^"'" » power

f'ngs of thdr poets an7 um ^^"^' ^''igence and ?^^'/''^». « vvas im
?n''7 prove, and lirh P^!^°^«Pbers. ^v.e LJl ^"''^'^*» «» thofe ^w""

-; great ^eafurrtlCdtV'^ {'^'^^'^Z^^^^^^ ^^-^-

«^ent they poiTefs. ^''"^ ^° ^^^ what degreeof f L ' ^""^P^' ^re

. ^^e A/iatics * ^en.. M ^^^'^""'^nt of thechi/

#^^t

'doiatrous

^ll^SiSSSi.-

*■■

♦,

S.I.

MANNERS.

i8$

idolatrous rites, fo in the. tranfition from their vague emblems to de-
terminate characters, they had accounted their letters not fioipl/
figns of oral founds, but alfo emblematical reprefentatives of their
fi^itious beings, their fancied deities ; and that Mofes, in his many
teftimonies againft the fuperftitions of the houfe of Pharaoh, had to
fhew to the backfliding children of Ifrael, that intelligence could be
communicated by letters of form and arrangement quite different from
thofe which the Egyptians extolled as fupcnatural, or revered as di-
vine, and that hence fprung the oriental alphabets in general, while
the Europeans were obliged to Cadmus for tranflating to Greece the
characters of the Egyptians.

3. /ffirommy, Geometry.] !n thofe warm climates, where the
(Icy is generally ferene, and where it is the practice to this day to
deep on the tops of houfes, it iTiould feem the people would be
naturally led to a contemplation of the firmament; thefe would
foon difcern that the innumerable multitude of ftars obferved the fame
eoiirfe as the fun ; if this ftiining orb, in the fplendour of light, per-
formed his courfe from eaft to weft, while he afforded to the world
the advantages of day, the ftars alfo, and the moon, glided along in
parallel or coinciding circuits, during the cool refrefhing night lea-
ion ; one ftar only feemed to keep its place, and to be as a cen-
tre of revolution to alt the other luminaries, and this orb they called
the polar ftar, or pole. When thefe obfervations had been made on
the ceieftial bodies in general, and the afpe6t of the heavens had be-
come fomewhat familiar, they could not but obferve, that fon^e of
the luminaries appeared to change their relative fituation in the hea-
vens ; particularly, the fun and moon appeared to be conftantly over-
taken and left behind by the ftars, as th-y all feemed to move along
together round the pole and our earth ; fometimes to approach to-
wards the pole, then to recede from it, which evidently produced
the feafons of the year, and which gave them the opportunity, in the
different feafons, of becoming acquainted with all the vifible ftars in
the northern , and moft of thole in the fouthern, hemifphere, in the
courfe of one revolving year.

That imaginary broad circle or belt round the heavens, called the
Zodiac, wherein they faw the moon and other planets in their vari-
ous motions or appearances, they very ingenioufly divided into iz
equal portions, which they .ailed houfes : during the fpace of one re-
volving year, this circle feemed to wheel 366 times about, and the
fun to compleat 36$ daily courfes ; hence, the circle continually gain-
ing upon the luminary, the fun was faid to enter, polTefs and leave the
feveral houfes fucccfUvely.

Thofe parts of the circle the fun feemed to poflefs in the fpring,
when the flocks and herds are increafed by the fecundity of the fea-
fon, were called the houfes of, ift. Aries, or the ram. zd. Taurus.
or the bull. 3d. Gemmi, or the twins, from the goat's frequently
biinging forth twin kids j thefe were chajiged afterwards into the twin
brothers, Caftor and Pollux : the other figns of the Zodiac were fuc-
ceflively, 4th. The Crab, denoting the retrogade motion of the fun
in midfummer. 5th. The Lion, expreflTive of the intenfe heat of fum-
mer. 6th. The virgin, with ears of corn, denoting the harveft.
7ih. The Balance, fhcwing the equality of day and night in autumn.

8th.

■■/>»

186*

CHAN

G I N 6

«o /hew that 2 r °''' '^^^ <^'''«b» the ia^f V '^' ^""^'"g fea-

ir' the fi/hinf feaVon ^ '" "^^^^'•«"^- And Vath. rt &"
. Some have thoupfir llV l '"<'''i/hes,

"g Abraham the firft ;;?''"' P«^»'^^ to the patr!...K •
'hey have imagined th7ch"''' °^ ^'^^^^om/ amon'/'Jl 'p" «^^«»nt-
aftronomomicai defiln r *u" ^"^ ^^'^ ^^nnly broual ' .^S^P^'ans ,-
iandofEgvDf t^W °^ *''« Zodiac on rK • I i "^"^ ^hem the

Surface of the vraf^r r 7 V" *« traverfes the rl t "^'" bearings
tiiep/ainsof Eefn?"? ^^am returned to him Jj^?''^ ^"«'c hi.

'"'gher BrounH. "^ ^^^"" ^amihes.'their catrl. o ^

'enVnfh?pt;i4\re r5^^^ ^° "^^^^^^^^^

not. in tho£dlvtT i°^\^^ co'-^'ng of thefll"! ° ."^'^^ ^'^h at-

'he civil or^'fe vel/^ ^'^"^ <^"'^'v«tion': thth j^'l^'^"°"'7 was
zodiac not ffffiSr • "^'^ "'^'y*' eftablifted i !-^.*/^ '^now^

'her did. orrefi v.^\''''"'»"«"'s b« the 3'"""""."' <■« %ufM
-""genlem^ftte "°"'''- ''■fto'eMEni .f f 'alined
"» the zodiac «„!?•. ' ^"^ accordinalu "I^l ■ ^"'^ ^^'"^ " the
^«w, by helper :i^^^^^^ «^'^ ^""ounSheTr b'\'^'T^''^"^ ^°"^es
^her the teLinat,W^'"'>'.' °"*^ b"gK en'f ' ^""^'*' '^ey
*^- t''Ullth^. fi' ""' * ^«''or horn thei ^l'^?"^ ^^e eye, ano.

\:^' , - ^ '■■; :.'.," T'' The

-*v.

S.I.

Manners.

187

The overflowing of the Nile was alfo preceded by the north
wind, and the hawk ftretching her wings towards the fbuth ; the de-
creafe of the waters by the fouth wind and the coming of the whoop,
a bird from Nubia, to feed on the infe£ls, &c. left by the flood. All
thefe were noticed by the Egyptians, who appointed a company offlcilful
obfervers, for the farther advancement of knowledge ; thefe, with great
induilry, inveftigated the properties of natural bodies, (ludied the geo-
metrical afie^ions of lines, angles, &c. ther made their obfervations
from a labyrinth or tower appropriated to that purpofe, and in it re-
corded their improvements, as well as they could, by emblematical
drawings or hieroglyphics, when they had not yet arrived at the in-
vention of letters.

4. Idolatry. '[ Among the various conjeflures that have been made re-
fpe£ling the origin of idolatry, fome have imagined it natural to the
mind of man, and others have derived it from the falfe traditions that
have prevailed in diflFerent nations refpe£ting the true worfhip. A very
fhort time after the delrge idolatry made its appearance. It feems
from tb fcriptures, xYxi Abraham himfelf was brought up in it,
and that this was the worfhip of his forefathers ; and fmce that time»
there is fcarcely a nation we have heard of, but what has at fome
time been under its pernicious influence ; and it has afllimed in diflFe-
rent ages and nations a variety of fliapes.

The beginning of idolatry in this world, was perhaps, in the
reverence of the people towards natural things. The iliining orb
which affords day to the world, the moon and flars which beautify
and cheer the filent watches of the night ; thefe feem to have been with
many nations the fole obje£ls of their idolatrous worfliip; and there
are perhaps no records of a people fallen into idolatry, where thefe
fplendid luminaries have not had a iliare of their adoration. If I
beheld the fun, fays Job, when it fhined, or the mc . walking in
brightnefs, and raylieart hath been fecretly enticed, or my mouth
kiifed my hand, this alfo were an iniquity ; and caution was given to
the Jews left when they looked up to the fun, moon, and ftars, and
the reft of the hoft of Heaven, they fhould be driven to worfliip
them. The bowing to images appears to have been a ftill groffer
depravation of the human mind ; yet this alfo appears to have obtained
in the world at a very early period. Perhaps this practice would
have never been once thought of, had not deluded man fo far de-
parted from the reverence he owed to his maker, as to afcribe divine
honour to his fellow mortals. When this was once conceived, they
had a model and the copy foon followed.

In remote antiquity, it feems, Belus, the inventor of aftrol(.5;y, be-
lorementioned, had a ftatue ere£ted to his honour by the Chaldeans,
and he who was adored while living, for his aftronomical fkill, had fa-
criflces offered up to his ftatue in B&bylon, when his remains were min-
gled with his native duft. This feems to have been the origin of the
idol Bel, mentioned in the Scriptures ; and from flmilar roots all the
heathen deities ieem to have fprung, as the Jupiter of the Greeks and
Romans, the Ofiris of the Egyptians, &c.

There have few things ever occurred in hiftory that have more

puzzled the curious enquirer to account for than the great fimilitude

between the rights, ceremonies, and facrifices of the Htbrews, and

/ thofe

1 88

' i

CHAN

thofe of the idolatrous nations <?. l **• V.

bijw, adopted the rights of ^eir ne^^^^^^ imagined that the H.

" " be remembered that fl,^ « * • ,

meaCure obferved rh ''''^"''PPcrs during all a^es wK.t J** ""mbers
T^^he infignificancy however «f i, . ^

r --^&?-- -5^^irS:^

languages, building^, &' The? ^'"' ^•^^'"^^^ <^^^g^nce as f'";?^"
other to have b^en ;« 7u 5. ^ ^'^""y people fee ml. '" ^^'^ir

confideration of the ufes nf " ? "^^^bematicaJ figures a nif' **'•
rbev had .'with ar^!. • °^. various inftruments air« r "^ ^'O'" a
and by theftdi/^nr ^ l"Senuity, derived a varre"t of J ' ^'^"i ^" ^befe

i-ntelJiS to riS' '" r '"'" ^"""d« they c^uld rero'?°^'"'^^^'"*'
• Tyftem^ Vusfl. ^^P.^ere acquainted Sfu°''^"'*««" very

^ijCjit^- ,

P.V.

t the He-
Iriflly for-
mu(t have
:hildren of

matters
we fee

ind Ro-

diiii ratl-
in their
:ime or

S. I.

MANNERS.

189

liflcs, &c. and in iheir temples. When thofe ilmple and eafy charac-
ters the letters, were found out, emblematical (igns were in fome
nieafure laid afide : it feems however that, either in reverence for
antiquity, or from a fuperftitious regard for the ancient fyn bols, ihey
continued to ufe them on the mod lolemn occafions, as at funerals, in
their public aflemblies for worfliip, &c. It was at this period that
the emblematical devices received the name of hieroglyphicks, i. e.
holy writings : as the figures were now no longer in coimuon ufe, it
feems the fymbolical meaning was foon forgot by the multitude who
miftook them for real beings, and accordingly they became the ob-
jefts of their idolatrous worfhip.

Many nations had heard of the politenefs, the wealth, the refine-
ment, and alfo of the curiofitiesof Egypt, as theoveiflowing of the
Nile, and their admirable works of art ; hither they reforttd, acquir-
ed the learning, and imbibed the fuperlVitions of the Egyptians.
There was alfo corn in Egypt, when famine prevailed in other parts,
which brought numbers down in the time of need, as Joleph's bre-
thren ; by thefe means, and by help of their neighbours che Phenici-
ans, a commercial people, it feems the manners ot the Egyptians were
tranfported to the different nations of the earth, and in different na-
tions the fuperditions and idolatry aflumed different-appearances ac-
cording to the genius or notions of the people ; among the Cartha-
ginians, Allemans, Gauls, Ancient Britons, Moabites and Amotites,
liuman vitSlims were offered up, and to this day we find the fhocking
practice obtains among the inhabitants of the Scath Sea iflands; the
politer Greeks were not fo nmch in the practice of thefe horrid cuf-
toms; the Romans were ftill more clear, yet, with all their ingenuity,
they were the dupes of grofs fuperftition, and praftifed, under the name
cf religion, the mofUicentious rites and manners. Yet we may fbme-
times fee beautiful Hbrals eonched in iheir fables, in many of them
we may difcover mutilated traditions of the inporlant events record-
ed in the fcriptures, as the creation in their chtos, paratiiraiciil ftate of
our firft parents in their golden age, &c. So i^e have luppdfed that
many of their idols were derived iiom tradiiio.is they had of the an-
cient patriarchs, prophets, Sac as Noah, Abrahun, IVlofcs, &c. be that
as it may, it feems their gods weie generally derived from mortals at
the firft: many of thefe were men of fcience, fome kings, others he-
roes, fome robbers, &c. &c. and with thefe, their femvile relations
_were often deified. When divine honours were attributed to mortals
their evil deeds were alfo remembered, and hence the gods of the
heathens were reprefenled even by their own deluded votaries as fome-
times guilty of the moft enormous crimes, at others, the patrons and
lovers of virtue.

If the Greeks in their refinement in poetry and the arts, had ac-
quired a tafte too delicate to rellfK the monftrous fhapes of the Egyp-
tian hieroglyphics, which had been rather produced by the feverity o(
ftudious refearch, than conceived with the fpirit and enthufiaPn of the
artlft ; if the ftaluary at Athens arrived at elegance in the forming of
the idols, what was left of fublimity in the moral of the Egyptians,
feems to have exceedingly fuffered from the unlimited freedoms of
the licentious Attic bards. Fiction or romance appears to have been
the fpirii of iheir poetry ; to give a plain hiftorical accour t of events

_ feems

•>

^"'1:

'"■-^'j'"

CHAN

G I N

To mention lialf. oav •«*••_ ®''

•nd .„ ,hcir attempt. To fcalTi/K'" °' ^'»««» they fay m*/"""""* «^ the
MounUin, and darted flai- J^""'"' piled rock. uL» "*."'''*•'• ©n Jupiter
"•ning them, thefr ioS'e"^ •^°' "."" « ^''^ S- C r'**"-^'' "«"•«"« CS
"nde, mount Etna, aJt. tK a"* '"'.•»?'«'' TyphoVwtj JL"*"'? *' ''"t^h over?
«trib«te all the ea^.K- t *''" '^'••Wl'ng of the «ia„? ri-°*"*^''«''ned o, buried

Jyrinthofprepoft:irfiA?' '"*'»''"•"• ^'^SlSly' Z^t' ""^''"^ Poft-^e, E
h'Wt a fort of Ch !f tt. ' " ""^ '""ffi^'entlj Zifwe " h? *"";'' »''«'*' endlef. h!

According to the hL,u. .l . wcriiticks of fome of their

/- iV^«, I ^ ' 7"'\*'- *"« * ^"' ^''*'"' nymph, and

» /r5/W,</ ova. I , . ,

^- i 'He night, fleep .„d dream, j ''ahie rf 'er„?SSt^^T '

S«urn lt;„, ^ . i «»«. Z"'""" '^^P-ngled with

J ner head crowned with »*

* I the morning J- , — "mais,

Janus Jti..,,ear, bound, of citiea i f c '"' ""^ ''""? fun

Atla. ? u ^'*"' *«• ' J " (""» '■» one hand a Lv - w

^''" r the ftarry heaven, { ,. «''?«•• » Sceptre. ' ''*^' '" "»

^" or Jove {«<>;; ^verThtde" ''"""''• ' ' '«' '-''■'""'- *'"'"'"■
«" «'ife Juno f '^-^J". m.Tri/ge, child. 5 ^ «Ptre and eagle. "

r^P;-.'"' or rainbow and peacock.
hit larce Aell ,1.,-:-. . .

Jopilet or Jove J «»?• "J meh, but efpedjl J .k f ?* °'' "• Moulder.

f" »«-eJo„|«m.„. m.m.8., .hiu.[ '"''•"d . f„p,„' P'*^^'" k"

«■• r'f- Pro. f CV-e. , .„ . i te" «'"'• •'»"' "Ten.'.,

''»'^-"'-

r**,'r""/"' 3 graces, and L. '»"'«'•

Uvren. P.,,f„, ,,„. fh:. offspring Efculap;„. Ph,e,,„

4 ?««»»" 1^^""' and

Orpheus, Sec,

S.I.

MANNERS.

tft

or trees: when an aftronomer loved folitary walks, if bjr night, the moon
was in love wiih him, if in the morning, Aurora. If a princefs or ce-
lebrated nymph had been overcome by a ruffian or feducer, a god
had been enamoured with her, and, to eifc6l his purpofes, hadoe-
cornea bull, dragon, ftiower of gold or a fwan : fliips were flying
horfes, men on hort'eback centaurs, lewd women fyrens or harpies,
oranges apples of gold, &c. &c.

It feems worthy of admiration that in the midft of the monftrous
fi£lions ot the ancients, wherein their deities were reprefented as per-
petrators of the moft horrid aflions, there was ftill preferved among
them a belief that, after their dcceafe, in a future (late pious mortals

Hiould

Mars

His wife Bel
lona

Minerva ot Pal
las

In Name \ prtfidtd ovtr | bad a$ ebaraEieriJiic Jigura.

) C military habit, fword, fpear, &c.

>battlei,difcord and tumults ^blazing torch or brand, trumpet,
3 ^ whip.

5 ( ^P"' i" li'' '<{!>* band, terrible Egis

> fciences, arts and war < in her left, at her foot the owl or
3 I cock.

Mercury or 7 Picchants, coin.nerce, rbe« J Caduceus, wings at his cap and fan-
Hermes 3 toric, oratory 1 dais.
Vulcan I the forge and roechanicarts | fmith's hammer.
His wife Ve-7 . „. , . «i„f,.„ C Doves or fwani, the 3 hours, her
J love and pleafure | fons Cupid and Hymln.

rmirth and wine, Mznades *) _ . ,.» -1 a- . r •

1 «r Rircho. / goblet, clufters of grapes, &c.

wreath of ivy and pine leaves } thyr«
fus encircled with the fame.

nus

Bacchus
His wife Ari
adne

rmirtn ano wine, iviznades^
1 or Bacchs ('

1 Thyades, fatyrs, Fauni, Si- f ^
C leai and Silvani J

p rfliepherdi, groves, and paf-7horn$, goat's feet, crook and fyrinx

1 toul life 3 or pipe.

Hercules renowned JHb his labours and ftrength, they reprefented leaning on his

club, and on his (rMlders the fkin of the Nrmean lion which he flew.
Hebe and Ganymede were cup.bearers to the gods who fed upon ne£tar and am-

broGa.
Momus was the jefter, and made Olympus ring with the laughter of the celeftiali.
Proteus the keeper of his father's (Neptune) cattle, contd transform himfelf into

various fhapes.
£olus was ruler of the winds, Eurus eaft, Zephirus weft^ Boreas north, and

Notus fouth.
Scylla and Charybdis (in reality a dangerous rock and whirlpool between Sicily and

Italy) were beings alfo.
The Mufes, Graces and Loves waited on the happy.
Corgons, Hydras and Furies tormented the miferable.

The highways had their lares, the houfes their penates, and each man his genii.
The fields had their Fauni, the vineyards their Satyri, and the forefls their SyU

vant.
The nymphs were of various orders, over the mountains the Oreades prefided, the

Napeae over vallies and meads, the DrvadeS over forefts, the Naiads were frelk

water nymphs, us the Nereids were of the fea.
The particular periods of time, the different ages and circumftances of life, the fe-

veral parts of the body, the various implements of agriculture, all bad their ta-

telary deities.
Indeed the whole univerfe feemed to fwarm with fhefe airy nothings.
Peace, Concord, Virtue, Honour, Faith aod Hope had all their temples j Fear

alfo had its votaries ; Modefty and Silence had their altars j Calumny and Im-

puJence were alfo deified.
Nay 4tabies, dunghUis and feweri had their guardl.n gods. .' .

A,'..

i9i

^ a A s

I JlfV

rhJ/t*^ ^*^'*^' »*»»» the foul, nr . P"n''hed. for thctr

^yi'l here Ixio/ «'■'''"'''"' '■PPr«l>e-.fio„rfLt ''"S^''«f)>an«ni
'Ae top of a if, "'(rplius, „ doomed to mTl ' ". «»<^ompafl-ed

, To the idol, which ?/ i" 'r '° '^m a ivelJ wf.7 '"^ ^^^^
»her life tim^ l- ' ** ^^s been alreL^ . "^ ^«ves.

^nowfed J Vrr°y«i"e"t 'n 'ife, and a/l !t ^' "^^'^ ^^^oted «?
--S the'p'ane^^'H- fts, called the n.e^lL t S"^ "''"'''-- °"
P'^ogrefs of matheml- ^ ^'^^^res of their a/tlr! " u'^f ' ^^^ono-
Prove^ents oT he .T' T.'""^ '" ^^^ "nj /L^^^^^^^^ ^e feen the
^T^he aftrolo^er! ft T^- °''^«" of 'he nr Lfl^ ^^'"^" '^e im-

«"gu»s, in like mVnerf ^'^T ^I^"' aftronomiLf ^'^ '"^agination,
^"ces in nature T rl'""" '^' ^'iJ^t of birds and ?y'''"''°"^- Th^
Sacrifice. Magldt^ fT ' \"'"'^'P'^"from drcuninr^^
ceremonies. Sj ' l^'" '^, '"'locations of Sr r! " ? '''""'^'"g the
the conducing of "hr''" ^'^^ '" great reverencl'' !"^ '''^^us other
^«te life; ani 1^"^^^ "Petitions, as alfo?n ?u' '"^, ^^"^"ifed on
<^o"ched in dart !„1-^'^'' returned by ?he nnVrt V^'''"S of pri-
event, however it turfe°"' ^^""*' ^«h fo S'r/ P"'^'^' ^»«
.^ndin.pofedit/iL^'^i^^.^t. eftabli/hed the credit o?^.".' '^r?' '^'

heavenly bodies ; and o^.^ '''''^' "^^ creation on v . '• "P' ^°"'e
^.'P> huagined that ?h.ri-^'''r'""^'"g "o outward n fi^'^^'^rly the

^ndsand hove ed roSnH^tK ' ?f ^''^'^^eceafed anceftf '?^°" °^ ^O'-
affliftion, thev r!n ?^ ^^^ ^^enes of their for? r" ""^^^ with the

.'. ^-..^.: " p » . ., I - and

S.I.

MANNERS.

m*'

the
hn-

and bards, in their fongs, celebrated their decdi, as cxainptcs for
future times. Among the chitdien of Ifrael alone, were ptcfcrvcd
the records of truth and divine revelation.

ly. Perftcumn ] It is remarkable that among the Gentiles in gene*
ral, whether prelcivcd in Hniplicii)^ or fallen off to idolatiy, fuch a
thing as ptifccutiun, un account ot different fentiments refpe£ling re*
lijjion or worfliip, was fcarcely ever thought of. For the moft pait,
Uiuiioledcd by their neighbcurs, each nation and each individual ob*
fcrved the manneis moft agreeabl.* to their own fentiments in religion,
and iiieddU'd not with others. This toleration however, feems to
have had no other foundation than mutual complaifance. And the foul
Hydra pcrfecution, which feems to have furioufly triumphed among
the followers of Mahomet, and perhaps alfo in the armies of the
i/au^hty Genghifchan ; this dire monfter, which has often committed
lamentable outrages among nations profefling chriftianity, feems
to have made its hift appearance among the idolatrous Ifraelites,
who had revolted from the houfe of David ; after this we find It
in Bab)lun among the heathens, when the Jews were in captivity.
*J'he trials of Daniel, of Shadrach, Melhich and Abednego arc too
well known to need relating hue. The highly favoured but fickle
Jews, after their return from captivity, divided into-feds, the principal
of which were the Eff-ncs. Fhaiifccs and Sadducees ; and after the
death of Matthias, and his fons the Miccabees, who had oppofed the
cruel perfecutions of Antiochus the king of Syria, broken down his
idols, and eftablifhed the tiue woifliip; we find the Pharifees, who
had the greattll name of fandlity, cruelly perfecuting their brethren
the Sadducees, and labouring for no lefs than their total extirpa-
tion.

Their neighbours, the Samaritans, profefled a worfliip fomewhat fiml-
hr to their own ; the grand difpute between them feems to have been
refpcding the pMp^'' P'^ce for aflembling ; the Samaritans contended
for Mount GerizKun ; the Jews for the temple of Jcrufalem : bitter-
neft prevailed between the two nations, through feveral ages ; and, in
the days of our Saviour, we find the woman of Samaria expreiHng
furprife, that he fhould even alk a drink of water of one of her nati-
on. The animofity feems to have originated at the time of the
return of the captivity from Babylon. When the Jews were about
rebuildins; the walls of Jerufalem, the Samaritans propofed to join
them in the work, but the people, who were not to mix with llrange
na:ions, looked upon them as no true Ifraelitcs, but the defcendants
of the heathen, which Senacherib had planted in the place of the ten
tribes of IfracI, whom he conquered and carried away captive into the
land of Affyria.

6. Primitive Chrijlians.^ It is well known what perfecutions the
Saviour of mankind, and his apoflles afterwards fuffercd from the
Jews. Indeed, whiit the church endured at firft from the heathen-
world, feems to have been generally at their inftigation ; the do^rinet
however, and teflimonies olthe primitive chriftians were fo contrary,
and fo dire£tly oppofed to the fpiiit, the maxims and manners of
the world, as to render them particularly obnoxious to their idolatrous
neighbours and governors !

O The

The f ^^^INg

'ounW l,i,„/:.| I''r'' 't° "''^"""ations of ,?! ■''"''""i. who, y,:'u

'"S. ot I- oouenr,. , -T "° Pagans. Th^ ow 5 "' '^e tioufra
""d .Ro,;w abounded ^!;,, r*"""" "^ comn>o,^ £1"" '^^ S'ory

;,t:'.'p-™ c^^i«.7;;4 ,fr■;^•,;;-J;pi£"f;^o°l'^^^^^^

'i'^fS/?.V^--«<."peH,ap, 0,7 '':'°"''^'"""^

»n<i every ?„!. ,,,,, "'""""X of J„p[,e,.' Jv' t^hnllun was oblieed
"doming ^( Jot i T,'' '" ">'=leaft „n~r "°"''««d everyT„

■ "domtag 'of j:,: ™' r i» <he iTaft '„„"' "»%red ever> »"
"- *i» -Kgiou Vn'r '"'^'',''/ .Je ftainTfTd'oTJ'" f?^ ''"-"4 o

"own ,hcir heads Z,JZ^' ?''.»"'"> b^ncS of , ° ^"'''"« '»
fei-vanca of public „/ " ?"''"'' "I lowers tL r '"""•«'. and to
education a,d habT, k Pu"'" "'«. were e,r,i r, '"P"«'>ious ob-
-i often as .he,' ccuXd = 1°""^"^ -"'^''Zlm'J'f'^'''' ''""^

aJ^o, garments of any coi,„ ^"''^ °^ P'^'de and Efi r"'"''"''^. were
of gold or fiiverVfl "^^'^^^Pt white inftr, "^^">' ' ^alfe hair
«one) white bS, ^S '^'•'°"' ^^ hoS^^^^^^^^^ T"'^^' ^ats
warm baths were rJZP '^'"«' P"b)ic falmn? ^^ ^« ^ead on a
cHhe world TerrSr'^"'^- ^"^ o^ ^i/ the Ifn ''°"' *"'* ^he ufe of
'^ere; indeed. wae"'r '?P^^^^ ^° iave%' f/'ir^ ^^°^« ^^^e rna^

-ere; indeed,' w^^^r '?^''^^ ^o ^ave b': r""^ ^^^ ^^^e -^Tne?

''"' of the prefent day f\ i^^^^'^erfalj,
.X ft , ^* *°"^^ ^enj they

;ww'*'

i**.-

wou/d

*^,

I', V.''

re
|r

,.^ M

r-f

',■*'

S. L

IvI A N N E R S.

>9S

woulu generally be involved in one common itproof. Spcalcing of
the lolty bu(kin of ihc at5lor.s, lie lays ilu-y iiiipioi.fly ftrivc to add u
cubit to tlicii lluiu'ic ; iind the pratlice ul' lliuving tie bcaici, he fa}!,
is a lye n^uiiul our uv.a taccs, ai.i.1 an iaipiouiiuliempt to iin^irove iliu .
works ot tho cr*.utor.

The divil':ons however, that h.ippeneJ in the fiift uflciiilJiL's of
the Chrillians, unt.1 ti c iii.'p.iituie ot loinctji)iii ii>e iimplicity ot' tiuth,
fcem to hiive unhappily mixed together, in the oblcurc iiillory gt'
laofeciuiy times, tl,c pious z.-a! oi tiie iaiihfLiI, in their tw(\imonie&
ii^'ii"'^ tl»o lupcilliiioiis or' t!ic lieiuhcns, and the v^mitics ol" the
wor'J, with the wcuknclFts, abliiixlilics, ar'.J '!ic u:ich;iritable ii-vcii-
lics of otheis pioi'dling the Chiillian n-.i.ic ; arid, wliile fomcof thole
called fatlieis, lii the iiiomc-nts of -ica], Www t > have rejoiced in the
idea of llie future deftiu(!-'ion of tl.tir encmiis, and lo have had
but pailial ar.a cv>n;r:>fled iiieas of the univtifili.y of tiie divine love ;
others brea'tlicd a chriflian Ipiiit, and acLnowL d>4cd the pi jus philo-
fophcr aui(>r)^ tlje L.aihcn, lu liave bei.n ii>lliucled by ilie lo^os or
wuui by v;ho.:j ull l!iin-s vvero in.idvr, and Jutlin M.iityr, lh.it valiant
V.^hritti.in, in the coiifvlence uf i:,;s l.u;.;, ulliliwd to tlic Komaii
Senaie, that bv<cr.\tci w.ij a L'iuill.an.

Dillin^^uiflied fioin the v.tin and liceniious woifj, ia tlic pl.»innefs
and fiu^ality oi' lluii ta!)ks, their fuiniinic and drcl> ; it f.-cms ihu
Chrilliaiis weie alike avcrfe fiom the bulllii.Js and plea furci of this
world. 'I'hc defence of our pufor.s and piopeity, they knev/ not how
to reconcile with tiie paiiL-nt dodrine, which enjoins an unlimited
loi<;ivcMKfs ol injuries. 'I'heii fimplicity was offended by the ufe of
oaths, by the pomp of mai?jllracy, and by the udive contention of
public life; nor could ihey be convinci^d, that it was lawful for them,
on any ootofton, to iKed the blood of our fellow-creatures, either by
the fvvorJwf jullice, or by tluu of war. h was acknowledjicd, that,
un^er a jKs perfect lav/, the powers of the Jewifh conftitution h:.d
'been^Xj^iVed, wirh the approbation of Iteaven, by infpired prophets
an4 by anointed kings. The Chiiftians lelt and confclTed, that fuch
inlWtutions might be neccfTary for the prefent fyrtein of the world,
and they cheerfully fubmitted to the authority of their Pagan go-
vernors. But while they inculcated the maxims of paflive obedi-
enoe, they refufed to take any atlive part in the civil adminlftration
or military defence of the empire.* They decided among themfelves
the differences that happened between any of the brethren, being
unwilling to e::pofc them bcioic the tribunal of an idolatrous
' judge.

O2 Thty

* .^ fentence of death was executed upon Maximilianus, an African youth, who
had been produced by his own father before the magiftrate as a fufficient and legal
recruit, but who 6rnily perfifted in the declaring, that his confcience would not
permit him to embrace the profeHion of a foldicr. And Marcellut the Centurion,
on the day of a public feltival, threw away his belt, bis arms, and the enfigns of
bis office, and exclaimed with a loud voice, that he would obsy none but Jefua
Chrift, the eternal King! and that he renounced for ever the ufe of carnal wea-
pons, and the fervice of an idolatrous mafter. The fuldiers, as foon as they had
■•.-^ recovered from their aftonilhment, fccured the perfon of MarccHus. He was exa-
' mined in the city of Tingi, by the prcfident of that part uf Mauritania, condemned
and bchetdcd for defenion.

CHAN

G I

» '

They vircre nn» t. * IV Q.

«/ie rage of the J.-ffu "^'^o'^trous feft.,/oJ. C"t^ ''eclamatfors
f«' off-e'ring/ to .hrcff ":."? ^''^^^ occafon, fr"^ ^•^Jr"S». though

^tyurat/on of the r It ''^° ^° ^^^^^^ « fub ^t^i^^ °f beafts and of
^•^^ 'evied upon thl f "^'^ *^^ P''<^e of co mnr "^ '''^'* ^'^en thj

^^^ °f trurh in their t?'^'"' ''^^>' Sd not 5"^^°^^'"^ ^^^^ 'em!
"^'^ch,,. however f!L^^'?' ^°^ '''e imperial L-S'°''r*^*^ '^^ ^^cred

probation and Xmlr^'' '« ^ravr the aSion"'''";^"^ ^''^ ^ea-
h a fenfe of if. ■^^'^^ ^o^'d. Th^ J'^^nt'on and force the an

of tilt Supre„,e Be „, """"ew fociety. Th.rf'r'' "know-

Whi/e no cenfure i, „.,„, . , *"* P'°P" ««ndard to be

perhaps candour will ,11 "* 'S*inft anv incH-:j 1

ftort account o?,* d"f:'""''°« 'h' ^put S",';. »' '"X fociety of people
one '^^i^y of people from !n:r"'^ «" « P"«ice iwc. '""^- '"«hme„t. T^ely

wcir wor/h.p. Without rafeS! • i ?"'' ''»« P"«ice it thlr Sv^*' ^°"«y «"ud-
«!. for information, they ha^^J"? '^'»'"" «n<l »nxie ty „ o?/''""'* '« fi'«nce i„
fn filence. Th-» »i,- i ' ' ''*"'><' mod eafw ;. .l • ^ " ooicure ecclefiaftiri .

Wo(» High, and Jff^J; " -«"'<1 be pref.l'pto:. JSlr'^ '° ^'Tc^bn X'

fil«ce, without the i„t^™;„t° ^''^''•'^*« »«»*«* i'!? ,r" » »*«y »>«lieve
ZlT "' «^'^«''n" S" J" "^ *»'«'• «' "S, " ?" ""X be done in

"mit thefe to pawicular a^. ^ "'^ ^P"'^ "nd accordin.? ^u** *•* ""^"d up, „

fejoicingf and praife. i« Ji . P'ophecy or Drav,.r ! V *X believe to proceed

^itd upon the folemnftv of ?, *" '° '""^in-e a while inA""^ '""""» "». thaj
•he praftiee of fitting i/fiL":" J'"' J^. ths ChrffthJ 'V" i'fl" • '"^'»'« '^«/ "- ^
J«Jy record the cultom ., a JL?.*''"' *«"««"»"*, fi* workV„ '*k'"""«' '*"« i"* ^

"J^er wa. obw3u.? tha th^/""' * ""^'^^ '"teTthel ofe. '^'* ^^'^ *«« " muJc

^t^ ' "' *' °"y remember, the

-*i.

jj£r„.

V '

P.V.

S.T. MANNER S. 197

The Chriftians were br.mdcd with the name of Atheifts, on ac-
count of thcjr noble teftimonies againft the plurality of gods; accufed
•of fuicide, becaufe of their cheerfully fubmitting to martyrdom, and
inipioufly charged with the perpetration of the moft abominable crimes
in their religious aflemblies.

To the capiicious violence of the heathen, fidelity and refignation
were oppofcd on the part of the Chriftians, and their numbers mcreaf-
cd through every oppcfirion; at length the emperor Conftantine
embraced chriftianity, and the profcfllon of the moft holy faith became
mixed with the political inftitutions of tlie earth; and, it is a melan-
choly truth, that the prot'cffbrs themfclves, in the courfe of their
inteftine diflentions, have ir,fl\£ted far greater fevcriiles on each
other, than they fcrmeily experienced from the rage of the Heathens.

"J . Commerce. GenerM Remarks '\ In the account already given of
the origin of idolatry, lomething ot the progrefs of arts and fciences has
neceflijrily been related ; the further advancement of tlicfe, the origin
of civil governments and of con^merce. may now be confiJcred : the
•beginning of thefe improvements feem all to have criminated in cur
.weaknefies and wants.

Though man, in a ftate of nature, not enervated by luxury or eafe,
arrives at a wonderful agility of body, nid becomes capable of endur-
ing amazing hardOiips and fatigue, yt unaflbciattd with his fellows,
be is perhaps the moft helplefs of all living animtk ; other creatures
defended againft the inclemencies of the weather, by natuiiitl covt rings
of hair, feathers, &c. lie down on the bare earth and take comfortable
repofe; they rife up and feaft upon the pafture or fall on their prey ;
while he, intended for more fublime enjoyments, fi,i Is in^pofed upon
himfelf by necefllty, what, perhaps the eternal lav/s tw truth and
righteoufnefs require fecrerly in the heart of every unbialTld and vir-
tuous man ; he muft aflbciaie with his fel!ow5 ; he cannot live alto-
gether for himfelf; and, whether ftrengfh and agility of body or in-
genuit; and a delicate frame ; whether a nanve btrt of iht mental
powers towards quietude, vivacity, or patient thonght, whctlier a ge-
nius active and diftaiorial, or a difpofiiion placid v\nd fubmiffive n)ii;k
the ind vidual ; all thefe under proper rcftriflions, iiave thcii ufes in
fociety, and tend to the comfort and good of mankind. And it is
worthy of admiration, that man, though fo helplefs, in a mere ftjte
of nature, is, aflbciated with his fellows, the o^Iy living creature who
fuftains every climate, and who lives and mul:ipli.« ;.• every country,
from the equinoftial to the poles.*

Con;nierce

wife and prudent were thofe who cou'd leaft und«rft*nJ the fimpricity of the gofpel,
and the apoftles and miniftert of the primitive Chriftians, were often uKacqua.ntrd
with the arts and fciencei. Hiftory alio informs us, of the primitive Chriftians,
that the want of human learning, was fupplied by the afliftance of the prophets,
who Wert called to that function without di{1in£lion of age, of fejt, or of natural
abilities ; and who, as often as they felt the divine impulfe, poured forth the efTufi*
ons of the fpirit, in the aiTemblies of the faithful.

* The different difpofitions and conftitutions of men feem naturally to h«ve pro-
duced in their intercourfe with each other, at an early period, the diftindioBSof pa-
t.'iarchs, and houHiolds, or maAcrs and fervants, an order, which was probably
derived only from mutual aflbciation, and which tended to the happinefs of the
vrbole, as far as oAcoUtion wai avoided on the «ne hand, and fervilc fea; kept ont

„ on

* ■■ . - - ' .»«

■ .r'

I9S

C H

A N G

-- yv i\ Q , I

On the other- ng j fi'

^«'d back, ^h?,"'^?^ '^''"^'•to-s f;!';^ <^'"-'«i^« ^"ocictle. fiTi.'T"' «"d 'hey ftm

fcefiinnfng: Th ,,•„?"''* ''^'« ^ peon'" i''^^."""? ''"<i<^r ^if^^J .'""' """"t
^n America Tu^J^^^'"^ '^"k ,C» '"^ ""things „ ' ' ''"' "^'^ ^iH

P«"Vchalaufh-*'^'''"e^*'^'iiief,d" •''•''' '" general, a.T^ '^'^ '^^^ trouble*

"P to diligence Z. T^ ^'^ ^^efe depair., ! '''^"^'^"'^"ces of 1/^ "l'^"^"", ^T.d
'^^'"'■'v th.n r.'^ ^^3 '^eHre f,?fu^^''^'J and, while n,,' '^''"e Jabo„r i,

P"<^ "fficcs which L ?':" ^ '^^» evU^'h^^lTr^^y ^^ 'Tg- ;?^" P^^-cuJa,
'"g t'-^'-ngs in coL "''"' f"-^"y 'n .ch r '^' '"^"'^"^'^ Ha*!; ^"""^ ^'"»«= -f

P.V.

S, I.

MANNERS.

199

his flock for the fruits of the earth, and an equal benefit would be
hereby derived to the tiller of the ground ; fo early however as the
days of Abraham, gold and filvc. were fubdituted as a ii)cdiu:n in

trade,

root virtuous patriots, philofophers, ice. fuffered binifliment or death, from the
caprice of the fickle but violent Greeks, and their intefline divifions feem never
to have had an end while the republic remained. Hiftory does not inform us of
the republic ot Carthage, enduring fuch commotions, but the latter days of the
Roman Commonwealth, were perhaps as calamitous and dreadful from their civil
wars, as any that ever were experienced at Athens.

After faying thus much however in favour of monarchic, ns often proving the
moft peaceable national government; it would be the part of diffimulation to quft
the fubjeft, without declaring againft a fuperftitious regard to any particular form.
If kings, while they admtrifter hws with clemency ar ] juflice, in love to the
people, are a terror to evil doers, and a praife to thoftr that do well, and ought to be
honoured ; well ordered republics are entitled to equal refpeA. Were all the world
under one government, or taught to confider themfelves as one large family, it
would perhaps tend much to the quiet and good of mankind : on a fmaller fcale
however, we have feen the good effefls of general aflbciatiun : the BritiHi Iflts,
hecetofore divided into a number of petty rival Aates or clans, were grievoufly
harafled with perpetual bickerings ; now peace and order are experienced, laws are
adminiftered in the moft remote parts, and the feeble individual, by the AfTociation,
finds a proteftion of his perfon and polfeflion^, which nations colk-ftively have not
yet acquired ; indeed the difputes of thefe, inftead of being fettled in a legal orderly
manner, are generally referred to the decifion of the fword ; and, if an overbearing
nation be at any time checked in its infolence, by the interference of other powers,
it feems rather from jealouTy than a love cf juftice. Indeed the advantages of
afTociation appear in a {Iriking point of view, in the comparifon be'veen rations
and the individuals which compofe them. Reftrained by the mutual laws of fociety
from moleAing his neighbour, or united to him by the tender ties of frie-iddiip, the
individual feems generally to have a right fenfe of judic;; while nations unhappily
adopt the moil felfilh and uncharitable fentiments, and call others by the opprobri-
oue names of barbarians, favages, and even "our natural enemies.'*

True religion, as far as it obtains in the world, precludes the recsfiity of every
earthly law, and it is expelled, from the prophecies, that the time will come when
nations {hall no longer letrn the art of war, but beat their fwords into plowlharet,
and their fjjears into pruning hooks; until this period ajrivpf, however laws have
their ufc, and temporal powers, as benefits to mankind, ought certinly to be re-
garded with the fubftantial refpeft of duty and obedience, whrn their ordcis are not
fuperceded by the divine law whici) is wrote in the confcience ; and commerce,
while we have to mourn its abufe in particular parts, even to th- enflnving and
dcdroying of the human race ; perhaps in others it tends to remove the deftruftive
canker and venom of bigotry; which, alTuming the facred name of religion, tears
to pieces the bonds, the cords of love, which ftiould bind ftciety together ; hugs its
own deluded and violent votaries in a delirious embrace ; hands over the faithful to
perfecution and death, and throws the poor erratic mecaphyfician upon a chjos of
darknefs and doubts : perhaps commerce helps the fciSlarv to refpeft probity and
juftice, more than fyftematic proftffions, and to value philanthropy, which fpringa
from no other root but the inward religion of the Saviour of men, in every nation
and every individual, more than all the unkindly feverities or uncharitable maxims
of the education of his youth : and it probably helps tn airociate mankind to-
gether in a way, which rr.<y in time tend to bring even nations under the reftraint
of wbolefome laws, and I.elp to diffufe fuciefy and juftice abroad in the earth !
when it is alfo confidered, that the hnpuifting pa'ient, whether man or brute, de-
rives kindly medicines from the Arf[\c Regions and Torrid Zone, from the mine
and from the deeps when we refl»£> on what different and remote parts the feveral
bounties of creation are partially beflov/ed, that fometimes a local fcarcity taket
place, when the harveft abroad is full and plentiful ; that commerce diftributcs the
profufion to parts flerile and fcanty 5 and finally, that the ma-rnetic laws in creation
favour the moft extenfivc intercoun'e; we will periiapt acknowledge it is well
fuited to the condition ef fubtunary beings, and vilh to »M:courage the arts and
Tcjences by which it is carried on. ^ .^ .> >;:

-**■■* * ' • ''

that «n T^;"""' ^"d EKVnr;.n '^'"" ^'^^ "^^

'niaiieraits of /if. c,M ^"f"'" to cr^ft- .^ .r' "'""d out bpf«^

' '"''""'^ V flow 4t ™^"^er '"''^^^^^^^^^

,, - "''= *"<^ genera!/,

le
the

t-, '«'■

*ere defi.
•""jnitude.

•i •»

S.I.

M A N N E R'"8.

201

the purfuit of private individuals; arcliiteflure viras confidcred as of
rational importance, and often encouraged . by princes for the preferv-
ing of their names to pofterity, or to keep their reftlefs fubje^s from
fediiion and rebellion, by keeping them bufily employed in times of
peace.

A very fuperficial viev^r of hiftory may ferve to inform us that ge-
nius fird political refinement are not naturally peculiar to any particu-
lar climate or country. The Greeks, to whom the world is indebted
for alnioll every improvement in the arts and Iciences, were oiiginally,
perhaps, the rudeft mortals that have lived fince the Flood inha-
biting diins and caverns : hidory informs us they gleaned a fcanty
fuftenance from the bounties of uncultivated nature, and often fell
victims to want, to beafts of prey, and the more favage fury of ench
other ; 'tis laid they wandered about at large, like beafts in tbe fo-
refts, unacquainted with the tender tics which bind families together,
the laws of aflbciation and marriage being unknown among them f .

Colonies from Egypt and Phenicii, it feems, firft mtroduced
learning, arts and laws into Greece, which proved a moil kindly
foil for thefe improvements. Here the refcarches of the Egyptians
wjere profecuted with fteadinefs, and a ftveriryof invefligation; hence
they derived their aftronomical (kill ; hence the faluta/y help of the
furgeon's knife, and the kindly aid of the pliyflcian ; here the capti-
vating beauties of nature, the elegnnt living form, the luxuriant fo-
liage of the field, the blooming tinfls were caught by the ingenious
and imitating Greeks, and again made to delight in fculpture and
painting ; their language they improved to an enchanting degree of
eloquence, and the elegance in their poetic writings will probably com-
mand admiration while ever there are people that know how to read
them ; then how muft they have ravifhed the ears of the Athenians,
who irrefiftibly felt the full force of all their native beauties ; and
their mufic produced an enthufiafm which the moderns, with all their
nice fyftematical divifions, cannot effeft on their auditors ; and w^hich,
perhaps, proves the fimple unifbns of the ancients lo have been vallly
more agreeable to the pathetic of nature, than all the refinemtnts,
,$Lnd mujiipiicd concords of modern mufic.

Heretofore

magnitikle. The wonders of Babylon, as related by Herodotus, appear almoft in-
credible ; and tbe pyramids of Egypt, rendered folid by their prodigious weight, and
fixed firm on their bafcs by age, may perhaps aftonifli, while the world endures.
The coloffui of the Ain, at Rhodes, flood at the entrance of the port, and ad-
mitted (hips in full fail to pafs between iti legs :~.wbo can imagine fucb a ftatue
without petrifaAion ? well, indeed, might it be accounted one of the wonders of
the world.

f Though in fome countries the harmony of this ftate feems obfcured in national
fottiflinefs and ftupidity, though polyg'^my has been praAifed in others, through
many ages, though theie have been inftances of people, as the Jaggas in Africa, and
the Amazonian women in Scythia, who, in the fury of military ardcur, have re-
fufcd to be joined in the religious bonds of matrimony ; yet the rudeft nations have
perhaps in all ages, where fuperftition or madnefs for milittry exploits has not
perverted their native biafs, fliewn the moft violent, and perhaps partial attach-
ment to their relations ; and wer»4t poffibie now to view the forefts of Greece, •$
they*appcared in remote anj^uity, perhaps we ibouid find, notwithftanding what
theobfcure hiftory of thofe n'mes relates, the tree which lodged in its branches tl^e
little parent fongfters, with their callow brood, helped to Aelter at its foot, a Umim
\y not unacquainted with all the tender folicitudet of domeftic life.

• *»■■

G I N G

"^K

''*%^

SOI C H A M

'n the reiVn nf & n. eloquence and the

jnd covering them with leaves ru^?'^/'' '>'"'''i'' ^" 'o,etherbv '''•'' '° '.'*'' «''-
oably made un in , /• ., ^'"^'' rulhes, &c. the'r fcn. c^i"er by means of tw^a,

'he luxuriant and natural feaZn j "' ^^'^ "<^hitraves or Z *''.'"" """>-

"f their moft ftatelv nnr/; ' ''"'' P°^'bly thev henr. "" '"""'ng acrofs

"•ent, the ox' 3 Zh-V V"^ '"'"P^"- J^erJ J, :," """"^'^d the firft deS
'"1 ones hung „p 'b "h^Ir ?^r ' '" "^''"^^^"^^^^^^^^ ^^ ""^ «-nge ornf !

adventure to engage JithVh J. k''"^' " '''f^'^^^ of valour Tk""" '*""'«' ^''''n

attempts before rhev arriv.H o? , '^"^"^ '"""«^% fccms to hll " ''"' '^crifices.
Doric order madeltVZ "'"P""" '" "chiteduTe .^h ) ""'^^'** ''^'i' firft

S.I.

MANNERS.

203

literature fought an afylum in the Mahometan world, and the works
of the ancient and learned philofophers of Greece, tranflated into
Arabic, were cultivated under the aufpices of the caliphs of Bagdad,
when their dodtrines were in Europe accounted impious and here-
tical.

9. Gervians in their native M^iUs.] When the learning and arts
of the Imperial city were overwhelmed by the rude northern con-
querors, Goths, Vandals, Germans, &c. ii| language and manners,
its laws and cuiloms, alfo underwent a remarkable revolution ; and
by the intermixture of the rudenefs and refinement in the conquerors
and the vanquiflied, the whole face of F.urope feems to have af-
fumed quite a new appearance, in which the gothic features wer^ by
far the moft ftriking, and indeed thefe appear, in feme meafure, to
predominate in the rational characters of modern Europe to this

^ay. . s ^ •

It feems the ravagcrs of Rome, before they left their forefts, iiApg^'^
ed in their native wilds, a number of diftinft tribes or clans ;^ ^jft*|f>
community governed by a fovereign, and its particular diftrifls by •
chieftains, feemed like a particular family or houfehold ; private
landed property was not known among them ; as with fome Ame-
rican Indians, fo with thofe it was a law or ufaga that they flinuld
jointly cultivate the ground together, and that the produce Iliould be
diftributed among them, at the difcretion of the magiftrate, accord-
ing to their neceffities or merits ; that headed by the chieftain, the
valfals fhould chearfully defend their fovereign, and repel an hoftile
enemy from their territories. Powerful tribes granted trafts of land
to otners on the tenure of their alTociaiing with them in a military ca-
pacity, when the exigencies of the Itate required their afliftance, and
this, it appears, was the remote origin of the feudal fyftem.

The Germans, while they exerciled the ftriflert juflice in their own
tribe, and at home the mod generous and unrelerved hofpitality,
feem to have accounted it valorous and juft, to annoy and plunder
thofe whom they were not bound to protect ; to fally upon tliefe and
drive oit tlieir cattle were the feats of their youth, and tlie fpoil was
received with pleafure at horio as the booty o\ privateers is at this
day welcomed into port with C i.orous huzzas, while the merchant
abroad wi'h his faiTjily and friends is involved in rr.in.

In the afremblies of ftate the voice oi the people was to be attend-
ed to by the council, the n>agillrate or fovereign ; a murmur coarfo
and often ru\ie exprefied their diffenl ; tiie rattling of their armour was
the flattering mark of their applaufe. The women were allovi'ed the
privilege of debating in thefe aflemblles, and this has been accounted
the fource of thofe reftriftions which the modern goveinments of Eur
rope have been under, while the monarchs of Afia and Africa were
defpotic, and this is the beginning of thofe privileges which the Euro-
pean women have of poffefling even the regal dignity.

Their meetings were couurionly accompanied with a feaft.a cuRom
which continues to this day with juries and courts ; in thefe they ufed
to drink to excefs, and in the difgraceful moments of debauch,
miftaking, the efFefts of liquor, the impudence it produces for dignity
,p{ manners, and violence tor valour, their fwords ufed to ftain their
feftivals with blood. It feems It was in thefe rueful ages that the cuftom
,of drinking healths had its origin : in applying the cup to the moutli

, and

204

CHAN

§^y

,.-• '

G 1 N

p.y.

confidence of frienrfAiD fcl^'"^^^'' ^'"'^ ^^»uLiJZ?^^''i^^rd,
. 'pledge thee "A v'^u^ deputed to anotherTl^ ^^'^"^^ 'n the

Wd to defend him ?'"^r:J'?^«^/ on this fign"%l/ T^^ge m v
changed the cuftn^- T^ ^"'^^e" aTauJt • rh/^ ' ^^'«"«* drew h«

gavehimfelfwitheauJ? •!""*'"" ^''^ hour" of ur '^^ ' ^''^^«

gam'ng. that deftroverLr L"" ' ^"d hence the rorLr^ ^"''''Sonift,
conne5edwithrhL7 '^^ »he .peace of in2iH^? f '"'" '"<^"'%d in

^ho had previoufi; rrve,; tL 'P'?''"^^<>^^heiSi .ri'"'.' ^^^"^
were eminent in theSS *^^" ^onfent to the marrK -A""* ^^^«'">ns,
cated chaftity on ' h. • 'ifSe of their domeftic rn ' ^^«'^ «'OTen

lelf in wariitp p^^u-T . "eir anceftor* . ar/ ^*"*arfed to their

W. "otl." rV?/!'! "" J"-""- 'ongS 'i it."' ;" "«:°>''« Wm-
lege too ereat fi* 1,* '^ """ "»<l miM, „;,k .[" 'i'""' 'lit care, of

longed. enquiJt.oT''' ?f."" *^a or «r„"„ f '''■«.°'- '"clin.-
worthy of ben. in .'""""''''"^''ons and a« rij v? *''''<^'' he be-
tain.adorned h"f, '^Zh^ ^ ^ll^ ''onou, „?«£,■'"'''•*'"« deemed

?»«. witJ, ftiA" and J'fh'uf ="<' wearied ro'pf'l'-'Perate ag,|,

•fce gallantry ofthTknLt''" ""'' "PPlaufe of ,1,, r'"'"' ''" fc"
feudal lime,!^ ''"'«'"'• »"'' 'he jomb aL 7 '"" •• ""'' l-erce

:m- To-

S. I.

MANNERS.

^•■

ao$

«nd in thofc
f his guard,
|uor, in the
; his friend,
pledge mv
d drew his
after-tinies
"evolence ;
to Avallow
/and de-

e German
ife ; chefs
3 thefe he
his furni-
n a fingle
)e bound,
fitagonift,
5urred in
' families

nts from
-elaiions,
' women
y incul-
I to their

To treat him with indignity and difdain, was to oflTend him mortalljry
he could bear no (lain on his perfonal charaQer) an affiront of this
kind covered him with infamy if he forgave it. The blood of his
adverfary could alone wipe it away; and he called upon him to vindio
cate bis charge or to periih. Hence the murderous duel, by law for-
bidden, but by pride kept up to this day. Doubtful conteds before
the magiftrate, were referred to a combat : he ordered them to pre-
pare for battle ; made ftgnal tar the onfet, and gave his award for the
vi£tor. The doubtful charge of infidelity brought by the hufband*
could, in this way, be difputed with him by the relations of the wife.
Indeed thsy imagined, in thefe their barbarous contefts, that the divi-
nity muft interfere in behalf of innocence and virtue ; and the contefts
of the priefts for the place of fovereign druid, were decided in
the fame rude and violent wny : and, hence the judicial combat,
-once univcrfally adopted over Europe.

Unacquainted with any profeiTion but that of war ; difpofed to it
by habit, and impelled to it by ambition, the German never parted
with his arms ; and hence the wearing of a Iword is to this day,
in Europe, a falhionable part of drefs. They accon^panied him to
the fenate houfe, as well as the camp, and he tranfa£ted not without
them, any matter of public or private concern. .They were the
companions of his manhood, when he rejoiced in his ftrength ; and
they attended him in his age, when he wept over his weaknefs. Of
thefe the moft memorable was the fhield ; to leave it behind him
rn battle, was to incur an extremity of difgrace, which deprived him
of the benefit of his religion, and of his rank as a citizen. It was the
employment of his leifure, to make it confpicuous ; he was fedulous
to diverfify it with chofen colours. Upon this, frightful figures and
the atchievements of the hero were rudely delineated, to ftrike terror
on the enemy ; and hence the fyilem of heraldy, the blazoned armo-
rial bearings or the coats of arms.

The theology of the Germans was full of the marvellous, as well
as that of the politer Romans whom they fubdued. The deep and
filent receflss of their woods, were appropriated to iheir devotion ;
and here human facrifices were fometimes offered up by the Druids,
who affumed to draw prognofticks from the blood of the viflim, as it
poured forth, as alfo from the running of water, the flight of birds,
and the neighing of horfes.

If the Romans had their Janus, their Saturn, &c. to whom the/
dedicated their times and their feafons ; thefe had their Tuefca,
Wodin, Thor and Freya, to whom they afcribed fimilar honours ; and
the idolatrous dedication of both, are (lill kept up among the Euro-
pean nations, in giving days and months the heathenifh names, as
Sunday, Monday, Tuefday, &c. January, February, March, &c.
When the facrifices have ceafed and the protection of the idol is io-
voked no more.*

The

* If the ancieatt in their fiAions, had their fatyri, filvani, fauni, ftc, our Gotiuc
iRccftort, in their fuperftitious fears fancied enchanteii, |iant(, magicians aaA
dwarfs ; elves, fairies and fprights } and, the terrific horrors which their romanti
legends of dreadful giants, haunUd caftles, difaaal adventttres of the knights errant, (.»•
teliere diArcficd damfels from eacbaotmeat, &c. haaded down from generation t*^

generatioOf

K-

^^*

:.Tj

'• the h„o« every dfviJ'fS"""- '" 'h« ti„ °f"' "«"■'•«■
•ale iheir arms LSj. ■°"'' "' «'"}' have d,K P'""- % iliev

S E C T I

O N

If.

^^---'oMo...,^,,,^^^

«"dof the nonhern n'"'''^^'^ territory's "/'^ T'^^' «"d S
ti^eir affairs on her T^^ ^he continent of ir^^"''' <^f Eurot"
'".f regulations fro„, "7,- ^^.^"'^tions. IV/J'T'u '^' ^'^^4 o7
'nbe, f?on, the r fimn ;?""""'"S anion:, them i,^ ^°'"^'^'-' ^i^eir^for

'^on or the ch^e'd^rft '' "^""-^' -uld'^ndH"" ^ "-'- o"
tnow his home, at /n^ ' ."°^ ^^^n the m "^^""^ as indina

' Mence, now other dffin/v '". P''®<^"red ti- n„kr .

charge and difpofa» of rfV' ^""S^* and as fnrh *" .^'^' <>'• the

name of fees tnl'- r '^^ ^overejan r^f l ' coann tted to H,

sags with his
Son'«f' ""' ""y «"'»«d and CT.A . ^"^'^"""^ -^

...^.^

S.II.

MANNERS.

207

til

iic
he

til
lis

enemies: the Feudal poflcfTors dllpofed of thefc In finaller portions
to their vafl*als, on the fame military tenure. At Brft the grants were
revokablc at the will of the donors, and while cordiality and confi-
dence remained between the fovercign and the barons, between thefe
and their valTals, the feudal fyftem was a powerful aflbciation for the
praftice of war ; and fraught with the feeds of inteuine divifions
which afterwards broke out and for a time rcndtied a great part of
Europe one continued fcene of calamity and defolation. The Feudal
lords foon extorted from the fovereign a confirmation for life of thole
lands which being at firft puiely gratuitous, had been bellowed only
during pleafure. Not fatibfied with this, they prevailed to have iheia
converted into hereditary poflcflions. Contcth frequently happened
between the lords, and thefe were decided in private wa: s ; they fum-
moned their valLls to buckle on their armour, and appeared at their
head to decide the difpute in the field ; and as fhclters to flee to from
fudden invafions or when the battle went againft them, caftles were
raifed in their feveral diftrifts. In the Feudal times the leaders of the
people, in the day of battle, were, in times of peace, the arbiters of
judice ; they appointed courts in their particular diftridls, and afTum-
ed to difpenfe laws to the people : a few imperfeft traditionary and
local ufages alone iufluenced the will of the baron, and difputed
points were referred to a combat between plaintiff and defendant; or,
to prove his innocence, the culprit was to plunge his arm in boiling
water, to lift a red hot iron with his naked hand, walk blindfolded
and barefoot over burning plowHiares, or keep his arms extended
for a full hour before a Crucifix, without any fupport : thefe dreadful
experiments were called appeals to Heaven, and entered upon with a
great form of devotion ; and, whoever efcaped unhurt, or came ofF
victorious, was pronounced to be acquitted by the judgment of the
Deity ; this was called the Ordeal trial, which, with the judicial
combat, long prevailed in the courts of Europe. The Chriftian
religion, which they had embraced, as it was now profefled, prevented
not thefe dreadful calamities j the nobles, fuperior to all reftraint, ha-
ralTed each other with perpetual wars, opprefled their fellow-fub-
jedls, and humbled or infulted their fovereign. Yet thefe, with all
their ftate, could neither read nor write, fo little remained of litera-
ture in Europe ; and, when a grant vi-as to be confirmed by charter,
when they could meet with a clerk or learned man, for fo they term-
ed any that could read or write, to negociate this learned and im-
portant bufincfs, the baron or fovereign, in proof of his fincerity, and
that he might be folemnly bound to fulfil the engagement, what he
could not lubfcribe by writing his name, he formally marked with the
fign of the crofs ; a cuftom obferved by the illiterate at this day, and
hence the fubfciibing an article is now called figning. What vefti-
ges of the literature of the ancients might have efcaped the firft
lury of the illiterate Goths, feem, during thefe times, to have fallen
under a violence equally or perhaps more defperate. The Saracens
.having obtained pofleffion of Egypt, the-Europeans were deprived of
paper, which they ufed to derive from the papyrus, a plant of that
country. Parchment was fcarce, and former writings, perhaps a
book of Livy or Tacitus, were eraftd to make room for new com-^*
pofitions.

a. Crufadesi

N G 1 N

•1-

fcy commerce, and unU ''""'"/*."" ^'"» «^ach o h„''' [?*'»' "ati-

"er, from ta Jn7> ""^ P'*^^"'^^ 'efin „ „' and 17 f"'' ^'^•'* ^«d
'ou* motive, /oS *!"°"« /'^e'"- No J^" 'tn J k"^'?''* °^ "'"""
tiai follow/r::. whom l'Lfi^"r ' -^'" of' tt 'gc ""it^l^^ ^-
*>«n apt to anurn u '^^'^"t-^' of a romantic ^m? ^ " '^^"" "'ar-

<^''gaged with en ' , ' o •''''>' ^'^^^ «"d iv^nlaZ ^''t^ ^^''°"*
f"3 meritorious Q°"' '^,"" ""^"^^kioi? which r'"^ '"'^ '^^•'^^'^«

"ty where W. SavS k ^i: *' "''"''«> <o S 'J. '"-^ ")« of
,j/.*'/«»A;7l*:5,tf "gowned wirt'/oL"^"^- '" '*«

'0 'he »X™ pTr 'of"he° "'^' ""^ •'■« '"'"ZkTCir' -'S"'"-
'"«« y« coSnt't' ,"1 '"'."' ^ 'k? firfl rendJC'o^.r "J"'^''
''•ier cues had 1..J/ '^' ■" whch Venir, «-• '25 "'>'"-

itaiy cooTed P ^^'^ "^^^^^^ nianufaS, 1 ^' <^0">modit/es of the

profecutc

■m

*■

p. V.

inan-

iour»,
was
of
that

in
he
lin

S. II.

MANNERS.

209

profecutc thcfe expenflve expeditions, the fovereigns were gradually
rifing Into power j another moll cffcflual cruHi of the infolence of ihe
nobles, and beeinning of rtfineir.ent in modern times, was the enfran-
chifeinent of cities, and forming iheni into bodies corporate, with the
privilege of a decifive voice in tnafling of laws. The nianumidion of
the hufbandman, from the debafcment of (livery which they groaned
under as a political inAitution, was a later refinement in the manners of
Europe ; a itfinemcnt, which, it is to be lamented, is not yet sniverfally
adopted in the northern parts ot the continent. The gentle fpirit
of iheChriftian Religion, together with thedo£^iines which it teachea
concerning \h:'. original equality oi mankind, as well as the impartial
eye with which the Almighty rcgar<U men oi every condition, and
iulmits them to a participation of hi:i bjntfits, are inconfiftent with
fcrvitude. The humane tpiiit ot the Chriftian religion ftiuggled with
thw> maxims and manners of the world, and contributed more thaa
any other circumftance to introduce the pradtice of manumifllon. The
form of liberating the flave was executed in the place of worfhip,
with folcmnity, and confidcred as an ad of piety highly meritorious
and acceptable to heaven.

As many of the piofeffors of Chrlftianlty have, in later times, un-
happily adopted the pradlice of enflaving the poorhclplefs natives of
Africa, and in defence of the cruel bufinefs, which degrades humani-
ty, perfuaded ihemfelves that our brethren the negroes are fomehovr
or other a race of men inferior to Europeans in natural rights } it
may be well for us to recur to the days of our anceftors, and fee the
complexion our climates produce, whether it always (lamped on ita
pofleiTors the dignity which modern Europeans affume when
they conipare themfelves with the people they call favages. In the
feudal times the number of (laves in alt the nations of Europe was
prodigious, ttKijMbmpofed the gro'ter part of the people, and their
lot was peculiffl^ Dppreflive and mortifying; diftinguiihed from free-
men by a peculiar drefs, they were alfo obliged to (have their heads,
nnd by this didinflion they were reminded every moment of the infe-
riority of their condition : the life of a flave was deemed of fo little
value, that a very flight compenfation atoned for taking it away ; on
very flight occaHons they might be put to the rack on queflion 5
their luaflers had abfolute power over their perfons, and could punifli
them with death without the intervention of any judge. They united
together in matrimony as huiband and wife, but were not allowed
the much revered ceremony of a prieft, and themfelves and their ofF-
fpring were equally at the difpofal of their mafter, who could transfer
them like cattle or any other property.

4. Laius. ] When the Germans embraced the profeffion of Chrif-
tianity, they held the priefts in a veneration fimilar to what they had
paid to the Druids in their forefts, what little remained of the laws
and the learning of the Romans was in the poffcflion of the ecclefiaftics,
who formed a regular fyftem of jurifprudence, which, in contradif-
tinftion from the proceedings of the civil courts, was called the canon
law ; the arbitrary decifion of the martial tribunals of the barons,
from which there was no appeal, and the mildnefs and equity of the

P proceedings

4i f

2ia CHANGING P.V,

proceedlflgi in the ecclefiaftical courts, eftablifhed in regular orderly
gradation, and through all which a caufe might be carried by ap-
peal, until it was determined by that authority which was held to be
fupreme in the church, intimated to the people the value of well
digefted laws.

The fovereigns aimed at a regular national code, rnd encouraged
appeals from the courts of the barons ; thefe by H.'.'grees funk into
contempt, while the royal courts, originally amb'ilatory, were held
in fixed places, and at ftated feafons, and by the regularity of their
proceedings, and the equity of their deciHons, became the objefts of
public confidence. Statutes were cnafted for abolishing the pra6lice
of private wars ; by degrees the judicial combat and ordeal trial were
kid alide, and the manners of Europe gradually refined.

It was towards the middle of the twelfth century, that a copy of
Juftinian's Pandefls was accidentally difcovered in Italy. Men of let-
ters ftudied the new fcience with eagernefe, and (in a few years pro-
fjeflbrs of civil law were apiiointed, who taught it publicly in moft
countries in Europe) were rewarded for their labours with the ho-
nours which had heretofore been confidered as peculiar to military
valour ; the dignity of knighthood, deemed a diftinflion fuperior to
royalty, and which monarchs were proud to receive at the hands of
thei. private gentlemen, this was alike conferred on the warrior and
the man of fcience.

When the power of Infolent nobles was not yet reduced under the
domination of laws, their caftles would, according to the manners of
the owner, be regarded as feats of generofity and hofpitality, or
dreaded as dens of violence and opprefHon. In thofe days the knights
turned out in fuccour of diftrefs ; (he fame fpirit of enterprise which
had prompted fome to take up arms in defence of the opprefTed pil>
grims in Paleftine, incited ethers to declare tli^nifftjlf^ the patrons
and avengers of injured innocence at home. AniiPWien tl.e Maho-
metans had prevailed in the contefts for Jerufalem, and driven the
Chriftians out of Afia, the knights became errant, they wandered
about in queft for opportunities of aflerting the caufe of the feeble
and opprefled, the widow and fatherlefs, eccleiiaftics, &c. who could
not bear arms in their own defence : their romantick and hazardous
enterprizes were accounted equally religious and valiant, they pur-
chafed the hero univerfal refpeft, the tables af nobles and fovereigns
were open to the adventurer, and they won him the company and
efteem of the ladies. * Valour, humanity, courtefy, juftice anrf ho-
nour were lue chara£leri{lic qualities of chivalry . Knighthood
was conferred upon the brave and the virtuous, with great Solemnity
in the public places of worfliip, by the hands of kings, who now be-
gan

* Perhaps the formality of the bridegrooms adorning the fourth finger of the
finifter hand of his bride, with the annulet or wedding ring, in the ceremony of
marriage, originated in the divicea of the herald ; and while they fuperflitioufly
revered it as an emblem of unity, or an amulet againft dilTention, it might ferve to
mark out the odious diftindion between the wife of a freeman, who had been
joined to her huiband by the hands of the prie(t, and the fpoufe of the flave) who
prohibited the ceremony of national eflabliflimenti) united neverthelefs to the
man of her ?fFe<lton, in the religioui bQndi of ibiemn engagement and mutual
kve.

P.V,

S.II.

MANNERS.

211

'■n

gan to be confidered as the fountains of honour. Thefe reward-
ed the heroes with their countenance, and adorned then- ftiields
with new atchievements ; by thefe armorial bearings families
were diftinguiflied ; devices emblematic of the qualities of the
hero, orexpieflive of his feats, began to be multiplied, and heraldry
became a lyftem for flattering of pride, and for marking out unbe-
coming diftinftions among mankind, fcarcely lefs complicated though
far lew ingenious, than that of the Egyptian hieroglyphics in anti-
quities.

Few marks of learning adorn the Gothick efcutcheon, no great
fliew of geometrical lines or figures, of improved machines or inftru-
ments of fcience. Chivalry, in which valour, gallantry and religion
were fo ftrangely blended together, was bet.er acquainted with
crofles, croflets and fliells, with ribbons and fillets, an(J locks of the
hair and other little prefent« of their ladies, with beafis of the chafe
and inftruments of war, than with matters of fcience ; a morkifh
figure with a book or fome fuch childifli devife feenis to have been the
grandeft monument they were able to ere£l in the fyftem of heraldry
to the honour of learning. Their ancellors ufed to wear (kins of
beads round their flioulders, and to ai.!orn their helmets; hence the
creft, and the furs or drapery hanging round the efcutcheon ; the
fupporter of the iliield was the hero who bore it on his arm in the
field, he might be ftrong like a bull, and the family of his wife as
fierce ; . lions, and equally concerned with himfelf to fupport ^he ef-
cutcheon unftained ; and heralds have fixed two fupporters .'o th«
^ield which are fometimes beads, birds, &c. as well as human
figures. They ufed tp fall on in battle with a fliout of fome fen-
tence, and hence the motto in coats of arms.

The vanity of human nature feems foon to have conceived the idea
of diftinguifliing honourable offices among mankind with external
marks of diflfindion, as crowns, fceptres, &c. as well as with the
dearly earned tribute of obedience religioufly due to the maintainers
of governments and laws. Thefe fliadows of power obtained among
the ancients, and the man of the public had naturally the title im-
porting his o^ce ; but our Goihic anceftors feem, in defiance to na-
ture and to truth, to have reduced epithets or qualities, which are
inherent things to a mechanical fyftem, and applied them indifcrimi-
nately to every various difpofition of man ; and to this day, the peo-
ple copying the manners of their fathers will ferioufly apply the titles
of honourable, reverend, noble, excellent, gracious, moft gracious,
&c. without fo much as knowing or having heard of, the chara6ler of
the officer ; the laws of heraldry have eftabliihed the titles, and the
ufages of the people coincide with the abfurdity.

When the Europeans* had become fo far refined in their manners as
to be capable of rrilifhing improvements in fcience and letters, the lan-
guages of the ancients were ftudied with avidity. In the cathedrals
and monafteries fchools were erefted, and the learned wer« jr^ilir^^'led
with lucrative emoluments, and academical honours in the, iSolleges
and courts ; caps, gowns, bands, &c. diftinguifhed the leatned. ^ro-
feflbr ; and the titles of batchelor, mafter, doctor, &c. were c<>n-
ferred according to his proficiency, and calleil his degree, in the
jplaces of worfliip the Laim tongue was generally ufed. Thejjiodern

languagics

^ H A N

G I N

«noft mmm^ '" ^'^''e tliev were nr n ^"^'"'t-'^ves and m

-er^ &f:h""f'"^ difti/Cn oT?,:'^ «^S"ainted with , :
. ^'^ thie unkind/' i^';,'?^^"^'"' ^^eir own rjl I ""''' ^"^ '"^^eed
remained uSiiv'f'"^ ^^^^^''^-'- o^ Tff-e enf,'':^^"''^Ses, produced
Pedantic ruks Z '"^, ""'efined Th "v T^'T^y '°"g"e.,

<^'vifio„s, w4h L ''^ • ""51^«'»'>-^ci into vlSr t'^rr'^""'^ ="d
^^-•^s. genius unll^ T'''^''''' "'^^v think itn^^ ^|!^f^""inations ,

5'V»'-ged with prepoLo!^^^ "'77^^ """ftaten fb, J, ^^^^ °"^ f^0">

Their iidvlncL nr •""''' ^°^' '^^"ce derived k'"^ ^^"^^^'^^ ^'>^
'^'•d-open to them th;"-'"^- Chynuary, dVri^edt^^'L' °^^'^^ce

tnne, while .Vo^-'.^ 'nvention of pMnn^ f ^ ^"cients were

^uperforiry n rtt '-^"^ '"ifchievous tharh^rernf ^''^''^^ ^^"^^^^^
^i'J Perha^p be j ^.t?:'°":- ^°'^^ of the n L and t^^ f '^ '^'"^ «
«"d population fl^aM 1'^ ^^^ ^^^^^ "eceflarv ar't^ e ro F '^" f ''" ^<'' ^
'" '^e place o? S LvT S'"''^ ^^''^^ «Uo a,7!'/ ^,^en peace
'"r/ was reirarfcaMe Z ^ 'i''- «"d boggy „,erL' T/ cf^"^ ^^^^^s.
a"d en-ravin^ . '"■P''°^"cing the valn^M !'r ^^'^ fi-'^feenth cen-

'ions of worlT of Lr 'T'"^ ^"^ '"odern tip 1, T/l '^' '^^'"'"g.
^f^at we ouSt to or/ '"u P'^'^"<aio„.s of nature 1' '^^ ''P'^f^^tt

^J^e-. neighbours th^r^ TP^'^^^^'ents of the G^lt ^^ ^^"^^ of the
'he Jews fettlpH .• !i'^''^"'' °^ ^-^ombards p^^'^^*^? devolved upon

the wor d To " f"'"^ ^°""^^'«. and ca^kTon"?.^ "^ '^'^' ''^
were b^onah^ J z P^'^^^ of E^.ypt th<. Tl " ^^^ commerce of

E«4e bf he'"! i'T ^"- ^'-T-er ' take„ ''1".^^"^ °^ '"^ia
P ''Z the Lombard merchants/ t'".' '^'.^"^"^'^^ '^^ej

V ■* ^'' "«^"'"« that Ji. ,ound -

tlie

Kfc <-m

S. II.

MANNERS.

213

the Baltic, and along the coads of the northern Teas, diftinguidied
theinfelves early as an enterprl/ing maritime people ; the depreda-
tions of l^.^fe under the name of Danes and Normans, or Norwe-
gians, have been fevertly felt in thefe iflands ; it is faid that they were
well acquainted with the coafts of North America long before that
continent was difcovered by the fouthern nations of Europe, and
their contiguous fituation with their bufinefs of fifliing fo necelTary for
their fupport, and the ifland of Iceland lying between their country
and America, reducing one .long perilous voyage to two lefs hazard-
ous and tedious, ieem to give the account the appearance of proba-
bility.

About the middle of the thirteenth century the fpirit of commerce
awoke in the north ; to defend themfclves againft the pirates which
inlelted their feas in thofc times, the cities of Lubeck and Hamburgh
entered into a league of mutual defence ; in a fliort time eighty of
the mod condderable cities fcattered through thofe vaft countries
which ftretch from the coaft of the Baltic to Cologne on the Rhine,
acceded to the confederacy, this was called the Hanfeatic league,
and the towns which compofed it Hans Towns.

This confederacy became fo formidable, that its alliance was court-
ed, and its enmity dreaded by the greatelt monarchs. The members
of this powerful aflbciation formed the firft fyftematic plan of com-
merce known in the middle ages, and conduced it by common laws,
enabled in their general aflemblies. They fupplied the reft of Europe
with naval ftores, and pitched on different towns, the moft eminent of
which was Bruges in -Flanders, where they eftablif \ ftaples in which
their commerce was regularly carried on. Thither the Lombards
brought the productions of India, together with the rnanufa£)ures of
Italy, and exchanged them for the more bulky but not lefs ufefu!
commodities of the north. The Hanfeatic merchants difpofed of
the cargoes which they received from t.he Lombards in '.he ports of
the Baltic, or carried them up the great riv.;rs into the interior parts
of Germany.

As Bruges became the centre of communication between the Lom-
bard and Hanfeatic merchants, the Flemings traded with both in that
city to fuch extent as well as advantage, as fpread among them a
general habit of induftry, which long rendered Flanders, and the
adjacent provinces, the moft opulent, the moft populous, and beft
cultivated countries in Europe.

By alluring Flemifli arrlzans to fettle in his dominions, as well as
by many wile laws for die encouragement and regulation of trade,
Edwnrd III. gave a beginning to the woollen ftianufsflures of Eng-
land, and firft turned the active and enterprifing genius of his peo-
ple towards thofe arts which have raifed the Engiifh lo the higheft
rank among commercial nations. ;,

In the latter part of the fifteenth century the Portuguefe difcovered
a paflage to India by the Cape of Good Hope ; and about the fame
fiuie the Spaniards, attempting to fail thither by the weft, under the
adventurous and fteady Columbus, a native of Genoa, fell in
with America, and called it the New World, and the Weft Indies,
to diftinguifli it from India in the Eaft. From this period the weftern
nations of Europe appear to have encreafed in pohtical coufequence,

" - to

.'Wi

"\ ^ » A N G I N r

'o liave improved in .rls ,r.A r- ?• V

m mrafuring of lines (;,„ c ■ '" ""'emplatine ih. i.„, 7 °"'^'^-
earth, whatever a1' ."P^ficies and bodie. n5,r? ?"/^ heavens,

modern Eur "1"^^° commerce more than anv «^i, . •
attained in an ,tf^'"'^^ ^° '^e higheft "inlv"" ^^J''^' '^^^

m'nute works of creation R ^'""^ heavens, and alfo W^^"* *^'-

«;;

hufl>andn"an in J' '"^'^ °^ '& weather werln • '^"' ^^^ufinefs

' drenched

P.V.

JOri/hed in
ters of the
world. It
•nlarged to
fe6t know-
ery other.
y heavens,
ce of our
itever im-
Janguages
Jnd difpo-
uliarly in-
es up his
m wildom
1 his toy ;
he winds,
he con-
his bark
nows the

eft, that
ever yet
1 for his
rils, and
rtuguefe
the Spa-

S. II.

MANNERS.

2lS

drenched in water, and the rains not yet ceafed. No longer, as
in ancient times, need *' two women be grinding at the mill," that is
bruifing corn to powder with great labour, between a couple of ftones
or flags by hand. Rivers and brooks of water are arretted in their pro-
grefs, and made to perform that painful office as they haften to
the deep. And fo far do they excel in the fcience of mathematics,
that even the tumults of war, as well as the afi^airs of commerce, and
the arts of navigation, are reduced by the moderns, to a mathematical
1> liem, and poor mortals are made to deftroy one another by me-
chanical rules.

The fixteenth century is remarkable for the feceflion of Martin
Luther, and after him John Calvin, from the church of Rome. In
this age, the Diet of Spires alfo protefted againft the doctrines of that
community, and hence the name of Proteftant is derived. Before
this period, during feveral centuries, Proteftants had exifted under
different names and in different countries. In the fouthern parts of
France, in the vallies of Piedmont, they were called Vallenfes, Al-
bigenfes, Leonids, &c. It is remarkable, that Reinerius, a Domini-
can, and Inquifitor General, fays of this people, *' They were older
than any other feft, having exifted from the times of the apoftles :
that there was fcarce any place wherein that feet was not : that they
had a great fhew of piety, lived juflly before men, and believed juftly
concerning God ; therefore, fays he, they were the greateft enemies
the church of Rome had." Prodigious armies were raifed againft
them ; at firft they defended themfelves by arms, but being at lafl:
overcome, they were difperfed abroad : fome fled into Calabria,
others found fnelter in Provence, and the neighbouring Alps. In
England, Proteftants were numerous in the fourteenth century ; they
were called Lollards, from Walter Lollard, who preached in Ger-
many about the year 1313 ; of thefe was John WicklifFe, redtor of
Lutterworth. He tranflated the Bible into Englifh, and wrote com-
mentaries upon it : his dodlrines fpread over England, and a great
part of Europe : they were advanced and propagated in Bohemia,
and in fupport of thefe, John Hufs and Jerom, of Prague, fufFered
martyrdom : they had been funimoned to the council of Conftance,
and Sigifmund the Emperor granted them a pafs ; notwithftanding
which, they were configned to the flames. The Bohemians expedled
little fecnrity under a prince who had broken his word : they revolted
from the emperor, and contended with him in arms. At firft, they
were viftorious, under the famous John Zifka : at laft, being over-
powered, they retired to the mountains and caves, and were didin-
guiflied by the name of the Bohemian Brethren. It was not till the
fixteenth century that the Proteftants obtained a political or legal efta-
blifhment; after this period, their profeflion in many places became
national. Heretofore they had been a reclufe or perfecuted people,
and had little to do in cabinets or courts ; while the fee of Rome ex-
tended its jurifdidlion over the nations of Europe, direfted their coun-
cils, and influenced their manners.

The church of Rome, during many centuries— to relate on the one
hand the ambition, intrigues, and wars, of fome of their popes j the
corruptions and Hcentioufnefs of fome of their clergy, their grofs fu-
perftitions, and fevere perfecutions : to declare on the other, the

laudable

■ ]
1

I -^

'*^ '-'HANGING.,..

'*»«.". «,I of o,Ur, of .. "^ '^ '^ ^ E R S- P V

cd purpofe T w! ? ^P^*^"/. perfecution feWnn!^' ^ '"ethods of

fon of hi, yomh L te^i ^°V^^ Principles he has Jbfc°"'\'' '^>' '^^
Vinced. fupnior to t^P if' ^f ^"" ^^^^ «nderfta.^H u" ^^*^^d"ca.
fewis o (fen fv h ^^ ?^ . ''^'^' °^ » bigotted .^ "S ''^ ^^^n con-
'ativeopiSt';"^^^^ ---u'wa^droa^ -

this ruling priSdniefe ?^^'"g «>ut L^ fo 27*^ I" »^.^ ^eair.

mocked every atremn/ ??•* *^"""e ^"PPort in thlirf-, '^^ "«-

umphed over VCaWj; "fl' ^'^''"^ "« ^^^ anf^.^a'!? '^^
«veryageofperfeVution «r : ^*"^' «"d death tZ ' ""^ ''''

Fi-

^ND op BOO

K /.

.. iC

> J- :

♦■ *

put
the

'*-i--'^

- 4ie- J-. 'i i} ,;;"■

( I )

V ,:i L H.
BO O |C II.

.^ V*,

>•!

DESCRIPTiaN

O F T H K

,. fi

BAR

**.**

UNDER ITS

I • . '•

'.•Hi 'I' ' '■•(.!

H' I . nViWi

. ■; ., ,'1 3! ?51nTi^rAi||,
'*■"■ *r^! h''.*', ftd'vV

- rf '■■<*. f llftatr* ■» t

POLITICAL 0IVISIO N $.,p^^^

EARLY m this work it was obferved that the earth lias 1)leii
divided into four quarters or principal diviCons: the eoa»-
puted fuperficies of thefe, together widi the conjedured number of
dicir inkilHauits, are as follows, viz.

... I ..--■.T.M-'

- . , — -i .■■■••'-,

fahabitamis. '>■ i

ia4,6oo/>o(^N
45o,|Oop»ooo

' ' 160^600,060/ )
#1 ' » i i iL
884:6oo;ODO '
The ^p^ed'^oKe
numbet of the! iffvr
feiit race 6f mao-

viiid:' ; • ''■■■'

^kpan nules of 60 to a degree.

Europe
Afia
Africa
America •

Habitable earth
Seas,ftc.

a»749.349
10,257,487

8,$o6,2o8
9»'53 >76a

30,666,806
Ii7,843.8»i

f\^.

V^hole globe 148,510,627

IP ART

•i

\ '■«

-'Vr'

■'W f i U i I H fflP ■ ■ I wp ,

•f * *•

, ( ' )

PART VI.

DESCRIPTION

O F

vC E

0>f

t ^' - (

IN the fluAuating changes of human affairs — Europe, though
by far the lead, (lands at prefent the mod eminently diftin-
gulfhed quarter of the globe in its fuperior (kill in fciences and
arts, and confequently in its commerce and political confequence.
Here alfo the profefllon of the Chriftian name is more generally
diffufed than in any other part of the earth.-. Its languages feem as
mixed as Its revolutions have been various, and all derived from
thefe fix original ones and their different dialects, viz. the Celtic,
Sclavonic, Teutonic, Greek, Latin and Gothic. Europe is bounded
on the Weft by the Atlantic Ocean, on the North by the Icy Sea,
on the Eaft by Ada, and oii the South by the Mediterranean, which
feparates it from Africa. It is fituated between the loth degree
Weft and the 65th Eaft longitadz from the meridian of London,
and betwe^n,.thq^ 36th aAd J^ degrees.of North latitude, extending
abmir^fbt thotifand mHes'in' length and two ^houfand five hundred
in breadth. Its divifions are as follows :

Longitude /rom Gretnvtlch.j

Bre-
adth.

Len

gtb.

Eh^l^iid' • 360 300

Scotlahd jixx 150

Ireland 285 160

Norway looo 300

Denmark Z40 1 80

Sw«dh).ii : : : . !8oo 500

Ruffia tjoo HOC

Pdtaad,:-^'''.';^ 680

ons. 3

OiXTtata^'^'^ H6bb 500'
UonciniA ■ ■ - 300 ' 150
H^Uagd i^s>f
flandm I .%ao
Ifmiit^ 6fco
i^i^' ' ' -jbo
mrtngid ' : '300
Switzerland aj^o
Italy 750

Hungary 300

<:biff Cities.^

Ijohdoh '.

Edinbtngii

Dublin

Bergen

Copenhagen

Stockhohn

Peterfburgh

Warfaw

Berlin

I
ftoo

r$oo

>too
too
400

300

730

Vienna
Prague
oajAmfterdam
BrufTels
Paris
Madrid
Liibon
Bern
Rome
fiuda
Conftanti
nople

Latitude.

b, M. S.

51 3« cil^.

55 57 57^'
S3 »! li N.

60 II — N.

55 40 45 N.

Sy io 35 N-

oN.
oN.

' 1

5» i^ ^^'

59 S6
5a 14

}

48* i»
SO 4
5» W
^o 5J
48 50

46 45
3«4«

40 o

41 53

47 ao

4i- I

40 i^. . -

JO N: 14
45 N '
o-N.

in Degrees.
D. M. S.

9 5 37W
i ia 15W.

6. 6 30W.

5 45 E.
f.i 35 »J E.

■•*• j-5f b;

30 19 15 E.

at o 30 £.

13 i6 IS £•

aa
AS

oN". 3

4$W. 9

o N. 7

54 N. It

— N. 19

a4 N. ag 53 49 E

30 £'.
o E.

4} 30i^

ai 4S E.
ao o E.
»5 4SW

15 E.

£.

40
a9
aa

in Time.
H. M. S.
o b aa^aft,
o 11 49 aft.
o, 9.i adL aft.
o z^ o bef.

$0 ai bef.
la 16 bef.

a I 17 bef.

1 24 ft bef.

5 J 4S bef.

1 5 30 bef.
o ^9 o bef.

ij^ a bef.

01 17 «7 bef.
o 9 aobef.
0.13 43 aft.
o 30 40 aft.
o a8 bef.

49 J7 bef.

1 17 bef.

I is 35 bef.
SE C«

•Siv

• ( 3 ) •

SECTION I.

, M •• •

) N

British Islks.

pe, though
ntly diftin-
:iences and
Mifequcnce.
re generally
iges feem a$
erivtfd from
the Celtic,
! is bounded
he Icy Sea,
nean, which
loth degree
of London,
>, extending
ive hundred

am Gretmaleb,,

in Time.
IH. M. S.
jo b aa^aft,
to i» 49 aft.
10, 9.i adL aft.
lo 24 o bef.
[o 50 ai bef.

I la 16 bef.

la I 17 bef.

Ii %A a bef.

|o 51 45 bef.

« 5
059
o I{^

•7

30 bef.

obef.

a bef.
«7 bef.
aobef.

4J "ft.

40 aft.

bef.

57 bef.
bef.

35 kef.

SEC*

TH E Britiih Ifles lie on the weft of the continent of Eu-
rope.
I. Inhahitants.'] The people may be confidered under two
different defcriptions. Firft, The Aborigines or the defendants
of the firft pofleflbn of the ifles, as the Welch, Scotch High-,
landers, Irifli and Manb, all fpeaking dialetSls of the Celtic
language. Second, That mixed race the Engliih, defcended
from every emigrant robber and adventurer that invaded the land,
whether Roman, Saxon, Dane or Norman. This medley of lan-
guages, which forms the major part of the people, is at the head
of affairs in national proceedings, takes the lead in fciences and
the arts, and whofe manners are confidered as the national cha-
racter, is daily increafing by the former mixing with them.

Thofe who have travelled but a little, may have had frequent
opportunities of obferving what ftrange and unreafonable prejudices
people fometimes entertain againft thofe of another nation or dif-^
trid. Thefe muft have arifen from the relations of wonder-ftricken
travellers ; and if fuch accounts were implicitly to be relied on,
there is perhaps hardly a nation in Europe but their manners might,
be refolved into fomething barbarous or cruel. Each nation gene-
rally praifes itfelf, and finds out fomething amifs in the manners of
others. Thus the Englifli fay. We are brave, we are generous,
we are charitable, we are fi-ee.

It is a delicate thing to draw national characters ; it requires a
mind divefted of prejudices, and fraught with information which it
would take ages to acquire. The Englifh, however, from the hu-
midity of their atmofphere, and the great ufe they make of animal,
food, are perhaps conftitutionally more phlegmatic or lefs fprlghtly
than thofe whofe aliment is lighter, and who breathe a drier air ;
on the other hand, they are faid to be more thoughtful and patient
of fatigue, and confequently better fitted for arduous undertakings
and tedious refearches ; but when we confider what other culti-
vated nations have done in fevere fciences, and what the Englifh
have produced in pioetical compofition, we may be induced to blend
them together in defcription.

The help afforded by the Englifli to the fick and poor in their
hofpitals, buildings equal to palaces, and munificently fupported by
voluntary contributions, they are happily not fingular : Othc^r^
nations have infirmaries ; but the parochial provifions made by
law for the maintenance of the poor in South Britain, appears an

h% % exemplary

'■»

r I

K'<^ I

(4)

fc U R O P E.

P. VL

exemplary charitable infticution. Well would it be if it were al-
ways fupported in a Chriftian-like manner, if it were generally
Hiffufed all ever the ifles, and indeed all over the world ! And
their humane focieties, numerous difpenfaries and charity fchooU
do honour to the prefent age.

Liberty, when rightly enjoyed, is one of the mod invaluable of
human privileges, and this the Englishman boafts is his peculiar
blefling. After long and bloody druggies between the Kmg and
Barons of England, m the days of King J»hn, the Barons obliged
him to fign the great deed, fo well known bj the name of Magna
Charta. This charter, by various fubfequent a£ts and explanations,
became applicable to the other EngliHi lubjefb, as well as to the
barons, knights and burgellcs ; and before the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, the didinftion of villain and freeman was totally abo-
li/hed. It has now become a maxim in the conditntion, that the
air of thefe iflands is too pure for a flave to breathe. Two con-
fiderations, however, obvioufly offer to reprefs the £ngliihman*&
boad. Fird : The liberty he enjoys is not extended to the fettle-
ments abroad ; there (lavery is maintained and encouraged by law ;
moreover, impretfing of feamen is warranted at home. Second :
Unlefs he be a man of property, whatever may be his capacity
or integrity, he is unqualified for the legiflature, and almod every
other ipecies of magidracy { and, as if his perfonal privileges or
the rights of his family jwere lefs dear to him than the fecurity of
property, he has not even a voice in choofing a reprefentative, un-
lefs indeed he happens to be a freeman of fome particular corpo*
ration ; he cannot even take his gun into the fields to help himfelf
to a difh of the fowls of the air, which own no mader's crib ; and
this Gothic featiire of the conditution feems, by recent a6b of par-
liament, to be mote drongly marked than before. His religious
profefHon alfo afFefls his privileges as a citizen.

2. Con/litution.] Ocero, the Roman lawyer, had imagined that
a government might be fovmed, by combming part of the mo-
' narchical with part of the republican form ; but his opinion met
with a very cold reception ; and Tacitus treats this and all other
notions of advantageous mixed governments as only vifionary
fchemes. Experience, however, has proved that this idea was not
merely chimerical i for the Engliih conditution, a mixture <^ mO'*
liarchy, aridocracy and democracy, has continued through feveral
C3nturies, and feems to enjoy fome advantages which others have
not. That palladium of liberty; the trial by jury, was pra£tifed
from the fird records of any rezular government amongd them.
By the Angular conditution of thele realms, the legiflative power is
lodged in parliament, which is compofed of the fovereign, lords
and commons colleiEtively, and the executive power is in the hands
«f the crown. • ^ ,

The commons confid of men of a certain property iii the king-
dom who havt no feat in the houfe of lords. Every one of them

has

S.T.

BRITISH ISLES.

(5)

ting-

ithem

has

has a voice in parliament either perfonalljr or by his reprefentative.
The counties therefore are reprefented by knights, elected br the
proprietors of lands ; and the cities and boroughs are reprefented
by citizens and burgefles, chofen by the mercantile or fuppofcd
trading p;rt of the nation. Every member, however, though cho-
fen by one particular dillridt, when elei^ed and returned ferves fur
the whole realm ; for the end of his coming to parliament is not
merely to ferve his condituents, but alfu the commonwealth. This
branch of the legiflature had its beginning in the difputes of the
barons and kings of England fur power. It was in the reign of
Henry III. fon of King John, they were 6ril aflembled in Parlia-
ment J their fpecific powers at that time were hardly afcertained,
but fucceeding kings thought it well to court the aftc£tions of the
people, and countenance the commons } and this mod e^edtually
reprefled the power of the barons, who had hitherto iniulted the
fovereigns, and harrafled the country with perpetual wars.

The lords are called fpiricual and temporal ^ the former are the
archbifhops and bifliops, the latter confift of all the peers of the
realm.

By common law and conilitutional cuftoio, the crown, under
certain limitations, is hereditary fince the days of William the Con-
queror; before that time, even eflate» and honours were not here-
ditary.

In politics the king cannot hiinfelf be deemed guilty of any
crime, the law taking no cognizance of his aftions, but on^y m the
perfons of his minifters, if they infringe the laws of the l^nd. He
has many prerogatives. He can levy war or make peace j nego-
tiate with foreign couns ; refufe his aflent to any bill though it
has paffed both hoofes ; convoke, ad jourh, prorogue and diilolve
the Parliament ; eleft his own council j nominate all the great of-
ficers of ftate, of the houfhold, and of the nationally eitablinied
chorch ; and he is accounted the fountain of honour, from wheiice
ali degrees of nobility and knighthood are derived.

It is the peculiar privilege of the lo- ds to have the fupreme ju-
rifdidion over all other courts. The proceedings in their coutc
are moft expeditious, and from its fentence there is no appeal.

It is the indifputable right and privilege of the commons that
all grants of fubildies and parliamentary aids ihould begin in the;ir
houTe, and be firft beftowed by them. .; ,;, . :

Such are the conftituent parts of a Britiih parliament— the king,
lords and commons ; each of which is fo neceiiary, that the con*
currence of all three is required to ena£l any new law which has
power to bind the fubje£t ; and as the three collectively form the
fupreme powier, they can all together new model the conftitution
of the kingdom, the crown, and of parliaments themfelves.

3. Officers y CourtSy and Proceedings] The great officers of the
crown are the following nine : The lords high ileward, high chan-
edlor, high treafurer, prefident of the council, privy feal, great

chamberlain.

:k'

»* ■'<

■— " '^Pi

\ *,.

.*■

(^ EUROPE. P. VI.

chamberlain, high conftable, marHial and high admiral. But fe-
Yeral of thefe offices are now held by commiirion, being deemed
too important to be entrufted to any individual.

The fupreme courts of law are the Chancery, a court of equity
tiext in dignity to the high court of parliament ; the court of Kuig's
Bench, in which all matters determinable between the king and his
fubjcfts are to be tried ; the court of Common Fleas, which takes
cognizance of all pleas between fubjeA and fubje£t ; and the court
of Exchequer, inftituted for the ms.naging the revenues of the
crown, and which poilefles a power of deciding both according to
law and equity.

For the more efTefhial execution of the law, iheriifs are annu-
ally appointed by the crown. It is the buHnefs of the flieriff to
execute the king's m .^ndates, and all writs direfted to him out of
the king's courts of judicature ; to fuperintend elections ; to im-
''pannel juries ; to bring caufes and malefactors to trial ; to fee all
fentences, as well civil as criminal^ put in execution. He likewife
-coJle£ts public fines, diftreffes and amercements into the Exchequer,
andmakes payments out. As his office is judicial, he alfo keeps a
court for the purpofe of hearing and determining all civil caufes in
the county under forty Shillings, but which however is no court of
rf cord. ' The bailifis irt his officers, and he is himfelf the king's
bailiff.

The coroner's office refembles the fherifPs, and when ex-

ception can be taken to the latter for partiality, he beci ihe

fl^criflfs fubftitute ; for then the procefs mufl be awarded to him
jnftead of the fheriff, for executing the king's writs. It is his
■peculiar bufinefs to make inqueft, by means of a jury of neighbours,
'hoyf and by whom any perfon came to a violent death, and to enter
iL oh retord as a plea of the crown.

Juftices of the peace are alfo appointed in every county by the
Icing's fpecial commiffiOn, the piincipal of whom is the cuftos rotu-
lorum or keeper of the records of the county. To them is entrufted
tht power of putting in execution great part of the ftatute laws re-
lative to the poor, highways, felonies, &c. &c. and of examining
'and committing to prifon fuch perfons as are found guilty of break-
ing or difturbing the peace, and difquieting the king's fubjefts.

Conftables are the next officers appointed for keeping the peace.

They can imprifon offenders 'till they are brought before a juftice ;

and it is their duty to execute, in their refpedliye diftrifb, every

warrant drredted to them from any magiftrate or a bench of

"Juflices.

The furveyors of the highways and overfeers of the poor are
officers appointed by (latute, whofe names import their duty or
'office.

The civil government in cities is fomething different from that
of thie counties, being directed according to their refpedlive char-
ters granted hj different princes j with this limitation, that all civil
-■*'*'■''■""- I '^ . ■ ■■ ' ^^y^,

■ ■ .; "-f.i ■ I

•'%

S. I.

BRITISH I &L E S.

(»>

Thefe'

': *-t m»

fea out
or com-
a£ts by

caufes may be removed from their courts to tke higher onei } and
all capital ofi'ences are committed to the judge* at the aflixes. Some
cities are counties of themfeives, and chufe their own fherlffs.'
The mayor, aldermen and burgeffcs colle€liveIy make the corpo-
ration of the city, and in their court of Judicature the maydr ptt-
fides as judge.

Incorporated boroughs are governed almoft after a fimilar man-
ner j fome of them by a mayor, and others by two bailiff^ only;
all which, during their mayoralty or magillracy are juftices of the
peace within their refpedtive liberties.

For the better government of villages, the lords of the foil or
manor have generally a power to hold courts called leet and baron,
where their tenants attend, in order to obtain juftice. The bufinefs'
of courts leet is cBiefly to prevent and punifh nuifance^; and at
courts baron, the conveyances and alienations of the copyhold te-'
nants are enrolled, and themfeives admitted to their eftates on a
defcent or purchafe.

There are other courts alfo beiides thofe of the civil law.
are the marine, military and eccleilailical courts.

The court of admiralty decides all caufes that arife at
of the jurifdiftion of a county. The lord high admiral
miflion for that office is the fupreme adge of it, and
deputy. : J

The court martial is for punifliing deferiion, mutiny and otfier
offences of foldiers and officers. In this court the delinquent -has
not the benefit of a jury, and in time of war the king has 'a inoft^
abfolute and arbitrary power in it. >.c

« In the national profeflion, or political eftabli/liment of wor/Iiip,
ecclefiaftical courts and officers are various. o ' '

The officers in the church of England are the king at the head ia
fucceOlon to the pope, the archbi/hops, bifliops," deans, archdeacons,
reftors or vicars, deacons and curates, wardens, clerks and fextons,
&c. Their higheft court is the convocation, which is the national
fynod. This aflembly is convoked with every new parliament;
and its bufinefs is to confider the ftate of their church, to frame
canons, anfl to call their clerical delinquents to account. But hav-
ing filled the nation with diforder by their violent debates, and
attempted, in the reign of Queen Anne, and at the commencement
ef that of GeoT-ge I. to raife their powers to a height inconfiftent-
with the conftitution, the crown was obliged to exert its prerogative
of convoking the members and diffolving them at pleafure j and
fince that time they have never been permitted to fit long enough
to deliberate on any aifairs of importance. The convocation is -cH*
vided into two houfes ; the higher is an aflembly of archbifhop»
and bifhops, the lower is compofed of the deans, archdeacons and
proftors.

The court of arches in London, fo called from the arches of

Mary Le-Bow, where it was formerly held, is the moft ancient

i^ ^ confiftory

'i*..

■.

rr-

y !

:■#/

■#

(^8) EUROPE. . P. VI.

confiftorjr of the province of Canterbury, and to this all appeals
from the judgnnenc of the inferior eccleiiaftical courts are ufually
made. The judge, who is diftinguiihed by the appellation of
dean of the arches, fits without any aflenbrs, and determines caufes
without a jury. He takes cognizance of appeals, and procefles are
returnable before him in the common hall of the doctors com-
mons. The pleaders and folicitors of this court are called advo-
cates and proi^tors ; the former are doftors of the civil law, and
by the flatutes of the court, the pleadings and petitions ought to
be both in Latin. The court of audience has nearly the fame
authority with the preceding, and to thb the archbiihop's chancers
was formerly joined. The prerogative court is one of thofe
wherein wills are proved and admiaiftrations taken out. The
court of peculiars relates to certain pari^es which have a jurif-
didlion among themfelves for the probate of wills, and are therefore
exempt from the biiJiop's court. The court of delegates receives
its name from its being compofed of commifCon^rs, delegated by
the royal commifllon, but is no ftanditi^ court. Every biihop has
alfo< a court of his own, called the confiftory court ; and every
archdeacon, as well as the dean and chapter of every cathedra], have
their refpeftive courts.

The national eccleilaftic eftabliihment of Ireland is the fame as
that of England.

Caufes are ufually brought into ihefe courts either by citation,
or by the prefentment of their church- wardens. The parties are
called the promovent and impugnant; and when the latter has
appeared to the citation, the former gives in his libel or charge, and
profecutes ir in a plenary or in a fummary way. The impugnant
then gives in his anfwer, and wimefles are examined and ifl'ue
joined, and the caufe tried and a decree made.

In civil courts when the plaintiff commences an a£tion, if the
jury finds a bill of indictment, the court orders the iheriff to take
the body of the defendant, or bail for his appearance. Ihe plain-
tiff then declares upon his action, and the defendant makes his plea;
after which the bill may be amended, or there may be a reply to
the plea, and a rejoinder to that reply, &c. till the caufe is brought
to an ifl'ue, in fa6l to be tried by a jury $ or in law, to be tried by
a confultation of judges, when judgment is given, and if not laid
afide is enrolled and execution ifiued, &c.

Chancery (from whence the King's writ or leiter is iflued for the
furomoning of parliament) was inftituted to moderate the rigour of
Ehe other courts that arc tied to the ftridl rules of common law.
The fuit commences by bill, and proceedings in other courts are
flopped by an injunction; then a fubpoena iflues to bring in the
defendant, and he muft appear by his fix-clerk to give in his an-
fwer. The plaintiff files his exceptions to it, and it is referred to
a mafter of chancery to' judge if it be a fuflicient anfwer. The
plaintiff replies, and the defendant rejoins, and witnefles are heard
tad

kl
ej

F.VI.

S.I.

BRITISH ISLES.

(9)

if the
take
plain-
plea;
>ly to
lughc
id by
laid

and ezaminedf and the caufe fet down for a hearing and heard,
and a decree is made and a writ of execution is iflued.

The government of the kirk of Scotland is in the hands of
mbifters and elders ; they have deacons alfo, whofe buHnefs is pretty
much the fame as that of wardens in the church of England.
They have alfo their teinds or tithes, and alfo judicial courts as
in epifcopal eftablifhrnents. The courts eftablifhed by law are the
four following, viz. kirk feflions, prefbyteries, provincial fynods,
and above all, a national oi general aflembly. This eftablifliment,
at various periods, proved fo tyrannical over the people, having the
power of the greater and lefler excommunication, which were at-
tended by a forfeiture of eftate, and fometimes of life, that the
kirk fefllons t>.ud other bodies hav<* been abridged of many of their
dangerous powers. The ecclefiaftical order and government in the
kirk of Scotland, however, feems far more impartial than that of
epifcopacy. None of their livings exceed two hundred pounds a
year, few fall fhorc of fixty, and none are lefs than Bfty.

They are called Prefcyterians from their maintaining that the
government of the church, appointed in the New Teftament, was
bv preibyteries that is, fay they, by minifters and ruling elders,
ailbciated for ics government and difcipline ; and accordingly none
of their eccleilaftics, conddered as an individual, has an authorita-
tive jurifdiclion over another. Jurifdiftion is competent for them
only when they ait in a colleftive body, or as a court of judicature i
and tijen there is a fubordination of one court to another, or appeals
from the inferior to the fuperior cout ts.

4. Religious prof ejffions .] Befides tl.efe profcflions, which have a
political eftabliflimenr, and wliofe poHvers are interwoven with thcic
of the civil conftitution, there are numerous other focietie> which
exift \n their religious capacity indeptrndent of the ftate ; to defcribe
all thefe would be to give the hiftory of almoft every modern pro-
fcfficn of the Chriftian religion. It w«)uld be difficult even to tell the
names of thefe various focieties. They are called by the general
names of Papifts or Roman Catholics, independerts of various kind^,
Seceders, who are burghers or anti-burghers, Anabaptifts or Bapcifts,
Methodills, Moravians, or the Brerhtens Unit\', and Quakerr or
Friends. There are other more minute dif^inftions made among^
this multitude of opinions, under names which import the difterenc
leaders which have been followed, the opinions embraced, or the
charges of herefy which have been often very liberally beftowed, as
thofe of Lutherans, Calvinifts, Anninians, Sandymanians, &c.
Unitarians, Trinitarians, Predeftinarians, Antinomians, Arians, So-
cinians, &c.

5. Revenue.] The clear net produce of the feveral branches of
the revenue of Great Britain, after payment of all charges of col-
le6t'/ng and management, amounts annually to upwards of eight
millions; befides two millions and a half raifed annually at an
average by the land and malt tax. Such immenfe fume, it miffbt

natunuly

'■*v i i

- *• ,v

(lO)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

■^

I'
IN-

naturally be fuppofed, would be equal to any national exigence i
but they are alinoft entirely applied ro the difcharge of the intereft
of the money raifcd on government fecurities ; or, in other words,
the national debt. This debt) which has been continually accumU*
lating (ince the revolution, amounts at prefent to the fum of two
hundred millions, fterling, and upwards ; for the payment of the
interell of which, and the charges of management, nearly eight
millions, fterling, are annually required.

The national debt derived its origin from a mode of finance
adopted foon after the accefllon of William III. From feveral ex-
penfive vrars and political engagements about that xra, the expences
of government were increafed to an unufual degree, infomuch that
it was deemed dangerous to raife all the expences of any one year
by taxes to be levied within that fpace of time, left the unaccuftomed
weight of them fhould tTeate murmurs among fhe people. It wa»
therefore projected to anticipate the revenues of pofterity, by bor-
rowing immenfe fums for the current fervice of the ftate, and to
lay no more taxes on the fubjed: than would fuflice to pay the annual
intereft of the fums fo borrowed ; thus converting the principal into
a new fpecies of property, transferable f~om one perfon to another
at any time, and in any quantity. Such was the foundation of
what is now called the national debt ; for a few long annuities,
created in the reign of Charles II. by no means deferve that appel-
lation.- 1

The clear net produce of the feveral branches of the revenue of
Ireland, after payment of all chsirges of colleding and management,
does now amount annually to one million. The national debt b
rather more than two millions. In the reign of Charles II. the
revenues here being all made perpetual, the parliament was dif-
folved ; and during the fpace of twenty-fix years no parliament fat
in Ireland until the year 1 692, when the increafe of the civil and
military eftabliiTiments, and or her charges of government, having
confiderably exceeded the produce of the hereditary revenue, the
crown found it necefTary to call upon parliament for further fup-
plies, which being granted on articles fubjeft at the time to here-
ditary duties, were called additional duties, and their produce was
given for one, two or three years only, and renewed every feflion,
without further extenfion, until after the rebellion in 1715, when
the commons of Ireland paffed a vote of credit for the fum of
50,000!. to enable government to put the kingdom into a pofture
of defence againft the invaflon it was then threatened with. This
vote of credit is confidered as the origin of the national debt in
this kingdom, and it was to be raifed by loan, bearing an annual
intereft ; certain duties were afterwards granted to defray that
intereft and fink the principal ; thefe duties have increafed or de-
creafed from time to time as the debt has rifen or fallen, and are
diftinguifhed iti the public accounts under the title of loan duties, t

iii^-':::ii

6. Forces.}

*Wti'>.^l.\^

^..

r ■ »■

S. I.

BRITISH ISLES.

(ti)

6. Forces. y In time of war, and particularly in the laft, the
land-forces of"thefe kingdoms, natives and foreigners, have amounted
with the militia to 177,000, exclufive of the volunteer aflbciations
in Ireland, which amounted to 40,000, and were independent of
government, yet offered to co-operate with them when an imme-
diate invafion was apprehended. The complement of feamen was
99,000.

7. Territories.] Befides their own native ifles, the EngliHi lay
claim t(kvery extenlive continental territories and iilands in Alia
and America, they have fettlements alfo on the coafts of Africa,
and hold Gibraltar from the kingdom of Spain, and fome ifles on
the French coaft *. In the fettlements abroad, the people lofe
the privileges they inherit at home, they are under th -j government
of the Bt itifli legidature, and have no reprefentat" , es therein; this
alfo is the lot of the ifle of Man ; and it was but lately that the people
of Ireland obtained the privileges and freedom of citizens, according
to the Englifh conftirutron or magna charta : 'till near the clofe of
the laft war, the a^ of the Britifli parliament declared that the
kingdom of Ireland ought to be fubordinate to, and dependent on,
the imperial crown of Great Britain, as being infeparably' united
therieto, thofe vindidtive laws however are now aboliflied, and the
people of Ireland enjoy the fame privileges as the inhabitants of
Great Britain.

After this general fketch of the Briti/h ifles, we may now confider
them under their divifions.

Great-Britain, the ^::rgeft, moft populous, rich and fertile ifland
in Europe, is fuppofed to have had its name from the word Brit,
(ignifying painted or ftained ; becaufe the ancient inhabitants painted
their bodies to give them a more ma* .1 appearance. It includes
England, Scotland, Wales and Berwick upon Tweed.

* The following comparative view of European (hipping, uncertain as it
niuft neceffarily be, may give us fomc idea of the foreign trade of the Engliih
and of other nations. Suppofe the (hipping of £urope to be divided into
twenty parts, then

Great Britain is computed to have . « .

United Provinces - _ - _ .

Denmark, Sweden and RufHa - ...

German Empire aad Au(trian Netherlands
' • France .......

Spain and Portugal - - . . _

Ualy and other Parts of Europe ....

6
S

£
I

SECTION

f
i

■* t

(•»)

^■^:

"*..

P. vr.

EUROPE.

, SEC T I ON n.

E^d-AWD^^ Wales.

• "d C^rlMe. and in C" °'^*«7 "«»«" New" ft^
»'ofeve„™,";,^r- ™>j^^ of ,%W. eh., divided i.

Kent.
Surtex, Surry

W,Suffoit.C»,bri,ge,„.,,

lonri \xr fi • *J»rham, Cumber-

' •" )td-a^l"'r'"<'.N„nh„mb„.

«na and Scofland »f. ^l^ e< • . -

». Kekt.

a- Sowth-Saxovs.
5. EasT'Angles,

4. W» ST Saxons.

$.11.

BRITISH ISLES.

(«3)

7. ^^tllCIA. Gloucefter, Hereford, Worcefter, Warwick,

Leicefter, Rutland, Northampton; Lincoln,^
Huntingdon, Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford,
Stafford, Derby, Salop, Nottingham, CheiUr,
' .. . • and the other part of Hertford.

About the year 890, Alfred the Great divided England into
counties, which with fome little alteration, continue to this dav ;
and is generally called the modem diviiion of England into counties
and the fix circuits.

f Counties.
Essex.

Hertford.

Kent.

Sjrry.

Sussex.

HOME CIRCUIT.

Chief Totvns.

Chelmsford, Colchefter. Harwich, Maldfn,
Saifron Walden, Bocking, Braintree, Strat-
ford.

Hertford, St. Alban's, Royfton, Ware, Hitchen,
Baldock, Biihops - Storford, . Berkhamfted,
Hemfted, Barnet.

Maidftone, Canterbury, Chatham, Rochefter,
Greenwich, Dover, Deal, Woolwich, Grave-
fend, Deptford, Feverfliam Dartford, Rom-
ney, Sandwich, Sheemefs, Tunbridge, Mar-
gate, Milton,
'i Southwark, Kingfton, Guildford, Croydon,
if, Epfom, Richmond, Wandfworth, Batterfta,
Putney, Famham, Godalmin, Bagfhot, Eg-
.' ham, Darking.

Chichefter, Lewis, Horfliam, Rye, Eaft-Grrn-
ftead, Arundel, Brighthelmftone, New Shore-
ham, Petworth, Middlehurft, Hailings, Battle,
Winchelfea. *

Bucks.

NORFOLK CIRCUIT.

Bedford,

Huntingdon.

Cambridge.

t." ,;»■.... '.

■ > i„

Ayleii>ury, Buckingham, Higi. - Wickham,
Great Marlow, Newport Pagnel, Stony-
Stratford.

Bedford, Ampthill, Wobum, Dunftable, Luton,
Bigglefwade. , ,

Huntingdon, St. Ives, Kimbolton, St. Nj^ts,
Godmanchefter, Ramfey, Yaxley. 1*.

Cambridge, Ely, Newmarket, Wi(bich, Roy- ;
fton.

; . : .;• ■ -• • -..A

SVFFOLK.

f '\\

V ■

(14)

- Cauntiet,
Suffolk. <

EUROPE.

P. vi.

Cfuef Towns. —'■' '

Bury, Ipfwich, Sudbury, Lcoftofirj Woodbridge,
Aldborough, Bungay, Southwold, Brandon,
Halefworth, Mikien - Hall, Frumlingham,
Lavenham, Hudley, Stratford, Long Strat-
ford, Eafterbergholt, Beccles, part of New-
market.
Norfolk. Norwich, Thetford, Ljmn, Yarmouth, Dear-

ham, Falkenham, Wooton, Worftcd.

C X F O R D C I R C U I T.

Ox ON. Oxford, Banbury, Chipping - Norton, Henly,

Burford, Whitney, Tame, Woodftock, Dor-
chefter.
Berks. Reading Abingdon, Windfor, Wallingford,

Newberry, Maidenhead, Hungerford, Fa-
ringdon. Wantage, Packenham.

Gloucefter, Tewklbury, Cirencefter, Blackley,
Durfley, Leechlade, Cambden, Newhara,
Stow, Tetbury, Sudbury, Wotton, Marfh-
field, part of Briftol.

Worcefter, Evefham, Bewdley, Droit wich,
Stowerbridge, Kidderminfter, Bromfgrove,
Perihore, T idbury.

Monmouth, Abergavenny, Carleon, Chepftow,
Newport, Pontipool.

Hereford, Lempfter, Weobly, Kyniton, Rofs,
Pemb, Ledbury, Bromyard.

Shrewftury, Ludlow, Bridgnorth, Bi(hop-caftle,
Whitchurch, Wenlock, Wem, Newport,
Ofweftry. ,

Stafford, Litchfield, Newcaftle-under-line, Bur-
ton, Pembridge, Wolverhampton, Scow,
Rugely, Stone, Utoxeter.

Glx)ucester.

Worcester.

Monmouth.

Hereford.

Salop.

Stafford.

MIDLAND CIRCUIT. -

Warwick. Warwick, Coventry, Birmingham, Stratford

upon Avon, Atherton, Colefnill, Tamworth,

Nuneaton, Aulcefter.
Leicefter,Melton-Mowbray, Afliby de la Zouch,

Bofworth, Harborough.
Derby, Chefterfield, Wirkfworth, Afhbourne,

Balfover, Buxton, Bakewell.
Nottingham, Newark, Redford, Southwell,

Mansfield, Workfop, Blithe, Tuxford. v

Lincoln.

Leicester.
Derby. .
Nottingham.

'% \ I-. I fl!"

S:n.'

Countiet
Lincoln.

BRIT IS H r S L E S.

(15)

Chief Tonmt. '1

Lincoln, Bofton, Stamford, Grantham, Grimfby,
Gainfborcpgh, Spalding, Stanton, Horncaftle,
Croyland, New Sleaford, Louth. ^

Rutland. Oakham, Uppingham.

Northampton, Northampton, Peterborough, Brackley, Daven-

try, Oundle, Towcefter, Rothwell, Welling-
,' borough, Higham Ferrers, Rockingham,
} Kettering, Thrapfton.

WESTERN CIRCUIT.

Hants. Winchefter, Southampton, Portfmouth, An-

dover, Baiingftoke, Chriftchurch, Petersfield,
Lymington, Ringwood, Rumfey, Arlesford,
NeXvport, Yarmouth, and Cowes in the Ifle
of Wight.

Wilts. Saliftury, Devizes, Marlborough, Malmftury,

Wilton, Warminfter, Chippihgham, Crick-
lade, Trowbridge, Bradford, Calne.

Dorset. Dorchefter, Lyme, Sherbom, Shaftefbury, Pool,

Blandford, Bridgeport, Weymouth, Aleboome,
Winbum, Wareham.

Somerset. . Bath, Wells, part of Briftol, Taunton, Bridge-

water, Wincanron, Ilchefter, Watchet, Mine-
head, Milbom Port, Glaftonbury, Dulverton,

"^ Wellington, Dunfter, Somerton, Yeovil,

Axbridge, Chard, Bruton, Shepton-Mallet,
Froom, Crofcombe.

■Devon. Exeter, Plymouth, Barnftaple, Biddeford, Ti-

verton, Dartmouth, Taviftock, Oakhampton,
Topfliam, Honiton, Afhburton, Creditor,
. . , Torrington, Moulton, Totnefs, Axminfter,
Plympton, Ilfraconib.
Launcefton,, Falmouth, Truro, Saltafli, Bod-
myn, St. Ives, Padftow, Tregony, Fowcy,
Penryn, KelUngton, Leftwithiel, Lelkard,
'.-»*.' Helfton, Redruth, Penzance. l ? - I

Cornwall.

NORTHERN CIRCUIT.

York.

York, Leeds, Wakefield, Halifax, Rippon,

Pontefraft, Hull, Richmond, Scarborough,

Malton, Sheffield, Doncafter, Whitby, North-

.7?2^*' i r'>'';f"U t^' allerton, Sherboum, Bradford, Tadcafter,

Borough-bridge, Giflborough, Heydon, Pick-
^^ .vj'*--''^ ♦X^'^-f*-' " *""8» Wetherbjr, Beverly, Burlington, HicM^-
' ^^ ' ■*■ den, Knarefiiorbfttghy Bamefly, Sk^ptbn,' Rip-

5<f"*^w ley, Yarum.

Durham..

>.. ,

■^"' .^"

(i6)

CwA/w.

Durham.

Northumber-

land.

Lancaster,

EUROPE.

P. VI.

:A/v ij^

■,A

'i».

OiiefTovms. '. '

Durham, Stockton, Sunderland, Stanhope, Bar«
nard-CaiUe, Hartlepool, Awkland, Dar«
lington.
Kewraftle upon Tyne, Berwick Tinmouth,
Morpeth, Alnwick, Hexham, North-Shields,
Wooller.
Lancafter, Manchefter, Prefton, Liverpoot,War-
rington, Clithero, Ormflcirk, Wigan, Roch-
dale, Kirkham, Hornby, Poulton, Bury,
Hawkfhead, Newton.

Westmoreland. Appleby, Kendal, Lonfdale, Burton, Amble-
fide, Kirbyileven, Ortan, Brough, Milthrope.

Cumberland. Carlifle, Cockermouth, Whitehaven, Penrith,

Kefwick, Brampton, Holm, Egremont, Long-
town, Ravenglafs, Wigton, Workington,
Kefwick, Ireby, Allonby, Maryport, Har*
ringtm.
Middle(ex being the feat of the fupreme courts of judicature is

not' comprehended in any circuit j nor is Cheihire, as being a county

palatine.

Countiet,
Middlesex.

' ' Chief Towns,

London, Weftminfter, Uxbridge, Brentford,
Barner, Highgate, Hamiftead, Kenfington,
Staines, Enfield, Edgwortb, Hackney, Hamp-
ton-Court, Chelfea.
Chester. Chefter, Nemptwich, Macclesfield, Congleton,

Northwich, Frodifltam, Stoclno.., Sandwich,
Middlewich, Malpas, Knutsford, Wirleacb,
Hautfon.

C I R CU I T S o F WALES.

North East Circuit. ■ .^

GnefTowns. ,

Flint, St. Afaph, Holywell, Caerwys. ,

Ccunties,

Flint.

Denbigh. Denbigh, Wrexham, Ruthin.

MoNTGOME RY. Montgomery, Llanidlos, Llanvylin, Machynletb,

Welchpool. , -7

AwCLtSEY.

Caernarvon,

MtRlONlTM,

North West Circuit.

Beaumans, Lhmrickmead, Holyhead, New*

burgh.
Bangor, Caernarvon, Aberconway, Pullilly. ,
Bala, Dolgelhe, Hterlecfa.

SOVTH

fe^.

S.II.

GREAT BRITAIN.

South-East Ciacuit.

Counties,
Radnor.
Brecon.
Glamorgan.

Pembroke.

(17)

Chief Towns, . . .

Radnor, Preftein and Knighton. ,.-\' ' ,.^

Brecknock, Bealt and Hay. . ,«

LlaniiiafF, Cardiff, Cowbridge, Swanfey, Neath
and Penrife.

South-West Circuit.

St. David's, Haverfordweft, Pembroke, Fifhgaardy
■ . Milibrdhaven, Kilganing, Newport, Tenby and

' WhiftOD.

Cardigan. Cardigan, Aberiftwyth, Llanbador St. Peter, and

Tregaron.
Caermarthen. Caermarthen, Kidwelly, Llandilovawr, Llanelthy»

Llangham and Llamindovery.

In England there are
40 counties, which fend to parliament - 80 knights.

25 cities (Ely none, London four) - . 50 citizens.

167 boroughs, two each - - '334 burgefles.

5 boroug: • (Abington, Banbury, Bewdley,
Higham-Ferrers, Monmouth) one each
2 uniTcruties - - . .

8 Cinque ports (Haftings, Dover, Sandwich,
'■■."; Romney, Hythe, and their three depen-'
'><;:: dants. Rye, Winchelfea and Seafofd) two
each - . - . -

ff:

5 burgefles.
4 repreieniat.

' ' ''■' - • . ■ Wales.

12 counties - - -

12 boroughs, (Pembroke two, Merioneth none)

one each - - . - .

33 fliires

67 cities and boroughs

Scotland.

Total

■ ':" •.'.'1

16 barons. ■ v

; .-,T

12 knights.
12 burgefles.

30 knights.
15 burgefles*

558. . .:.i:..

2. ClinuttCt Soil and vegetable ProJuaions."} The exhalations from
the furrounding fea render the air humid, and the weather change-
able, but prevent the extremities of heat and cold experienced oa
the continent, and clothe the ground with a perpetual verdure.

The foil in different parts is varioufly diveriified, and in fome
places is deep, in others (hallow ; but whatever be its nature and
quality the Englifh hufbandman well knows how to convert it to his
ufe. No country in the world has carried agriculture to a greater

Bb ,.«. degree

■\

f^*

" i

jft

«•,

■m.

rope:

A-

p.vi.

degree o^ perfe<^ion than the Englifh. Beddes the great variety of
efculent plants wliich are produced here for the ufe of man and
brute, hemp and' flax, y\f\th woad and madder for dying, are culti-
vated in England." The counties of Kent, Surry, Eflex and Hamp-
(hire produce the largeft quantities of hops, >vhich now make a very
condderable article «f trade. Saffron is produced chiefly in EfTex*
Suffolk and Cambridgefliire, and efteemed the befl in the world.
Soon after the Nor,r\ian conquefl England ^bounded with forefls.
* It was the barbarous temper of the Conquei-or to prefer his own

diverfioris to the p^ace and convenience of the inhabitants, and
itc'eordihgly nlany extenfive tra<5ts of cultivated land and towns were
laid waflc, to make room for forefts for the King and his nobles
V to hunt in. ' The nutter of them was fixty-nine, but they are now

reduced to a very few, the principal of which are Windfor ForefJ,
Netcr Foreft, the'Forefl of Dean, and the Foreft of Sherwood.
Thefe large trafts of land formerly abounded with oak, beech,
maple, poplar, elm, chcfnut, walnut trees, &c- but from the little
care tliat is taken to plant young trees as the old ones are cut
down^ ; has been feared that this maritime nation will be deflitute
oftihil^r proper for fhip-building.

3. /Inlmals.'] There arrvery few animals pecuKar to England.
J Th? bull -dog, the noaftiff and the cock! however are here remarkable

for their courage 4nd fierceneft, which they are obferved to lofe
wWtn 'Catribd- to other countries ; and their horfes are the finefl in
the world both ^ ■^eitf and ftrength-^t Nirould be well their
improvements in th* breed of thefe ahfraals >krere founded On: more
humane and virtubUVp'rinciples. The Engliffi pxen are large and
fat j'^^he fhecp are of two kinds, one bred in the Downs and up-
land paftures, the other on the lowlands of EfTex and Lincolnfhire;.
the flefh of the former btreed is preferred, and tlie fleeces of the
lattei*.. It is computed that there are na Icfs than eight millions
of fleeces annually fhorn in England. Tlie other quadrupeds are
affes, cows, deer, hogs, hares, rabbits, foxes, fquirrels, cats, ot-
ters, badgers, hedgehogs, moles, &c. ; formerly wolves were very
'^' numerous. ' /J

The birds are nearly the fame as in other parts of Europe, viz.
turkeys, peacocks, common poultry, as cocks, pullets, capons,
f fwans, duckf, pigeons, &c. The wild kinds are, buflards, wild

, geele, brent geefc, vinld ducks, teal, wigeon, plovers, pheafants, par-

tridges, woodcocks, growfe, quail, Ihipes, wood pigeons, land-
rail!; ^fiawks oP Various kinds, kites, buzzards, herons, bitterns,
<:foVs» rooks, ravens, magpies, jackdaws, jays, blackbirds,
ihrufhes, nightingaleis, goldfinches, bullfinches, chaffinches, lin-
nets, ' larks, yellowhammers, with a vaft variety of other fmall
biPds. The Comifh chough, and the wheat ear, are ^uppofed to be
peculiar to England j-* the former is found plentifully in Cornwall^
Attd' the latter, which is equal to the-qrtolan in the delicacy of its

jftelh and fla^ptir,- in Suffex.

,^ !-

I'i-JCv;

■lit-

With

"if.

S.II.

E N G L A N D.

09)

With regard to ii(h, few countries in the world have a greater
variety. The rivers and ponds abound in falmony trout, eels, pike>
carp, tench, barbel, perch, gudgeons, fmelts, roach, dace, plaice,
flounders and craw fifh. In fome of the lakes of Wales, and in
Winandermeer in Weftmoreland, is found a very delicate fi(h called
a char i it is of the trout kind, and thought to be peculiar to
England. The furrounding feas are full of cod, mackarel, mullets^
bafe, guardfiih, haddock, whitings, herrings, pilchards, {kate»
turbot, foles, hollybuts, of which the moil famous fifhery is on
the coa(ls of Cornwall and Devonfhire, and what are preferred to
all others by the voluptuous, john-dories and mullets. Shell-6fh
are alfo found in plenty, as lobflers, crabs, ])riiwns, flirimpSj oyf*
ters, fcallops, cockles, mufclcs, wilks, periwinkles, &c. The
coafls are fometimes vifited by whales, and by vaft numbers of
porpoifes. In fome parts a few feals are fccn upon the rocks, but
not frequently.

The principal reptiles of this country are vipers, foakes and
worms ; and the infedls, bees, humble bees, hornets, wafps, ants^
gnats, flies in great variety, and many other infedls commoji to the
other parts of Europe.

4. Mineral ProauBions and Waters.'] Copper, lead, iron and
coal are found in many of the counties of England — wadd or black-
lead only in Cumberland, where the mine is opened once in about
feven years to fupply the reft of the world. But the tin mines of
Cornwall and Devonshire are the moft valuable* ; the miners alone
amount to one hundred thoufand men. — This metal, bclides its en-
riching the proprietors, affords a confiderable revenue to the Prince
of Wales, who is alfo Duke of Cornwall, and an important article of
trade to the Englifh in almoft every niarket of the known, world.
The mundic found in the Cornifh tin mines was of 00 value 'till
the beginning of the prefent century, when Gilbert Clarke difco-
vered a method of fmelting of it, and now it brings in 150,0001.
annually. No gold mines have hitherto been difcovered io Eng-
land, but fmall quantities of that metal have been found in the
Cornifh tin ore. There are feveral filver mines in Devonfliire, but
they have not been worked for many years, 'though they produced
feven hundred pounds of fine filver in the year 1 296.

Fuller's earth is found in feveral counties, and is found fb necef-
fary for the woollen manufaflure that the exportation of it is
prohibited.

Marble, flate, freeftone, and a great quantity of other ufeful fub-
ftances, are found in the mines and quarries of England.

There are many medicinal waters in England, the principal are
the hot-baths of Bath and Briftol in Somerfetfhire, and thofe of
Buxton in Derbyfhire ; the mineral waters of Scarborough, Har-
rowgaccy Timbridge, Dulwich, Epfom and A don.

B b 2 ■ V 5. Face

■ * It is remarkable they were known feveral centuries before the chrtfttan
era, and have conftantiy been worked ever Unce that remote period of time.

^■f'

'J'

EUROPE.

p:vr.

5. Face of the Country^ MonniaiitT, Rivers and Laier*'] What-
ever advantages other countries may derive from luxuriancy of foif,
England thrives by the hand of indudry, and exhibits fcenes chear-
ful and warm. Flourifhing cities and thriving towns, chearful vil-
lages and comfortable cottages, with furrounding fields and meads,
T;ulie» and hills, and plains and downs, yellow with corn, green in
perpetual verdure, or fpeekled with thoufands of flocks and herds,
diverfify the profpe^. In the ports are feen veflels fraught with
the produce of every climate, or bearing hence in Exchange the
curious man^iadlm-es of England. Uhnumbered are the divifions
into which the country is interfered by roads, rivers and canals ;
in the latter are feen boats paifing and repafTing ; on the roads the
ponderous waggons labour along, and the lighter vehicles of conve-
nience or pleafure drive rattling over the grounds both night and
day.

The mountains of England feem diminutive if compared with
the Ancles, the Atlas or the Alps. The principal ones are the
Peak in Derbyihire^ the Endle in Lancafhire, the Skidd^w, Der-
went-Fells, the Wrynofe and Lanvellin in Cumberland, the Wolds
in Yorkfhire, the Wrekin in Shropfhire, and the Cheviot hills on
the borders of Scotland. But befides thefe there are many lofty
hills, generally caU'ed Downs, fcattercd over the whole country,
ibme of them forming long ridges or chains, as the Cheltem hills
in Bucki, the Malvern hilb in Worcefterfhire, the Cotfwold hills
in Glouceflerfhire, and the South Downs in SufTex.

England is well watered with rivers, which beautify the land-
fcape, fertilife the foil, and forward the bufinefs of manufactures
and commerce ; the principal are the TlKtmes, the Medway, the
Severn, the Trent, the Oufe, the Tyne, the Tees, the Avon, the
Eden, the Derwent, the Ribble, the Merfey and the Dee.

TIm hkes of England are but few, though ie appears from hif^
tory, and indeed in feme places from the face of the country, that
meres and fens have been very frequent in England 'till drained and
converted into arable land by induflry. The chief lakes now re-
maining are Soham mere, Wittlefea mere, and Ramfey mere in the
iile of Ely in Cambridgefhire. AU thefe meres in r iny feafons
are overflowed, and form a hike of forty or fifty miles i 1 circumfe-
rence. In Weflmoreland Winander mere is ten miles long and
two broadr and very deep and clear ; and in the mountainous parts
of Cumberland there are many large and beautiful broadwaters or
lakes.

6. ManufaRures and Commttrce^ England is fuperior to every
other nation of the world in the variety and excellence of its
woollen manufa^ure. This i» accounted the ftaple trade of the
kingdom, and in the houfe of Lords- the Chancellor, with the
great-feal and mace lying by him^ fits before the throne on the firfl
of the woolpacks, which, from an ancient cuflom, are laid acrofs
the room. Its cotton and fiik works are alfo very confiderable.

The

S.II.

ENGLAND.

The weaving of (lockings was firfl invented and is now very ex*
tcnfively carried on in this country. Paper is likcwife made in
almod every part of xhe kingdom, and tliere are but few towns
without their nianufa(5lurc3 of hats. In the making of porcelain
and delpht ware many thoufands arc conftantly employed ; they are
une(}uailed in the execution of thefe beautiful wares« and theie are
exported not only to the di/fercnt countries of Europe and Ame-
rica, but even to the Eafl Indies ; and fuch is the excellence and
ingenuity of the artificers of metals, that were we willing to adopt
the mythology of the ancients wc might fay that Vulcan had fixed
uj}on England as his efpccial place of rciidcncc. Sheffield and
Birmingham have long bctti famous for their hard-wares, but thefe
manufadlurcs are not confined to thefe two particular towns. Arti-
ficers in brafs and iron arc to be found all over the country, and
whether we regard their maiBve or minute works, the ponderous
apparatus of fhi^js, mills, &c. or the Smaller conveniences of clocks,
watches, Sec we m;iy alike admire their abilities and improve-
ments. Befkies all thefe there are various .other jiianufatflures too
numerou-d to mention here. Thefe, the Produce of iheir mines« as
iron, lead, tin, copper, pit-coal, copperas, alliun, &c. their cattle,
(efpedally their horles, which form a principal article of commerce)
corn, butter, fheefie, pork^ beef, bifcuit, &c. and the prodadlions
of their iifh^ries, form the expons of this trading nation.

England did not begin to feel its confequcnco as a commercial
nation 'till the reign of Queen Elizabeth. That Princefs firft open-
ed the eyes of her fubjcds to the advantages which their fltuation
naturally held out to them, and generally the efforts of her fuc-
ceflbrs have been diredled to the fame end.

During the infancy of foreign commerce it was judged expedient
to grant exclufive charters to particular bodies or corporations of
men, hence the Eafl India, South Sea^ Hudfon's Bay, Turkey,
Rjiffia and Royal African Companies firll took their rife ; but the
trade to Turkey^ RuiTia and Africa are now laid open ; and it is
the opinion of fome, that if commercial reftri^ions were entirely
abandoned in every quarter of the world k would tend to the
public benefit, to the increafe of navigation, and to the improve-
ment of the national revenue.

7. Curio fittest natural and artificial.'} Among the natural cu-
TioGties of England the molt remarkable are the ebbing and flowing
well, the unfathomable caverns, and the mountains of the Peak.
Similar curiofities, on a fmaller fcale, are to be met with in other
parts of the country, and alfo {>etrifyiog as well as hot and cold
mineral Springs.

The curious works of art are ancient and modern. The antiqui-
ties are Britifh, Roman and Saxon or Danifli. The Britifh anti-
quities confifl chiefly of circles of flones or ahars ; thefe are gene-
rally rude and unfafliioned with any chiflel. like the memorials of
ihe patriarchs. Vefliges of thefe are to be met v/ith in Cornwall,

Devonfhire,

■>^-i*v

^i^

(22)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

Devonfliirc, Oxfordfhire, Cumberland and many other parts ot*
England ; but the moft remarkable monument of this kind is Stone-
henge on Salifbury-plain in Wiltfhire ; from the amazing magni-
tude of the ftones it has even been doubted whether it was a pro-
duction of huijian art; fome have imagined tnat the Rjnes are
artificial, and were made on the fpot, from a perfuafion that the
ancients had the art of making ftones with fand and a ftrong lime
or cement, but moft authors are agreed that they were brought from
a quarry of ftones called the Grey Wethers on Marlborough
Downs, fifteen miles from the fpot. The upright (tones are fixed
in a kind of fockets dug in a chalky foil, with fraall fhins driven
in between the ftonc and the focket ; they are from tv/enty to
thirty feet high, and of a prodigious thicknefs ; they have tenons
on the tc;j, and are conneded together at the top by overthwart
ftones or impofts of enormous fize, which are morticed to receive
the tenons. The outermoft circle is near one hundred and eighty
feet in diameter ; between this and the next there is a fpacious
walk, which has a grand efFeft. This mifshapen fabrick is fuppofed
to have been the principal place of worfhip in England, where the
arch-druid refided and officiated in perfon.

The Roman antiquities in England confift chiefly of altars, coins,
monumental infcriptions and military ways. The remains of Ro-
man camps are alfb ftill perceptible in almoft every county ; but
the moft amazing monument of the Roman power in England was
the wall of Severus, running through Northumberland and Cum-
berland, from Tinmouth to Solway Frith, about eighty miles in
length. It was built to prevent the Pi(51^ and Scots from making
incurfions into ihr: Roman territories in Britain, but a principal part
of it is now converted into a road.

The Saxon antiquities found in England confift chiefly of old
cathedrals and cafUes, and particularly camps, of which veftiges
are found in various parts of the country. But the moft remarka-
ble antiquity of the Saxons is the rude figure of a horfe cut on
the fide of a green hgll, a little to the north of Upper Lambonrne
in Berkfhirc, The hill is called Vhite-horfe Kill, and the figure
takes up near an acre of ground. Saxon coins have been found in
various parts of England, and in the Britifh mufeum there are pre-
(erved ni^ny fjy-cimens of Saxon learning, though it feems to have
been then confined to a few perfons. The charters, of which fe-
vcral H>e ftill preferved, are written in a neat and legible hand, but
tht fignatures are i:!othing more than a plain crofs, the name of the
donor being added by the writer of the chartei. The Danifh an-
tiquities are but few, and nearly refemblc thofe of the Saxons.

Among the grca.-eff modern works of art in this country we
may reckon the flxipping, mines and canals. The coal works in
the north of England, are, fome of them, efpecially in the vicinity
of Whitehaven, carried to a vaft extent beneath the fea ; and .he
cards are carried npo" -.ofty arches over high road:, navigable
^ , • ' . . * rivers

S.ll.

EN G L A N D.

(23)

%.''

rivers and extenfive vallies, and for miles o'lderground 'hey are cut
through the heart of mountains.

8. Schtols and learned Men.] The univerfities of England are
thofe '^f Oxford and Cambridge. The fehools of Wedminfter,
Eton and Winchefler are alfo eminent feminaries of learning ; and
at Woolwich and Portfmouth are two royal academies : Bcfkles
thefc almoft every town and even village has its academy or fehools,
where literature and fciences, or at lea/t their rudiments, are regu-
larly taught. ' I . . '

To tell the progrefs of fcience and the men that excelled therein
from the days of Alfred the great, who, in thofe early days, was
himfeif the friend and patron of learning, would require a very in-
timate acquaintance with the writings of the numerous" Engtifh au-
thors, and take volume? inftead of a paragraph. Perhaps no nation
iince the revival of literature in Europe has exceeded or even
equalled that mixed race the Engiifh, either in the poetic flights of
fancy, or the more laborious works of Ikidiou* refcarch. Some of
Alfred's immediate deicendants were eminent for their learning.
Early in the thirteenth century, in the leign of Henry III. Roger
Bacon, a friar at Oxford, wrote treatifes on the flux and reflux of
the fea, on cofmography, aftronomy, optics, metallurgy, and upon
tilt impediments of knowledge. In the days of Henry VIII. the
nanjes of Wolfey, Leland and others were eminent in literature :
At this time encouragement was given to learned foreigners to fet-
tle ir. England. Edward VI. during his fliort life, encouraged thofe
foreigners, an^d patronifed learning. During the bloody reign of the
bigotted Mary, learning, as well as religious libertyi fuffcred an
almoft total eclipfe. Elizabeth, her filler, was herfelf a learned
princefs : In her reign the I'arls of Efiex and Southampton, and
Sir Phil'^v Sidney, wer l.arned themfelves and the patrons of
genius. Shakefpeare, Spenfcr, Camden and other writers' flouiillied
during this period. James I. was an author and a patron of
learning ; he encouraged foreigners, and conferred honorary titles
and pecuniary emohmients on the fecond (or Francis) Bajon.
His fin Charles i. had a tafte fcr the polite arts, efpecially fculp-
ture, painting and architefture. He was the patron of kubens,
Vandyke, Inigo Jones, and other eminent artifts ; and had it not
been for the civil wars he feenied likely to have conv^nea his court
and capital into a fecond Athens. I'he collections he had made
for that purpofe, confidering his pecuniary difficulties, were ftupen-
dous : fuch was his expenfe he poflcfled four and twenty palaces,
moft elegantly furniflied. His favourite, the diik? of Bjcking-
iiam, imitated him in that refpedr, and laid out the amazing fum of
four hundred thoufand pounds fterling upon his cabinet of paintings
and curiofities. The Earl of Arundel, however, has been cohli-
dered as the great Mcscenas of that ag6, and by the immenfe ac-
rjuifitions he made of antiquities, efpeci«-ly his famous marble in-
fcriptions, may be confidered as a patron or encourajjer of litera-
ture,
I

.I'

t^'

('4

Euro

P E.

«•>* King., fuSn« Tl'lTr'" " c/thrdurZ'' „•;"*"•

«ry W price,, e„Sed S^^ '^fe *" PJ?-". d^-fti or.?

fold" l'ir^«*««P«««l » K1n?S:*°"' °' ^"ie
ioia. Adtion, howevpr k«-» -i'*'=^cK> and the inaterial« nf .u

'«o excellence, Jd?. i,a'".S; ^^ "r""' " '««t1oweS
pais of our tonBiie w,r. « n *'»■«'« that the force -nj
commotion,, theTeeche, o/l'"" ,'? •"»' » that J^noTof ri"?
ranch fuperior tc Xt a^ll P"''?™»t orators beC of ffl •

^ his being i biftop, received ?^ r'"'J' ^'her, notwithS

m F^ , °7^^y- Jt has been acco.,n*«/k V ^oj^itution of the

Temple ^ 'r "*T «^ %Ie, Hooke sT"f "*^^ "^ ^^ ^^^
Ch^H' T^'^o"* Butler, CoWleV W.!! S^^^^^m, Harvey,
y^way, and many others dl ^^a• ^' •T^^'"* ^^yden, WvcherJ^J^

inaii have na/T^W a,.,, n . ^^ Perhaps when fk» ^ r ^

- atS???"= ti fea:4~-

/-l 7^«' Of nation of ri,e worid "*' ""'> *=« ""S
England ^■th^i'ch it jt. ^d"it,"„3'.T""''"^ '"^'"''^i ■"

^ ^^a^n i and monuments finfiJar tl .? ?*°"^ "«"fi^ ««

"miJar to tahat, tut on a fmlJer
' ^aJe,

S.II.

WALES.

fcale, are numerous here. Among the Roman antiquities is Caer-
philiy-caftle in Glamorganfhire, the remains of \vhich fliil ihew it
to have been once a beautiful fabrick : one half of the round tower
is fallen down^ and the other overhangs its bafis above nine feet,
affording as great a curiofity as the celebrated leaning tower at Pifa
in Italy. The greateft curiofity of modern art in Wales we may
reckon the beautiful cafl iron bridge at Colebrook Dale.

Among the many lofty mountains of Wales, where the natives
retreated and made fo many long and hardy {Iruggles againfl the .
Roman, Anglo-Saxon and Norman powers, the raoft remarkable
are Snowdon in Caernarvonfhire, and Plinlimmon, which lies partly
in Montgomery and partly in Cardiganfhire. This country likewife
abounds in lakes, the principal of which are Lyhn Tigid, or Pim-
ble Meer, and Lyhn Savedhan, or Brecknock Meer ; the latter of
which is fo full of fifh, that the inhabitants fay two-thirds of it is
water and the reft fiih. The road from England to Holyhead runs
over a lofty mountain called Penmanmoer, and affords a grand or
awful fcene to a ftranger ; over his head hangs a craggy and enor-
mous rock, threatening every moment to crufh iiim with its fall,
and below him a frightful precipice, with the waves of the fea tre-
mendoufly dafhing againft the foot of the mountain.

lo. Hi/lory.'] England was inhabited originally by a people called
Britons, of the fame floe-: with the ancient Gauls or Celtse. The
firft conqueft that was made of this part of the ifland was by the
Romans ; it was begun in the year 43 under the Emperor Claudius,
and was compleated in 78 under Domitian. Julius C?efar had in-
vaded this ifland in the years 54 and 53, before the ChrifHan sera,
but he did not effeft a conqueft, his forces being repuifed by the
natives. In 410 the Romans, being no longer able to defend fo
diftant a province, relinquifhed it to the old inhabitants, who,
calling in the Saxons from Germany to aflift them to repel the inva-
fion of the Pifts and Scots, were all conquered by them, except
thofe who retired into Wales.

The Saxons, arriving at different times, formed feven different
kingdoms, which having fome kind of union among themfelves, are
all together called the Heptarchy : this continued through three or
fc'ur centuries, till the feveral kingdoms v.hich compofrd it were all
reduced by Egbert, one of the princes, into the one extenfive king-
dom of England about the year 827.

About the year 866 the Danes, under their King Ivar, invited
by the Earl Bruern Bocard, made a defcent upon England, and
conquered Northumberland. Soon after this they conquered Eaft
Anglia; and in 873 they were mafters cf Mercia. About 877
they were in pofleflion of the whole kingdom, King Alfred being
obliged to hide himfelf from their purfuit ; but, foon after, this
prince entirely defeated them, ;ind forced them either to .ibandon
the ifland or fubmit to his government : thofe who chofe the latter
fettled in Eaft Anglia. They generally revolted at the beginning

(26)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

of every reign ; and about 1003 Swein, King of Denmark, con-
quered all the northern parts of England, and King Ethelred re-
tiring into Normandy the whole country fubmitted. Upon his death
the Danes proclaimed his fon Canute, king ; but the Englifli having
recalled Ethelred the illand was, as it were, divided between them
till 1017, when Canute became mafter of all England. Under
Edward the ConfefTor, in I04r, the Saxon line was reftored with-
out bloodfhed ; but the Normans, under William the Conqueror,
fubdued the kingdom in 1066, and the Kings of England ever fince
have been the defcendants of this prince. In 1283 Wales was fub-
dued by Edward I. LeweUen, their laft king, being defeated and
flain.

SECTION III.

Scotland.

Scotland lies between fifty-four and fifty-nine degrees North
latitude, and between one and fix Weft longitude. It is bounded
on' the Weft, North and Eaft by the Irifh, Deucaledonian and
German feas, or more properly the Atlantic Ocean ; and on the
South by England, from which it is feparated by no natural boun-
dary, if we except the Solway Frith, near Carlifle, on the Weft,
and the mouth of the Tweed, at Berwick, on the Eaft. In the
time of the Romans, however, it extended much farther, being
bounded by the wall raifed by that warlike people between New-
caftle and Carlifle ; and, under the Norman Kings of England, it
included Northumberland, Weftmoreland and Cumberland.

I. Dkn/ions.] Scotland was anciently divided into two parts,
feparated by the Frith of Forth. The northern divifion contains
fifteen counties, and the fouthern eighteen : and tlicfe counties or
fliires are fubdivided as in the following table.

SlAres.
Edinburgh.
Haddincston.
Berwick,
roxborough.
Selkirk.
Peebles.

1.ANERK.

Dumfries.

Wigtown.

Air.

Dumbarton.

Chief Towns,
Edinburgh.

Dunbar and Haddington.
Berwick, Duns and Lauder.
Jedburgh, Hermitage, Roxborough.
Selkirk.

Peebles. " • ^

Glafgov/, Hamilton, Lanerk.
Dumfries, Annand.
Wigtown.

Air, Balgenny, Irwin.
Dumbarton.

-■■^:-m

-.1.1.

4 ,

TE,

til-

S. Ill,

imark, con-
ilthelred re-
on his death
glifh having
:ween them
>d. Under
lored with-
Conqueror,
d ever fince
es was fub-
feated and

es North
bounded
nian and
1 on the
aJ boun<
Weft,
In the
being
New-
and, it

Shires.
Bute, Cathness. Rothfay.

SCOTLAND.

Chief To<whs.

(27)

Renfrew.
Stirling.
Linlithgow.
Perth.

KiNCARDIN.

Aberdeen.

Inverness.
Nairne and Cro-
martie.

Argyle.

Fife.

Forfar.
Bamff.

Kircudbright.
Sutherland.
Clacmanan and

Kenrgse.
Ross.
Llgin.
Orkney.

Renfrew.

Sterling. , ,

Linlithgow.

Perth, Athol, Scone, Blair, Dunkeld.

Bervey.
J Old Aberdeen, New Aberdeen, Fraferfburgh,
\ Peterhead.

Inverncfs, Inverlochy.

> Naiine, Cromartie, Tayne, Tarbat.

j Inverary, Dunftafnag, Kellonmer, Campble-
(^ town.

J St. Andrew, Couper, Burnt Ifland, Dumfer-
\ lin, Dyfart, Anftruther.

Montrofs, Forfar.

BamfF.

Kircudbright.

Strathy, Dornock.

> Culros, Clacmanan.

Rofs.

Elgin.

Kirkwall, Skalloway.

In all thirty-three fhires, which chufe thirty reprefentatives to fit
in the parliament of Great Britain : Bute and Cathnefs chufing
alternately, as do Nairne and Cromartie, and Clacmanan and
Kinrofs.

The royal boroughs which chufe reprefentatives are .
Edinburgh -_.._.

Kirkwall, Wick, Dornoch, Dengwall and Tayne
Fortrofe, Invernefs, Nairne, Forres

FIgin, Cullein, BamfF, Inverary, Kintore - - .
Aberdeen, Bervy, Montrofe, Aberbiothic, Brechin
Forfar, Perth, Dundee, Cowpcr, St. Andrews
Crail, Kilrenny, Anftruther, Eaft and Weft Pittenweem
Dyfert, Kirkaldy, Kinghorn, Burnt Mand - - _
Innerkerthin, Dumferlin, Queensferry, Culrofs, Sterling
Glafgow, Renfrew, Rutheiglen, Dumbarton - - -
Haddington, Dunbar, North Berwic, Lav/der, Jedburgh
Selkirk, Peebles, Linlithgow, Lanerk ^ - - -
Dumfries, Sanquehar, Annan, Lochmaban, Kircudbright
Wigtown, New Galloway, Stranrawer, Wliitehorn
Aire, Irwin, Rothfay, Cambletown, Inverary . - .

Some geographers divide Scotland into two parts, diftingui(hed

into Highlands and Lowlands, on account of the mountainous

. r country in the North, and the flat trai^ls on the South. The drefs

.vt ■'

(z8)

i-'

EURO

P K,

winter nfoht " ^ r" ™°''*^ ^^a" eiphteen tn ^''T''' '« ^^
the furrounJ:^^ r " ^''^ ^ imagined Vi ^ ^"^ '"°«'e tem-
ous. and pre™, ,7?^ '» agitation, reoZr ■?„ '? "'^ *«

The ki "'^S'ns to wave us yeilov/

%pofed to be th! • ^^""'^^ ^ood in the fnnth c a "^^"'^^ns

fame with thofe of F ^ o^ Scotland are nrerr. .

Inial/. FormerJv ?f, , -^^ ^^''^^^ 'n ScotJand .J * P^^'cularly

S.III.

SCOTLAND.

(»9)

) f

fpirit. The Lowlanders at this time make ufe of a breed which
came originally from England.

Two remarkable birds, called the capperkaily and the tarmacan,
are inhabitants of the Highlands. The capperkaily is about the
fize of a turkey, and efteemed a great delicacy. The tarmacan is
a fpecies of pheafant, and feeds on the tender tops of the fir and
pine branches, from which the flefh contracts a turpentine flavour,
accounted very agreeable both to the palate and flomach.

The rivers and lakes in Scotland abound in falmon, trout, jack
and eel ; and the fea fupplies them with the variety of falt-water
fifh. Of late years focieties have been erefted for the improvement
of their fifheries, and they are at prefent brought to a degree of
perfeft'on that falls very little fhort of the Dutch. Their faJmon
in particular is of very great advantage to them, as they liave it in
their power to cure and fend it much earlier to the Levant and
fouthern markets than the Englifh or Irifh can, and conlequently
find a quicker fale for it.

4. Miaerali.'} Gold is one of the minerals of Scotland. Small
folid pieces of that much defired' metal are often found in brooks
after a great torrent. At the nuptials of James V. with a daughter
of France, covered difhes, filled with coins of Scotch gold, were
prefented to the guefls by way of defert ; and in the time of that
monarch the mines of Crawford-moor were worked by Germans,
under the direction of one Cornelius their chief; but the civil wars
which happened in the reign of Mary Queen of Scots obliged
ihefe people to abandon their works, which have never fince been
refumed.

The lead mines in Scotland, of which there are feveral, produce
great quantities of Silver. Some copper mines have been difcovered
near Edinburgh, and no country boads of greater plenty of iron-
ore both in mines and Aones. The eafl, weft and northern parts
of the country produce exceeding good coals, of which large
quantities are exported. In Lanerkfhire or Ciydfdale large pieces
of lapis lazuli are fometimes dug up. AUum mines have lately
been difcovered in BamfRhire. The country abounds in flint, talc,
fea (hells, fuller's earth and potters clay ; and in many parts are
found variegated pebbles, chryflal and other tranfparent fiones^^
which admit of a nne polifh.

^neral fprings have alfo of late years been difcovered.

5. Face of the Country y Mountains^ Rivers and Lakes.'] Tlie pre-
ient improving ftate of Scotland gives us to fee cultivation, canals
and various publick works ; and the refpedlable names and employ-
ments of men of bufinefs or citizens in place of the defert waftes,
and the feudal manners of the lordly chieftains in tlieir lonely
caflles, with their poor but devoted clans about them, which fo
long deformed this country.

The principal mountains in Scotland are the Grampian Hills, the
Pentlaod Hills, Lammer Muir, and the Cheviot ot Teviot Hills.

Befides

* ■f'- fy

(so) EUROPE. P. VI.

Befides thefe, Scotland contains many detached mountains, fome of
which are very high, and of beautiful forms.

The chief rivers are the Forth, the Tay, the Spey, the Clyde
and the Tweed ; befides thefe there are many of leis note, plenti-
fully {locked with falmon, trout, and a variety of other ii(h.

Scotland abounds in lakes, by the inhabitants called lochs, the
principal of which are the Loch Tay, the Loch Lomond and the
Loch Du. They aJfo frequently give the name of loch to an arm
of the fea, of which Loch Fyn is one, and is fixty miles long
and four broad. On the top of a hill near Lochnefs, accounted
near two miles perpendicular, is a lake of frefh water, about fixty
yards in length, and hitherto thought to be unfathomable ; this
lake never freezes, whereas the Lochanwyn, or green lake, about
feventeen miles from it, is perpetually covered with ice.

6. ManufaHures and Commerce.'^ The manufadtures of Scotland
are pretty much of the fame kind with thofe of England, though
not generally brought to the fame perfedion. At Carron, however,
in Sterlingfliire, they have a moft extenfive iron manufacture of
both cafl and wrought metal, and their linen manufadlure has in-
creafed to a great degree ; thefe, their mines and inexhauflible
fifhcries chiefly furnifh the exports of this country.

The prodigious bounties and encouragements that have been
granted of late years for the benefit of the trade and manufadures
of Scotland, they have, by indefatigable pains and induflry,
turned to advantage ; their fhipping has confequently ;||^eatly en-
creafed, and excepting the Eafl Indies they carry on an extenHve
commerce with every nation to which their fouthern neighbours trade^

7. Curioftties.] IC we except their lakes and mountains the
natural curiofities of Scotland are but few. Upon the top of a
mountain called Skorna Lappick, in Rofsfhire, twenty miles dif-
tant from the fea, are found great numbers of oyflerand other fea
(hells, together with a heap of white flones, and fbme as clear as
chryftal. The columnar rocks between the caflle and harbour of
Dunbar refemble the Giant's Caufey in Ireland. In Fifefhire there
are feveral caverns of extraordinary' dimenfiODS ; and at Slains, in
Aberdeenfhire, is a petrifying cave. .'1

The antiquities in Scotland are principally druidical, PIftifh,
Danifh and Roman. Of the formeP. there are many monuments
and temples (till difcernible in the northern parts, and efpecially in
the iflands, but none of them equal to Stone-henge in Salifbury
Plain. There is in Perthfhire a barrow which feems to be a Britifh
eredlion : It refembles the hull of a fhip with the keel upjjerraofl :
The people call it Ternay, which fome imagine to be a contradlion
of terras navis, the fhip of earth. It feems to be very antique,
and perhaps was erefted to the memory of fome Britifh Prince,
who afted as auxiliary to the Romans, for it lies near Auchterar-
den, not many miles diflahce from the great fcene of Agricola's

operations.

' A great

p. VI.

lins, fbme of

jr, the Clyde
note, pienti-

fi/h.

I iochs, the
)nd and the
1 to an arm

miles Jong

» accounted

about fixty

lable ; this

Jake, about

)f Scotland
nd, though
) however,
ufadlure of
re has in-
2xhauflib]e

lave been
nufadlures

induftry,
reatly en-

extenfive
urs trade»
tains the
top of a
liles dif-
other (ea

clear as

rbour of

re there

lains, in

Piifliffi,
um^nts
ially in
lifbury
Britifh
moll :

radion
uique,
rince, .
iterar-

s.iir.

SCOTLAND.

(30

A great va^ety of Roman antiquities are found in various parts
of ■' ' country ; but the moft remarkable now remaining is the pre-
:v.uuie or wall originally marked out by Agricola, and finilhed by
Antoninus Pius. This wall extends from Carron upon the Frith
of Forth to Dunglafs, upon the Frith of Clyde, more than thirty-
feven Englifh miles in length; on the fouth-fide of it ran a large well-
paved military way, which never leaves the wall above one hundred
and forty yards. We learn from the infcriptions on this wall,
which are (till extant, that the whole of the legion called fecunda
Augufla, and the Vexillationes of itJie twentieth and the fixth
legions were employed in compleating this pretenture. At the
bottom of the Grampian Hills is a ftriking remiiin of Roman anti-
quity in great prefervation, having no Icfs than five rows of ditches
and fix ramparts on the fouth fide ; and of the four gates which
lead into the area three of them are very diflin(f1 and plain, viz.
the prjEtoria, decumana and dextra : The prictonium is th< place
where the general's tent Hood, and this is generally thought to
have been the camp occupied by Agricola before he fought the
bloody battle, fo well recorded by Tacitus, .vith the Caledonian
King Galgacus, who was defeated. A very beautiful antiquity in
this country was a temple on the banks of the' Carrou, in the
form of the pantheon at Rome, or the Paul's dome in London.
It was fuppofed to be built by Agricola, or fome of his fucccfTors,
to the go(L Terminus, as it flood near the Prcetenture, which
bounded tim^^oman empire in Britain to the north ; but to the
grief of aritiqt^rians this monument of the Romans was demolifhed,
for the pH^i^i^ of mending a mill-pond. Near it are fome artifi-
cial conicalinounts of earth, which Itill retain the name of Duni-
pace or Duni-pacis, which may ferve to evince that there was a
kind of folemn compromife between the Romans and Caledonians,
that the former fhould not extend their empire farther towards the
north. Innumerable are the coins, urns, utenfils and infcriptions,
and other remains of that people, that have been found in diffe-
rent parts of Scotland, many of them at a great diltance north of
the Pretenture. Veftiges of Roman camps are alfsi found in various
parts of the country.

Danifh camps and fortifications are very diftinguifhable by their
fquare figures and difficult fituations, in feveral northern counties
of Scotland. Some houfes of ftupendous appearance flill remain
in Rofsfhire, but whether they are Danifh, i'idtifh or Scottifh is
uncertain. Two columnal monuments of a very extraordinary
conftru^flion, and generally afcribed to the Fids, are ftill flanding ;
the one at Abernethy. in Perthfhire, the other at Brechin in
Angus; each of them is hollow in the infide, and externally fur-
nilhed with a ftair-cafe. At a place called Aberlemno, near Bre-
chin, are four or five ancient obeliflcs eredted in commemoration of
the victories of the Scotch over the Danes, each of which are
adorned with bafs-reliefs of men on horfeback, and many emble-
matical

•.-**.-

EURO

l^k-

f *

P E.

1^ '

, «"lar line a, beSre ^"r"" '''^ «<•' »? -k "ock'^lt Jt' 1'"^"^

cJes of ftonPQ Tu ^^^ ^'e none of thpir u -ij- " *"^

fpots were cleared in lines ft the woT" ^''^ -^-^^^Jht
the open parts, after bein/rTzeH -^^^J '° '""'P^ ^heir game imn
Within reach nf »k . * rouzed, in order that ^h» -^7 °^®
bcJoiv R^!- ^^^ bowmen concealed Jn I ^J" '"'S^' come

foreT .fv'""^' ^""^ '^' ^Portfmen are Ir ^' ^°°^^ *b°ve and
torefts of France and other coulr^ ?"""°" '" a^^ the creat

S over the capacious Jakes of the
^ country,

•1^

p. VI.

were

figh-
)ve-
/ere
/ho
ton-
Ithe

S. III.

SCOTLAND.

(33)

country, and formerly afTurded no other road to the natives than
the paths of flicep ot^ goats, where even the Highlander crawled
with difficulty, and kept himfelf from tumbling into the far adjacent
water by clinging to the plants and bufhes of the rock. Many of
thefe rocks were too hard to yield to (he pick-axe, and the miner
was obliged to have recourfe to gunpowder ; and often when the

fdace was inacceflible in any other way, he was obliged to begin his
abours fufpended from above by ropes, on the face of the horrible
precipice. The bogs and moors had alfo their difficuhics to be
overcome, but all were at length conilrained to yield to the perfe-
verance uf the Englifh >.roops.

In fome parts the foldiers, in imitation of the Romans, left en-
graven on the rocks the name of the regiment to which each party
belonged who were employed iik thefe works ; and it has been re-
marked they were not lefs worthy of being immortalized than the
vexillatio's of the Roman legions, civilization being the confe-
quence of the labour of both.

8. Schools and learned Men.] Scotland coniains four univerfitieS,
which are according to feniority, St. Andrews, Glafgow, Aberdeen
and Edinburgh ; beddes thefe, public fchools are erctfted in every
pari(h. In thefe illudrious feminaries, literature is divedcd of the
oftentation of rich endowments, and the profeflbrs are men eminent
in their refpedive departments. This country has produced fuch
an illuflrious train of learned men, that to particularife them would
be to give a literary hiftory of Europe for upwards of fourteen hun-
dred years. The works of Offian feem to ftiew thnt poetry was no
ftranger to this climate in very remote ages. Patrick, the celebrated
aportle of Ireland, who lived in the fifth century, was a native of
this kingdom, which became for fome time a refuge for the learned,
efpecially the little ifland of Jona called St. Columb Kill. The
writings of Adamnanus and other authors who lived before and at
xht time of the conquefl of England, which are ftill extant, are
fpecimens of their literature at that period. Charlemagne held a
correfpondence by letters with the Kings of Scotland, and employ-
ed Scotchmen in planning, fettling and ruling his favourite univerfi-
ties, and other feminaries of learning in France, Germany and
Italy. The pure Latin ftile of Buchanan is a fuflicient proof that
the ftudy of languages was cultivated in his time ; but tlie great
deftru<ftion of the Scottifli monuments of learning and antiquities
have rendered their early annals very lame, and too pften fa-
bulous*

The difcovery of logarithms by Napier of Marchiefton, both in
point of ingenuity and utility, may jurtly vie with any other inven-
tion of more modern times ; and, ever fince that sera, mathematical
ftudies have been profecuted in Scotland, and indeed in Europe in
general, with facility and fuccefs. The names alfo of Keil» Gre-
gory, Maclauriii, Simpfon, Pitcairn, Arbuthnot, and many others,
hold an eminent place among the literati of Europe ; and Scotland

C c produces

«■

■^^■1

.■1

'..«,

A'/M-Jf

^34)

■■•«.,,

EUR

O P E.

produces at this day. ,n the r. i , ''* ^*

.nee, work, that a';e ha^t^^'j^*"^'" °^ ^«^^^^ and fci.
the modern writers of thef^cou'rie. '" ^^ '''^'' <^°""try. fiJt
th« commo. name of Engl^'fmm rLT ""'"'^"^ '"^^'^d^d unde^

9. /fi/iy.] Scotlandias anc^^m J nT'«" **'*y "^«-
habitants CaJedones. who wcrrof cl""'^ V=»'^donia, and the in-

centurythcywcredifti„guiSilsJ"°'?^^^^^ In the fc^ th
cola the Roman oener/r.Z i ?• *^°*'' ^"^ P'«s. In 8 c a1"

^l'""" t!«°'-»Ai^'.ro the rive" T?"''''^ "«-«• ^""4

Englifl. were* nottfetS'^f f "■'' "»»'V 'fd ^he"

on the death of Qu«„ Elizabeth .nn- ''" "o*" "f En.land
.he. „o crown, ^. con,pleaed ' ""'''"7°' '^^ ""-n befS

.he^e£erortS„'{S:J^/~«t''«-- »- "»-««e
cades i and ftiU f„,^„ ^' °" '!« north the Orltne,, or oj

hardy inhabitants derive Z^Jlfft "^ S''«'»"d/ihe« ^e
ft"pendo«s rocks after birTand ,htr nSl""'?!' ^""^ '""'"S Ae
^flung abundance. I„ Sum^, Iw ^^i."'"'^'' ""''"P'y » afto!
and thetr feas at that feafon ^c^LTj^^ ? '""• « mdnighV-
Afferent nattons. »ho refort thithTf^aTchh '"'•**'"« '««y' »f
X ^"?'" *^ a^e deprived of T ""°S' ' l"" « their
other countr,es. and not a fin^fe % ^n Sr^" "'*

SECTION IV.

ELANO.

*:.

which divides it from Or™, r • ?^ ' Channel, or the Irid. s.

* Phoenician

4iM,

' ht

p. VI.

re and fci-
ntry. But
uded under
e.

and the i*n-
the fourth
I 85 Agri-
but did not
)uth of the
building a
lie Romans
icola ; but
B» thought

s regained

ind made

their con-

ly reduced

1296 Ed-

< and the

In 1602

England,

» between

re weft fie
i or Or-
vhere the
ibing the

in afto-
lidnight ;
efTels of

in their
ion with

S.IV.

IRELAND.

(35)

Antrim.

Tyrone.

;itude, ■

Ffrmanagh.

itude. H
\i Sea, ■

Armagh.

ted by H
[from E

Down.

ucian

a Phoenician or Gaelic term, (ignlfying the remoteft habitation
weftward.

1. Divi/ions,] Ireland is divided into four provinces : on the
North lies UKler, on the £u(l Leinfter, on the South Munfter, and
the Weft Connaught.

L E I N S T E R Province contains twelve Counties.
Countut, Chief Tonvns.

XiOUTH. Drogheda, Dundalk, Carlingford, Ardee, Dunleei

EastMeath. Trim, Kelts, Athboy, Navan, Duleek, Ratoath,

Ardbruccan.
Wk«tMeath. MuUingar, Athlonc, Kilbeggan, Kinncgad, Fore,
Longford. Longford, Granard, Lanelborough, Johnftown.

Dublin, Swords, Newcaftle, Balruddtiy, Finglafs,

Glafnevin.
Nads, Athy, Kildarc, Caftleuc'-mot. Ivilcullen,

Rathangan, Kilcock, Monaflerc. n.
Philipftown, Bir, TuUamore, Banagher, Bally-
boy, Geafhill.
Maryborough, Mountmellick, Portarlington, Bal-
lynekill, Mountrath, Stradbally, Ballyroan,
Abbyleix, Borris in Oflbry.
Wicklow, Arklow, Gary's Fort, Rathdrum, Bray,

BlefTington, Dunlavan, Baltinglafs, Carnew.
Carlow, Old Leighlin, Leighlin-bridge, Tullogh,

Hacketftown, Bagnalftown, Clonegall.
Wexford, Ennifcorthy, New Rofs, Fethard, Go-
rey, Bannow, Clonminesy Taghmon, Duncan-
non, Ferns.
Kilkenny, St. Canice, Thomaftown, Callan, Gow-
ran, Knocktopher, Inniftioge, Caftlecomber,
Ballyragget.
ULSTER contains nine Counties. ' -

Donnegal, Ballyfhannon, Johnftown, Killybegs,
; Lifford, Letterkenny, Raphoe, Rathmullen,

Rathmelton, Buncranagh.
Londonderry. Londonderry, Colerain, Newtownllmavady, Ma-
gherafelt, Ballinderry.
CarrickferguS) Belfaft} Lifburn, Antrim, Ran-
dalftown, Ballymenagh, Ballycaftle Connor,
Lame, Ballyraony.
Omagh, Dungannon, Augher, Strabane, Stew-

ardftown, Clogher.
Ennifkillen, Newtownbutler, Lifnelkea, Clabby»

Maguireft)ridge.
Armagh, Charlemont, Lurgan, Portadown, Tan-

deragee, Loughgall, Legacurry, or Rich-hilL
Downpatrick, Newry, Dromore, Killileagh, Ban-
gor, Newtown, Hilft)orough, Magherelin,
C c 2 Moyra»

Dublin.
Kildare.
King's Co.
Queen's Co.

Wicklow.

Carlow.

Wexford.

KiLKBNNY.

Donegal.

'iri

(36)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

^^A.

<«"

MONACHAN.

Cavan.

Cork.

Moira, Donaghadee, Rathfryland, Warrenf-
town.
Monaghan, Glaflough, Clownifli, Carrickmacrofs,

Caitleblaney.
Cavan, Kilmore, Belturbet, Coorchill, Killy-
fliandra.
M U N S T E R contains fix Counties.

Cork, Bandonbridge, Clnyne, Mallow, Rofs,
Baltimore, Youghull, Kinfale, Cloughnakilty,
Charleville, Cafllemartyr, Middleton, Rath-
cormuck, Donerail, Bantry, Skibbereen, Dun-
manway, Macromp, Buttevanr, Kanturk, Caf-
tlclyons, Carryglafs, Kiliwortb, Mitcheftown,
Fermoy, Inniflcean, Innlfhannon, Timoleague,
Newmarket, Ballyclough, Annagh, Dougiars.
Wateriord. Wa'erford, Dungarvan, Lilinore, Tallagh, Paf-

fage, Caperquin.
Clonmel, Cafhel, Tippcrary, Carrick, Thurles,
Nenagh, Feathard, Burraikean, Rofcrea, Clog-
heen, Silvermines, Cullen, Cahir.
Limerick, Kilmallock, Afkeaton, Ratlikeal, New-

caltie, Hofpital, BrufF, Kilfinan.
Tralee, Dingle Icouch, Ardfert, Agliadoe, Kil-

larney, Caftle-ifland; Lixnaw, Liftowell.
Ennis, Killaloe, Brj'anfbridge, Kilfenora, Six-
mile-bridge, Newmarket, Cjrofin.
CONN AG HT includes five Connties.

Galway, Loughrca, Athenry, Tuam, Clonfert,

Eyrecourt, Gort.
Rofcommo'n, Abbyboyle, Tulflc, Elphin, BaJlin-

a'loe, Cafllereagh, Athlone.
CaiUebar, Ballinrobe, Foxford, Kiilala, New-
port, Minola, Ballina.
Sligo, Coloony, Acbonr^'
Lcitrin, James's-tov.(. , Carrick.
In Ireland the King governs by depury, and his Lord Lieute-
nant or Viceroy is competent to the execution of laws ; or, iu his
abfence, or on his deceafe, the Lords JufHces are the liipreme go-
vernors. The Laws are enafted by authority of the two Irifli
houfes of Parliament, and fent over to Great Britain, where the
King refides, to receive his aflent.

In Ireland there are Memhers.

32 Counties, which fend to parliament - - - 64

99 Boroughs - - - - - 198

8 Cities, 9 townsj i Manor ind i Univerfity, each 2 - 38

TlPPERAR.-

Limerick.

Kerry.

Clare.

Galway.

Roscommon.

Mayo.

Sligo.
Leitrjm.

Total

- 30^
2 Climate^

S. J V.

IRELAND.

(37)

tiers.
64
198
38

5. CUmatCy Soil and 'negelalle ProduEi'wns.] Ireland is more tem-
perate than even England as to heat and cold, but its air is more
humid, from the adjoining Atlantic, and it is ftill more fubjedl to
clouds and rain. ;, „.,. .

"^iThe foil is various ; in fome places it is fo rich as to want no
mi»n'irc, and in a few places fo barren that hulbandry can hardly
rcndef it fertile.

In this long opprefTed country, agriculture has been much ne-
glected, but happily things are now taking a different turn. Whe»-<*
the lands are not naturally fertile the inhabitants take care *.o ma-
nure them with dung, aflies, mud or lime, in order to e'irich the
ibil. By thefe and various other iniprovemeiits lately nade in
agriculture the lands in Ireland produce much larger qua itiiies of
corn, flax, artificial graiTes, cuhmiry vegetables, Sec. than formerly.
This happy change is in a great meafure owing to the Dubhn So-
ciery, efhibUfhed for the ii.iprovement of various arts and manu-
fadtures, among which hu/bandry engages a very confiderable fliarc
of their attention. The premiur s oirered by tJiis focicty have in-
troduced the cultivation of clovcr, trefoil, tlie fiunt-foin, iucern,
rye-grafs, and various other- vegetables for the Ibod of cattle.
Many unprofitable bogs have alfc' been drained and rendered excel-
lent land.

There are at prefcnt few foreCis in Ireland, and thofe confined
chielly to the provinces of J^emltcr and UKier. Thefe produce
excellent timber, particularly oak. Formerly the wholf? country
was covered with woods, bat fivice the reformation they have; been
cut down in fo extraordinary a manner that tiie inhabitants are now
obliged to import large quantities of timber for their buildings.

3. Mineral ProduSliuns.] It is princi}!ally in this century that
the mines of Ireland have been difcovcred, though there appear to
be fome vefHges of Dunifh wcrks of this fort near Clontarf, on
the edge of Dublin bay. In the county of Antrim there is one
which confids of a mixture of (ilver and lead, every thirty pounds
of lead-on^ producing about r, pound of lilver ; bur another mine
of the fame kind in Connatigl t does not produce half the quantity
of filver, while one at Wict.low is dill lichcr than that in the
county of Anfrira. About twelve miles from Limerick, in the
county of Tipperary> two mi les, one of copper and the otlier of
lead, have been difcovered. J; on mines arc dilpeifcd all over the
kingdom. Here are alfo qu: ,ries of marble, freelione and fine
flaie. Coals are alfo ti ig in UKler and Connaught, and at Kil-
kenny in Leinfter there i> a peculiar fpccies, fomething refembling
the canal coal of Lancaller, very hard, of a bright black, burns
freely, and emits little cr no fmoak.

There are very few mineral watejrs in Ireland. The principal
fpring of this kind is fituated on the banks of the LifFey, at the
villajjc of Leixlip, feven miles from Dublin. There are other wa-
ters \\\ over the kingdom to which credulity afiigns rairaculoui

powers,

(38)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

'". ^^ .

powers, but as thcfe are only imaginary they have greatly loft their
credit) and will probably at length be entirely difregardtd.
' ^. j^nitnals.] There is great reafon to believe that the moofe-
deer was formerly an inhabitant of this country, from its horns
being fometimes dug up ; one pair of thefe has meafured eleven
feet from the extreme tips of the horns. Another great curiofity
in this ifland are the gof-hawks and 2;er-falcons. Ireland was for-
merly overrun with wolves, but many of the woods which har-
boured them having been deftroyed, the wolf-dogs have almoft or
altogether extirpated them. The wolf-dogs are peculiar to this
country ; they are much larger than maftifFs, and fhaped fomething
like greyhounds, but much grofler, and very gentle and governable.
The other animals are much the fame with thofe of England. In
their amazing herds of horned cattle formerly confifted the chief
wealth of the inhabitants, and at prefent they form one great article
of their exports. Their flocks; of flieep are alfo prodigioufly large,
and in many places where the pafture is fine, and the climate ex-
ceeding tempeiate, they are ihorii twice in a year, to the great
emolument of their owners. Hogs are likewife very numerous, as
are geefe, turkeys and fowls of various kinds. Rabbits are in
much greater plenty than in England, and moles and venomous
creatures have not yet fo»md their way here. The fifh on the coafts
of Ireland are in greater plenty than on thofe of England, and at
the fame time frequently better and larger in their kind.

5. Face of the Country^ Mountains, Rivers and Lakes."] Perhaps
no country in the world has improved fo nnich in a political capa-
city during the prefent century, if we except Ruffia, as Ireland has
done. The unhappy quarrels that took pkce on account of di^
ferent national and profeffional diftintflions, and that for ages defo-
lated this wretched country, a detail of which would alike blacken
the Irifti and the Englifh of thofe rueful times. Thefe unhappy
differences have in a great meafure fubfided, and the remembrance
of them, together with the unbecoming diftin.aions that produced
them, appear by degrees to be pafling away.

Ireland at prefent exhibits an improving ftate of agriculture,
encreafing manufactures, and commerce extending to every quarter
of the globe. Canals are now opened in different parts of the
country, and the roads are pretty good. The little vehicles how-
ever which totter along the roads, and on which the inland trade
as yet difadvantagcoufly iabourr, may fhew the evil of being too
ranch attached to the unimproved manners of our forefathers, even
in the common affairs of Wi.u Thefe however are not the only
carriages in Ireland. Though the infant commerce of this country
cannot exhibit numerous waggons ?s in England, the wealthy
and the luxurious have their elegancies and fuperfluities equal to
the other nations of Europe.

There are feveral lofty chains as well as fingle mountains in this

kingdom j and they have three words in the Irifti that cxprcfs the

• -^ '■ different

S.IV.

IRELAND.

(39)

different degrees qf their elevation, viz. knock, flieu and bien.
Among the laft or higheft fort are the mountains of Carlingford,
the Curlieus v/hich feparate the counties of Sligo and Rofcoiumon,
thofe in the county of Donegal about Lough Swilly, the Manger-
ton mountains in the county of Kerry, Croagh Patrick in the
county of Mayo, the Gaulty mountains in the county of Tippe-
rary, Slieu-bloom running through part of die King and Queen's
counties and part of the county of Tipperary, the Brandon moun-
tains in the county of Kerry, to the call of Smerwiclc Bay, Slieu-
galen in the county of Tyrone, the mountains of Wickiow, par-
ticularly the Sugar-loaf Hill ; the mountains of Mourne and Iveah
in the county of Down are elleeraed among the higheft in the
kingdom, particularly that called Slieu Denard, v/hich is thought
to be one thoufand and fifiy-fix yards in peqtendicular height, and
many others, fcveral of which contain veins of iron, lead, copper,
coak, quarries of ftone, fiate, marble. Sic.

The principal rivers of Ireland are the Shannon, Barrow, Nore,
Suir, Bann, Lee, LifFey and Boyne.

Ireland abounds with lakes, or loughs as they are called in^his
country, of which Lough NeagJj, near twenty miles in lengthy and
from ten to twelve in breadth, is mort remarkable for its petrifying
qualities. The Lake of Kiliarney is celebrated for its echoes and
enchanting profpedls ; and Lough Earne, in the county of Ferma-
nagh, almofl furrounded by lofty eminences or mountains, abounds
as well as ihe others with a variety of filh. It is diverfified with
upwards of three hundred ifles, moft of them well wooded, inha-
bited, aad covered with cattle. There are many other loughs or
lakes in 'his country^ and here, as well as in Scotland, they give
the name of lough to an inlet or arm of the fea.

6, Commerce and ManufaSures.] The articles of manufafturc
and commerce in Ireland are much the fame with thofe of England ;
however, in the com^ arifcn between the two in this refpe(5l, we may
perhaps fitly enough coofider Ireland as an infant rapidly (hooting
out, and England as a youth gaining flow but Iteady acquifitions of
ftrength.

The linen raanufa(5lure is the ftaple Tade of Ireland, the increafe
whereof within the prefent century is really aftonifhing. The only
market for vending the whole produce was comprehended in a few
rooms in two or three inns in and near Church-ftreet and Pill-lane
in pubUn, until the year 1 7 28, when the linen-hall in that city
was built and opened by the truftees of the linen manufafture, (to
whofe continued care and attention much gratitude is due by the
nation) fince which they have from time to time made many and
\axgt additions, whereby it now contains about four hundred rooms,
all fully occupied, many of them perhaps two or three times each
market, there being three annually. The yarn-hall adjoining is alfb
an extenfive building, wherein a great deal of bufinefs is tranfadted
both for home maaufadlure aad exportation. Yet all this doth not
.. , defcribe

(ioy

^ u R

tiU- ^

•#■,

f^l'

O P E.

defcnbe one-haif of the ;n. r . ^- p. yj.

^^n ^or many years La r' ^°'' ^'•°"' Beifart nnl ,
yearjy exported to In f ^ ^^^'"''^^ ^"ndred tho»f ^ ^^ '^^'^ ^«

^own, at the exn^nr / ^^Pacious nen-haM L i. -"^"g^and and
<lred rooms fnTl? , ""f '^^^ '"i^abitants col ^''" b"'^' '"" that

^ittJe ftor of thoL f '''^^'' ^'■°'" thence of r ""''^ ^'^'''' ^^ch

«er, they exceed hnf /'^"^ ^^°"^0"cierrrandlL ' '^^'°"^ ^^""^
«nhon /erhng yea i;"^ ^r ^"^^'" '" thau^ h ' ^"^^ '" ^^■
''^^^ew years ffn^eit'r.?' '°"°" manufaflu"; \ "T ^^^^ ^
"pid progref, inthlT ^^^^ in this kingdom \ ^°"^^ ^« a
^ing dinars water m'^'r ^'"^^ ^''an even th^'r^'' "^^^^ ^ '"ore
'^""dred iooms T; [' ^°' '"^^'^g and %?„'/'""" ^'•^^^' there

fM manufaZe T.' ^^'"P^-ating thT^il [^^'^ ^""^^^ P^^^f
^•'nen-cJoth f, Ik ^^^ ^^^o^e amount nf' '""^"^^'^^^ ^^ tins
J'^^yarn five f ""; 7° ^'^^'ons T2. ""^'T ^^ this rime of
, '^eother^x r^^^^^^^^ -<i that o^f

thofe ofany other ' '"^'^'"^^^ and po£ '/?•"?' ^"^ «"ffs

C>f the fubterraneoii. ""^"^'^^

go'hic ftr„aur ^ ° K'= "PO" «te f?e«f,^„ ^.''^ .yP«ra„ce of

»" th/fide, »d Lrt"'/™" *= roof tte Scf f ^"'■- -''
. Sone above a a„a„"° f "■= "''e of ruftic orn=„ ' ^ ="°'"fted

•h^yWe heard thrir"?' '" "'efe thev ll^ ' "'^'^ ""W"

The Giants Caufe„=, • . ' """= '■"e

counted the sv^^^n^ '" '""e county of A . •

IfMwn world. The'f. T" ^^™»fiabJe t,. „- "^, ?'™°'* ">«
confidered in th» T,. ?• ^! and as fuel. ;, r ^ ' "^ ■''^ dw

' "^ ' conceive

■f

S.IV.

IRELAND.

(40

conceive a proper idea of this unparalleled curioHty we may imagine
an approach to it from the fea ; its lirft appearance is that of a bold
rocky fhore, with extenliye ranges of fliclving on which people may
walk. The rocks inficad of being difpofcd in laminae or ftrata»
form bafaltes or angular columns. The columns generrdly are pen-
tagonal, or have five fides, and are fo clofely attached to each other, .
that though jierfedly difiin<5t from top to bottom fcarce any thing can
be introduced between them. This extraordinary difpofition of the
rocks continues to the waters edge and under the fea, it alfo obtains
in a fmall degree on the oppofite fnore of Scotland.

The chryifals of falts in the works of creation as well as under a
chymical procefs, aflurae certain legular and determinate forms, as
cubes, various forts of pyramids, parallclopipeds, &c. ; and we
might imagine that this cclel-.rated nomontory, made up of thefe
innumerable ma^ive columns of itone owing their origin to fonie fimi-
lar operation in nature, were net at all more wonderful than the
chryfhillization of filts, except as their ftupendous fize imprefs fuch
little beings as we are Vv'ith amazement ; but the caufey is (till more
curious in the littl" than the great. The columns themfelvcs are not
each of one fohd frme in an upright joficion, but compofed of feve-
ral (hort lengths exa<fily joined, not with flat furfaccs as in works of
art, but what is moft extraordinary, they arc articulated into each
other as a ball in a focket, the one end of the joint having a cavity
into which the convex end of the oppofite is exaflly fitted ; this is
not vifible but by disjointing the two liones. The depth of the con-
cavity or convexity is generally from three to four inches ; and
what is ftiil farther remarkable of the joint, the convexity and the
correfponding conciivity is not conformed to the external angular
figure of the column, but cxadtly round, and as large as the fize of
the column will admit. It is Oill fuither remarkable that the ar- ,
ticulations of thcfe joints are frequer.tiy inverted. In fome the con-
cavity is upwards in others the leverfe.

The lateft and mod }ihilofophic conciufions on the formation of
this natural curiofity appear to be ; that the wliole body of the
rocks was once in a ftate of fluidity, being no other than the lava
cf a burning moimtain ; that the ])rodigious mafs of melted ftone
cracked in its cooling into the forms we now fee it in (and in fomc
of the joints the {lone is not cracked quite througli but folid in the
middle) that it may fince have been deranged and broken by earth-
nuakes ; that thefe have fwallowed uj) the volcano itfelf, and that
the waters of the neighbouring ocean now roll over the place where
it once flood.

The Irifli nation appears to be of greater antiquity than any other
, in Europe. It has in common with other countries its Druidical
remains, as circles of Hones, cairns, tumuli in which urns are com-
monly found, cromliach.3, 8fc. and it appears, 'till this day there
remains with their larguagc a remarkable vcfHgc of their manners,
or facrifices ; they kindle fires on high places at midfummer eve,

though

■,T

(40

EUROPE.

P. VI.

though chridianity has long lince fupplanted the worfliip of the
fun.

It is generally known, that from the remote ages of antiquity the
children of men havt migrated from the Ead to thefe parts of the
world ; and it has been thought by fome that colonies of that very
ancient people the Scythians, and with more appearance of proba-
bility that the Phoenicians, or their defcendants the Carthaginians,
found their way to Spain along the Mediterranean, aivd from thence
to this ifland, at a very early period, under the name of Milefians ;
moreover, that the Phoenicians, who were a maritime people, traded
to this country. The tumuli, or monumental heaps in Ireland,
and the name of Scotia iiri^ applied to this country, have been con-
fidered as derived from the Scythians* ; and with a far more fub-
Aantial appearance of truth, the very curious antiquities of Ire-
land have been conlidered as remains of the Phoenicians, and the
arts they introduced : Of thefe the moft inconteftible are the various
metal inftruments, efpecially the brazen fwords, which are of the
fame metal and conflruiflion of thofe lately found upon the plains of
Cannae, with which the Carthaginians fought. There has been a
(Iriking agreement alfo difcovered between the Irifh and Punic
languages.

The moft noted antiquities of Ireland are the Pharos or round
columnar tojvers : the learned however are not agreed about the
particular ufe to which thefe edifices were applied ; fome fay they
were places of penance, others that they were belfries, the very
name of them in Irifh Cloghahd, importing a fteeple with a bell.
But the prevailing opinion feems to have been, that they were an-
chorite pillars fuch as Simon Stylites and his followers, with un-
common aufterity and perfeverance, to the amazement of the gazing
multitude, ufed to ftand upon motionlcfs like ftatues, and as it were
removed from the earth and its low cares to meditate only upon
heavenly things. Again it has been remarked, that over great part
of the Eaft they have tall round fteeples called Minarets, with bal-
conies at top, whence a perfon calls the people to publick worfhip at
Hated hours ; and it has been fuppofed, as the Irifh had their arts
, from Phoenicia, that from thence alfo came the model of thefe tow-
ers, which ferved, as the Minarets of the Eaft do at prefent, till
bells came into ufe.

At the Hill of Tarah, about eighteen miles north-weft from Dub-
lin, three ftill remain. Vefh'ges of the circular forts in which the
feveral chiefs ufed to pitch their tents, or ereft other temporary
iheds on occafion of the triennial conventions held there, when the

monarch,

* Others feem to have concluded, that the Irifh were originally colonies of
Britons driven out from thtir count' y hy the Belgai, who, 350 years before
the Chriflian era, crofl'ed the channel from Gaul and feized the whole Southern
i -coaft from Kent to Devonfhire ; and that hence, not from the Scythians, they
received their ancitiit uinc cf Scuitcs or Scots, which fignilits the wandurers
or refugees.

S. IV.

IRELAND.

(+3)

monarch, provincial kings and fubordinate toparchs, folemnly zC-
fembled to adjuft rights, enadl laws and promulge them. This an-
cient nation, older than imperial Rome, if we may believe Orpheus*
who CKprefsly tells us that the Argonauts failed near the ifland
lerne ; as it never felt the fway of that empire,* fo it fcarcely exhi-
bits any Roman antiquities. Yet it appears that ambitious people
were acquainted with this illand ; for Tacitus fays its ports and har-
bours were better known by trade, and commerce than thofe of Bri-
tain. "When the ambaflador of Henry V. claimed precedence at
the Council of Conftance, he founded his title upon his mafter be-
in^ Lord of Ireland, a ftate of undifputed antiquity. If the Danes
•it ti e time of their ex|'ii!(ion left any Vclbge of their former power
:i; this Ifland, ciihcr from the hatred of the Irifh to their memory,
oi lonie other caufe, they feem generally at this day to be demo-
liiluu or extmdt.

b'. I.erm'mg and Schools.] Greece and Egypt in very remote anti-
quity were feminarits of learning to the re(t of the world ; and Ire-
land in latter days feems to have anfwtred the fame dcfcription to
the ether natict; • f Europe. When the ravages of the Goths and
Va.'iduls had dcfolntcd the improvements of Europe, and reached
alio to a confidctable extent on the African continent ; and when
monkjfh fuperftition, fHll more baneiul to fcience, had compleated
what the Goths begun, learning appears to have floirrilhed in Ire-
land. Spencer fays it is certain that Ireland had the ufe of letters
very anciently, and long before England ; he thought they were de-
rived from the Phoenicians. Bcde fpeaks of Ireland as the great
mart of literature to which they reforted from all parts of Europe.
He relates that Ofwald, the Saxon king, applied to Ireland for
learned men to inlhudt his people in the principles of Chriflianity.
Camden fays it abounded wiili men of fplendid genius in the ages
when literature was rejedled every where eife ; according to him the
abbies Luxieu in B.urgundy, Roby in Italy, Witzburg in Frank-
land, St. Gall in Switzerland, Malmfhury and Lindisfern in Eng-
land, and Jona or Ky in Scotland, v/ere founded by Irifh monks.
The younger Scaliger fays at the time of Charlemagne, and two
hundred years before, almoft ail the learned were of Ireland. The
firft profeflbrs in the univerfity of Paris were from this ifland ; and
it is faid that Alfred brought profeflbrs to his newly-founded college
of Oxford from this country. At this day, the patron faints, as
they are called, of feveral nations on the continent are acknowledged
to be Irifh ; hence we may fee how Ireland pbtained the name of
, the Ifland of Saints. Armagh in old times is faid to have had fe-
veral thoufands of ftudcKts at once, and here were other feats of
learning equally famous. In fad, when we read of the ancient li-
terature of Scotland, we muft underfland it as fpoken of Ireland
under its ancient name of Scotia, or the improvements of Scotland
immediately derived from hence. Ireland retained the name of
Scotia 'till fo late as tlie fifteenth century, with the addition of

Major

•?*

■:mf-

fit

^w) ^ >: Euro

«'-e«ea reiHUe pr^f r r ''^' ^^'c ancient S.!! u ^ ^^^" ^^ ^e

t^cy rccn. o lo^v .1° '' ^'"'"^ ^^'"y'"2 tS" iT^ '''''''' ^e the

boa/bof rhe^r^- ' ^"^ ^'"5 James 7 • ^^''•«<^'on, that

there arln '' ^""^ efhibH/hed fn k- i^ '" ^'■''^''"^- Several

>^Win, .0 Fi t' r„ t'h (^ ""■«-""/ of R„t> ;V'^ ^"^'^

»on tide of i^i,. - ;; ;«-j^ -.«„„!,; .^tdcir,- "'■■"

Swift, I.dand. pSm P™ ""= "»"« rf Ufter b' f'^r''""''-

comi) eatl» fnhd , J . •,,"''' '''^'d a nan of ;, ^ ," <»• 'o-

^'f-'^ -I"-' period ,he n*'.^"8''"> 'oonolffion ' f T^ """
petty fovereigi ;«'''? '"""d had been div ded in^ Z*^ ">= ^^oJe.

Dai^e:. Si,™ wa fh. r ^>^ *' H«.it'and Wool ™«^""ons

<iefcendHnts of the Britons r?"°'^"^' ^ ^^'"^ ^inf Z ?! '^''^'

^^^^ons, they wefe the natnr. ^ !i ■ ^^'^^» ^s

■ ^ "^^"'•'^ and nohtfuJ Tub.

d>-

p. VI.

that

S. IV.

IRELAND.

(45)

je(fl9 of the Englifti monarch. It was alfo fuggeded that the re-
nowned king Arthur, Egfred the Northumbrian prince, and Edgar
one of the Sax*ip kings of England, li.'d all led their armies into
Ireland) and there made valuable acquiiitions which their fucceflbr
was in honour bound to recover and maintain. The king took 4
more efFedtual method of enfuring his reputation. He applied to
the Pope, rcprCfented that the inhabitants of Ireland were funk into
the moft wretclied fhite of corruption, both with regard to morals
and religion ; that Henry, zealous for the honour and enlargement
of God's kingdom, had conceived the pious dcflgn of credling it in
this unhappy country ; was ready to devote himfclf and all his
powers to this meritorious fcrvice ; implored the benetiidion of tJie
pontiff; and rccjuefled his pern-.ilTion and authority to enter Ireland,
to reduce the difobedicnt and corrupt, to eradicate a!l fin and wick-
ednefs ; to inftrudt the ignorant, and fprcad the blefied influence of
the Gofpel in all its purity and perfedion ; promifing at the fame
time to pay a yearly tribute to St. Peter from tlie land thus to be
reduced to his obedience, and to the Holy See. Adrian, the
reigning pope, rejoiced at this application, which tended fo much to
the advancement of his own power. A bull was therefore imme-
diately formed, conformable to the m.oli fanguine wiflies of Henry,
which was fent to England without delay, tog'ther with a ring, the
token of his invcftiture as rightful foveicign of Ireland. But what-
ever inclination the king of England or the Pcpe might at tliis time
(A. D. 115 6) have for the fubjei5tion of Ireland, tiie f;tuation oft
the Englifli affairs obliged Henry to defer it for fome time.

In the mean time intcftine broils harra/Fed this country ; and
among other revolutions, Dermod king of Leinfler was depofcd as
a man utterly unworthy of his ftation, and another of his funily
was raifed to the throne. The depofed prince fought the protedioa
of the Englifh ; at firlt lie was joined by private; adventurers, yet
with the countenance of Henry TI. thefe firft made fettlements in
this country in 1169, and in 1172 the king arrived himlclf, and in
his treaty witJi Roderick, who was confidered as monarch of Ireland,
the whole ifland was fubmitted to him. The fucceifes of Robert
Bruce, king of Scotlaml, ratfcd great commotions among the Infh,
who were tempted to transfer their allegience from the kings of
England to thofc of Scotland : In 1 3 1 5 he expelled the Engliili
out of almoft all the places they held in this ifland, and was pix)-
claimed king of Ireland. But the Scots were expelled in 13 18,
and the Irifli fubmitted to Edward II. They appear to have re-
mained quiet during the fubfequent part of this reign ; but in that
of Edward III. they once more revolted. This monarch, however,
having fubdued the kingdcr ^ treated the nation with fuch lenity,
as entirely gained their affe(5}ion£. 'Till the reign of Henry VIII,
the kings of England only nfTumed ; h*. appellation of Lords of Ire-
land ; he took the title of King ox Irelandi which his fucceifors.
have continued ever fince. ,....-. . . . .

10. Man

(40

EURO

P E.

-'f

%.:

«ow» of '"dt wSS f»"'^"'"'y 'ha, rf'otlfi ^^"'- . J<
% bay. where fhi». " """'^ "tendir, into ^hf r ' *' "P"»'

nonh-C^eft wfll'J' "''«'"''% from °al "jm '^'" '"<'«»">-
•ions, whth are fr°""" ""«« '''i^"/ of Rult T?', '/""''' «

^^.^r ^f'^o^>'" """ -'- -pot A-of'TafTrj

H" iiiSPT?' "<^"t'::di!;viT^^ *^---'' for ro^e

En«/a„d. E7«,a°d IlJ '^J" '"" " '"« redLd t pT' 'j "»"

S««eof ,hi,pJ°S\£!'".^ Pt'" "> •*= P^rtor rf ™r
and prerogativeVartb!' f ^« •"" ""^ 'he fanie ri^^ ""''■
ftrtnofiB eovernmV ' '"'""owners enjoyed rS""?* P""'"-^

P™P.«y inTeXd'/'T^S'li'ft^^- V^^^-'afn^Lf^^^^^
a"i Of Jerfey G ' ""' "' """"'^ ^^ ^

botii'

■A

p. VI.

'lly fituated
" north to
fteen j and
lorth.
le with the
ery /"mail,
ound with
ftone. It
^he capital
and Ram-
It thofe at
al infcrip-
nt monq-
brafs and

for fome
iexander
■ it con-
ard I. of

Earl of
i family,
ilarJs of
ed upon
Derby,
vs, deb-
The
ning of

i/Iand
eration

confe-
)owers
the

itorial
art of

S.IV.

BRITISH ISLES.

(47)

fitu-
t St.

Cape

and
Al-
ori-
ling

The
»uf-

ves,../ .

)tl^;,.,:

both thefe iflands abound ; they are likewife very intent upon the im-
provement of commerce. At Jerfey there is a manufifture of {lock-
ings, which, together with caps, form the (laple commodity of that
place ; but a confidcrable trade in fifh is carried on between thefe
iHands and Newfoundland, and they difpofc of their cargoes in the
Mediterranean. The inhabitants fpeak a very bad French, with an
intermixture of Engliih words. ^

SECTION

Denmark, Norway, &c.

Lapland forms the northern coafl: of Europe, and the neigiibour-
ing powers of Denmark, Sweden and Rullia claim different divifions
of it ; but from fuch a land of ice, and of fnows, mountains and
moran*es, we can hardly expeft them to derive much profit. The
/kins of fquirrels, foxes, &c. compofe the trifling tribute the Lap-
landers pay, and the medium of what little trafllc they carry on.

0/the Kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, ^c.

Thefe two kingdoms, which were united !n the year t 376 by the
marriage of Aquin, king of Norway, with Margaret, daughter and
heirefs of Waldemar, king of Denmark, were formerly ptrt of
Scandinavia, a large country, comprehending Denmark, N>rway
and Sweden.

Denmark, including Norway, is one of the moft northern king-
doms of Eui ope, and includes the following dominions : Denmark
Proper, territories in Germany, Norway, part of Lapland, and fe-
veral iflands in the Baltic, and in the German Ocean or North Sea.
The moft fouthern part of Denmark is nearly in the fame latitude
with Dublin ; its moil northern territories lie quite within the ardtic
circle.

Denmark Proper is bounded on the north by the Cattegate or
Schaggerac Sea, on the fouth by Germany, on the well by the
German Ocean, and on the ead by the Sound.

I. Con/iitutioNy Language., Religious Proftjjlon^ The national re-
ligion is Lutherifm. The king is defpotic ; but the adminiftration
of civil juftice in this kingdom is conlidered as a model for other
nation ., and all the laws are contained in one quarto volume. Their
language is a dialed of the ancient Teutonic, formerly ufed in all
parts ot Scaiidinavia. Thofe in the higher ranks of life generally
ufe the German or High Dutch language ; they alio fpeak the
French fluently, and generally ufe it to ftrangers.

2. Z)fw-

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22 t V ST MAIN STRUT

WEBiTH.N.Y. 14S80

(716) •72-4S03

«Trv» ■

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Mil

(48)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

2, Divl/iontl Denmsirk Proper is divided into two parts, called
Nonh and South Jutland, and fubdivided into the following dio-

cefes :

North Jutland.

Dtocefes.
Aalbourg,
Wiburg,
>\arhuien)
Ripen,

Chief Towns,
Aalbourg.
V'iburg.
Aarhus.
Ripen.

IJles,
Sceland or!
Zealand, j

Funen,

Arroe,

Langland,

Lallandt

South
Diocefes.
Gottorf,
Hederftive,
Apenrade,
Flen(burg,
Tenderc,
Hufum,
Eyder^tede,
The Idands of Denmark arc,
To'wn .
( Copenhagen and
\ Elfineur.
I Odenfce or Ot-
\ tenfee.
Kopping.

■ri

Jtfl-tAND.

Chief Toivtif.
Hefnick.
Hedcrftive.
Apenrade.
Flenfburg.
Tendere.
Hufum.
Eyderdede.

T'oivrs,
Nicoping.

IJIes.
Falfter or")
Falftra, j
Mona or Mune, Stege.
Saltholm, Snmfoe.

All»..i, Sunderfljurg. '

Rutcoping. Femeren, Samos.

Naxchow. Bornholm, Nex.

3. Baltic Sea.2 The waters neither ebb nor flow in the Baltic,
though a current fets through the Sound or mouth of it into the
German Ocean. Sometimes, indeed, this current is (lopped by
Arong winds from the N. W. and then large quantities of water arc
driven into the harbours of the Baltic. Between the continent and
the large iflands of Zealand and Funen are the two famous mouths
or freights call the Great and Little Belt, and the Ore Sound. The
latter, which fepara^es Denmark from Sweden, is not above an hun-
dred and thirty-one fathoms broad in the narroweH; part. And this
being the ufual pafiage for (hips in and out of the Baltic, and under
the dominion of the king of Denmaik, that prince exa<^s a certain
tribute or toll from all (hips trading to any part of the £a(l Sea.

4. jiir, Soil and Produce.^ The air is (harp, but its rigour is
abated from its vicinity to the fea. Their fummcrs are very (hort
hut hot, and vegetation goes on very fad. The foil is in many places
barren, efpecialiy on the high mountains, which abound in leveral
parts of the country ; but there are very large and fertile pa(Ures in
the vallies, where black cattle are fed, and many of them fent to
the Netherlands, where they grow to a prodigious (Ize. Here is
alfo a numerous race of (Irong though little horfes, efpecialiy in Wi-
burg. Tn fome parts there are excellent arable lands, which, befides
producing corn fufTicient for the inhabitants, furni(h condderable
quantities for exportation. Mecklenburg is in a great meafure fup-
plied with com from the idands of Falflev and Mona ; and the Dutch
fetch many (hip loads annually from the idand of Lalland.

5. Mountains^ Rivers and Laies."} None of the mountains o^
Denmark merit a particular defcription. The highefl are on the

north-

p. VI.

S. V.

DENMARK.

(49)

north-call fide of Gottorp ; but there are many others dirfcmiu.ted
through the whole country.

The rivers are very numerous in this country, cfpecially in'South
Jutland and the dutcliy of Slefwick, but not one large enough to
receive fliips of any ronfidcrable buithen. The Eyder is the largeft,
and will admit of Icout fhips at its mouth ; but this is rather a bay
than a rivor. The fmaller, however, though not navigable, greatly
contribute to fertilize the countries through which they flow. There
9te a confiderable number of lakes too, which, as well as the rivers,
abound in fifh of various kinds, as falmun, perch, tench, trouts, eels,
flounders, Sec.

6. Manufaftures and Commerce.'} The Danes have fome tolerable
manufaAures of hardware, and artifls of every kind are now prett)'
well advanced in their refpedtive profeilions. They may probably
fbon equal thofe of other nations, but at prefent the fale of their
produ(5^ions ie almofl limited to their own country.

Many attempts have been made to render the trade of this king-
dom very extcnfive, but they have not yet fucceeded. It may in-
deed at prefent be confidered as the center of the im^iortant and pro-
fitable trade of the Baltic. Here arc feveral companies cftablifhed
for the encouragement of trade, particularly the Afiatic Company,
the Weft Indian and Guinea Companies, a General Trading Com-
pany, and an Icclandifh Finmark Company. But the favourite pro-
]t&. of drawing the extcnfive trade of Hamburgh to Altena, a town
not above a mile diflant, but in the dominions of Denmark, has not
yet been fuccefsful. The exports of this country are black cattle,
horfes, com, butter, tallow, hides, flock-fifh, train oil, tar, pitch,
iron and timber of various kinds : oak is forbidden by a particuk*-
ordioance to be fent out of the kingdom. The imports, befJdsi the
£afl and Well Indian commodities ftom their fettlement^- in thofe
p^rts, confifl of fait, wine, brandy, &c.

In the year 1736 a bank was eflablifhed at Copenhagen, whofe
notes from ten to a hundred rix-doUars pafs cu/ient in every part of
the kingdom. An infurance company for ihipping '^as alio efta-
blifhed about the fame time , and it appears from the cuftom-houfe
books of 1770 that three thoufand one hundred and fixty fhips and
fmall craft entered the port of Copenhagen during that year.

7. Learning and Schools.! Befides the univerfity at Coj)enhagen,
confifHng of four colleges, there are feveral well regulated fchools in
mofl of the large towns in the kingdom. Denmark has produced
.'viveral learned men, among whom we may reckon Tyclio Brahe,
Borrichius, and the Bartholines, efpecially eminent in ailronomy or
medicine.

The ancient infcriptions cut upon the rocks in feveral parts of
Denmark have much engaged the attention of the learned. They
arc in the Runic charafter, and thought to be hifbrical, but fo im-
perfeflly known even to anticjuarians thcmfelves, that they are now

D tl ignoraut ;

■ I

«: !

■ r

■■*

(JO)

EUROPE.

P.VI.

ignorant of their true import. This method of cutting the accounts
of memorable events upon rocks is thought to be the uiiginal method
of wrtdngy before paper of any kind or waxen tables were known.

SECTION VI.

Norway, Icelano» &c.

Norway is bounded on the fouth by the entrance into the BaitiCf
called the Categate ; on the weft and north by the Northern Ocean ;
and on the eail by a long ridge of mountains, which feparates it
from Sweden. It is divided and mbdivided in the following planner t

I. Divijiont.

North Divilion,

Middle DiviHon,

Subdivlfioni, Chief Towns.

I ^L'f land **' ^'*''*'^^'" } Wardhuys.
Drontheim and Bergheny

South Divifion, Anflo or Aggerhoys,

( Drontheim, Ber-

\ gheo Stavanger.

( Aggerhuys, Frede-

\ rickftadt,Chri(liana'

2. Climate and Produce.] The air in Norway is generally pure
and falubrious ; very dry in the midland parts of the country, but
moid on the fea coafls. In winter the cold is exceflive, and the
whole country feems covered with ice and fnow. The pealants bving
the produce of their lands to market upon fledges, and carry back in
the (ame vehicles the commodities they want in their fequeftered
places of abode. Nor are the heats of fummer lefs remarkable ;
the various fpecies of vegetables, particularly barley, grow up and
ripen in fix weeks or two months, vegetation being always accelerated
in a wonderful manner when there is only a fliort feafon allowed.
Hence we need not be furprized to find that notwithftanding the fe-
vere frods great quantities of corn are produced in Norway. The
paftures alfoj efpecially in the vallies, are equal to tho(e in mod coun-*
tries ; fo that the inhabitants have cattle, butter, chcefe, &c. fuffi-
cient for their own confumption. They have alfo garden vegetables
in great plenty ; and they have lately made very conHderable improve-
ments in gardening, and propagating fruit-trees. Their large and
extenfive forefts form h. principal fource of their wealth. In thefe
are found amazing quantities of fir, pine, elm, aHi, yew, beecht
oak alder, &c.

3. FoJJih.~\ Norway abounds in quarries of excellent marble of
all colours ; fome detached pieces of alabafler ; feveral kinds of fpar,
chalk-ftone, cement-flone, mill-done, baking-done, date, talc, fwine-
done, the magnet or loaddone, and the amianthus or ad>edos. In
this are likewife found amethyds, agate, granates, beautiful chrydals,
pyrites or quartz, &c. but there are no flints.

The

*• *r

S. VI.

NORWAY, ate.

(50

The metals are of feveral kinds. At Numedale, near Drammen,
there is a mine with veins of pure mafTy filver ; there is another with
very rich ore at Jarlefberg ; and a third at Kondgfberg. There arc
feveral copper mines, three of them remarkably rich. Iron mines
are found almod every where in the mountains. Here are alfo mines
of quickfilver, fulphur, fait, vitriol and allum.

4. Jamais.'] The tame animals of Norway are a breed of fmall
but well proponioned horfes, black cattle, (heep, goats, kids, a few
hogs, and a great number of cats and dogs. The wild animals are
the elk, the rein-deer, the lynx, the bear, the glutton, the fox, the
wolf, the leming, the ermin, the marten, the beaver, the hare, the
rabbit, and the wild cat ; theie arc many of them found in all the
cold northern countries.

There are mod of the birds in Norway that are common to Eu-
rope, and its fea coafls are covered with innumerable flights of water
fowl ; and here are •numerous flocks of fowl that are peculiar to the
northern countries.

There is fcarcely a fi(h to be named which is not found in the
lakes, rivers or feas of Norway ; and the latter is the habitation of
feveral extraordinary creatures, among which the moft remarkable
are the fea-fnake and kraken.

5. Mountains, Rivtrs.^ The mountains of Norway are remark-
able for their extent, their height, and the torrents of water that
gulh from their declivities. They cover the greater part of the
countr)', and ftrike a Granger with terror. The roads over thefe
mountains are equally terrible and dangerous, there being often no
other path than what is formed by an ill-fecured wooden bridge
thrown over a breach in a frightful precipice or roaring cataradl.
Thefe roads wind in fuch a manner, as to render the pafTage over
the mountain Hardangerfield, about .^>venty Englifh miles, extremely
dangerous. The fame may be obferved of that over Fileiield, which
is a'oout fifty miles, and the pod road. To prevent travellers from
being lofl or bewildered, the way is pointed out by pods, fixed at
the didance of two hundred paces from each other ; and on Filefield
are two houfes furnifhed with fire, light, and kitchen utenfils, at the
public expence, for the convenience of thofe who are obliged to pa(s
along this dreadful road.

There are feveral large rivers in Norway, but none that art navi-
gable farther than their mouth for (hips of any confiderable burthen,
on account of the cataradls or waterfals occadoned by the interven-
ing rocks and cliffs. They are, however, of the greateft ufe to the
inhabitants for ccnveying their timber from the mountains to the (ea-
ports, as well as driving their mills. The lakes are not remarkably
large, but many of them very deep. We may reckon all thele
among the curiofities of Norway ; and add to thefe its fathomlefs
caverns and its rapid whirlpools, efpecially that prodigious one the
Maeldrom on its wedern coad.

D d 2

6. Com

($2)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

>:-2

r •

#■

6. Commercff Language^ iSjc."^ The exports of Norway confifl
chiefly of the natural produ(5lions of the country, as timber, copper,
iron, marble, mill-ftoncs, tiHi, furs, feathers, tallow, tar, oils, fait,
allum, vitriol, &c. The Norwegians being chiefly employed in the
mines, grazing and feeding cattle, felling of wood, floiting timber,
burniDg charcoal, extrafling tar from the roots of felled trees, hunt-
ing, (hooting ftnd bird-catching ; their imports confift of many of
the luxuries and mofl of the neccffaries of life.

They profefs Lutherifm, and alio fpeuk the fame language that
is ufcd in Denmark ; but their original tongue is that of Iceland.

7. Farro IJlesi'] The Farro idands receive their name from their
being in a clufter fo clofe together, that the inhabitants ferry over
from one ifland to another. They are fituated in the northern
ocean, in fixty-four deg. of north latitude, -ind feven deg, of weft
longitude. They arc twenty-four in number, and the wholeclufter
extends about fixty miles in length and forty in breadth. The inha-
bitants live chiefly by filhing, and add hardly any thing to the re-
venues of Denmark.

8. Iceland.] Iceland fituated in the Northern or Atlantic Ocean,
is about feven hundred and twenty-fix miles in length from Eaft to
Weft, and three hundred fi-om North to South. It lies between
fixty-three and fixty-cight deg. of North latitude, and between
fourteen and twenty-nine deg. of Weft longitude; and from its
infular firuation enjoys a milder temperature of climate than the
fame latitude on the continent experiences. The face of the country
is very mountainotis, and on the Southern codfts are iflands and
rocks, where fea-fowls build in great quantities ; moft kinds of
wild-fowl abound in Iceland, and the furroundirg fea yields plenty
of fiOi. Tije country is well watered with large rivers which flow
from the mountains and large lakes, befldes innumerable rivulets
aad-ftrea«?is. In fome places there are chalybeate fprings, and in
many parts of the ifland boiling hot fpouting water fprings. of which
the moft remarkable and the largeft is Geyfer rot far from Skalholt ;
in approaching towards it a tremendous roife is heard like the
roflung of a torrent precipitating itfelf from ftupendous rocks.
The water iflues from this fpring feveral times in one day, but
a]ways by ftarts, and after certain intervals ; and fome travellers
have afllnned, that it rifes to the height of fixty fathoms : it is
certain, however, that it is thrown up much higher at fome times
tliftn at others, but its elevation feldom falls fliort of ninety feet.

The burning mountains in this country we may confider as the
latent caufe of the boiling fprings j of thefe the moft remarkable are
the Mecla, Kotlegnu and Oraife. The eruptions of thefe have at
diflPerent times occafioned terrible devaftations, deluging the country
with water, convulfing it with earthquakes, heaving up new iflands
in the fca, or pouring forth clouds of afhes, fmoke and fand in fuch
quantities as to eclipfe the light of the fun, and fcattering the ruins
•j\\ over the ifland ; yet the inhabitanti are fo attached to their native
H^ . country,

S. VI.

NORWAY. &c.

(53)

countrv, they confider themfelves as the happied people on earth.
They attend to their filliing and the breeding of cattle. This ifland
produces exceeding fine pitlUire, wliicli feeds large herds in fuinmer
and atfords hay luHicient for fuilenance in winter. They have
kitchen herbs, roots, and fume fiuit tree?, befides many efculent
plants which grow wild on the rock":, and in many families fupply
the pl;icf of flour and meal. In <oine parts of the ifland a fpecies
of imail wheat grows fpontancoiillv, and.thty reduce it to powder
by parching it over the tire imdihen poundiiig it in luortars. Their
total negle(^ of agriculture ha>^ been imagined to have been one of
the co'ifcquences of a d'cndful plague which raged there in the
fourteenth century and fwipt awny nuift of the inhabitants : the
few that efcaped to tell tiie melancholy tale had found refuge in the
mountains whtre the ^oiun'^ion did nut reach. 'I he fame terrible
difeale extended its ba'-elul influence to Denmark, Norway and
Sweden ; where fucii multitudes died that none could bj fparcd to
recruit this ruined colony.

The entire comirerce of Iceland is monoj-olired by a DanlHi
company. T he exports confill: of cured provifions, butter, tallow,
oil, wool, (kins, furs, down and feathers. The imports are brandy,
wine, fait, linen, timber, tobacco, bread, hardwa e. Sec.

The revenue which the King of Denmark draws from this country
amounts to about 30,000 crowns per annum.

The inhabitants are dcfcerdcd from the ancient Scythians, .1
branch of the Celtes, ond the iflund itfelf made formerly a part of
the empire of Scandinavia. During this early period of time,
Iceland was full of people ; here the chief minillers of their religion
refided j and here the celeSrated Edda or book of Celtic iViyrhology
was either conspofed or prelervtd ; and fo pure has their language
been handed down from one generation to another, that the Ice-
landers are capable of explaining their moft ancient traditional
hiltories.

9. Greenlands.] Eaft and Weft Greenland form the nortbefn
boundary of the King of Denmark's dominions, and are, indeed, the
limits of all the difcovcries hitherto made in that part of the globe.

Eaft Greenland hes in North latitude higher than feventy-fix
deg. and between ten and eleven deg. of Eaft longitude. It is
deftitute of people, except a few convitts tranfported thither from
Ruflia, who are obliged to winter in this inhofpitable clime, affd to
labour for their liberty in procuring fkins, furs, tulks of niorfe, &c.
for the Emprefs or Czarina.

Weft Greenland lies in North latitude higher than fixty deg. and
between five and fifty deg. of Weft longitude, and is peopled though
but thinly.

Through the labours of Danifli miflionaries, and more efpecially

of thofeof the Moravians or Brethren's Unity, feveral congregations

have been gathered fi om the grofs fuperftitions of the country to the

^ profclfion of Chriftianiiy. I'heir language refembles that of the

, fr, jf i. Indians

=*^

> ^:

(54)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

IndianI of North America ) they have a great number of long poly-
fyllables, and excel in poetry.

The Copenhagen company cngrofs the little trade of this country,
and ^'ve cloths, cutlery, and various domeftic utenfils in copper,
brafi and tin, for whale-blubber, fun, &c.

SECTION vir.

$■

Sweden.

Sweden, including the greateft part of Scandinavia, is (ituated
from fifty-five deg. twenty min. to fixty-ntne deg. thirty min.
North latitude, and between the twelfth and thirtieth of Eaft
longitude. It is bounded on the South by the Baltic, the Sound
and the Categate or Schager-rack fea ; by Dani/Ii Lapland on the
North i by Ruffia on the Eaft ; and by the mountains of Norway on
the Weft.

Such a vaft tra£t of country may naturally be fuppofed to contain
a great number of inhabitants } but thefe bear a very fmall pro-
portion to the extent of Sweden, great part of it being rendered un-
inhabitable by feas, lakes, mountains and mar/hes.

I . Divifions.'] This kingdom is divided into feven parts or pro-
vinces, and thefe are again lubdivided as in the following fynopfis.

Provinces.

Suhdivijions. IVittcipal Towns.

I . Sweden, properly fo
called, lying between
Norway on the Weft „ ^c •
and the Gulph of ^ "f^'g?'
Bothnia , is divided ^alecarha.

into eleven parts, viz.

Uplandia.

Sudermania.

Weftmania.

Nericia.
Geftricia.

Medelpadia.

Angermania.

Jemtia.

^Weft Bothnia.

E. Gothland.

Smalandia.

IlleofOeland.

W. Gothland.

Vermeland.
^Dalia.

Livonia on tfaflSbuthl Eftonia.
of Fmland Gulph j Letten, orLetitiai.

2. Gothnia or Goth-
land, on the South
Side of Swedeland,
into three parts, viz.

Stockholm, Upfal.

Nickopen.

Arofen.

Oreb'o.

Geval.

Hadfwickwalt.

Hedemore.

Setanger.

Hemofand.

Uma, Luta.

Piftoia, Tome.

Norkoping and

Calmar.

Barkholm.

Gottenburg.

f Revel, Narva, " ■_*^

I Riga. -'T'

4. Ingria,

•i.>-

p. VI.

• Jong poly-

his country,
in copper,

ij fituafed
hirty niin.
of Eaft
he Sound
id on the
orway on

t) contain
nail pro-
lered un-

or pro-
lopfis,

Hvns,

S.V1I.

>%■

SWEDEN.

Prcfuincts.

SuiJivif9itM.

4. Ingria. on the North ( Y«^** P^P*''
Eait of Livonia.

ringi

(Soil

Finland, on the Eart

fide of the Gulph of-\ Kexhoini

of Bothnia.

6. Swedirti Lapland, in
the northern part of «
the country.

emaania.

uika.
Finland, proper.
Nylandia.
Carelia.

Savolaxia.
Tavaftin.
. Cajunia.

Anjennania-LapmarkAocfalbo.

Principal Towns.

Orefca), or Noteberg

Caperio.

Juanegrod.

Abo.

Helfingfordia.

Wyburg.

Kexhoini.

Kofnipc.

Javaftus.

Cajeneberge.

Pitha-Lapmark.

Uina-Lapmark.

Lula-Lapmark.

Tomea-Lapniark.

Kimi-Lapiiiark.

PUha.

Uina.

Lula.

Tomea.

Kimi

gna.

7. The Iflands of Gothland, Oeiand, Aland, Hogland and Rugen.

The provinces of Livonia and Ingria, with Kexholm and Carelia
in Finland, and the iflands of Dago and Oefel, are under the
dominion of Rullia. *

2. Climate and Produce. "] The natural hiftory of Sweden, both as
to climate, animals, vegetables and minerals, is much the fame with
that of Norway, but the inhabitants appear to be more advanced in
arts under the direction jof the colleges eftabliHied for the improve*
ment of agriculture, and encouraged by the example of pcrions in
affluent circumftances, the peafants have at length, in a great mea-
fure, corrected the natural (leriiity of their country j and they novir
in favourable feafons, raife grain fufficient to fupply the wants of
the inhabitants. The fields in fummer are covered with a beautiful
verdure, enamelled with flowers, and produce great quantities of
currants, rafoerries, ftrawberries and other fmall fruit. Gothland
is the mod fertile province in the kingdom, and bears large crops
of wheat, barley, oats, beans and peas. If the wheat were fown in
the autumn, as it generally is in England, there might be a danger
of the grain being deftroyed in the long piercing winter j but the
method is different in Sweden : the vegetation is there fo rapid that
the com is ripe in eight or ten weeks after it is fown ; and the foil
is fo meliorated by the frofl and coat of fnow during the winter,
that the land is fit to receive the feed almofl as foon as the cold
weather is over.

3. Exports and ManufaSures.] The produce of their mines is
various, but the metals are principally filver, copper, lead and iron.
Their manufactures are all of them but lately erected; even that of
iron, die chief fuppon of this country, was introduced only in the

• . . ■ ' , . fixteenth

J. '

■■%

<56)

3
Eur

OPE.

fifteenth ccnturv R.f , **• VI.

l!^-;>^ i^ the fan>e in Sweden ^'•''^7.^ '^^'^ "«'0"a' profefT.n r
'•'^'-- thrle Ifn";^ '^'"^^■^^^ °^ ''•« Teuton ; ^"[^^S'^n fongues,

S;/ '"'\"-"''^-t^^^^^ *"e h.„ cu,.

.■moniiid by tlis tV ^ "'" »"•« af tkij tin,,™! ."'°«.

•"««; "-"J eve^, d,We2 TV ^-r "• "' ^lUbiLd td/ff''''^'
t'jrs ■••'quaMed for rte ';. P™"''"'' "'"• = &«-£/ i„ Y^'L'

■**

■:#*

"«< ...

p. VI.

S. VII.

SWEDEN.

(57)

in everv excrcife of governniert, ntid even in the education of hit
own c'lil'irfn : bur laroly the coiilHnr.ion lias hct-n greatly changed,
by the dates funenderirg their power lo the king.

SECTION MIL

Muscovy or Russia.

ler

The empire of Rufiia ii the largcll upon the whole globe, it u
f;reattr tii d all the rel^ of Kurojie, than the Roman empire in the
•/,ci;irli of it power, or'the empire of Darius fuLuuevl by Alexander;
extended in length from the Baltic on the V\ ell: to v itiiln a few
miles of Ame»"iea o- the Fait, upwards of r\vo tiioufand leagues;
and above eight hurdreJ in its p^'-eatel^ breadth from North to South.
Its boundaries on the V\ tf", a»e Sweden and the Baltic ; on the Eaft,
China, and tln.t pa't of the Picific which feparares Afia from Ame-
rica ; on the No! til, by the Fro/en Ocean and the impenetrable
Ardic Regio i, and on the South it has PrufTian, Poli/Ii, Turkirti,
Po'frm, Indian and Tartarian nations. In length, from the Ifle of
Da^ho as fur as m moft diftant Eaftern limits, it contains very near
a hundred and feventy degrees ^ fo that when it is noonday in the
Well, it i" very near niidnigbt in the Eaftern parts of this empirr.
In breadth it flretches three thoufand werfrs from South to North,
which makci cigiit hund'-ed leagues. On the South of thi: extenfive
empire the Ic^ngell day is not fixtecn huurii on the North it fl.retche»
out to the length of three nio:-.rli>.

I. Climtite, hihal.t.iuts^ Rtl.i^ious Profe^ons.] In fo extcnHve a
tract of countrv the foils are extremely various. Beyond the 6oth
degree of latitude, corn fcarcely ever arrives at maturity ; and
beyond the 70th h.^rdly any fpeciei of fruit is produced ; but in the
middle provinces of the empire the ioil is fruitful, the woods abouiid
with a variety of animals, the plains are ftocked with cattle, and the
rivers teem with a variety of excellent fi.'h. In the more Southern
provinces, the climate is hot ; and where there is a fufficient depth
of foil flowers and fruits arrive at g'eat perfedlion, the earth is
covered with verdure, and indicates a happy fertility. There feenis
hardly lefs variety among the inhabitants of this exteniive empire
which includes in itfelf numerous nations of Tartars, Kamrichatdales,
Samoiedes, Laplanders, &c. Far. to the North, in fome remote
parts of thii empire, they live in caverns, and are no uwire than
four feet and a half high : the ancients had a confufed idea of tijefe
people under the name of Troglodites and Northern Pigmies, as
tliey had of the Tartars under the name of Scythians ; the lan-
guages of all thefe widely difperfed people are different an^ their

manners

Jft>v.

fss)

#•.

*^ U R o

P E.

"laifners are various 'if ' ^'*

•-d plunder, in o,h,„"a^,TlTkl!L'''- "' "'«'• g'"*" » roving
feme p,m ,l,.y gi„ .h,,^ ..[Z^Z '^'•' ""' '"""^'f'lm
aome of hen. wh„ ,,„ ' • '"•ifful but uncultivated foil

" even faid „„ profeffion^f""", ," '^j'"" ■""'=» but little t^t
elans , fcni* offer ub ,(..;. r!"S'on j oilien that live i„ I j '

Wever. <^|,eV fSi I J^:-' P™'^«ion of S ^ l',"^

T 1 J Northern.
i-apland, Kola.

&rno.eda GoJatfna.

BeJMmorn/koy, K.n^

Mefeen,

Dwina,

Syrian es,

Permia,

Rubeniri/kl,

BeJacfeda,

^r Novogorod, Novogorod.

^*^«''a» Nottebur?

^"«"«» ^ Peterrburf:

SOUTHERM.

Livonia,

Pereffaf;

Beloiero,

VV'oIogda,

Jereflaf,

'J'weer,

Mofcow,

^igorod,

Bulgar,
Kanfan,

Smolenfko,
Zerni'gof

Seefsk;

Ukrain, or the

Country of the

old Coflacks. Kiof «,. K"

*\.ioi, or Iviow.

5'>. Narva,
i^evcl, Dorpat
Pernaur, p]iftj^

fjniolenflco.

^pmigof.

Seefsk.

•Archangel.
Xangorod,

Kargapol.
Vitegre.
Middle.

Razenflcoi.
Belozero.
Wologda.
Jereflaf.
Tweer.
Mofcow.
^oronerz, or
Veronefe.
Eastern.

Buigar.
nL' ?T^r^' Nife-Novogorod

P.V7.

fn to roving
irmlefs; in
others they
ivated foil,
fie, anrl it
n herds or
1 objedls of
hing more
les of the
a i where,

la, befides
wing pro-
n» wellem

ownt.

rod.

[1.

orpar,

Piilkow.

S. VIII.

MUSCOVY OR RUSSIA.

<59)

^iow.

' this
inial,
ivith-
and
van-
peo-
ple.

pie. Peter the Great may be accounted the political father of thk
countrv. Patient of fatigue >c travelled and laboured in other
countries to acquire their improvements, and then with determinate
feverity iinpoied them upon his rude and uncultivated fubje€ts at
home, effeding a change in his en)pire which aftoni/Iied the world
and procured him the epithet of the Great.

To all the articles ofmnnufaflure and commerce which they' have
in common with Sweden and Denmark, the Ruilians add the coftlr
cummodities of the Ead, as filk, cotton, teas, gold, &c. Theie
they '•eceive by caravans from China, and from India and Perfia hj
way of the Cafpian fea.

4. Mounfa ns^ Forejis, Rivers, Lt/kes, Omnfs] The Zimnrpoias
are the principal mountains of Uulfia, they are fuppofed to be the
celebrated Viot'tes Riphzi of the ancients ; ihcv are remarkable both
for their amazing height and the perpetual fnows that cover their
fummits ; but befides rhefe, there are a vnrt variety of others, fome
forming cvtenfive chains, and others ft.ir^red fingly in diiTerent
parrs of tli • * ountry,

Foreilj abound in this extenfive rnuntT ; in many places prodi-
gious trath of land fonn one conrlnued foreft, producing immenie
qualities of timber, pitch, tar and turpentire.

Few countries exhibits more or larger rivers than RufHa, but tlie
principal are the Wolga, the Don or Tanais, the Borifthenes or
Dnieper and the Dwina. The lakes are alfo numerous, but the
moft remarkable are thofe of Ladoga and Onega. From lake to
lake and from river to river, the Czar Peter planned exteniive and
fpacious canals, fome of thefe he opened with incredible labour and
expence for feveral hundreds of miles ; others he did rot live to fee
compleated : they have, however, flnce his day been carried into
execution.

5. Ltwguagey Learning, Mo/cow, Peter/hurg] The Sclavonlan
language forms the bafis of that of Ruffia ; but the latte** is enriched
with many words from the Greek. The alphabet confifts of forty-
two charaftcrs, principally Greek, as they were written in thenintll
centuri' ; but as this did not exprefs every particular found, recourfe
was had to feveral Hebrew letters, and iome arbitrary figns wet*
invented. Drttcrert dialects however prevail in different ^^rovinces,
the principal of which are thofe of Mufcovy, '^^ovo^orod and ArcH-
angel ; and thofe in higher ranks generally fpeak French and High-
Dutch, while their priefts fpeak the modern Greek.

7'he Czar Peter, who jnay be faid to have fit ft enrolled his conn-
try among the poliihed nations of Europe, was not inattentitc;
among his other labours, to literature and fcience : he ereded
feveral academies and other feminaries of learning in various pan*
of iiis extended dominions : he founded no lefs than three academies
in Mofcow, one for claflical learning, one for mathematicks, and
the other for navigation and aftronomy. This ckyi long the capital
of the empire and the centre of the Rullian dominions before thcf

extended

x»«;.

;»% ♦'

(6o)

E U

O P E.

p. VI.

extended themfelves on th. r^ . ' ^' ^^'

"■oft o„ mis, : "«'«'' ty "- lica , rf SoT "'r''"';"''

t>y which its dimr * '" *'^^ ""'d^t of n.-n<^ I ^^"'"^^'^ on

out into revenl^^^'T^"*''"^^'-^^'-- divided Th '"'^'" °^' '•'^'^'•^»
palaces of 'ehe .T'^^*. ''^'^'^^ ^^afl. the walls o^ "'''? '-"^ ^'•^"^^^<^J

te'igthenanim/fri. ^'""^ ''^^s nothing nf J \^ ■* ^"'^ o^'
Wmen'shiKsT '''^"^"'■^^^' ami i„ /o, fh '^'' '" ^^02, it

Their gove „!''■"''' '"^ ^^''"«d thevX ' ''""' "='"-

S £ C T I

O N LY.

Poland.

Before its Jate df/IiKmberment Pnl ^ •

»ng from fort^-Zevcn d 7 r '""^ ^" '^'' ^^''^ ^y Gem:,nv ''^"?'
northJaritude-ar,lK" ^* /°"y """• to fiftvsGv w ^ ^,'. '^''^'^"d-

oonbh:kndc-\vr\u'^^^' '""'^Y ^^^n. to fiftv-fiv '^'"'"'^.•. '^^'^^end-
;,'!S_ J'"''?' Pruffia, tlr,'te^'-":«.o/Grt

.. . . ... V • ■"

S.IX.

POLAND.

(60

Ru/Iia,
of it.
thefe
John

Palatinates.

Chief Toivm.

Palatinates.

Chief Towns.

Great Poland on the Well.

Lithuania

North-Eall.

Pofnania,

Pofna.

Wilna,

Wilna.

Kalifh

Kalifh, Gnefna.

Braflaw,

Braflaw.

nreflv,

Brcfty.

Poleflvo,

Poleflvo.

Wladiflaw,

Wladidaw.

Wiptefk,

Wiptefk.

Dobrzin,

Dobrzin.

Troki,

Troki, Grodno.

Plocfkow,

Plocflcow.

Minflii,

Minlki.

Rava,

MfciHaw,

Mfciflaw.

Lencicia,

Lencicia.

Novogrodcck,

Novogrodcck.

Saradia,

Saradia.

Warsovia or

Massovia.

Inowlcoz,

Inowlcoz.

Warfaw,

Little Poland on the Wefl.
Cracow, Cracow.

Sandomira, Sandomira.
Lublin, Lublin.

Polish Prussia North-Wefl.
Dantzic.
Elbin.
Marienburg.
* Culm.
Thorn.
Samogitia.

Rofienne.
Midnick.
COURLAND Noith.
Courland Prop. Goldingcn.
Semigalia, Mittaw.

Czerflco, Czerfko.

Novogorod.
PoLACHiA in the Middle.
Bielfk, Bielflc.

Pgiesia in the Middle.
BrefUci, BrefTici.

Red Russia South- Weft.
Chelm, Chelm.

Belz, Belz.

Lemberg,

Podoha
Up. Podolia.
Low. Podolia,

VoLHiNiA South-Eafl.
Up. Volhinia, Lufec.

I^emberg.
South- Eait.
Carminiec.
Braflow.

Low. Volhinia, Bialgorod.

2. yllr and SolL] Poland is generally a champaign country;
the air is moftly temporate ; in the northern parts it is cold, but ex-
ceeding healthy. 7'he foil in general is extremely rich. The earth
is of various kinds, colours and ]»ropertits ; fome being e>icellent
for the potter's ufe, furnifhing all Poland with earthen-ware ; while
others fupply the pipe-makers and other artificers with clays of
different lorts. -• ' •"

3. Fegetablesy yfnimals and Fo/Jils.'] This country is extremely
fruitful, producing vafl quantities of corn, and the paflures, parti-
cularly in Podolia, are fo rich, that the height of the grafs is often
fuch as to conceal the catfle that are grazing fiom the fight of paf-
fengers. In many places there are vines, whofe grapes are agr^jea-'
hle fo the tafte, but the wines made from them ufually prove fharp.'
It is faid that in May and June the inhabitants gather a fort of
manna, which falls on the grafs during the night ; they eftcem it a
great delicacy, and have various ways of drefTmg it. This fccms
rather unaccountable ; but as the fifth and fixth months are the fea-
fon when plants are copioufly fupj-lied with juices ; perhaps it is
thefe that oozing through the pores of the herbs arc concreted on
their fiirfuce by the cold and dew of die night and form the manna,

rather

* d-

j-n

R- ■'r.

(62)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

nther than any extraneous or' foreign matter derived from the at-
mofphere.

Horfes, afles and oxen, diftinguifhed by the Names of uri and
buffalocr, wolves, bears, ciks, bohacks, foxes, hares, &c. run
wild in tne forefls of Poland. Here are alfo birds and fifhes of
/various kinds

Here are mines of gold, (liver, copper, lead, iron, pit-coal,
vitriol, arfenic, marble of all colours, and (tones of various kinds ;
but the moft curious are their different forts of fait mines.

4. Mountains^ Forefisy Rivers^ Lakes.] The principal moun-
tains of Poland are the Cropach or Carpathian mountain^, which
form a craggy ridge, extending three hundred miles in length, fepa-
rattng Poland from Hungarv ; thefe are covered with perpetual
(hows. In the palatinates of Cracow is a mountain called the
Wonderful, covered with aromatic plants, flowers, oaks and pines ;
full of metals and minerals ; and abounding both in freih and fait
i^rings. Near the centre rifes, with a remarkable noife, a fpring of
clear water, the ebullition of which is faid to be greater or lefs ac-
cording to the increafe or decreafe of the moon.

Poland, the eaftern part particularly, is remarkable for the ex-
tent of its forc(ls and woods.

The principal rivers arc the Viftula or Weyfel, the Worta, the
Neider or Tyras, the Nieper or Borifthenes, the Niemen, the Bog
or Vagus, and the Dwina.

Of the few lakes in Poland Gopto, or the White Lake, is the
mod remarkable, and is faid to turn the complexion of thofe who
va(h in it fwanhy.

5. Commerce and Manufadures.'] The little trade of Poland is
principally carried on at Dantzic, which may be confidered as the
emporium of this country. The exports of Poland confid of corn,
honey» wax, hemp, flax, furs, timber, pot-afhcs, fait, falt-petre,
brimllone, vitriol and quick-filver ; and its imports of wines, bran-
ny* (pices, wrought filks, cloth, (luffs, jewels, fables, martens, and
tin, Keel and iron wares. The little manufadures of this country
asfi fome linen and woolen cloths, and a little hardware.

6. Curto/'ties.] The wonderful mountains and fait mines already
mentioned fov/n the principal curiodties of Poland. BeHdes thefe
we may reckon as rarities the grottos or catacombs under the
mountains of Kiow, in the defarts of Podolia, wherein are found
a great number of human bodies perfedly prelbrved, being neither
fo hard nor fo black as the mummies of l^gypt ; fomc attribute
this curiofity to the nature of the foil, which is a dry fand ; and
h has been reported, perhaps with truth, that wild men have been
frequently found in the woods. Authors in accounting for the
reafon of fuch phasnomena, fuppofe them to have been left there
when infants by their parents, whom the Tartars frequently obliged
to fly from their habitations, a id that thefe children, fo expofed»
have been nourlfhed by the bears. And indeed when we are told
among the other dcfolations of war, that a conquering Turk (hall

take

* %-^

, ^'.

S.IX,

POLAND.

(63)

uke in his arms a whole cluder of captive children, and fling them
firom his horfe to any one that may challenge them, we may per-
h9ps have reafon to conclude that thefe accounts are founded rather
on melancholy L& than imagination.

7. Language^ Learning and Schools^] The Polifh language b a
diale£l of the Sclavonic, and on account of the vaft number of con-
fonants it employs is extremely harfh and unharmcnious ; how-
ever the Latin tongue is commonly fpoken, even by thofe of infe-
rior rank« though without the leaft regard to accent, quality or
purity of language. High Dutch and RuHian are likewiije under-
wood in the provinces bordering on thefe rcfpedive countries.

This country feems very unpropitious to the growth of litera-
ture, though Copernicus, the great reitorer of the true aflronomy,
as well as VoriHus and fbme other learned men, were natives of
Poland. The contempt which the nobility have ever (hewn for
learning, the vaflaliige of the lower clafTes, and the gloomy fupcr-
(lition which pervades all ranks of men* are circumlbnces which
liave wonderfully retarded the progrefs of arts and Sciences.

The Polifti univerfities are thofe of Cracow, Pofnia and Wilna«
The fird confiRs of eleven colleges, and has the - fuperviforftiip of
fourteen grammar fchools difperfed through the city ; the other two
are not fo eminent.

The nobility and the bulk of the nation are of the church of
Rome, but here are vaU number of Proteftants and followers of
the Greek church.

8. Hifiory.] Poland was the ieat of the Vandals in ancient times.
In 1396 Jajellon, Duke of Lithuania, by marrying Hedwiga, Queen
of Poland, became king of this country. From that time Lithuania
was held as a fief to Poland ; and in 1501 Alexander, Duke of
Lithuania, fucceeding to the crown of Poland, the union of the
two countries was confirmed, and they remained united till the late
difmemberment.

SECTION X,

Prussia.

Pruflia, the country of the ancient Borulli, taken in a limited
fenfe, is bounded on the north by part of Samogitia, on the fouth
by Poland proper and Mafovia, on the ead by part of Lithuania,
and on the Wed by PoliAi PrufTia and the Baltic ; but taken in its
full extent this kingdom confifls of various territories diileminated
over Germany, Poland, Switzerland, and the northern regions,
partly derived from legal fucceflion, but by fir the greater part
from war, violence and ufurpation.

I. Territories. '^ The principal divifions of which this monarchy
is compofed are Ducal, now Regal Pruflia, fituated in Poland ;

Brandenburgh,

■ *■'

'■m

(«+>

EUROPE.

P. VI.

♦'if

Brandenburgh, Prullian Poiiierania and Swedifli Pomerania, in
Upper Saxony ; Magdeburg and Halberfladt in Lower Saxony,
Glatz in BoheiTiia, Minden, Ravenfburg, Lingen, Cleyes, Meurs
and Mark in the dutchy of Weltpbalia ; Ealt Friefland, Lippe,
Gulick and Tacklenburgh in the circle of Wertphaha ; Gelder in
the Netherlands, Ncufchatel in Switzerland, and part of Silefia,
and the countries lately wreflcd from Poland.

2. Climate^ Soil^ yfnimals ami FoJfih.'\ In countries (o various
and didrids fo difperfed, any general account of the air mud be
liable to many exceptions, however, upon the whole, it fecnis fa-
Tourable to health. The foil is fruitful in corn and other commo-
dities, nor is the country deficient in a proportionate number of
animals common to the climate, fuch as horfes, cows, (heep, deer,
bears, wolves, wild boars and foxes ; and the rivers and lakes are
amply flored with lifh.

There are not many mines in Pruflia ; a few however are found
of copper and lead, and fome of iron. Thefe afford materials for
the employment of artills, but very little metal in its crude Itate is
exported. The principal minerals found in this country are ful-
phur, allum, nitre, and lapis calaminaris. Here are feveral quar-
ries of ftonc, and fome of flate ; a fpecies of marble has alfo been
difcovered in many of the mounrains.

Several kinds of bitumen too ;ne found h6re, but the princijial
is amber, of which Prufllia has been confidercd as its native coun-
try. This celebrated biiumeJi, though originally generated in the
earth, is found in plenty in the Baltic fea, efpecially near the fea-
fhore of Sudwic, where it fwims on the water, and is taken up by nets.

3. Mouniainsy Forejhy Rivers uud Lakes/] There are not many
remarkable mountains in Pruilia. Inhere is however a pretty ex-
tenfive chain on the frontiers of Poland, and feveral fingle ones
fcattered through the different parts of the kingdom. There are
feveral large and extenfive forells, which afford great quantities of-
fir and other excellent timber.

The principal rivers are the Viflcla, the Pregel, the Meniel or
Mammel, the PalTage, and the Elbe ; they are ail fubjetSl to inunda-
tions, whereby the country is often damaged. The lakes and ca-
nals afford great conveniences for tranfporting merchandize ; and
for its extent the kingdom of PrmTia has the moft inland navigation
of any other in Euiope, the Netherlands excepted.

4. ManufaclureSi Commerce.] Under the politic adminiftration
pf the late King, who feemed to have adopted the jufleft maxims
of enriching himlelf, by beliowing the means of affluence on his
fubjeds, every art and raanufadure daily improved and encreafed ;
and thofe of glafs, "ron works, (ilk, cloth, camblet, linen, ftock-
ings, paper, powder, and copper and brafs are particularly ilou-
liftiing.

Being advantageoufly fituated for trade, the extenfion of which

is promoted by a college of commerce and navigation, Pruiiia carries

on a confiderable foreign trai&ck ; but as its imports are trifling,

^ ' compared

S.X.

PRUSSIA.

compared with its exports, the balance of trade in its favour is
greater than that of any other European country.

5. Curiofittes.'] The amber pits of PrufTia form its principal na-
tural curionties.

6. Schools^ Language, Religious Profejffton.] At Koningfberg is
an univerflty, founded by the Margrave Albert in the year 1 544,
and a college (tiled the Collegium Fredericianum ; and academies or
ichools for the inftrudlion of youth are di^erfed throughout the
kingdom. The language varies little from that of Poland.

Different profeflions of religion are tolerated in Pruffia, but the
nationally eftablifhed ones are thofe of Luther and Calvin.

7. HtRory, Goiernment.} The Pruffians or Boruflians were not
heard of as a people till 1007, when they were governed by dukes
of their own. Aftir a fucceHion of bloody wars, they were con-
quLied by the Ger nan knights of the Teutonic order in 1 228. In
1454 the Poles fubdued the weftern part of it, and in 1525 the
eaftern part. In 1683 it became independent. In 1702 the dukes
aiTumed the title of king ; and the territories added to this country
by the late king are very condderable. The conftitution of Pruflia
is abfolute monarchy.

SECTION XI.

Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, &c.

Germany is bounded by the German ocean^ Denmark and the
Baltick on the north ; by Poland, Hungary and Bohemia on the
eaft ; by Switzerland and the Alps on the fouth ; and by the do-
minions of France 'and the Lew Countries on the we(l : extend-
ing from forty-five deg. four min. to fifty-four deg. forty min. north
latitude, and from fix to nineteen deg. forty-five min. call longitude.
This country is the feat of a great empire, and of many dependent
fovereignties of different denominations, and under various modifi-
cations of government ; its affairs are blended with thofe of the
other nations of Europe, whofe Germanic territories are neceffarily
exhibited in its divifions.

t. Divi/icns.\ In territories fo numerous, and polTeiiions fo mi-
nute, where the dominions of a prince are fometimes of lefs extent
than an Englifh manor, to attempt a particular defcription of each
would be tedious and perplexing ; and the divifions laid down, even
by modern writers, are often uncertaio and contradictory. Thofe
moft generally received, and their rife, are as follows : The Ger-
man empire was formerly divided into two grand parts, the upper
and the lower ; but the Emperor Maximilian, grandfather and prede-
cefTor of CJiarles V. divided it into ten great circles ; and this mode
of divifion was confirmed by the diet of Nuremburg in 1552.
Ho\vever, as the circle of Burgundy, or the fevcntecn provinces of

E e the

..'>v^%»'*^/K

'. ^-

.3L...

^im^w

(66)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

■HP-

I .-9

1^'

the Low Countries, has been detached from the empire, the circles

of Germany are only nine ; three lie in the north, tljrce in the

middle, and three in the fouth.

The circles are fubdivided into principalities, dutchies, marqui*

fates, eiedtorates, palatinates, counties, baronies, abbies, bi-

(hopricks, &c.

Circles. Chief T'siuns.

Upper Saxony. Stetin, Stralfund, Stendel, Berlin, Potftiam,
Francfort, Cuftrin, Wittenburg, Bautzen, Gor-
lits, Drefden, Miflein, Erfurt, Meiningen,
Zeits, Altenburg, Weimar, Gotha, Eifnach,
— Saalfield, Schwartfburgh, Belchingen, Mans-

field, Hall, Naumberg, Stolberg, Nonhhaufen,
Defliiu, Zerbfl, Bernberg, Kothen, Hall>
Plowen, Merfberg.

LcnvER Saxony. Keil, Gcttorp, Meldorp, Glucftat, Hamburg,

Lubeck, Lawenburg, Brunfwic, Wolfenbutle,
Rhcinfleen, Blachenberg, Hanover, Grubben-
hagen,. Gottingen, Lunenburg, Zell, Bremen,
' * Verden, Swerin, Guftrow, Hildefheim, Mag-

deburg, Halberftat.

Westphalia. Embden, Oldenburg, Delmonhurft, Hoye, Diep-

holt, Munfter, Paderborn, Ofnaburgh, Lippe,
Minden, Ravenfburg, Arenlburg, Tecklen-
burg, Ritberg, Schawenburg, Cleef, Dnflel-
dorf, Juliers, Aix, Ham, Liege, Huy, Ben-
theim, Steinfort.

Upper Rhinx. Caflel, Marpurg, DarmHradt, Homberg, Rhiae-
field, Wonfield, Dillenburg, Diets, Kerberg^
Siegen, Idftein, Wiibaden, Bielftein, Ot-
weiler, Udngen, Frankfort^ Erpacb, Spire,
Deux Ponts, Catzenelbogen, Waldec, Solms,
Hanau, Eyfenberg, Sayn, Wied, Witgenftein,
Hatzfield, Wefterberg, Fuld, Hirchfield.

Lower Rhine. Heidelburg, Philipfburg, Manheim, Frankendal,

Cologn, Bon, Mentz, Afchaffenburg, Triers,
Worms, Simmeren, Rhinegraveftein, Meurs,
Veldents, Creutznach, Leymingin.

Framconia. Wurtftjurg, Bamberg, Aichdadt, CuUenb^ch,

Onfpach, Henneburg, Coberg, Hildburghau-
fen, Nuremburg, Mergentheini, Reineck, Ba-
reith, Papenheim, Wertheim, CafTel, Schwart-
zenburg, Holack.

Austria. Vienna, Gratz, Cilley, Clagenfurt, Lavemund,

Laubach, Zerknits, Triefte, St. Veits, Gorits,
Infpruck, Brixen, Trent.

Bavaria. Munick, Landfhut, Ingolftadt, Donawart, Ra-

tiftjon, Amberg, Saltfbach, Frieffengen, Paflku,
Nc\vburg» Salt(burg, Halfcn.

SuABIA.

.._>^-'

rr.l -■-.,,- ^.

"a^ m^'

S. XI.

GERMANY, See.

(67)

Circle. Chief Totvns.

SuABiA. Stutgard, Tubingen, Hailbron, Dourkch, Wei-

Icr, Augfturg, Hockdet, Blenheim, Ulm,
Conftance, Mindclheim, Furftemburg, Hohen-
zollern, Opting, Koningfeck, Gemund, Wald-
burg, Limpurg, Kempten, Euchaw, Lindau,
Nordlingen, Meraininghem, Rotwell, Rhtin-
field, Lauffenburg, Burgaw, Friburgh, Brifac.

2. Climate.'] Though Germany, taken in a literal fenfe, may
be faid to enjoy a temperate air, and an agreeable climate ; with re-
fpedl to the degrees of its warmth, purity and falubrity, they arc of
courfe various, according to the fituation of the country to the
north or to the fouth, and to or from the fea. The champaign
tradls have a different air from that of the mountainous ; and in
a deep, marHiy and moift foil it varies from that of elevated, dry
and fandy fituations. Hence fruits and grain arrive at an earlier
maturity, and come to greater perfection in fome places than in others.

3. Vegetables.^ The cultivated parts of Germany are remarkable
for their fertility ; for though thefe form only a fmall part of the coun-
try, yet provifions are cheaper and in greater plenty, than in moft
other countries io Europe. The Germans likewifc cultivate hops,
anife, cummin, flax, hemp, tobacco, madder, woad, fafFron, and the
utmoft variety of pot-herbs, fallads and roots. Their moft valuable
fruits are apples, pears, cherries, plumbs, c.iefnuts, almonds, olives,
medlars, figs, peaches, apricots, oranges, lemons, citrons, grapes, nuts,
filberts, walnuts, and almoft every other fpecies common to the French
or Italian climates. The Rhenifh and Mofelle wines arc celebrated
over all Europe for their peculiar brightnefs, as well as for their de-
terfive quality, which renders them more fovereign in fpme diforders
than any other medicinal aid. .'<

4. jinimals.] The domeftic animal* of Germany are the fame
as in other European countries, but perhaps more numerous than in
any other. The wild beafts are chiefly deer, (of which there are
feven or eight different (pecies) boars, hares and rabbits v and in
fome places bears, wolves, lynxes, foxes, wild-cats, badgers, mai-
tins, chamois, wild-goats, &c.

Of moft fpecies of tame fowl Germany contains very great
abundance ; and among the wild inhabitants of the air conunon to this
climate, w^ may enumerate fwans, buftards, pheafants, wood-cocks,
partridges, groufe, rni])es, larks, field-fares, ortolans, quails, wild-
geefe, ducks, fpoon-bills, ftorks, falcons, herons, hawks and finging
birds. And their rivers and lakes abound with various kinds of tiih.

5. Fo/Jilst Baths and Mineral Waters.} Mines of filver, cop-
per, lead, iron, quickfilvet, falts, fulphur, nitre and vitriol are
found in many parts of Germany, efpecially in the circle of Au-
ftria. Coal-pits are difTerainated over almoft every circle. Here
are carbuncles, ameihyfts, jafper, fapphire, agates, turquois-^ones,
and the fineft rubies ; and aUb quarries of marble, Tate, chalk, oker,
allum and amber.

F e 2 Qermanv

*■

(68)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

Germany is celebrated for its mineral fprings and baths ; the moft
remarkable are thofe of Aix-la-Chapelle, Spa, Pyrmont, Embs,
Wtftiaden, SchwAlbach, Wildungen and Brakel ; the lad of which
pofTefs a (Irength which renders them capable of intoxication, for
which reafon they are inclofed and guarded from abufe.

6. Mountains, Fore/Is, Riven, Lakes.] Germany contains ma-
ny internal mountains ; but the principal ridges ferve as external
boundaries. Bohemia is furrounded with hills ; Silcfia is feparated
by thofe called Riefengebirge ; and a dill more confiderable range di-
vides SileHa and Moravia. The Auilrian circle is extremely moun-
tainous ; the upper palatinate, Franconia and Suabia likewife con-
tain many hilly trafls ; and, indeed, almod every circle contains
either fingle mountains, or continuous ranges. Germany, howe-
ver, in general contains many p'ains of immenfe extent.

This country was formerly very woody, and there are ftill large
forefts remaining ; but that memorable one the Hercynian fored,
which, in the time of Cxfar, was nine days journey in length and
fix in breadth, is now divided into fmaller woods, which go by par-
ticular names, and in many places it is quite deftroyed.

The principal rivers of Germany are the Danube, the Rhine,
the Elbe, the Oder, the Wefer, the Mofelle, the Spree, the Penne,
the Mein and the Saar. The Danube, famous for its cataniAs and
whirlpools, is fo exceedingly broad from Vienna to Belgrade, that
fliips of war have frequently engaged on it.

The mort capita! German lakes are thofe of Conflance and Bre-
gentz, Chiemfee or the lake of Bavaria, and the Zecknitzer-fee in
the dutchy of Carniola.

7. ManufaSurest Commerce.] With relpeft to manufafhire* and
mechanicks ; the Germans at prefent make velvets, beautiful filks,
rich filk, cotton and woollen fluffs, linen, fuflian, ribbands, lace,
embroidered work, tapeftry, paper, &c. : They are very expert in
leather drefBng, printing and dying : in fabricating every kind of
metal works both maflive and minute few nations can equal them ;
nor are they lefs celebrated for their performances in glafs cut and
polifhed, i.vquered ware and porcelain. Augfburgh is famous for
its productions in filver, and Nuremburgh for its variety of ingeni-
ous and elegant wares in wood, ivory, metal, done and glafs.

The revocation of the edift of Nantes by Lewis XIV. which
obliged the French i>roteflants to take fhelter in foreign countries,
proved of the utnwfl advantage to the German n mufat^lures ; be-
fore that period thofe of velvets, filks and ftuffs w ere in the ruded
flate, but they have fince been brought to the greateft neatnefs and
perfe^ion; perfecution has often in this way defeated its own intention.
In point of commerce Grermany derivesi vaft advantages from its
fituation ; lying in the centre of Europe, jiofTefling an extenilve fea
coad, and being interfered by a number of navigable rivers, it can
with the utmoft facility export the fuperfluities of its home commo-
dities and inanufa<5l4jres, and receive thofe of foreign countries.

The

p. VI.

S.XI.

GERMANY,

&c.

(^9)

The imports of Germany bear but a fmall proportion to the ex-
ports, fo that the balance of trade may fafeiy be concluded to be
vadly in their favour, yet the Germans are not fo much given to
commerce as fome of their neighbours ; and, except the AHatic
company of Embdcn, efbbliflied by the King of Pruflia, there is
not any capital commercial fociety in the whole .empire. The towns
of Hamburg, Liibeck and Bremen dill retain the name of Hans
TownS; and have a league a(5lually in force between them, under the
fanclion of which xhr.y conclude treaties of commerce with foreign
powers ; but this is but a (hridow of that grand confederacy for the
promotion of t.ailc: and navigation which was entered into about the
middle of tiie thirteenth century, by many towns in 'Germany, and
in other countries bordering on the German ocean and Bahic, and
obtained the name of tlie Hanfeatic I eague. This confederacy,
after fubfil^ing upwards of trvo centuries with great commercial ad-
vantage, from various concurring rt;Jbns which proved detrimental to
trade, ceafed in its general cogency and effeiil.

8. Curio f'tiesy ncturttl and art'ifidal.] Every court of Germany
has a cabinet of curiofities, artificial and natural, ancient and mo-
dern ; the various antiquiti^:';, the coins, the manufcripts, and the
prodigious libraries which the literati of this country have collefted
together, and the many reliques, whether real or imaginary, which
fuperftition treafures up and regards with a veneration greater than
that of the virtuofi, or rather curioG, for tJ^eir moft precious re*
mains of antiquity may a1' be reckoned among the rarities of this ,
country ; their bridges alfo ; their gothic palaces, cathedrals, caiHes^
and efpecially their town houfes, are very curious ; and their natural
curiofities, as petrifaftions, and a variety of curious foflils ; caves,
into one of which they have proceeded twenty miles without dif-
covering its end ; and from others water gufhes out with great noife
and impetuofity when it thunders. If this happens in Autumn it is
faid a vaf^ number of ducks of a black colour, fat, blind, and almofl
devoid of fciuhers, are forced out with the water, which in a fort-
night's time are entirely fledged, get their fight and fly away. Their
mineral fprings and baths. Their natural curiofities are unnumbered.

9. Schools and learned men."] The univ^rfities in this empire are
thirty-fix in number, of which feventeen are Proteftant, feventeen
Romifl;, and two mixed. Befides thefe there are a great number
of colleges, gymnafia, pedagogies, Latin fchools, and feveral acade-
mies and focieties for promoting the (ludy of natural philofbphy,
the belles lettres, antiquities, &c. ; among the latter of which are
the imperial Leopoldine academy of the natune curiofi ; and the
academies of arts and fciences at Vienna, Berlin, Gottingen,
Erfurth, Leipfic and Duifburg. At Drefden and Nuremberg are
academies for painting, and at Augfburg is the imperial Francifcan
academy of fine arts.

Every prince, baron and man in alBuent circumftances in Ger-
many is either a chymift or natural philofopher. Among their learn-
ed
*. /

(70)

EUROPE.

P. VI,

ed men Stahl, Swieten, Storck and HoflPman hare been accounted
eminent in phyfick { Ruvinus and Dillcnius in botany ; HeiUer in
anatomy and furgery ; Newman, Jcwmcrman, Patt and Margff in
chymiftryj and Leibnitz, Wolfius, Puflfendorf, ThomaHus, Otto
Gueriche and Kepler in philofophy. Germany has alfo produced
good geographers, hiflorians and political writers.

10. ProfrJIion and Language.] The refolutions of feveral con-
ventions have been, that no other religion but the RoniiHi, Luthe*
rian and Calvinift fliould be introduced or tolerated in the holy Ro-
man empire or Germany ; notwithftanding which many other fo-
cieties are in different parts allowed the free exercife of their re-
ligion ; and the Jews in particular are tolerated in the imperial cities
and many other piirts.

The GoDTian language is a dialed of the Teutonic, without the
leaft affinity to the Cehic, and is called the high Dutch, being the
mothcr-tonguc of the whole empire ; it abounds with confonants, is
extremely hrirfh to the ear, and varies fo much in its dialetfl that the
people of one province feldom underftand thofe of another. Latin
is fpokcn very fluently by thofe in higher ranks ; and in moft of the
courts they fpeak French, though that of Vienna aud fome others
prefer the Italian. Jn this fine city, the capital of the empire, a
vefy great variety of inhabitants are to be met with, as Greeks,
Tranfilvanians, Sclavonians, Turks, Tartars, Hungarians, Croats,
Poles, Spaniards, French, Italians, &c. in their particular habits.

11. U'i/}ory.] About three hundred and ninety years before the
chriflian arra, fome colonies of Gauls under Segovefus fettled in
Germany. From the time of Auguftus the Romans at different
times gained feveral advantages over the Germans, till about the
latter end of the third century they lolt all their pofTeifions in this
country.

In 432 the Huns, a Tartar nation diflodged by the Chinefc, con-
quered a great part of Germany, expelling the Alans, the Goths
and Viiigoths, who in their turns took pofTelEon of the countries of
their neighbours, and gave a new appearance to the polilhed nations
of Europe.

In 788 Charlemaigne became mafter of all Germany, forcing the
inhabitants to a profefTion of chrifhanity. It remained fubjed to his
porterity till 880, when the different princes revoked, and affuming
their ancient independence, placed Arnulph, king of Bavaria, on the
throne ; fince which time Germany has been confidered as an elec-
tive empire. The houfes of Saxony, Franconia and Swabia by
turns acquired the imperial power till 1440, when Frederick III.
duke of Aultria was eledted emperor, and the imperial dignity con-
tinued in the male line of that family for three hundred^ycars, when,
after the wars in the low cQuhtries, in which fo many of the Euro-
pean p'owers were concerned, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the
grand duke of Tufcany was acknowledged emperor by right of his

P.Vf,

S.Xf.

GERMANY, &c

(70

the

this

wife Maria Tercfa, Queen of Hungary, and daughter to th; empe^
ror Charles VI.

1 2. Hungary^ Bohemia^ Wf.J The kingdoms of Hungary and
Bohemia, and the provinces of Tranfylvania, Sclavonia, Croatia and
Morlachia, may alfo be cunfidercd as a part of the German empire,
having all by treaty or conqucil been brought under the dominion of
the houfe of Auflria.

The national profcflion or political eflablifliment of worlhip in
thefc countries is that of Rome ; but both Proteftants and Greeks
are very numerous.

Their natural hiftory, curiofities, manuf<i<5lures and commerce are
much the fame with thofe of Germany. The inliabitants are com-
pofcd of a variety of people differing in name, language and man-
ners ; and this divcrfity has been thus accounted for : The enthu-
liaftic fpirit for liberty which fo long oppofed the Roman arms, made
its lall Hand here againfl thofe conquerors of the world, who by
degrees drove the remains of the different vanquiilied nations into
thefc quarters ; tlic thickncfs of the woods, the rapidity of the
rivers, and the ntitural ftrength of the country favoured their refift-
ancc ; and their dcfcendants (lill retain the moft legible charafters of
thofe unfubmitting heroes from whom they fprung. Without re-
garding tlic arrangements made by the <ambltion of the fovereigns of
Europi , they fecm to acquicfce under that government with molt
pleafute which allows them the greatcil latitude of privilege and
ancient freedom ; however their attachment feems greatcft to the
houfe of Auflria, but the Auf^rians or Germans did not even know
the names of their various tribes till they learnt them from their mi-
litary mufter rolls, when they poured their troops into the £eld in
fupport of the Pragmatic fandion.

The Pragmatic fandtion, a term which often occurs in the modern
German hiflory, is a provifion that was made by the emperor Char-
les VI. to preferve the indivifibility of the Aullrian dominions in
the perfon of the next defcendant of the laft pofTeiTor whether male
or female ; this provifion has frequently been difputed by other
branches of the houfe of Aullria, aad France and Spain have op-
pofed its cfFedt ; but hitherto all attempts to abrogate it have proved
ineifedual, and the Pragmatic fandlion is lb ongly guaranteed by al-
mod all the powers in Europe.

The Romans alfo in their turn made a fland in this quarter, be-
fore the Goths and Vandals of the north entirely overpowered them,
and among the variety of diale«fts which however feem to be princi-
pally Sclavonic, fome of the defcendants of the Legionary forces
are fiiU to be diflinguiihed in the interior parts by their ufe of the
Latin tongue ; the Latin however is not confined to tliefe, but is
pretty generally underftood, together with the German or high Dutch
throughout the AuArian dominion?.

Hungary lies between forty-five and forty-nine deg. north latitude,
and between lixteen and twenty-three deg. eaft longitude. It is

• bounde

(7i)

Eur

O P E.

"•••■d .nto Bohemia ProMr s^ r ° I'»l«inate of BavarL ?•"',?"'*
Bohemia ProDer Si r^f''- »»<' Moravia ^' " *''-

Moravia, emirelv fthi.^ ^ '^''j'* •"

and
and

between fortv.five anH f '^ "PP« "nd Low.r tf **o)dan» ^
wenty.two and .1™? ^fX-eight deg. no„h E^""*"^ ^' ««

d«da„deU"y S^*'^«'-^eaft1o„J'^^„VT^,:"^ '^'"'«"
breadth. * ^ ""'" '» '»g">. and one h„„drJ^ "^J""" *""-

, ScWnia i, bounded . '"" "''"'>"''

».htf j- r? • r --» b^.?/^r ^« ' °" "■'

north /atinide 7„w K '"" '^'»'«" fony^fc „?"> ' '-"^ »„ the

't' •■-?- bite", «- ""1 -">-o5;;^- Xo^

on the north bfthe Hr^r"" ^^i- ^JhlZ^^' 7'^^'"'^''
e»ft by Bofnia .. anVr ^"^ > "> the fouth Bv M 1 [■" '"""''«'
»boo,righ,;'^,^'f »° 'be weft by ,he Z^ ^"r^'^' on the

"bou„dSbyte,"«*"'''biny.?l,^j,°V'; " ''^
^ SECTION

8.XII. SWITZERLAND.

(73)

SECTION XII.

Switzerland.

The thirteen united cantons of Switzerland, the Helvetia of an-
riqviity, is bounded on the north by Swabia ; by the lake of Con-
ftancc, Tirol and Trent on the cad ; by Iraly on the fouth, and by
France on the weft, extending from forty-five to forty-eight deg.
north latitude, and from (Ix to eleven deg. eaft longitude.

1. Divi/tons.] Seven of the cantons are Romiih, and fix Pro*
teftants.

Cantonf. jfiRes. SuhjtSs,

COUNTISS.

Bern, Proteft. TGrifon Leagues. Sargans,

Fribourg, Rom. c -p J Chiavenna. Turgow,

Weft -^Bafil, P. ^•^•'JValteline. Rotweih

Luccrn, R. LBormio. Bailliagcs.

Soloturn, R. ' f St. Gall Rep. Lugano,

f Schaffhaufen, P. E. < St. Gall Abbey. Lucarno,
Eaft -{Zurick, P. (.Tockenburg C. Bellents.

tAppenzel, P. S.W. Valbis. Towns.

Zug, R. N.W. Neufchattel. Baden,

Swifs, R. W. Geneva. Bremgarten,

M. -^Glaris, P. N. Mulhaufen. Mellengen,

Uri, R. Raperfwelt,

Underwald, R. Frawenfeldt.

2. CLnutte, Proeluitiom^ ^c] Though this country lies in a
fouthem part of Europe, yet being fituated among the Alps, the
higheft mountains of Europe, the air is much more fevere than in
the higher latitudes. The frofts in winter are intenfely fliarp, dJld
many of the hills are rovered with perpetual fnow. In fummer
tlie inequality of the foil renders the fame province unequal to its
feafons, and it is by no means uncommon for the inhabitants of one
fide of a mountain to be reaping while thofe on the ether arc fow-
ing. The vallies however are warm, fertile, and highly culti-
vated } but being fubjeCt to floods and various accidents which fre-
quently deftroy the expefted produce of the year, the natives have
adopted the prudent precaution of erecting granaries to fupply the
failure of their crops ; and the efiefts of their perfevcring induftnr
are aftoniftiing. They drive the plough along the fides of preci-
pices which a Iiorfe, unaccuftomed to the country, would be inca-
pable of afcending without danger, and convert the rugged rock
and the fterile mountain into pleafant vineyards and fruitful paf-
tures. The variety of pot herbs and other efculent plants are
found in this country ; and fome of the mountains are covered with

forefts.

*»

- m ■TTrfTW"'- ,JJ!pL» -"Il^lifW

(74)

EURO

P E.

€

-ed,cinai herbs. ''""^"' ^'^^er, and a thoufand aro.na.c or
ine cattle and {heeo m q • .

'n^^. which are in realit/a L^Lt'ofT?^""^"^^' ^"^ ^'^^ aJ^ne

^i^e mounralns /„ S^^i^rhZZ f^'"'
of various colours chrrft.f r ^''""'^ '" ""*"« of fron m.rl J

? t;;wa to the ancients. ^ °^ ^^^'^"^ ^PP^ar to have

Kur., the Innf the rVo : tfe rr'"^ ''' '^'^ R'''-, the Aar ,k.

our one on the "SpTl-:"! ^^ ^":"^. '^'^'^ ^ --tain with
Conftance. Zurich, BindeTh' ff"7.^^ ^^^ ^hufe of cJe ^

4. Cm;;^erce and 7l/l"l> ""* ^^"^^^^^tel and Lucern ' -

reatV facilitated anif ^ {^tt^L T"' ^"'^ «^ ^--"rland :,
droves of pack^horfes for X 1 ^ ' ""'"' ^"^ ^^^^e^'. and bv it!
tains where no carrj! ">»veyance of goods over T. ^

<;4. ,- ^2rria2;e.s can mf* 'n S"^ws over the moon-

"'« are fat cattle ilI^ t r . ^'*^ ^'"cies n which ,V .^
- fhe produeJons of. P' ^"'^"' ^'^^^'e, butter hidr ^ *'°":

are iiiKs or \:\Yu^^yr. i* i , """niiHciure, toe Dnnpi.%oi r i. .
i; I ^•^'^'Ous kinds, go'd on^J r,? V P^'ncipaJ of which

'lat^, paper, Ie,t/,er of all T> ^'"'^^''f ^: Shoves, handkerchiefs

5. Cunofaies, natural avd artifr' / 1 -r,
fti. country are aJ^oll CZ^tf\ ^^? "''^^"'^^ curJofities of
are th. glacieres or valife; "f S 'l ; 1" f'' .'"°^^ extraordinary
cumulated to a prodigious hetl t ' T 1 ^'"^ ? ^'^"'^ P'-^^e. ac^
ner cracks the ice with a no fb like V^ T .''' '^' f"» '" ^"" -
fer th^ expanfion of the ice"n the r • ' "^^'^""der, and in win-
afunder with fi:x.ilar concufas arH " "^ '^'' '''^' O^'-ts t^em
breaking the precipices TnCrn^/'T^' ''"'''"^^' fca[pin^ and

'" ir "^''" ^^^ ^^^rance ^f prodti;' '"'. '"^. ^-''^"^ "^rfu, as
The nionumeifts of onf.' • Prodigious piles of ruirs '

foundation

S. XII.

SWITZERLAND.

(75)

foundation uncertain) are ancient curiofitics of art ; and many of
the modern public buildings are curious, particularly the college of
the jefuits at Friburg ; and the public libraries and cabinets contain
antiques, valuable manufcripts, and curiofities of every denomination.

Indeed the whole afpedl of this romantic country is naturally
curious, and the cultivated improvements of the natives mounted
up to the fummits of the hills, and their cloud-reaching roads
carried over the mountains with uncommon labour and perfeve-
rance, now inllnuared through tremendous rocky chafnis, and now,
as it were hung aloft in air on the dizzy brink of frightful preci-
pices, may fill us with allonilhment, while thofe beautiful little fo-
litudes, the very curious hermitages of this country, may furprize
with us lively though i^fs amazing emotionb j of thefe the moft
curioiw lies about ia'o leagues from Friburg, among woods and
rocks : It confifts of a chapel, oratory, fteeple, hall, refedory^
kitchen, rooms, flairs, cellar, and other conveniences, all hewn
out of a rock, even to the chimney and fteeple, though the latter
is fifty-four feet in height. All this was the twenty-five years la-
bour of an hermit. But this is not '^11, with inexpreffible labour
he has levelled the fide of the rock, > rought earth from the neigh-
bouring parts, and formed a delightful garden. That nothing
might be wanting to render his retreat perfedl, the hermit obferv-
ing drops of water diftil from the feveral parts of the rock fol-
lowed the veins, by which means he made a refcrvoir fufHcient to
water his garden and allay his thirft.

6. Learnlngt Schools, Language.] The fciences are cultivated
in this country with afliduity and fuccefs. Calvin, whofe name is
fo well known, inftituted laws for the city of Geneva, and Roufleau,
who k principally known to the Englifli as a novelift, but admired
by the French as a poet in their own language, was a narive of Ge-
neva. Several of the Swifs have diftinguiilied themfelves in the
fine arts and particularly in painting, fculpture and engraving.

Switzerland contains many excellent foundations for the inftruc-
tion of youth, efpccially among the Proteftant caii'ons, who be-
fides their gvmnafia and fchoois in various places h;."e academies
at Zurich, Bern, Laufanne and Geneva. The Homl/h cantons
have likewife feveral gymnafia, and a college at Liufanne.
But of all other literary inftiturions the univerfity of Bafil,
founded in 1459, is moft celebrated, being adorned with a v*ry
curious phyfic garden, containing the choiceft exotics j and adjoin-
ing to a valuable library is a nuifeum, extremely well furniflied
with natural and artificial curiofities, and a variety of medals and
paintin9;s. '

Several languages are fpoken in Switzerland, but the moft com-
mon is the German, in which all their ftate and public tranfadtion*
are carried on. On the borders of France and Italy the languages
of both thefe countries are adopted, but neither of thefe borrowed
tongues is fpoken with purity or elegance.

7. BJloryf

v«J

4''*r

■m:

'V.,

(ye)

EURO

*- U R o P E.

^he ancent Helvetif, who wl^ IT'''' ''' '^' clefccndants of

declared a free and independerJftaL ^^''''' '^" ^^P^^licJc was

S E C T I

O N

XIII.

Holland.

•■ TlMfimn The ,4"'f™" ".'' French Netherbnd. " "'

Go-rum, Heufdem S :4 '- '^■•"^*"-
goes. ' Joicn, Catts, Ter-

Pro'vinces.

Ho I, I A WD

•'EAT-A.Vo.

^«'E7La.V3.

<J^ R O N r N G E N
^VERYsstt

and,

•. , ^ ^^ '"^ 'niiabirants has in a

i ' , ' great

S. XIII.

HOLLAND.

(77)

P,VI.

great meafure furmourted, in making canals and ditches to drain
their lands, which by this method are rendered fit for pafture, and
in many places for tillage.

The'r animals are much the fame with thofe in England. The
inhabitants buy lean cittle in Denmark and the north of Germany,
which their pallu^es fatten to a prodigious bulk. Their Lorfes arc
very large. T hey have a fine breed of iheep, whofe wool is
highly valued j and it is faid that in fome places they have wild
boars and wolves. Storks build and hatch in their chimnies.
Their other birds are the fame as ours, as are alfo the fifhes found
in their fens and rivers, though foniewhat larger > but they have
neither heiripgs nor oyfters on their coafts.

3. Ri'jers.] The principal rivers in this co'.ntry are the Rhine,
the Vecht, the Maefe, and the Scheld which divides below Ant-
werp into two branches, the one calkd the weftern and the other
the Oder Scheld. The Rhine originally ran in one channel by
Utrecht and Leyden, but that being choaked up, it now, on en-
tering Holland, forms three branches, viz. the Waal, Lech and
Ill'el. Thefe great rivers aie joined in ihtir courfe by a number of
fmaller one*, and feveral canals j thefe contribute much to the
impTovemcnt of commerce, on thefe the people are continually puf-
fing and repairing in their trackfcuits or pafiage boats, and in the
winter both men and women by thoufands on their fltate?.

4. Commerce, Manufa£lures.'\ The United Provinces though
they produce vcy little in theuifelves yet almoft all the produ^
and commodities of the globe may be found here, and bought
nearly as cheap as in the places they were brought from j and fo
extremely induftrious and enterprifing are the Dutch that there is
fcarcely a manufadture they do not carry on, or a Itate with which
they do not trade.

.5. Curiofities.] There are but ^ty/f natural curiofities in Holland.
The ftadthoufe at Amllerdain may be elleemed one of the aiti-
ficial kind : It ftaiids upon thirteen thoufand piles driven into the
ground. The outfide makes a grand appearance, and the infide is
at once magnificent and convenient. Several mufeums, containing
antiquities and curiofities, are to be found in Holland and the other
provinces, particulnrly in the univerfity of Leyden. But their land-
making dykes are the greatefi: curioficy. In fact the country may
be confidered as refcucd from the ocean by thefe artificial bul-
warks, and v/hen the dykes happen to be broken duvv.i the damage
i^ pvodigiou"-', the place of villages and towns, plantations and
fields becoming one extenfive tra^ of fea.

6. Religion, Language.] The national profefiion of religion in
this country is the Prclbyterian or Calvinifm, none but people of
this perfuafion being admitted into any office or pofl in the govern-
ment, excepting the aroiy ; neverthelefs all profefiiono and locieries
arc tolerated and allowed their refpeilive meetings and alTcmblies
i'oT public worihip, among which are nunsbers of the Lutherans,
Romai'.ifls, Mornviaris, Haptills, Qnil;er.s and Jews.

The

•;#

*•.

ft--.

'■ '-fs

(78)

EURO

P E.

ftand the German^r' ^''*'" "nintell.VJble to tS '*,~"^P^d
fafliion are capable n"/"' "' J'S*^ ^"^^^^ ; bowever J^" "f '^-

produced Erafn^us and Gr^W Ck' ^'^^"^^ "'«" Holland has
roann and the Van Haaren r T'^''®^^^ ^^^ Groevius R,.

detate of fkijful ftatuarf^ '' '" P^'"""^. '^ough they are „ot

^f^^^£'''Zi^''''> ^--^^ Groningen
and another at Deventer, befides an^'!!"''^'' /"^ '' ^rnCdZ'

C.VrT;"°^'''^^"-e4Bdt: ':r^ ^^^ ^--e^ part of
<^*lar. After this it was furrlM \ ^^"^ "^^^^ conquered bv Tulu.c
counts, and the Earls ^f nltlf" Z\'\' ^^^^^Xo^
l^ «534 the people, rather than fuh'""^ '''! ^°"^^ ^^ BurgundT

t:#-

«»Rr.

SECTION

^LANDERS.

XIV.

Antwerp
Mechh'n.'

'^'tZ,''''''''''' ^^^-> ^aque.o.t or Val-

^ co;d^LU:?r' '^^^"^'^""^^> ^--^-^

Cambray. Crevecoeur

Arras St. Omer, Aire <^^ x-

Flanders,

MaLTA'Es.
LlMBURG.

Luxemburg.
Namur.

Hainault.

Camprests.
Artois.

„^,

■■■^•'

-i-»-.

..;• ,--

p.vr.

s.xiv.

FLANDERS.

(79)

Brwince. Chief Toivns.

Flanders. Sluys, Axel, Huift, Sas Van Ghent, Ghent, Bru-

ges, Oftend, Newport, Oudenard, Courtray,
Dixmude, Ypres, 1 ournay, Menin, Lifle, Dun-
kirk, Douay, Mardike, St. Amand, Gravelmes.

2. Clininte, Soil and Fujils.] The air of Hrabant, and along the
maritime diftri£ls, is generally efteemed thick and infalubrious, but
io the interior pans it is extremely healthful, nnd the feafons are
far more healthful than in Britain. 'I he foil is in mod parts ;»bun-
dantly fertile, producing com and fruits in great plenty, and af-
fording excellent pafturage; and even the more fterile diftricls
yield very plentiful crops of flax.

In the Provinces of I^uxemburg and Limb'.irg are mines of iron,
copper, ],ead and brimftone, and quarries of feveral fpecies of mar-
])le. Namur abounds in coal-pits and a kind of lat bituminous
earth ufed as fuel, with plenty of curious foflil nitre.

3. Rivers, Canals] The principal rivers of Flanders are the
Maefe, Scheld, Sambre, Demer, Dyle, Geet, Neeth, Rupple,
Sanne, Deple, Dender, Lis and Scarpe ; and the moll capital ca-
nals are thofe cf Bruflels, Oftend and Ghent.

4. Commerce, MamifaSlures.] The Auftrlan Netiierlands by
the united aids of culture, commerce, and the enterprifing fpirit
of its inhabitants, was long the moft opulent and beautiful fpot
in Europe. The moft elegant manufactures were brought to all
pofllble perfeflion. 1 he citits were rich and magnificent beyond

' defcription, and the whole face of the country exhibited the moft:
enchanting appearance. Thefe qualities, however, exift at prefent
but in a very inferior degree j neglefted by its refpeClive govern-
ments, and outftripped in every commercial purfuit by Holland and
Great Britain, Flanders has funk in fplendor in proportion as thofe
powers have rifen. The trade of the Flemings at prefent confifts
chiefly of their own manufafturc, viz. fine linens, particularly a
fort made at Cambray, and from thence called cambric ; delicate
laces for which Mecklin is the grand mart, and the woollen manu-
f?6ture, wherein it *s faid that Pofterwicke alone employs five hun-
dred looms. Oudenarde is famous for its beautiful tapeftries j Flan-
ders h remarkable for breeding black cattle, and Luxemburg
abounds in corn, great pan of which isfent to foreign market?.

5. Curiofities .] In 1607 fixteen hundred gold pieces were found
at Dendermonde, and proved to be a collection of ancient medals
of Antoninus Pius, Aurelius and Lucius Verus. Some Roman high-
ways are yet entire ; and ruins of temples and other buildings a^e
found in many parts. The other curiofities of this country confill
chiefly in their pub'ic edifices and congregation-houfes, in many <»f.
which there are highly finifhed paintings.

6. FrofeJ/ion, Lrngiiage.] The doftrines of the church of Rome i*
the national eftablifliment of Flanders ; but others are alfo tolerated.

The inhabitants on the frontiers of Holland fpeak Dutch, as thof<4

who rcfide in the nrovinces fnbjeCt to France ufe a very bad I'rcnch ;

' . the

•f^

I;;.

P*-

"Sit.-

(8o)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

the reft are a mixture between both, and their language is a diffe-
rent dialect of the German from that of the Dutch.

7. Literati^ Artifts^ Schools.} The elegant arts in this country
have arrived at greater perfeftion than the ufeful. The belles lettres,
rather than philofbphy, have engaged the attention of their literati ;
and the Flemifli fculptors and painters poffefs a very fuperior de-
gree of excellence, and form a fchool of themfelves. The ani-
mated productions of Reubens and Vandyke are very univerfally
admi<«d. Fiamingo or the Fleming's . models for heads, efpecially
thofe of children, are thought to have never yet been equalled } and
the ingenious arts of weaving tapeftry was long conBned to the Fle-
mings alone.

The univerfities of Flanders are four, St. Omer's, Douay, Tour-
nay and Louvain.

SECTION XV

'»)

eJp'-i

France,

France lies between forty-two and fiffy-one deg. north latitude,

and between five deg. weft and eight deg. eaft longitude. It is

bounded on the north by the Netherlands and the Englilh channel ;

on the eaft by Germany, Switzerland and Italy ; on rhe fouth by

the Mediterranean and Pyrenean mountains ; and on the weft by the

bay of Bifcay.
Provinces. Oitef Toivfis.

PicAR.i>Y. Amiens, Guife, St. Qiiintin, Peronne, Abbeville,
Boulogne, Ardres, Calais, Crefly, Guiones.

Normandy. Rouen, Caudebec, Evreux, Gourney, Caen, Lif-
fieux, Bayeux, Contance, Avranches, Seez, Alen-
^on, Dieppe, Havre da Grace, Harfleur, Cher-
burg, Honfleur, Albemarle, Granville.

Champagne. Troyes, Sens, Langres, Provins, Rheims, Rethel,
St. IHzier, Chalons, Joinville.

I. OF Fr A MCE. Paris, Senli^ Crefpy, Pontoife, Beauvois, Soiflbns,
Laon, Meaux, Lagay, Melun, Mants, Montar-
gis, Nemours.

Bretagnk. Rennes, Nants, Urieux, St. Malo, Dole, Vannes
Triguer, Breft, Quimper, Morlaix, Port Louis or
Baavet, Port L'Orient.

OitLCANNOis. Orleii-:% Blois, Tours, Angers, Beaufort, Nevers,
Mans, Nogent, Chartres, Vendofme, Poidiers,
Luon, Angoulefme, Rochelle, Rochfort, Aubigni,
Bourges, Montargis, Saumur, Richlieu.

LiONois. Lionois, Beaujeu, Feurs, Clermonr, St. Flour, Bour-
bon, Archibant, Gueret.

c . PrOV£NCB.

«•','

s.xv.

FRANCE.

(8.)

Pron>inct$.
Provence.

GuiENNE.

Gascony.

Dauphine.

LORRAIN.

Alsace.

0tief Townt.
Aix, Ricz, Senez, Digne, Aries, Marfeilles, Tou-
lon, Frejus, Grace, Vence, Glandeve, Slfteron,
Apt, Forcalquir, Avignon, Carpentras, Orange,
Hieres, Anribes.
Langueuoc. Thouloufe, Alby, Foix, Perpignan, Lauraguais,
Narbonne, Bezicr, Nifincs, Montpeller, Mende,
Vivieri, Puy.
Bourdeaux, Bazas, Agen, Rhodes, Saintes, Peri-

guex, Limoges, Cahors.
Aughe, D'Acq's, Albert, Condam, Verdun, Bay-
onne, Ayre, Mirande, Loiiibes, St, Palais, Mau-
leons, Pau, Tarbe, St. Lizier.
Vienne, Valence, Grenoble, Gap, Etnbrun, Die,
Buis, St. Paul, Briaii9on.
Burgundy. Dijon, Autun, Chalons, Semur, Auxerre, Cha-
rolles, Ma9on, Chatillon, Dole, Befan9on«
Vefoul, Salins, Poligny, St. Claude, Bourg
Belley, Gex, Trevoux, Montbeliiard.
Nancy, Mirecourt, Vaudrevange, Sarlouis, Sarbruck,
Bar-le-Duc, Michael, Poniamoufon, Clermont,
Mctz, Toul, Verdun.
Strafbrrg, Hagenau, Fort *Lewis, Weiflenburg,
Landau, Colmar, Schleftat, Munfter, Mur-
bach, Forette, Mulhaufen, Before, Hunningeii.
2. Climate^ Soil^ Plants and Animals.^ The climate of France is
more fettled then ours, however, if the extremes be as great there,
the trandtions from heat to cold, and from rain to fair weather apT
pear lefs fudden and uncertain than thofe of our iflands. In the
interior parts of the kingdom the air is very temperate and falu-
brious. In the northern parts the winters are intenfely cold ; but
towards the fouth fo mild that many invalids retire thither from
England at that feafon to avoid the rigour of our climate. The
quality of the foil varies greatly, according to its (Ituation. The up-
per part of Provence is proper for corn, and the lower for high-
flavoured fruits. Burgundy and Picardy produce com and flax,
fruits, wines and oils in great plenty. Though France however
produces almoft every luxury of life, the heats id oiany places parch
up the ground and deflroy the hopes of the year ; and hence the
poor inhabitants are often obliged to fubflft on chefnuts and rye.
The French, however, have not been inattentive to promote the
caufe of agriculture ; they have inftituted different academies ex-
prefily for this purpofe, and propofed premiums fbr its improve-
ment j but they are particularly attentive to the culture of their
vineyards which yield excellent grapes, from which great quantities
of wine are annually made. •' ■ "- . :

France contains few animals either wild or tame, wolves except-
ed, which are not ufuajly met with in Great Britain. The horfes,

F f bl;Hk

.M^

. vv '

"41

1 W.ff

.il

■'■II

■>-%■-.

^ (8i)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

va-
ex-

lilack cattle and flieep arc neither fo numerous nor fo
luable as thofe of England. Thofe animals called game are
tremely fine and plennful j and wh?* ly feem a paradox, in France,
which we are taught to confider as a land* of perfeft flavery, the
game is neither guarded by legal reflri£tions nor partial indulgences
as in England.

3. Fojils and Mineral Springs. 1 France contains feveral veins of
metals j in Languedoc there are mine* of gold and filver, and in
Alface fome of filver and copper ; but both are too expenfive to be
wrought to advantage. Alabafter, marble, jafper and coal are alfo
found in feveral parts, and Britanny abounds in mines of iron,, cop-
per, tin and lead. A mine of oker has been difcovered at Berry
which ferves for melting metals, and dying the fineft drab-cloths.
Excellent turquoifcs, ^he only precious Hones France produces are
found in I-anguedoc i but marble and freeftone quarries are com-
mon in almoft every province.

France is celebrated for its mineral waters j but thofe of Bare-
ges near the borders of Spain, under the Pyrenean mountains, are
now preferred to ail the rcll. At Baguciis near Bareges are feveral
falutary m'nenil waters and baths ; as there alfo are at Forges ia
Nonnahdy, Sult(bach in Alface, and at St. Amand.

1 here are feveral other remarkable fprings, particularly one near
Aigne in Auvergne which boils violently, and makes a hifling noife
like water when thrown upon linie ; this water has no tafte, but is
of a poifonous Quality, and the birds that drink of it expire imme-
diately.

4. Mountains y Forefts.\ The prmcipal mountains of France are
the Alps, which divide it from Italy; the Pyrenees which feparatd
it from Spam J the Vauge which divides it from Burgundy and Al-
face; Mount Jura which feparates Franche Compte from Switzer-
land i the Cevennes in the province of Languedoc, and Mount Dor
in thie province of Auvergne.

K'he chief forefts in France are thofe of Orleans and Fountain-
blieau, the former contains fourteen thousand acres planted with
oak, elm, afli, &c. -, the latter is nearly as large. Befides thefe
there is another near Morchifmoir, a very confiderable one. France
likewife contains great numbers of woods, which aie fome of them
large enous^h to claim the appellation of forefts.

5. Ri<verij Canals y Lakes.] The principal rivers in France are
the Rhone, the Soane, the Garoime, the Charente, the Loire, the
Seine, the Rhine, the Ma:fe or Meufe, the Schelde, the Somme
and the Var. There are alfo feveral little rivers which it would be
tedious to particularife .; though they greatly contribute to facilitate

the inland navigation, which is alfo greatly improved by canals
chiefly planned and executed in the reign of Lewis XIV. Regular
locks for carrvin^ boats over eiliinenees were firft eredled in this

country.

1 'I .

,(V/

^^\i.'.-X,

\ .

-a

Iff _^l^. ,

MP-

s.xv.

FRANCE.

(83)

The lakes in France are very inconfiderable. There is one at
Iflfaire in Auvergne ; a fecond at La Befl'e ; and a third on the top
of a hill near Aiegre, which vulgar report declares to be bottom-
lefs.

6. Commerce, ManufaSures.'] The articles of trade in France
are it's wines, brandy, vinegar, &c. Fruits, as prunes, prunelios,
dried grapes, pears, apples, oranges and olives j drugs, oils and chy-
mical preparations ; (ilk embroidery, tapcftry, canibricks, lawns,
laces, brocades, and woollen manufactures in imitation of thofc of
England ; paper, parchment, hardware and toys,

Henry IV. laid the foundation of trade in this country. In 1 598
he publiihed the famous edidl of Nantz, which fecured to the pro-
teftants the free exercife of their religion ; and having compofed
foreign and civil wars, he applied himfelf with wonderful attention
and fuccefs to cultivate the happinefs of his people, by encouraging
arts and manufadtures. It was he that firft introduced canals into
France, taking the hint from his neighbours in the Netherlands.
Before his reign the filk manufacture was fcarcely known in France j
"but fo rapidly did it afterwards increafe, that in the reign of his
grandfon Lewis XIV. the city of Lyons alone employed eighteen
thoufand looms. However the unjuft, and indeed impolitic revo-
cation of the edict of Nantz, the expulfton of the Proteilants, and
the ruinous wars maintained by France, decreaied the number of
inanufafturers in a very high degree, fo that their filk manufacture
is now rivalled by that of England where the French refugees found
encouragement and protection.

The French trade to the different countries of Europe is exten-
live and lucrative. In the Weft Indies they poflefs feveral valuable
and important iflands from which they derive immenfe benefit j in
the Eaft Indies they likewife retain feveral advantageous fettle-
ments.

7. Curiofttiety natural anJ artificial.] Springs and caverns form
the principal natural curiofities of this kingdom. In the foreft of St.
Aubin du Cormier in Bretagne there is a fubterranean cavern through
■which there flows a rapid torrent of water ; and another near Nious,
from which ifliies a violent wind. In Alface there is a cavern
out of which flows an oily liquor ; and at Salins in Burgundy are
feveral, remarkable for their fait fprings. The cave of the Notre
Dame de Beaume in Dauphine is between four and five fathoms broad,
arid from five to eight deep ; and at Befan9on is another above
three hundred feet under ground, in the bottom of which is a fmall
river faid to be frozen in fummer and flowing in winter.

France contains feveral curious remains of antiquity, many of
which have been traced back even to the times of the Celts ; and
thofe of tlie Romans are numerous in this country, At Orange
there is a triumphal arch, and another at Rheims almoft entire.
At Nifmes many ruins of antiquity are to be found, among which
is the teniplc of Diana, the amphitheatre, and a houfe ereCted b/

F f z the

.«!

«»

.rlJ^iV

(84)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

the emperor Adrian called the Maifon Q^arree. The celebrated
Pont du Garde was raifed by the Roman colony at Nifmes, to con-
vey « flrcam of water over a valley between two mountains for the
uie of that city, and continues to this day in the moft perfect repair j
h conflds of three bridges or tiers of arches raifed one above ano-
ther, the height being one hundred and feventy-four feet and the
length feven hundred and twenty-three. At Aries in Provence is a
Roman obeliflc of granatc fifty-two feet high and feven in diameter
at the bafe, all of one (lone. Roman temples are frequent in
France ; and at Lyons are the remains of that built by the uxty na-
tions in Gaul in honour of Auguftus and the Romans. Thefe are
thii chief public antiquities, and in the cabinets of the curious there
are innumerable other ones on a fmaller fcale.

8. Religion, Language.] The Romiih is the cftablifhed profef-
fton of France ; but the papal authority is very limited in this
country, infomuch, that without the king's permiflion and ratifica-
tion no law of the church, either framed by the bi/hops or the
pope, can fuhje£t any one to external penalties or puni/hments, or
e\^en to church difcipline ; and the prefcnt monarque in his con-
cludt to h\s fubjeds feems happily an example of religious tolera-
tion, 'lire French language is chiefly compofed of words radically
derived from "the Latin, with many of German origin introduced
by the Franks. The Academie Francoife, expreCily inftituted for
the purpofe of improving the language, was alfo of great fervice
to literature ; the French from that period began to write with
elegance and precifion ; their native language was (ludied with gram-
matical mtnutenefs, and all its mofl captivating beauties difplayed.
This elegant and eafy language has now become the moft univerfal
of all living tongues, and is generally fpoken in all the courts of
Europe.

9. Schools^ Literati, ArtiJIs.] In France are twenty-eight uni-
verfities, Aix, Angers, Aries, ^ Avignon, Befan9on, Bourdeaux,
Bourges» Caen, Cahon, Dol, Douay, Fleche, Mountabon, Mont-
pelier, Nantz, Orange, Orleans, Paris, Perpignan, Poidtiers, Ponta-
moufon, Richlieu, Rhcims, Soiflbns, Scrafburg, Thouloufe, Tour-
HOn and Valence. Paris alone contains eight academies, namely,
three for literary purfuits, that called the French academy, that of
infcriptions, and that of fciences ; one for painting and fculpture ;
;inother for archite«Slure ; and three for equitation and other mili-
tary c^'ercifes. The wits, the literati, the men of fcience that
France has produced are numerous, and their names are eflabliflicd
umoog. the learned of Europe. Charlemagne at an early period at-
tempted the revival of ancient learning in France, and in fome mea-
sure removed the Gothic veil ; but till the reign of the polite and
learned Francis I. cotemporary with Henry VIII. of England, the
learning of the French wras little more than a fubtle quibbling and
pedantic fort of logic. By degrees, however, the ftudy of the
Greek and Roman dafficks gave a. new turn to their litcrdry pur-

, / fuitJ.

■m-

t;,

♦

S.XV.

PRANCE.

(85)

fuits. The works of the two Stephens, Malherbe, Balzac, and the
fociety of Port Royal enriched the French poetry or improved the
profe ; but the reign of Lewis XIV. was the Augultan aec of
France, and produced Racine, CorneiDe, Moliere and Boileau,
Bourdaloue, Bofluet, Flechier and Maflllon, Defcartes and Pafcal.
The prince though illiberal in his religious princij-'es. was an en-
thufiaft for fciences and arts ; his reign produced, beikles other ar-
tifts, feveral eminent painters, particularly Pouflin, Le Brun and
Le Sueur; fince his time Fenelop, Montefquieu, Maupertuis,
D'Alembert, Bufton, Voltaire and D'Argens have been confpicu-
oufly eminent in the refpeftive lines they puWoed, and the fciences
and art5 jire ftill in high cuitivntion In France.

I o. Hiftoryy Government.] France, in antiquitv, under the name
of Gaul was often engaged in wnrs with the Roman people. It
was principally reduced under Julius Cccfar, and remained in the
pofleflion of the Romans till the deftru6<ioi of that empire, when
it became a p'ey to the Curgundians, Goths and Franks. In the
year 800 Charlemagne fwaycd the fceptre of France. In 880 the
Normans ravaged a pnrt of this country j they fettled in Neuftria,
nrd in 907 feized Hritanny, Picardy and Champagne. When Wil-
liam the Norman prince had made a corqueft of England, he and
his fuccefibrs after him held their territories in France by inheri-
tance, by conquefl: and by treaty ; thefe varied in their extent at
different times, till in 1 ^58 the French conquered Calais, Guifnes,
and all that the Engliih held in France. The conftitution of this
country is monarchical, but the parliaments feem at this time to be
ftruggling with the Grand Monarque for an exteniiun of their pri-
vileges.

1 1

SECTION XVI.

it-
ta-

Spain.

Spain lies between thirty-fix and forty-four deg. north latitude,
and between ten deg. weft and three deg. eaft longitude. It is
bounded on the north by the Bay of Bifcay and the Pyrenean moun-
tains ; on the fouth by the Streights of Gibraltar ; on the eaft by
the Mediterranean fea, and on the weft by Portugal and the Atlantic
Ocean.

I . Dtvi/tont.] It is divided into the following kingdoms, prin-
cipalities or provinces.

Provinces. Cfuef Tvwns.

Galicia. Compoftella, Mondonedo, Lugo, Ortenfe, Tuy,

> Corunna, Fcrrol, Vigo, Betanzes, Rivadavia.

AsTURiA. Oviedo, Santillana, Avilles, St. Vincent.

Biscay.

m-'

(86)

BiSCA

EUROPE.

P. VI.

Navarre.
Arragon.

Catalonia.
Valencia.

MURCIA.

Granada.
Andalusia.

Y, Bilboa, Tholofa, Vlttoria, Port PalTage, St. Se-

baftian, Fontarabia, St. Andrew, Laccdo, Or-
dunna, Placentia.
Pampeluna, Olita, Tudela, Eftella, Sanguefa.
Saragofla, Jaca, Huefca, Balbaftro, Taracona,

Albarafin, Teruel, Ainfa, Catalajud, Boria.
Barcelona, Urgel, Balaguer, Lerida, Tortofa,
Girona, Tarragona, Rofes, Vich, Cardonna,
Solfonna, Puycerda, Manrefa.
Valencia, Villa Hernnofa, Origuela, Segorbe,
Xativa, Alicant, Denia, Gandia, Morviedro,
Villareal, Alzira, Altea.
Murcia, Lorca, Carthagena, Caravaca, Mula.
Granada, Malaga, Almeria, Guadix, Ronda,

Antiquera, Braga, Loya.
Seville, Jxn, Corduba, Medina Sidonia, Cadiz,
Gibraltar, Port St. Mary, Ereja, Baeza, Of-
funa, St, Lucar, Anduxar, Carniona, Alca-
lareal, Lucena, Arcos, Marchena, Ayamont,
Ubeda, Moguer.
Burgos, Logronno, Calahorra, So.ia, Ofma,
Valladolid, Segovia, Avila, Siguenfa, Roa,
Aranda, Calzada, Negera, St. Domingo.
Madrid, Toledo, Cuenca, Cividad Real, Alca-
la ■ de Henarez, Almanza, Efcurial, Gauda-
laxara, Brihuega, Calatrava, Villena, Requena.
Leon, Placencia, Toro, Zamora, Aftorga, Sala-
manca, Alva, Cividad Rodrigo.
Merida, Badajox, Placentia, Coria, Truxillo,
Ellerena, Alcantara Medelin.
The Spani/h iflands in the Mediterranean are Majorca, Minorca
and Ivica.

2. Climate, Soil, Produce] The air of Spain is dry and the (ky
ferene and clear, except during the equitioftial rains ; but in the
fouthern provinces during the fummer month'; the heat is exceffive.

The foil is extremely Teril*?, but the natives indolent to excefs,
fuffer it to become fterile for want of cultivation, and fcarcely raife
corn fufficicnt for the nccel^ary calls of life. In many places the
richeft and mod delicious fruits grow almoft fpontaneoufly, particu-
larly oranges, lemons, prunes, citrons, almonds, grapes and figs.
The Spanilh wines are in high eftimation among foreigners ; and
even fugar canes arrive at the utmoft perfedlion ; faflfron, honey and
fiilc are produced in great abundance in almoft every province.
Some of the mountains are cloathed with wood, fruits and herlxige"
to tbeir very fummits. A variety of aromatic herbs grow every
where, imparting a fine flavour to the flefli of the flieep and kid
which feed on ihem. Seville is efpecially celebrated for its oranges
and Murcia produces mulberry trees in fuch abundance that the
.\ , ... • produft

Old Castile.
New Castile.

Le M.

Estrf.madura.

S.XVI.

s p a' f *n.

-«

(87)

product of its filkj amounts to 20o,oool. a year. This country,
however, is much infeftecl with lucuds which fometimes darken the
meridian fun, confume the verdure of the field', ftnd deftroy the
hope of the year ; and from this dreadful calamity whole provinces
have felt all the horrors of fan)ine ; and the inhabitants are ex-
tremely inattentive to the deilruftion of the eggs of tliefc formidable
infedts, which might, timely prevent thefe fatal confequcnces.

3. jinimals.] Wolves are almoft the only beads of prey in this
kingdom ; the breed of -which, on account pf the number of moun-
tains have never been totally exterminated. Black cattle, mules and
other tame animals common to the European cinintes are plentiful
in Spain. The Spanifli flieep arc a t»eafurc in themfelvies, their
wool being the iineft in the univcrfe ; the number of thei»* fliepherds
is computed to be forty thoufand. The Andalufian horfes are the
fnoft celebrated for beauty of any in Europe. Wild bulls abound
in the forefts of New Caltile, and give the youth an opportunity of
difplaying thcii* courage and aClivity before their millrefles a* in
tilts and tournaments in ihe romantic days of chivalry. The fights
of the cavaUers or bull feafts, a diverfion attended with circum-
ftances of uncommon barbarity, and fuited only to the tafte of the
Gothic ages is of Mooriih original ; it is now happily become obfo*
lete, but was once fo prevalent that eyery town of any note is fur-
niflied with a large fquare or circus for the. purpofe of exhibiting
bull fights ; and fo fond are they in fome places of this diverfion that
in the fmalleft villages they will procure a co^^ or ox by fubfcrip-
tion and fight them, riding on afles if they canncrt procure horfcii.
It would be weH if other countries Wtt'e clear of the inhuman
prafticc of torturing this vet" ufefrilpart of the creation. With
equal cruelty, though with lefs hardiness and courage, the poor uiill
is baited and torn in our iflands. Fowl?, wild and tame, and the
various fpecies of thofe animals called game, are excellent and nu-
merous in Spain, and thie Spaniih fcas and rivers are plentifully
•ftoclced with fiih. ^ '

4. Fojftls and Springs J] Spain abounds in metals and minerals,
but its ancient celebrity for gold and filver mines is now no more ;
■whether their veins were exhaufted, or the iifitives too jndolcnt to
work them, is altogether uncertain. Moft of their mountains have
mines of quickfilver, copper, lead and iron, which laft is dfteemed
next to that of Damaibus. Great quantities of marble, jafper,
alabafter, jet, agate, cornelian, garnets ; and Sometimes diamonds,
emeralds and amethyfts are found here. They have likewife a great
plenty of calamine, fulphur, allum and other minerals.

The medicinal waters of Spain are little known, the;y are fre-
quent in Granada, Seville and Cordova, but not much refoned to.

5. Mountains.'] The mountains of Spain are numerous ,• the
m6ft remarkable are the Pyrenean, on the frontiers of France ; they
are near two hundred miles long, and have only five oacrow paflages
'^' ' ' over

«A-

'•I

EUROPE.

P. VI.

■M

ever tbem ; the Cantabrian mountains appear to be a continuation
of the Pyrenees, and reach the Atlantic ocean fouth of Cape Finif-
terre . Mount Galpe, now called the Hill of Gibraltar, and
anciently one of the pillars of Hercules, is fufficiently known. But
of all others Montferrat is moft extraordinary -, at a diftance the
mountain appears like an infinite number of re. ks cut into a conical
form, and piled upon one another to a prodigious height; on a
nearer view, each cone compofes a mountain of itfelf, and the
whole occupies an extent of about fourteen miles in circumference.
As it is in form diflimilar to any other mountain, fo it is uncon-
nefted with any. It (lands on a vaft plain about thirty miles from
Barcelona, and has been thought to be fo admirably adapted for
contemplation and retirement, that for many ages it has been the
habitation of monks and hermits, who vow never to fbrfake it. On
this mountain (lands a convent to which pilgrims refort from the
moft diftant Romifli countries. The poor who call there are fed
three days gratis, and the fick relieved from the hofpital. On
particular feftivals feveral thoufand perfons arrive in a day, who
pay according to their circumftances for what accommodations the
convent can afford. A number of hermitages are cut out on dif-
ferent parts of the mountain, all of which have their little chapels
and are generally fumi/hed with fmall gardens. The hermits have
an annual meeting, when they receive their facrament from the
hands of the mountain vicar, and afterwards dine together j but at
other times they live in a very reclufe and folitary manner, perform
various penances, and adhere to the moft rigid rules of abftinence.
They are prohibited from keeping any living creature within their
walls, that their attention may not be diverted from divine con-
templation by the exercifc of any earthly affedtion.

6. Rivers^ Lakes.] The principal rivers in Spain are the Duero,
the Tajo or Tagus of the ancients, famed for its golden fands in
their daw ; the Guadiana, which in its courfe runs a confiderable
way under ground and again emerges; the Guadalquiver or Turio ;
and the Ebro. The Tinto, hovever, is the moft remarkable, its
\yaters are of a topaz hue, and as they glide along they indurate
the fand and petrify in a furprifing manner. Not a plant grows
on its banks, no kind of verdure is feen within its reach, nor have
any 6ih ever been found in its ftream. Every fpecies of animals,
except goars, refufe to drink of it, though its water does not appear
to contain ary noxious quality, and is much celebrated for deftroying
worms in cattle. Thefe ilngular properties, however, are entirely
loft before it reaches the fea, by the influx of various rivulets, a
confiderr'-'le diftance from its mouth.

The lakes in Spain, particularly that of Benevence, abound with
various excellent fpecies of filli ; and the water of a lake near An>
tequera, on being evaporated by the heat of the fun^ leaves a cruft
pf fait. /

^ ■ 7. Commerce f

S. XVI.

SPAIN.

(893

7. Commerce^ Manufa^ure."] Such immenfe treafure Is derived firrrfl
Spani/h America, that this nation makes gold and filver the chief
branches of its imports and exports. CochineaJ, alfo indigo, cocao,
fiigar, tobacco, logwood, and every other valuable articles which
that quarter of the world produces, form the cargoes of the home,
ward-bound galleons or flotas. The chief nr'-anutaflures of Spain
are filk, wool, iron, copper and other hardwares ; but fuch is thf;
general Indolence and inaftivity of the natives, that they arc totally
unable to fupply their colonies with the commodities of their own
manufactures; the Englifh, French, Dutch, and feveral other
nation" carry ot this lucrative but contriihard trade in Spmifh
b<irfom% and flulrered under the name of Spani/Ti (av*tors; Cadiz a
the chief emporium for this fpecies of roninierce ; tfv this place the
bu"'on of America is imported and from hence exported to the
prher niuions of l:.un)pe.

8. Curio fities natural ancf arttfcial.] The principal natural ctirio-
firles of Spain have been told in the defcription of its mountains and
waters. At Algeira is a very deep and extenfive C3vern, with
curious chryftaHlzations or petrefnftions ; bur the echo in this cave
is the mod amazing, travellers of veracity have affirmed that the
report of a piftol will be reverberated in It for the fpace of feven
mini''-''s.

In feveral pans of Spain are the remains of Roman and Moorifh
antiquities. Near the city of Salamanca are the ruins of a Romati
way ; near Segovia is a grand aquedu*^ erected by Trajan, which
extends over a deep valley between tvi'o hills, and is fupported hy a
double row of a hundred and feventy-two arches ; at Toledo are
the remains of an oM Roman theatre ; and at Cordova is an edifice
which was formerly a mo<qne, but is now convened into a Spanifla
congregation houfe, and is faid xo be one of the wonders of thr
world, it is fix hundred (\:<it In length, five hundred in breadth, and
of a proponionare height ; tl'e -oof, which is amaiingly bold^and
loftv, is fiipportt d bv three hundred and fifty pillars ot fine marbV
in ten rows, fornii'^g e'even aides, in which are three hundred and
fixtv fix altars and rwenty-fou'* gates, every part being enriched
and adorned with the nioft grand and coftly oinaments : at Granada
is to be feen great parr of a nmfl: magnificent palace belonging te
the Mooviih kings, the infide is overlaid with ja! per and p6rphyry,
and the \yalls contain many Arabic infcrlptions ; the whole edifice
is executed in the Gothic tafte.

9. Religion, lynifruoge.] T he profefiion of the churc'i of Rome w
the national eftabiiiliment of Spain. The horrors of the inquifition
blacken the annais of this country ; but by a late edift its feveritic*
have been confiderably moderated.

The Spanlih language, except in the terminations and fonric
exotic words intro^luced into it by the Moors and Gqths, bears »
ftrong affinity to the Latin, and is one of thf moft loft^ andexpreflire
tongues in Europe. ,.

10. Sc/aols,

.•^

tft'l

•'*-^- 'i

* •■ # 1

(90)

EUROPE.

p.vr.

A>'

* 4:

,' ■%

10. Sc/ioolr, Literati, yfrtijls.] Befides feveral academies, there
are twenty-four univerfities in Spain, the chief of which is Salamanca,
founded by Alphonfus King of Leon, in the year 1 200, containing
twenty-one colleges, fome of them magnificently beautiful, where
the fons of their principal nobility are fent for their education.
The other univerfities, which contain nothing very remarkable, are
as follow : Seville, Granada, Compoftella, Toledo, Valladolid,
Alcala, Siguenzs, Valencia, Lerida, Huefca, Saragofla, Tortofla,
Ofluna, Onata, Candia, Barcelona, Murcia, Taragona, Baeza, Avila,
Oriuela, Palencia and Oviedo.'

The Spaniards, at a very early period, cultivated learning ; and
after the Saracens had fettled in this kingdom, they introduced into
it their language, religion and literature, and the Eaftern ftile of
compofition was generally adopted. At that time the attachment
to oriental literature was lo great, that it entirely fuperfeded the
Roman j and many natives of Spain could write Arabic with the
utmoft purity, though there was fcarcely a man who uuderftood
Latin. The Spanilli Jews, about that period, were difl:iiiguiflied
by' their literary abilities ; and, under the fan-^ion of gover-iment,
they eitablirtied fchools rtc Seville, Granada and Ti!':do, here
they taught the Hebrew tongue, and other branches ;c ic .ining,
with fingular fuccefs and approbation.

Among the literati of Spain wo may reckon the Trobadores,
whom the Spanifli w riters place as high as the twelfth and thirceenth
<:entury, when the Provencal and Galician dialects were generally
prevalent. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries produced feveral
learned men and celebrated poets ; particularly the Marquis of
Villena, Juan de Mena, Juan de la Encina, Bofcan, Ercilla and
Villegas ; Ifidore, Ximenes, Calderoni, Lopez de Vega, Cervante%
Toftatus, Herrcra, De Solis ind Feyjoo, are alfo celebrated for
«rudItion or parts

The palace^ of Spnin, particulaHy the Efcurlal, and other public
buildings, fhew the Spntiiards to have been eminent as architects
and fculptors ; their piftures alf {h°.v: the excellence of their
painten.' Among t!ie moft eminent of their artifts are Velafquez,
MuriUo, Rebeira and Claudio Coeilo, and the names of many
others ate abfolutely unknown.

1 1 . Hi/tory, Government.^ Spain, the ancient Iberia or Hefperia,
was at an early period in the hands of the Carthaginians, and con-
tinued fo till the Ronrians difpoflefled them of all that they held in
this country. It continued a Roman province till the deftruftioii
of that empire, when it was feized by the Goths, Vandals, Alans
and Suevi ; and from hence the Vandals palled over into Africa.
In 711, the Saracens from Africa invaded Spain and over-run
tTie whole country. In 718, Pela/o began to recover part of
Spain from the Saracens or Moors ; others of the Spaniards followed
his example, every general fetting himfelf up for a fovereign, till
aft€r many wars and mutual conquefts, the leparate interefts were

I united

S. XVI.

S P A I N.

(90

united by the marriage of Ifabella Queen of Caftile to Ferdinand
King c" Arragon in 1479, and finally the Moors and Jews, amount-
ing to 170,000 families, were expelled the kingdom. The confti-
tution of Spain is the mod defpotic monarchy.

li\

SECTION XVII.

Portugal.

1 for

Tia,
on-
in
ion
ans
ca.

'Uti

The North
{ion contains

The Middle
fion contains

The South
fion cor.tains

divi-

Tr?. ios Montes,

iBeira.
Eftremadura.
'Entre Tajo.

divi-

■■{'

Portugal is bounded on 'the north and the eafl: by the kingdom
of Spain ; on the fouth and weft by the Atlantic ocean. It extends
from thirty-fix deg. fifty min. to forty-three deg. N. lat. and fi-om
feven to ten deg. W long.

1 . Di'viftons.] 1 his kingdom is ufually divided ii to three parts,
via. the northern, middle and fouthcrn prqvinces.

Provinces. CJiief Totjuns.

Entre Minho. f Braga.

Douro. \ Oporto, Viana.

i Braganza.

\ Miranda, Villa R«a1.
C '~ 'mbra.
( Guarda.
Lifbon.

St. Ubcs, Lei*^.
Ebora or Evora.
Alantejo, or Gua- A Portale^re, Elvas

diana. (, Bira.

Algarva. Faro, Tavora Silvcs,

I igos.

2. Clinuitey Soil and Prof/iice.] The climate of Portugal is ia
general much more temperate than that of Spain, becaufe of its
vicinity to the fea ; and the air of Lifbon in particular is efteemed
fo gentle and falubrious, that confumptive patients from the moft
didant European coun'.ries frequently try it as tlieir laft refource.
But though the temperature of the climate be fuperior to that of
S] tin, the foil is by no means fo fertile, which obliges the Portu-
guefe to import the greateft par:: of their corn. The fruits are
fimilar to thofe of Spain, but their flavour is not quite fo de-
licious.

3. Jnimals.] The coafts of Portugal produce abundance of ex-
cellent filh ; and the land is equally well ftocked with quadrupeds
and fowls, both wild and domeftic. The mules in this country are
extremely fervlceable both for draught and carriage ; and the horfes,
though (lightly made, are fpirited and lively.

4. Mountains^

•."V

h:.

1''

t92)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

4. Mountains^ Mines and S/'rings.] The mountains of Portugal
Are generally very rocky; the principal are thofe which divide
Algarva from Montejo ; thofe in Tralos Montes, and the rock of
Lifbon at the mouth of the Tajo : befides thefe, there are feveral
lefs confiderable ones, and they abound in all kinds of ores, parti-
cularly of filvcr, copper, tin and iron ; but the Portuguefe being
amply fupplied with metals, and particularly gold from their pof-
feflions in America and other pans of the globe, no mines are
worked in their country. Gems of various kinds, fuch as Turqudifes
and Hyacinths, a beautiful fpecies of veined marble, mill-ftones,
and many curious foifils of the lapidary kind are found in different
provinces ; and on the hill of Alcantara, in tlie vicinity of Liibon,
there is a remarkable mine of faltpetre.

Mineral and medicinal fprings, both hot and coKf, are found in
Portugal ; one in particular, of the firft fort, about forty-five miles
from Liibon, has an hofpital built rear it for the benefit of tbc
poor.

5. tivertf Lakes. 1 Next to the Duero, Minho, Tajo and Gua-
dian; ■ ''* h have been already mentioned, in Spain, are the Mon-
dego, 4. mia, (which is the famed Lethe of the ancients) the
Sadao, the /anga, the Lefa, the Ave, and the Carado. There is
a number of others of lefs note ; and fome authors aflert, that the
feveral riven in the little kingdom of Portugal do not amount to lefs
than five thoufand.

On the top of Sierra de Eftrella, are two lakes of vaft extent,
and one of them is of an amazing depth, having never yet been
fathomed. Near Rova is one that makes a rumbling noile which
may be heard a confiderable way oft"; and in the neighbourhood of
the river Mondego is a lake, or rather pool, which is faid to abforb
every thing that is thrown into it, though of ever fo light a
nature.

6. Commerce^ Manii failures.] The Portuguefe exchange their
wines, fruit, fait and other articles for foreign manufafture?, ef-
pecially thofe of the Engliib. They fabricate Ibme linen, woollen
and coarfe filks, and are celebrated for candying and preferving
fruit.

Their colonies in Brafil yield vaft quantities of gold, filver,
diamonds, fugar^ brazil and other woods for dying, tobacco, gun>s
and drugs. • Their fettlements on the eaft and welt coafts of Africa
are very cxtenfive, from whence they alfo import gold, and they
carry on a confiderable trade with the Eaft Indies.

7. Curio ftties.] The remains of fome Moorifli caftles the Roman
bridge and aquedudl at Colmbra, the walls of Santarin, which are
Itkewife fuppofed to be the works of the Romans. Thefe and the
waters, already mentioned, form the principal curiofities of this
kingdom.

8. Profeffion^ Language.] The Portuguefe are of the church of
Rome. John III. I(itroduCQd the inqiuifitipn into this country, and

fmpious

S. XVII.

PORTUGAL.

(93)

Impious and inhuman as this tribunal ih, it has been called the Holy
Office, and its fellivals or cruel burnings Auto de Fe, or the Act of
Faith. The power of the inquifition, however, is now taken out
of the hands of the ecdefiafticks, but it is converted i.-uo a ftate trap
for the benefit of the crown.

The Portuguefe language differs from that of Spain, only pro-
vinciaily, with the addition of fome words originally borrowed
from other nations; and is ellcenied flrong, energetic and ex-
preffive.

9. Let/rning.] Ufeful learning and liberal fcience are baniflied
from Portugal by the decretals of their cliurch ; and though there
are univerfities at Coimbra and Evora, and feveral academies of
royal inflitution, all attempts to diffufe ufct'ul knowledge are de-
feated by the tyrannic fway of fi4)erflition, which brands with the
name of herefy even the improvements in natural knowledge, as the
doctrines of Newton, Gaiileo, and other celebrated philofophers ;
yet the anceflors of the prefent Portuguefe were certainly poileifed
-of more knowledge, with refpett to aftronomy, geography and
navigation, than all the world befides about the -middle of the
fixteenth century 4 but we hardly meet with one name tranfmitted
to poflerity as eminent for literary abilities, except the poetic
Camoens, author of the Luflad, wlio was htmfelf a great adventurer
and voyager.

10. Htjioryy Qyvernment .] The ancient inhabitants of this coun-
try were called Lulitani, and underwent from the Romans, Gothic
nations and Moors, the revolutions of Spain. About 1 1 46, Por-
tugal became a diflind kingdom under Alonzo. Upon the death
of Henry King of Portugal in 1 580, Philip 11. of Spain feized upon
this country j but in 1640 the Duke of Braganx»i recovered it from
the Spaniards, and was crowned King by the name of John 1V^
Portugal has been independent of Spain ever fincc. Its conftitutioa
io absolute monavchv.

I illl

SECTION XVIIL

Italy,

Italy, including Sicily, lies between thirty-fcven and forty-^even
deg. N. latitude, and between feven and nineteen deg. E. longitude.
Towards the eait, fouth and weft, it is waflied by the Adriatic
and Mediterranean feas ; and on the North it is feparated from tlic
reft «f Europe by the Alps.

1. Diviftons.] The Italian ftates, dilUmilar lo thofe of Holland
and Switzerland, have dlftin^ furnii of S')vcrmn;nt, trade and

iiitei'eftsi

(94)

EUROPE.

R VI.

^*Vi'

intereH^'', ; they are not cemented by any political confederacy, to
which every member b accountable.

Countries. C/iiefTonvns.

The Kin^ o/" S a r n i n i a holds

Piedmont.

Savoy.

MONTFERRAT,

Part of Milan.
Sardinia I.

Turin, Pignerol, Carignan, Vercei?, Mafl'cran,

Ivrea, Afti, Sufa, Saluzzo, Coni, Pragelas

or Clufon, Nire, Tende, Aoufte.
Chamberry, MonfVnelian, Annacy, Tonor or

Thonon, Mouftriers, St. John de Maurienne,

Bonneville.
Cafal, Alby, Aqui.
Tortona, Alexandria, Laumello.
Cagliari, Oriftagni, SalVari, Caftel Aragonefe.

The Ihmim'ons of the King o/" Naples are

Naples. Naples, Capua, Gseto, Benevento, Salerno,

( Bojano, Cerenza, Cofenza, Rhegio, Aquilla,

Chieti, Manfredonia, Bari, Otranto, Bruodifi,

Tarento.
Sicily. Palermo, Medina, Catania, Syracufe, Noto.

Islands of Liparl, Strombulo, Rorte, Panaria, Elicufa,

Capri, Ifchia, Ponza, Pianofa, &c.

The Houfe of Aujlria pojfejfes

Milanese. Milan, Pavia, Novara, Como, Lodi, Cremona.

Mantua. Mantua.

Tuscany. Florence, Sienna, Pifa, Leghorn, Piombino.

In Tufcany, Lucca is a republic, and Mafla
Carrara a principality ; and the coaft del
Prefldii, of which the capital is Orbitello, is
fubjedt to the King of Naples.
Parma, Placentia, Guaftalla, Caftiglione, Luz-

zara.
Genoa, Savona, Vado, Noli, Final, Albenga,
St. Remo, Ventimiglia, Monaco, Rapallo,
Levigna, Spe/ia.
Is fubjeit to the King of Sardinia.

The Duke of Par-
ma's Territories,

Genoese Territo
ries.

Oneglia

The DukeofMoDE- Modena, Mii'andola, Rhegio, Borfeilo,

i, N a's Territories.

Venetian Terri-
tories.

•)*>■ •* ■

Carpi.

Venice, Padua, I'^erona, Brefcia, Crema,
Bergamo, Vinccoza, Rovigno, Trevifo, Bcl-
luno, Aeuileia, Udia, Capo dc Illria.

Pope's

CoRsI

«■

S. XVIII.

Countries.
Pope's Dominions.

ITALY.

(95)

C/iief Toivm.

Rome.Tivoli, Frefcati, Oftia, Albano, Viterlo,
Civita Vecchia, Bracciano, Caftro, Orvietto,
Aquapendente, Spoletto, Narni, Terni, Pe-
rugia, Ancona, Loretto, Urbino, Pefaro,
y Semigalia, Ravenna, Rimini, Hologna, Fer-

rara, Coniachia, [St. Marino, a republic.]

*rhe French King holds
Corsica I. Baftia, Bonifacio.

The Knights of St. John of Jerufahm fopfs
Malta I. Malta or Valetta.

2. Climatey Soil.] Italy is of a kindly foil an4 climate, and pro-
duces not only the necelfaries but comforts of life in great abun-
dance ; each diftridt polTeffing fome peculiar excellency, and afford-
ing fome valued commodity : however, the choiceft wines, fruits
and oil, are among the nioft general produftionsr ; but notwithftand-
ing this abundance, the natives in general are far from being happy
in their circumftances, extenfive trads of land lying uncultivated,
and the air itfclf being confiderably afteiled by the nature of the
foil. The Canipagna di Roma, in particular, which the ancient
Romans efteemed peculiarly falubrious, is now become alnioft pefti-
lential, from the decreafe of population and the relaxation of
induftry. The air, however, in the northern parts of the country,
particularly among the Alps and in ibeir vicinity, is cold and
wholefome ; and in other parts, the fea-breezes refrefli the natives
and mitigate that intenfenets of heat which might be expefted from
its fouthern Htuation.

3. Animals, Vegetables.] The animals found in Italy are the fame
in general with thofe of France, Switzerland, aitd Germany.

The vegetables are com, rice, olives, grapes, oranges, lemons,
citrons, pomegranates, almonds, mulberries, figs, peaches, nc^arines,
apricots, pears, apples, filberds, chefnuts, &c. Some oi the moun-
tains are covered with aromatic herbs, trees, fhrubs and evergreens ;
as thyme, lavender, laurel, bays, wild olive trees, tamarins, juniper,
oaks and pines. Calabria, in Naples, produces a fort of afh, from
which flows that well known drug, called manna ; the cork tree is
alfo a native of Italy ; and truffles grow here naturally in as great
plenty as mufhrooms with us.

4. Mountains, Mines, Springs.] The moft confiderable mountains
in this country are the Alps and Apemiines ; the other mountains
are Mons Mafficus, Monte-Nova, Maflb Monte, Garo, Monte
Rarbaro, St. Angelo, and the volcanoes of ./^tna, Vefuvius and
Strotnboli.

■ '•• , : . • Manv

" 1!

% '

C96)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

I *

Many of the mountains produce emeralds, jafpcr, agate, porphyry,
kpis lazuli, and other valuable ftones. Mines of iron and copper
have been difcovercd ia a ftw places^ and a mill for forging
thefe metali has been ere^ed near 1 ivuli, in the kingdom
u£ Naples. Some of the Italian iflands a^e faid to contain
mines of gold, Hlver, lead, iron, fulphur and ailum, tliough in
general they are much neglcfted, and curious chryllal> and corals
are found on diH^erent parts of the coail ; beautiful marble of almoft
every fpecies is alfo very plenty

Mineral fprings of various qualities abound in different parts of
Italy.

5. Rivers^ Likes.] The principal rivers of Italy are the Po, the
Adige, the Arno and the Tiber.

The principal Italian Inkes are the Maggiore, Lugano, Como,
Kco and Garcia, in the North j and the Perugia or Thrafiiuene,
Bracciana, Terni and Cclano, in the interior parts.

6. Commerce^ ManufaSures .] Italy was long the moft commercial
nation of Europe ; its manufactures are variou<:, and its trade in
general may yet be pronounced to be in a very flourifliing condition.
It exports a great variety of the choict^ft wines and fruits, but fillcs
are the greattft articles of its commerce. V''ery capital annual fairs
are held at Aleilandria, Cremona, Bergamo, Brefcia, Verona,
Keggio, and Placentia; to which foreigners as well as natives of
€aeh of the above places refort,

7. Curiofities.] Italy affords an ample field of entertainment for
every defcription of curioii.

I'he various raliques which fuperflition accounts of ineilimable
worth abound in this land.

The burning mountains, the varioufly impregnated waters, the
mephitic air of the Grotto Del Cani, into which the poor dogs are
forced, where they fulier a temporary death for the entertainment
of pallengers : thefe, and a variety of other natural curiofities,
induce the attention and refearches of the phiiofopher.

The artift finds here the moil beautiful and elegant models both
ancient and modem, the architedlure, the medals, the ftatuary,
the paintings fill him with enthufiafm.

But chiefly the hidorian and the antiquary, in this clafllc Und,
find a prufufiun of their precious remains of antiquity. Not a
mountain rears its head, nor a river glides along, but has been
celebrated by the ancients in fong ; ruins of former magnificence
lie fcattered over the grounds $ and fpocs heretofore rendered defo-
late and defert from the ravages of war, are at thb day ftill more
folitary and wafte from indolence and monaftic vows.

Through every ftate of Italy the moft fuperb remains of archi-
tecture may be traced, which indicate the grandeur of the ancient
Romans. The Appian, Flaniinian and iflmilian roads, the firft
two hundred, the fecond one hundred and thirty, and the third
fifi;y miles in length, are dill in many places entire. Magnificent

remains

.sM

VI.

S.XIX.

I T ^ L Y.

(97)

remains of columns, porticoes, amphitheatres, circi, villas, temples,
nilaces, refcrvoirs, bridges and triumphal arches, prefent them-
felves to the infpeftion of the curious traveller ; and with the'
ftiipendous fubterranean cloacse and catacombs in the vicinities of
Naples and Rome furnilh monuments of the extreme Jkill and pcrfe-
vering induftry of the ancient inhabitarts of this countrv.

But fo indifferent are the modern Italians in general about objects of
antiquity, that the ancient city of Posftum orPofidonia in the king-
dom of Naples was accidentally difcovered by a painter's apprentice
within the prefent century. Inexhauftible mines of curiofities, how-
ever, are daily appearing among the ruins of Herculan^um, a city
lying between Naples and Mount Vefuvius, whioh was nearly
deftroyed by an earthquake in the reign of Nero ; and in the firlt
year of that of Titus totally overwhelmed by a ftream of lava
from the neighbouring volcano, which in its progrefs filled up the.
ftreets, and overtopped the houfes in fome places to the height of
fixty-eight feet, and in others one hundred and ten. Pompeia was
alfo involved in the fame deftrudlion. In tbefe fubterranean cities,
entire ftreets, /hops and houfes are difcovered, and temples, ftatues,.
bufts, pillars, paintings, furniture, and various utenfiU; a prodi-
gious number of manufcripts alfo, which, however, it takes, o, tedi-
ous pfocefs to unroll, but in which it h expedted many of the loft
works of the ancients may be reftored. From the very few ikeletons
found in this city it appears that the inhabitants had generally
efcaped.

8. Religion^ Language.] The Rom i Hi profefllon is univerfally
eftablifhed throughput Italy : however, the inquifition is very eir-
cumfcribed, and perfons of other perfuafions live unmolefted here..
Even Jews and Ms^hometans may live peaceably, if tney do/not icoff
at or infult, th« religion of the country. The government of the,
church of Rome is centered in the pope and cardinals ^.tho eft?iblifli-
ed number of the latter is feventy, but it is feldom coriiplete., , The
conclave is an aflembly of all the cardinals on urgent - ocGauons,
particularly at thi? eleClion of a pope j the confiftory an .aitembl/ of
the pope and cardinals.

The Italian language is originally derived from the Latin, with
the intermixture of words from the Goths, Huns, Vandals, and
other conquerors of Rome, and is remarkable for its fmoothnefs ;
almoft every feparate ftate however, and indeed fometimes the
feparate ftreets of the fame city have different dialects ; but the
unwearied pains taken by the literary focietiei of i his country may
probably at laft fix the Italian into a ftandard language. The
Tnfcan ftile and manner of compofitien feem at prefent in the
higheft eftimation. ! • V

9. Literati^ Artijisy Sc^ooh.] In Italy learning appears to be
now at a very low ebb, though formerly it produced -feveral great
genuifes. , Galileo, Torricelli, Malpighi, Bprelii, Strada, Fra.
Paoli, Guicciardini, Bentivolio, Davila, Machiavel, Taflb,. Aricf-

r G g to.

(98)

E V K O P k.

p.vr.

to, Sannaiarius, Fracaflorlus, Bembo, Vida and Metaftafio, were
all natives of this country ; as wertf Cicero, Virgil, Horace, Sal-
luft, Livy, Tacitus, Lucretius, Julius Cxfar, Plautus, Terence,
&c. in antiquity.

The paiiiiers, fculptors and architcfts of Italy have hardly been
equalled by thofe of any other nation. Raphael, Titian, Julio
Romano, CorregKio, Caraccio, Vcronefe, and many more have
excelled in the ma of thefe arts, as Michael Angelo has iu all the
three, Bramante, Bernini, with feveral more of their countrymen,
carried fculpture and archite6lure to a great degree of perteftion ;
any the antiques of this country may lerve to ihew the fuperior
eiieWtnce 6( the antitnts in the line arts.

There h in Italy a multiplicity of academies aud literary fo-
cieties, bolides the univerfities of Rome, Venice, Florence, Man-
tua, f aduu, Parma, Verona, Milan, Pavia, Bologna, Ferrara, Na-
ples, Pifsl, SalertJo and Perufia.

to.' fti/hr-^. Government.] Italy was inhabited in antiqui^ fuc-
ceflively by tht Umbri, the Pelafgi and the Hetrufcans. The im-
perial Rome, fdurided about 627 before the chriftiah aera, after
niany revolutibh^ of g;overnment, and many civil and foreign wars,
had on tlie comhig of our Saviour extended its empire over the
greattjft part of the kiiown wbrld ; but the Roman power declined
greatly in the weftern part of the world upon the removal of the
feat of em{)lve to Cotlftantihople ; and accordingly the imperial
city,, from the year -410, through fome centuries, underwient the
revotutiuns andravag^es of the Goths, Vandals, &t. in common
with thfe othef vveftern natibris, of Europe. In 726 Rome, in the
pontificate of Gregory II. revolted from the Greek emperors. In
8dp the fenate and people of koifie acknowledged Charlemaigne as
«mj)eror bf the' weft; and he furrendered the city and dutchy of
Rome to the Pbpe, referving th6 ibvereignty to. hiniielf as emperoi:.
<)f t^e Rbmaris. Under tlw popes, as temporal princes, Rome and
ki tdtltbries re'maiji to this day. It would take volumes to explain
thiB dlflfefeht forms of government eftablilhed in Italy j it is in the
different dates, republican, ariflocratical, monarchiical or ecclell-
^ftical.

'I 1

i :.i^

bn;;

S.\

V13V

S E C T I O N XX.

...."i....„ ...

--. IJi. vX -•

Turkey in Europe.

». .■

TheGraAd Seignioif's domihions are not tonfined to one quarter'
of the world, ibme of them being ficUftteid iii Eutope, fome in A(i»
and odiers in Africa.

Eu n

S. XX.

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

(99)

Europenn Turkey is fituated between (eventeen and forty deg. of
eaft longitude, and between thirty-feven and forty-nine deg. north
latitude. It is bounded by RuiTia, Poland and Sclavonia on the
north, by Circairia, the Black Sea, the Propontis, Hellefpont and
Archipelago on the eaft, by the Mediterranean on the fouth, and
by the fame fea, together with the Venetian and Auftrian territorie*
on the weft.

I. Di'vifions.] Turkey in Europe, lying in the moft genial cli-
mates, contains fome of the moft fertile provinces in the world. It
is divided as in the following table.

C/iief Totvnt.

Precop, Bachiferia, Kaifa.
Oczakow.
Bender, Belgorod.
Jazy, Chotzim.
Tcrgovifc.

Widm, Nicopoli, Siliftria, Scopia.
Belgrade, Semendria, Ni{&.
Seraio.

Conftantinople, Adrianople, Philippopoli.
Strymon, Contefta.
Salonichi.

Athens, Thebes, Lepanto.
Chimacra, Butrinto, Scodra.
Durazzo, Dulcigno, Drino. .
Zara, Narenza.
Ragufa, a Republick.
Corinth.

Argos, Napoli de Romania.
Mifitra, formerly Lacedemon.
Olympia or Longinica. v. . . .

Mociot), Coron. \ - . ' , :

Patras, El is or Belvidere.
The iflands of European Turkey iare Negropont, Lemnos, Tene-
dos, Scyros, Leibos or Myteline, Sclo or Chios, Patmos, the Cy-
Clades, Dalos, Paros, Cerigo or Cytherea, Santorin, Rhodes, Can-
dia, Cyprus, and the iflands in the Ionian fea, viz. Sapienza, Stri-
valf, Zante, CephalOmia, Santa Maufa, Corfu, and Ifola del Corn-
pace, the ancient Ithaca, fartibus for being the kingdom of Ulyfles,
and feveral others of inferior note. .

2. Ctimatiy Soil:] 7 he air of Turkey in Europe is naturally
extremely falubrious and friendly to the human conftitution, but
from the want of cultivation, and the indolence and uncleanllnefs of
the turks in their manner of living, the plague frequently makes
dreadful ravages j though the Mahometan doctrine of fatality and
the prevalence of cuftom render the natives in general very uncon-
cerned about it. The foil being univerfally fertile, all the necef-

G g 2 farics,

rior
fo-

Provinces.
Crim and Little
Tartarv,

[an-

BuDZiAc Tartary,

Na-

Bessarabia,

Moldavia,

fuc-

Wallachia,

im-

Bulgaria,

fter
ars,

Servia,
Bosi^iA,

the

Romania,

ned

Macedonia,

the

Janna,

rial
the
non

LlVADIA,

EriRus,
Albania,

the
In

Dalmatia,
Raousa,

; as
of

corinthia,
Argos,

Toi:,
and

Sparta, ''
Olympia,

lain
tiie
efi-

Arcadia,
EliS.

The iflands of Eu

(lOO)

EUROPE.

P. VI.

faries, and many of the luxuries of life are equally good and cheap.
The feafons are regular and pleafanr^ and no country in the world
abounds more in pure and falubrious waters^ which invite the 1 urkt
to frequent ablutions, as well on account of pleafure as religion.

3. yejftlablis. Minerals and /fnimn/s.] Where the fuiaileft de-
gree of induftry has been exerted the foil is proliHc to exrtfs j and
exclulive of corn, wine, oil, garden and pot-herbs in the utniod
abundance, thi:> country produces in amazing perfection oranges,
lemons, citrons, pomegranates, figs, almonds, colf'ee, olives and
cotton. Beildcs thefe valuable productions it afiords many drugs not
common in other European countris.s ; nor are the bowels of the
earth deficient in metals and minerals. At Potyftoli, in Macedonia,
there are mines of gold and filver ; and Greece ai^brds iron, lead,
the moft beautiful marbles, allum and fulphur.

TheHalian or Turkilli horfes are both beautrful and ferviceable,
and the black cattle, crpecially in Greece, are large and excellent.
The goats nre extrenwly valuable to the natives, both on account
of their milk and fleiU. The large eagles which abound in the vi-
cinity of iJadadagi furniili the beft arrow- feathers for the Turki/K
and tartarian archers, and they are accordingly fold at an immenfe
price. Partridges are very plentiful, as well as moft othcz- Turopean
fowls, and quadrupeds both wild and domeftic. The rivers abound
in tiih, but the Mahometans feem by no means partial to the ufe of
animal food.

4. Mountains^ Waters.^ The mountains in this country ''re feme
of the moft fruitful and celebrated of any in Europe. M Athos
ftands on a peninfula running into the A-gean Sea ; the r Hin-

dus and Olympus, celebrated in Grecian fable, divide Theffaly
from Epirus. Parnaflus, famous in poetry for being confecrated to
the mufes is well known, as well as Mount Hermus ^ but moft of
the other mountains and indeed foine of cliefe have changed their
names.

The principal feas are the Euxine or Black Sea, the Palus Maeo-
tis or fea of Afoph, the lea of Marmora, the Archipelago, the
Ionian Sea and the Levant ; the ft raits of the Hellefpont and Bof-
pborus are famous in modern as well as in artcient hiftory.

The chief rivers in European Turky are the Danube, the Save,,
the Neifter, the Dnieper or Borifthenes, and the Don or Tanais,
with feveral others, which, though of inferior coniideration, have
been highly celebrated by poets and hiftorians.

The moft remarkable lakes are Lago di Scutari, in the province
of Albania, Lago di T ave and Lago di Halt). The Stymphalis,
in the province of Morea, was famous for its harpies and ravenous
birds i and the Pen?us for being the fource of the Jliver Styx, ce-
lebrated by the ancient poets.

Mineral fprings and baths both hot and cold are numerous in
Turkey. [/. ; .,/, .:.,-:., ,.;., r,„.,: ■

am4

coui

woti

cor

catil

'/it

s.xx.

TURKEY IN EUROPE.

(lOl)

5. Trade] Commerce and maiiufaftures are but little regarded
among the turks. Tyre, Sidon and Alexandria, with &II thofe
countries which were in poflefTion of the commerce of the ancient
world, are now enveloped in indolence and ignorance. The turks
command the navigation of the Red Sea, which opens a communi-
cation ro the Indian ocenn ; but they du not avail themfelves of this
opportunity of opening a trade with the wealthy nations of the
eaft ; and their capital Conftantinople is firuated on a narrow ftrait
which feparates Europe from Afia, rendering an inrercourle with
the other parts of the world not only practicable but eafy, yet the
Mahometans, difregarding thefe combined local advantages, and
chewing of opium to the ruin of their conftitutions, dofe away life
in ftupid inaftivity.

1 his empire pvoduces all the commodities neceflary for the moft
extended plan of induftry and commerce. The Turks, however,
alike averfe to mental and corporeal exertions, content themfelves
with mannfafturing cottons, carpets, leather and foap , but export
the moft valuable of thtir commodities, fuch as filks, drugs and
dying ftuft's in their natural ftate, without improving their value by
labour. The internal commerce of the empire, which is extremely
contrafted, is principally carried on by Jews and Armenians. In
their traffic with the reft of Europe the 'I'urks are entirely palTive
in the navigation ; the Englifb, Fiench, Dutch and other maritime
powers reforting thither with their commodities, and bringing back
thofe of Turkey in their own bottoms ; indeed the Turks them-
felves are poflefled only of a few coafting veflels, which never at-
tempt any diftant voyages.

6. Curiofities.] European Turkey, particularly Greece, may be
coniidered as the ftorelwufe of antiquities, and may as well as Italy
be called clatTic ground ; here the nountains and rivers, a'< well as
the magnificent remains of the works of the ancients, claim, from
their celerity in Grecian fang, the attention of the antiquary.

The tempte of Minerva at Athens, the temple of the ei^lit
winds, and the lantern of Demofthenes, are ftill entire. The ruins
of Neptune's temple, and the theatre where the iflhmean games
were celebrated are ftill vlfible on t!ie iRhmus of CorinTli j as a'-e
the ruins of the temple of Apollo at Caftri. On the fouth of Monrc
Parnalfus are fome marble fteps that dcfcend to a running watci ,
fuppofed to be the celebrated Caftalian fpring ; and the niches nx
the rock where ftatues were formerly placed are ftill difcerniblc .;
and in LIvadia, the ancient Bceotia, the famous oracular cave of
Jupiter Trophonius, cut out of a rock,

7. Language^ Learning.] The radical languages of this empire
are the Sclavonian, the Greek, the Arabic, and the Syriac ; all
which are in a manner blended in the prefent dialedl.

Learning is at a very low ebb among the Turks, who in gentri.!
cxprefs the moft fovereign cof^'^mpt for it. Greece was once th-*
nurfery of genius, arts and Icience^, nr.d pro.iucoJ in fcuIptun^

Phidias

(102) -EUROPE. , P. VI.

Phidias, Polycktus, Myron, Lydppus, Praxiteles and Scopas ; in
painting Apollodorus, Zeuxis, ParrhaHus, Pamphilus, Timanthes,
Apelies, Ariftides and Protogenes ; in poetry Homcv, Efchylus,
Sophocles, and Euripides ; in profe Herodotus, Xenophon and Ifo-
crates^ Thucidides and Demofthenes ; ana in the more fevere ex-
crcifes of mathematicks and philofophy Pythagoras, Euclid, Archir
xnedes, Socrates, Plato, Ariftotle and Xenophon. This aneient feat
of learning now produces a numerous tribe of biihops, priefts and
monks, but in general they are as ignorant as the Turks themfelves,
vrhofe education feldom extends farther than the reading of their
native language and the Koran. There are however fome fchools,
colleges and academies both of Turks, and Jews and Greeks.
Some years ago a printing houfe was opened at Conftantinople,
where books of all kinds weie allowed to be printed, except on
matters of religion j and even fome of the Turks underftand fo
much of aftronomy, as enables them to calculate an eclipfe ; but
the number is very f mall, and they are generally regarded as per-
fons of extraordin&ry fagacity.

8.. Profejion.] The lurks univerfally agree in the general be-
lief of Mahomet's divine legation, but are divided into as many
different fefts as the profefTors of chrillianity. The chief ecclefi-
aftic, who is called the Mufti (fignifying an expounder of the law)
is of fuch dignity, that whenever he comes into court the Emperor
himfelf rifes from his feat and advances to meet him.

On pecuniary conditions other profeflions are tolerated in Tur^
key, and Jews, Greeks, Armenians^ with other profefiions of
chriftianity, are numerous.

9. Hijiory.] In European Turkey is included the place of the
ancient ftates of Macedon and Greece. Thefe celebrated people,
their politics and revolutions, were on the commencement of the
chriftiau acra loft in the general conquefts of the Romans. To the
laft remains of the Greek or Eaftern Roman' empire the Turks put
a linal period by the conqueft of Conftantinople in 1453.

■.v^*?. -'•"

PART

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( 103 )

PART VIL

DESCRIPTION

O F

AS I A is remarkable for being the principal fcene of fcripturc
hiilory : it was here the human race firft had their beginning,
and after the deluge it became a fecond time the nurfei-y of man«
kind ; it was here the fciences and arts had their origin ; here th^
fird empires and kingdoms were founded, empires now forgotten,
but which in their day lorded it over the red of the world. And
here events were accompliihed of infinitely more importance : it was
in Ada oyr bleiTed Saviour was born, lived and was crucified ; and
in Ada churches were firft gathered in his name.

This diftinguifhed quarter of the globe is remarkable for the fcre-
nity of its air, and the richnefs and fertility of its foil, which brings
forth the mod delicious fruits and fragrant plants, (pices, gums
and balfams in exuberant profufion. In the defcription of the patri-
arch Abraham fitting in the tent door in the heat of the day, and
lifting up his eyes and l6oking, there feems a natural reprefentation
of the manners of the Afiatics at this day : refl they love, and in
this they indulge ; fuch are the manners of the fouthern inhabitants.
Thofe on the north are more hardy and alert. The' native of Si-
beria wrapped up ir> furs, and dr;iwn by his dogs over immeafurable
trafts of fnow, and the roving tartar on his fleet and active deed,
fcouring along the defert, are in manners and way of life a contrail
to thofe who recline at their eafe, under the cooling verdure of the
fouth, or riding ';n date on the towering elephant, by the fpreading
umbrella evade the fccrching rays of the fun.

Various forms of idolatry and the do(5trines of Mahomet (pread
over this extenfive continent. Its languages are the Arabic, Per-
fian, Malayan, Chinefe, Japanefe, Tartarian, Kufllan a^id Turkifh.
Afia is bounded on the well by the Red Sea, the Mediterranean,
or Levant, the Afchipulap;o, the Black Sea and Europe ; on the
north by the Icy Sea ; On the eaft and fouth by the Pacific and
Indian Oceans. It is fituated betv.ecn tv/enty-five and one hundred
and eighty deg. of ead longitude, extending from the equator to
the frigid Zone, and i". about four thouf^ind eight hundred miles in
length, and four thouiitnd rhr^e liundrtd in breadtit. It contains
the following nations.
, 1 ;' Tartarv

( »04 )

Ctunttits.

Indepen-
dent J^
Mogulean %
Chinefe ^
Ruflian •

Fcrfia
India
Moguls
Emp.
China

Bre-
adth

miles

Lert'

milei

Bounds
undefined,
and as va-
riable as
the Tartars
are cxcur-
five.

1300
aoob

tooo

144c

MOO

lOOO

IJOO

Capitalt.

Samarcand

Tib^t

Ch'/nian

Tobolflci

/fpahan
Siam or Pegu

Delhi

i26oiKkin

Latitude.

D. M. S.

39 50 o N.

37 N.

48 N.

58 1% 18 N.

3X 15 o N.
14 18 o N.

z3 zo — N.
39 54 30 N.

Longitude from Greenwich.

in Degrees.
D. M. S.

69 O — E.

8 E

li E.

68 II 4jE.

51 50 oE
100 50 o£

79 25 — E

I16 24 ijE

in 'lime.

H. M. S.

4 3^ — bef-

5 40 — bef .
4 — bef.

4 38 51 bef.

3 31 aobef.

6 43 zo bef.

5 16 —bef.

7 45 37 bef.

Turki/Ii Empire in Aila includes the following.

Georgia

Turcomania

Diarbec 1

or Mefo- >

potamia j

Natolia

Paleftine
Syria
Part of
Arabia

Zio
3<Jo

560

750

ZIO

270
1300

140
300

310

308

160
laoo

Teflis
Erzerum

Bagdat |

Burfa or 7
Smyrna 5
Jerufalem
Aleppo

Mecca

43 o — N
39 J6 35 N

33 io o N.

38 18 7 N.

3« 55 oN
35 45 5*3 N.
21 45 »— N.

46 15 — E.3 10 — bef.
48 35 45 E.3 14 23 bef.

43 46 30 E

z 55 6 bef.
2 1 1 20 bef.

35 *o o E

27 19 45 E.
37 20 o £.

40 55 -• E.2 52 —bef.

I 49 1$ bef.
X 29 20 bef.

extre
BlacI
and
and
fitua^
tude
litud
T

ASIATIC ISLANDS in the INDIAN and
PACIFIC OCEANS.

]

Names.

Kurile If-

lands,
Japan,
Ladrone 7

Iflands, ^
Formofa,
Philipines,
Molucca,
Banda,
Amboyna,
Celebes,

Ch::f towns.

No Town,

Jeddo,

Guam,

Tai ouan fou

Manilla,

VidoiiaFort

Lantor,

Amboyna,

A^Iacailar,

Claimed by or
trading "witb

Rufllans.

Dutch.

Spaniards.

Chinefe.

Spaniards,

Dutch.

Names.

Gilolo,
Borneo, \

Sumatra, )

Java, J

Andaman,

Nicobar,

Ceylon,

Maldives,

Bombay,

Chief towns.

Gilolo,

Borneo, Cay-
tongee,

Achen, Ben-
coolen,

Batavia, Ban-
tam,

Andantan,

Nicobar,

Candv,

Caridon,

Bombay,

Claimed By or
trading tvith

Dutch.

OpenTradc.

Dutch and
Englifli.

Dutch.

OpenTradc.

Dutch.

OpenTradc.

Engliih.

New Holland, New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, New
Hebrides, New Caledonia, New Zealand, are uncolonifed; and
the Friendly) Society and Sandwich Iflands are but late difco-
vcries.

SECTION

• - **fc-, ! '^^

( 105 )

SECTION I.

Turkey in Asia.

ASIATIC Turkey is about one thoufand miles in length from eaft
to wefl, and in breadth about eight hundced from its northern
extremity to where it mixes with the Arabian Deferts. It has the
Black Sea and Circailia on the north ; PerHa on the ead ; Arabia
and the Levant Sea on the fouth ; and the Archipelago, Hellefpont
and Propontis on the weft, which feparate it from Europe. It is
fituated between the twenty-feventh and forty-fifth deg. eaft longi-
tude ; and between the twenty-eighth and forty-fifth deg. north la-
titude.

This country was the principal fcene of fcripture hiftory in anti-
quity, 'and, in later times, of thofe romantic expeditions, the cru-
fades>

1. Divi/iom.] It has been divided as in the following table. .
Provinces. Chief Towns*

Eyraco Arabic or 1 ^^ 3^^
Chaldea. 3 » fa

> Diarbec, Orfa, Mouful.
>■ Erzerum, Van.

> Ninive, Betlis.

Georgia, including^

Mengrelia,Im- I Amarchia, Gonie.

aretta, and Part r Georgia hath lately claimed Independence,

of CiRCASsiA. J and put itfelf under the Protedion of RufEa.
Natolia. Burfa, Nici, Smyrna, Ejhefus.

Amasia. Amafia, Trapezond, Sinope.

Aladulia. Ajazzo, Marat.

Caramenia. Satalia, TerafTo.

Syria with Pale s-1 Aleppo, Antioch, Damafcus, Tyre, Sidon,

tine. 3 Tripoli, Scanderoon, Jerufalem.

The climate, air, foil, produce, animals, commerce, manufac-
tures, language and profeflion of religion in this country are much
the fame as in European Turkey.

2. Mountains^ Minerals, Waters."] The mountains and rivers
of this country are celebrated in the moft ancient hiftory ; among
the former are Olympus, Taurus, Anti-Taurus, Ida, Caucafus,
Arrarat, Hermon and Lebanon ; of the latter are the Euphrates,
the Tigris, the Orontes, the Meander, the Sarabat, the Kara and
the Jordan ; the lakes are the Gaul-bugfliaw or Van in Turcoman

nia.

\x\

Diarbec or Me-
sopotamia.

TURCOMANIA or

Armenia.

CURDISTAN or As
SYRIA.

(io6)

ASIA.

P. VII.

nia, the Afchanea or Acfis near the town of Nice, and the fea of
Galilee or lake of Tiberias.

In the different divifions of Afiatic Turkey ail manner of metals
and minerals are found, and almoil every kind of precious floneSf
emeralds in particular, of peculiar beauty, ludre and (ize. This
country alfu abounds with medicinal f}jrings and baths.

3, Curio fttles.] If we except the particular fpots celebrated in
ancient hidory, the curiofities of this country confilt chiefly in an>
cient ruins, efpccially thofe magnificent ones of Balbcc and Palmy-
ra. At Jerufalcm they pretend to iliew the exat^ places where the
particular adions and fu^crings of our Saviour happened, though it
)s well known that even the city itfclf does not (land on the fame
(pot of ground it did at that period ; and the places that have been
fignalized or rendered memorable as the fcenes of the molt impor-
tant events, with whatever enthufiafra they may be reforted to by
pilgrims or devotees, the convents, chapels and temples which
Monkifh zeal may have ere*5led over them as ornaments, muft in
the eye of the philofophic antiquary appear as' deformities, and as
delpoiling the places of ancient hiftory of their former limplicity,
and contradicting their defcription

4. Hijiory.] Afiatic Turkey has undergone a part of the pnofl
remarkable revolutions that have happened in the world ; for it has
all or part of it been in fubjeflion fuccelfively to the AfTyrians, Ba-
bylonians, Medes, Perfians, Macedonians, Romans, Saracens,
Tartars and Turks. Abfolute defpotifm is the conftitution of Tur-
key.

SECTION II.

Tartary. I

The vaft regions of Tartaiy, taken in their full extent, ftretch |
from Mufcovy on the we(t to tlie Pacific Ocean on the call j and |
from the nations of China, Imiia, Pcrlla and Turkey on tlic fouth, |
to the impenetrable frozen retjior.s of the Northern Pole. It lies
on the north of the thirtieth dog. north latitude, and extends from
fifty to one hundred and ninety deg. ealt longitude. Its grand di-
vifions are Ruffian, Cjiinefc, Moguleun, and Independent Tartary.
The boundaries of this country, which is almoft, or perhaps alto-
gether as extenfi\e as the wholt of Europe, and inhabited by Tar-
tars of many different dcl'criptions, arc but incorieftly defined by
geographers, they are often unknown even by the neighbouring n»i-
tions. The line for inflance that divides Mufcovy from Tartary is
OQt known even to the Ruflians themfelvcs ; the fame may be faid

S.II.

T A R T A R Y.

(X07)

of the boundaries that feparate it from China anci Perda : The
truth IS) thofe parts of the country through which the Hues of di-
vifion pafs are very thinly if at all inhabited ; they are dcfert and
y/ade, and therefore of very little vakie. Its dimenfions there-
fore and divifions are rather involved in obfcurity ; but geographers
have made them as follows ; length four thoufand miiesj breadth
two thoufand four hundred.
I. Divifions.']
Provincet.
Kamtfchatka.
Jakutfkoi.
Bratlki.
Thibet and
Mongul I'art".
Samoieda.

C/imatef

!!•:

Provinces.
Oiiiak.
Circallian and
AttracanTart',
Siberia.
Ivalmuc and
Ufbec Tart^

Towns,
KortHcoi.
Terki.
Aftracan.
Tobolflcoi.
Pokharia.
Samarcand.

Towns.

Petropauloulkoi.

Jakutn<oi.

ijrat(l<i.

Poion.

Kudak.

Mangafia.

Sui/f Animals.] The foil of this extendve country
varies froip fpontaneous fertility on its fouthern confines to where it
is ftifFencd in frigidity on the north and its climate or air, and its
animals correfpond with the variety.

The mountains, woods and dcfarts of Tartary abound in various
kinds of deer and wild-fowl. Here are likewife wild mules and
horfes, camels, dromedaries, wild boars, tigers, leopards, goats,
foxes, bears, wolves, lynxes, and a variety of other animals ; and
the rivers and lakes abound both in fi(h and fowl.

3. Mounlalnsj Waters.] The principal mountains are thofe of
Caucafus in Circaffia, which extend from Afia Minor through the
north part of Perfia, a? far as the Indies and the burning mountains
of Kamtfchatka. The mines in Siberia are faid to contain gold,
niver, iron, copper, lapis lazuli, jafper and loadllones.

The principal rivers are the Wolga, the Oby, the Genefa or
Jenflia, the Lena and Argun. The principal lakes are the Baikal,
the Kifan and the Kolocjal.

4. Trade.] The piincipal articles of commerce with the few
Tartars who trade arc ikins, beavers, drugs and filh. The natives of
Aftracan, however, carry on a conllderable traffick with the Perlians
in red leather, woollen and linen cloth, &c. ; and the court of Rul^
fia has fent among them fome French refugees and other mechanicks
and hufbandmen, to infbu<^l them in the culture of vines and muU
berry trees, for the eflablifhing a filk manufadure, and the making
of wines.

Since the banifhment of Swediih and Rudian prifoners into Sibe«
ria fome manufaftures have commenced there.

5. MannerSf Language.] The manners, the profellions of re-
ligion, and the languages of the Tartars are various. The Man*
chew language is thought by the Tartars to be the meil elegant and
copious in the world.

6. Curio/tiies.'} In fome of the defarts of Tartary almofl inac-
ceflibky fome fpacious edifices have been difcovercd ahuofl covered

with

V.'

Ht J

(io8)

ASIA.

P. VII.

S.II

with the fand, and In thefe have been found urns, lampsi (latues,
armour, traj>])in<;8 for horfes and elephants, and manukripts fome
thoufandj of volumes. Thefe may Ihew that Tartary has not al-
ways been unacquainted with fciences and arts. Zinghis Khan and
Tamerlane, thofe dreadful ravagcrs of the earth, and dedroyers of
the human race, and their early defcendants, were famous for their
learn in<T. Bokharia and the neighbouring provinces then formed
the fcaf of literature, politenefs and luxury.

7. Hi/lory.] But little is known of the ftate of Tartary in an-
tiquity when it was called by the name of Scythia. In the begin-
,ning of the thirtcentlj century Jengliis Khan, of the tribe of the
MuHjils in Mogulcltan, carried the ravages of war through aimoH:
all the countries of the ealt ; and after hijn 'J'amerlane, in the latter
tni\ of the fourteenth century, fpreud his conqucils over a principal
part of Afia.

equal
from

SECTION III.

China.

1: 1

The great empire of China lies on the eaftern borders of the con-
tinent of Alia, and is divided from Chinefe Tartary on the north by
a prodigious wall, and in fome places by inacceilible mountains ; on
the eaft it is bounded by the Yellow Seas and Pacific Ocean which
feparates it from America ; on the fouih by the Chinefe Sea and the
kingdom of Tonquin ; and on the weft by Tibet, between which
and China vaft dcfaris and mountains intervene.

I. Dhfi/Jons.'] It is fituated between twenty-one and forty-four
Heg. north latitude, and ninety-four and one hundred and thirty-
three deg. eaft longitude.

Towns,
Chinchis.
Nanking.

Provinces. To^uns, Provinces.

Niuche. Niuche. Xantum.

Corea. Petcheo. Nanking.

Loatonge. Chinyara. Chekiam.

Pekin. Pekin. Honan.

Xanli. Tayen. Huquam.

'S^.tn^x. Sigan. Kiamfi.

Fokien. Fochen, Amoy. Suchuen.

Canton. Canton. Quechen.

Quamfi. Quelin. Yunnan.

The Chinefian lilands are Formofa, Ainan, Macao, and the
Bulhee Iflands. ,

2. Climatey Soil.'] As this extenfive country lies under a variety
of climates the air is very diflerent. The fouth of China is exr

pofcd

Nimpo, Chufan,

Honan.

Toangfu.

Nankan.

Tchinteu,Q^eyang.

Quechen.

Yunnan.

S.III.

CHINA.

(109)

pofed to tropical heats and periodical rains, while the rivers of the
north are generally frozen for funic months during the winter. The
intervening parts are temperate and pleafant. The foil is likewile
equally variable, though every part of the country is fertile, either
from nature or indefatigable induflry. The lands are very Hat in
many places ; and as the Chinefe delight in plains, they have levelled
with great labour many fpots among the mountains. In thofe p'o-
vinces which are leait fertile, the mountains arc clothed with abun^
dance of Hne trees, which by means of rivers and canals are con-
veyed to every part of the empire. .

3. Plauts, y/nitnafs.'] China ])roduces corn and a variety of
grain, particularly rice, in the culture of which tlic Chinefe are
very curious, as they are likeuife in that of cotton, from which tv.^a
articles the chief of them are cloathcd and fed ; teas, fugar, to-
bacco ; and fruits, as apples, pears, apricots, peaches, Hgs, grapes,
efpecially exce!lent mufcadines, oranges, pomegranates, pine-apples*
ohves, medicinal herbs and roots, and many others to which we arc
Grangers ; canes, junks, bamboos, the pea tree, pepper tree, var-
nilh trees, the tallow tree, white wax tree, oil tree, banana tree,
the mango and many others, whole perjjetual bloom, unfading ver-
dure, and odoriferous fcents would render ilieiu the admiration of
the fineft European gardens.

The animals of this country are elephants, camels, hoifes, oxen,
mules, (heep, hogs, tigers, leopards, bears, boai-s, buffaloes, a
variety of deer, among which are the odoriferous roebuck, fo called
from its having a bag of \ery llrong muflt, and a very fmall flag kept
in gardens for their extraordinary beauty, widi a great number of
oiher animals.

The birds are eagles, cranes, florks, the birds of paradife, gol-
den hens, pelicans, peacocks, pheaiants, geefe, fwans, ducks, and
a numberlefs variety of others.

Molt of the i'idi common in Europe are found here, befides feve-
ral of 'an extraotxlinary fine flavour and vail magnitude, wholly un-
known among us. The yellow lifh, cauglw in the river Yang-t(e-
kiang is of an exquifite ulte, and ibnie of them are eight hundred
pounds weight. Thofe beautiful little creatures the gold aixi lilver
iiili of China, abound here in the ponds of the curious.

The Ihining beauty and diverfity of colour in their infcds baffle
defc^iption, and the women fix them by way of ornament on their
heads j but the mod profitable arc their prodigious numbers of filk
worms and bees. They have another valuable fpecies of infeds
which prepare a more beautiful wax than that of bees, and which is
quite tranfparent.

4. Mountaitiii Mines and Springs.] In China Proper there are
four mountains, but in the following provinces they are extremely
numerous. Yunnan, Kcei-tcke'ou, Se-tchuen, Fo-kien, die well
part of Tcho-kiang, and the inland parts of Quangtong and Quang-\.

c of Kiangnan, and the great diitridt of Hcei-tdiecMi

jure

'.if

fi, the province

fi'

(no) ASIA. P. VII.

lire rendered almod uninhabitable from their amazing numbers and
height.

Thefc mountains abound with various metals and minerals, among
the former of which are feveral mines of gold and (ilveri but from
political motives they are not much worked ; great numbers of
people liowever entirely fubflfl by gathering the particles of the
gold that is waHied down from the mountains. Here are likewife
mines of copper, fomc of which is white, lead, iron and quick*
illver, great quantities of porphyry, and quarries of the fined mar-
ble, rock chryflal and afbeflos ; pit coal is dug in great plenty, ai
vrell as loadftones, cinnabar, vitriol, allum, lapis lazuli, and a kind
of jafper.

Medicinal waters both hot and cold abound in China, and there
are feveral curious fprings which regularly ebb and liow. The wa>
tcrs of a lake in the ifland of Haynan are faid to be fo greatly fatu-
rated with petrifying particles, that all bodies, even fiflies, lofe their
original nature and are converted into Aone.

5. Riverst Lakesy Canals.] The rivers of China are the Ky*
am or Bfue River, the Hoambo or Yellow River, the Xo, whofe
waters are fuppofed to cure divers difeafes, the Kin*xa or Golden
River, fo named from the great quantity of gold fand it contains,
die Yamour, the Argun, and a number of others.

The lakes are numerous, two of the principal among them arc
Po-Kiang and Sihu.

But the canals are moft extraordinary. By means of thefe the
lakes and navigable rivers, all the parts of this extenfive empire for
thoufands of miles have a communication with each other, and the
waters feeni alive with the multitudes of veflels, barges and boats
on their furface.

There is fcarcc a city or village in China, efpecially in the (buthern
provinces, but enjoys the benefit of feme navigable river, lake, ca-
nal or arm of the fea ; fo that almofl as many people refide on the
water as on the land. Wherever there is a town on Hiore there is
another of boats upon the water, and many people are born, live
and die there, keeping hogs, poultry, dogs, and other dcmeftic ani-
mals on board.

Befidcs theft vefTels tliere are a prodigious number of floats of
timber perpetually pafling up and down the rivers and canals, which
cany a prodigious number of people upon them. Some of thefe
floats arc a miJc in length, and the proprietors build little huts upoti
them, where they live till they have dilpofed of their limber, which
they carry Ibmetimes in this manner a thoufand miles.

The canals of Europe appear diminutive when compared with
thofe of this country. The famous canal of Yunlyangho, dug about
the end of the third century by the Emperor Chi-t-fu, which tra-
verfes the empire from north to fouth, for the fpace of three hun-
dred leagues, conneilling feveral rivers from Canton to Pekin, is of
fuch ftupendous dimenlionsi, that it is navigated by the imperial barks

whicii

whil

cve^

conf

ha%

paf

alfol

do\

wit^

the

ftai^

Cand

S. III.

CHINA.

(I.I)

which are as large as the Britifh frigates. In fitme j)rovinces how-
ever the inland navication of China is very inconij)lcte, and attend-
ed with great trouble and danger, through tlieir ignorance of the
contrivance of locks. VVhere the country is not quite flat they rnuft
have as with us their upper and lower canals ; the bottom of the
palTage between thefc is an inclined plane of hewn (lone, of which
alfo the fides of the canals arc formed : The water pours rapidly
down this fluice or pafTage. and boats in dtfcending from a fuperior
to an inferior canal, are abandoned to the fury of the current, not*
withdanding the danger that mud attend fo rapid a pafTage. On
the other hand, in alcending thif fluice or pffage they are dragged
up by main force ; four or five hundred boatmen, alfilled by cap-
fbins being neceflary to draw a barge from a lower to n higher
CanaJL

6. Commerce and Manufa^itres.'] The Chinefe carry on a con-
fidcruble traffic with the European nations with whom they deal for
ready money, defpifing the manufactures of every couutry but their
own. The articles exported from thence ate raw fllk, cotton, ma-
fiufa^ured filks, gold and filver llufTs, painted gauzes, teas, china-
ware. lacquered'Ware, paper, and the ink which is well known to
us under the name of Indian ink.

7. Cttrtofttifs.] Among the mountains of China are fome re-
markable volcanoes and waterfals. The celebrated walls of the
Romans and other nations of antiquity appear diminutive when com-
pared witfi that which divides China from Tartary. It is carried over
mountains and vallies, is one thoufand five hundred miles long, from
twenty to twenty-five feet high, and fufficiently broad for fix horfe-
men to travel abreafl without the fmalleft inconvenience. Though
this wall has Hood more than one thoufand eight hundred years it
is ftill pretty entire, being compofed chiefly of bricks, and built
with fuch a (trong cement or mortar as feenis to bid defiance to the
ravages of time ; it is rtrengthened by towers, gates and bulwarks ;
and before the conqueft of China by the Tartars was ufually gar-
riibned by a million of foldiers.

In the plains the canals are a wonderful improvement, and befpcak
the extraordinary diligence of the people ; among the rocks and
mountains their roads are dill more ailonifhing.

Over the river Saffrany there is a bridge, confiding of a fingle
arch, whofe fpan is four hundred cubits and its height five hundred,
it connedls two mountains. The Cientao, or road of pillars, in the
provihcc of Xenfi, is fufficiently broad for four horfes to travel
abreaft, and near four miles in length ; it is defended by an iron
railing, and unites the fummits of feveral mountains, in order to
avoid all the devious windings to the capital ; it is partly Ilipporteil
by beams, but in mod places, from the great depth of the valli-s, it
teds upon done pillars of a tremendous height. The bridge of chains,
hung over a frightful valley in the neighbourhood of King-tung, ap-
pears a dill more extraordinary Idnd of communication. This ro-
mantic

a J

(

(112)

ASIA.

P. vir.

it.., •••

mantle and airy bridge conlifls of twenty iro.i chains, and connefls two
high mountains. The dedgn of Europeans dues not appear in any
age to have been fufficiently bold to have imagined fuch an under-
taking. Some of the Chincfe bridges are bu- It upon barges, chained
together "in fuch a manner as to feparate ax. picafure and let vefTek
pafs them. The bowels of fome of the mountains re penetfted
■with fpacious caverns, and others have roads cut through them of
coniiderable length. Some of their mountains are formed with great
labour and addrefs into various {hapes, fo as to refemblc uoifcs,
birds, &c. ; and on their fummits are temples^ monafteries, and
other remarkable flrut^ures.

Tlie triumphal arches in China ereded in memory of their great
princes, legiflaiors, philofophers, &c. are faid to be one thoufand
one hundred, of which two hundred are remarkably magnificent.
And fuperftition has eredied to fabulous deities pagodas or temples
even in the mofi arid dcfarts and on the barrcneft mountains with
incredible labour and expence. Before the gates of every great town
there are likewife beautiful towers of a fimilar conftru(5tion. Of all
thefe towers that of Nanking claims the pre-eminence : It is called
the Porcelain Tower, being wholly covered with the moft beautiful
china, which ftill retains its original beauty, though it has flood near
four hundred years. The tower is built in an octangular form and
is nine flories high ; between every ftory there is a kind of pent-
houfe, flied or projefting cornice on the oucfide of the tower, on the
corners of which are hung little bells v/hich jingle with the wind.
This tower from the ground to the top of the ball which terminates
it, is near three hundred feet high, each ftory decrcafing in breadth
as it rifes in height ; antl the whole forms an elegance of appearance
beyond any ancient or modern piece of arclii'-ecture to be met witli ia
theeafl.

The fire-works of the Chlnefe exceed thofe of all other nations
both in beauty and variety.

8. Language^ Learning.'] The language of the Chinefe confifts
only of three hundred and thirty words, which are all monofyllables,
at lead they are pronounced fo fliort that there is no diliinguirtiing
above one fy liable ur found in them, but the fame word, as ex-
prelfed with Itronger or weaker tore, has different figniiications ;
accordingly, when the language is accurately fpoke, it makes a fort
of mufic, 'vhich has a real melody, that confHtutes the efTencc and
<iiflingui(hing charader of the Chinefe tongue. The charaders of
the Chinefe are as lingular as their language ; they have not, like
us, any alphabet, containing the elements, or, as it were, the prin-
ciples of their words. Inflead of an alphabet they ufe a kind of
hieroglyphics, whereof they have above ei^^hty thoufand ; every one
of theie charaders fignifies a word or a whole fentence, but their
mofl learned men arc hardly rr afters of them all ; thofe, however,
in common ufe do not exceed three thouf^ind, which are under-
ftood in every part of tlie empire. - ';,;V .

Lcarnirig

€r

th<

fu|

whi

yn^i

S. IV.

CHINA,

("3)

Learning is cflentially neceflary to qanVify a mar. for every public
employment, and the only mean$ of advancement hi this pan of
the world j it is not therefore to be wonc'ered thai the Chinefe, in
their (kill in the fciences, their refearches and acquirements were
fupevio'. to every other diftant nation that the Europeans have vifited.
The Chinefe, hov/ever, who had been taught to treat every country
but their own with contempt, on their firft acquaintance with the
Europeans, exprefled the greateft aftoniihment on finding them ac-
quainted with nrts and fciences ; and on being informed that there
were cities and houfes in Europe, " how is it poflible," exclaimed
ther, " that a people fo remote from us fhould have any knowledge
" or capacity ? they have never read our books ; they were never
" modelled by our laws ; and yet they fpeak, write and reafon as
** we do.**

There are a vaft number of public libraries in China, each of
which contains prodigious quantities of books j in every city there
are colleges and obfervatories, and to watch the Heavens both night
and day conftitutes one of the chief employments of their learned.
They have recorded an eclipfe which happened 2155 .years before
the Chriftian sera ; but eclipfes and comets are the principal pheno-
mena of which they have any acc(>unt till much later periods. The
Jefuirs alfifted them in regulating their calendar, and from them
much of their prefent mathemntical knowledge is derived.

9. Religious ProfeJJton.] Various forms of idolatry deform this
improved cotintry. Their deities appear to have been men eminent
in their feveral ages, particularly the inventors of arts and fciences :
they alfo woribip things inanimate, as mountains, woods and rivers;
but never facrifice to vice as is cuftomary with moft Pagans, and
they acknowledge one Supreme Being.

The Emperor being of the Tartar race, follows the idolatry of
that nari'.u, and worrtiips the Dalay Lama; this object of idolatry
is .10 other but a human being j his refidence is in a temple upon
the nvoiintrvin Putali in Tibo. He always receives his votaries
hL't-ing crois legged ; and neither fpeaks or moves otherwife than
by fometimes lifting his hand as a fign of grace towards a favourite
worfl-.'pper. Princes and people flock to him in great nr.mbers,
believe him immortal, pay him their adorations, and bdfiow him
rich prefents. He is generally a perfon ^hat has been purchafed
from fonie healthy peafant when in his childhood by ruc lamas, who
are in faft the governors of Tibet; when he grows old they fix
another in his place, and if any of the people difcover Jie change,
they pretend the g^ard lama has thought proper to alter his ap-
pearance. The kutuchtu or high-prieft of the Moguls is a fimilar
out inferior perfon ; on his deceafe his foul is luppofed to im-
mediately tranfmigrate to the body of feme youth, which by certain
marks the lamas pretend to difcover, and accordingly he is treated
as high-prieft, and confidered as omnifci^nt and immortal. There
are thr«e^ other fefts in China, viz. the followers of Li-Laokun ;

H h th?

"^- jS

("4)

ASIA.

P. VII.

the difciplcs of the celebrated Confucius ; and ihe worfliippers of
the idol Fo or Fohi, the founder of the Chinefe nation, and this
fcdl is much more numerous than the former two. Perhaps, hown
ever, it would hardly be the part of candour to rank the fublime
doctrines of Confucius with the grofs and idolatrous tenets of the
Chinefe ; he taught that God was a moft pure and perfedt principle,
and the fountain and eflence of all beings j he enjoined on his
difciples the ftrifteft morality, a difregard of riches and pleafure,
and the exercife of every virtue : and this great and good philo-
fopher by the innocent fandlity of his manners recommended his
precepts in the exprefllve language of conduct which fpeaks louder
than words.

10. Hijiory.] This empire is certainly of wery great antiquity ;
but like other ancient nations has been aggrandized by fables. Be-
fides the internal revolutions that have happened among che Chinefe,
they have for i ooo years back, at different periods, had contefts
with the Tartars, by whom they were finally fubdued In 1645, and
their conquerors fince that period have commixed with thofe whom
they fubdued.

SECTION V.

India.

All the iflands m the Indian ocean, and many in the Pacific,
with the whole coaft of Afia, from Arabia to where it borders upon
Japan, are fometimes included under the general name of the Eaft
Indies; and under the diftincl title of India or Indoftan is com-
prehended an extenfive country, bounded on the north by Tibet
and Ufbeck Tartary ; on the fouth by the Indian ocean ; on the
cafl by China and the Pacific, and on the weft by the Indian ocean
and Perfia. It is fituated between one, and forty deg. of N. latitude,
and between fixty-fix and one hundred and nine deg. E. longitude,
cx)mprehendlng the Mogul's empire, and numerous fmaller king-
doms ; extenfive continental territories claimed by the Englifh" Eaft
India Company, and fettlements alfo of other European nations.

I . Drntjions.] This vaft country Is generally divided into three
parts : i . the Peninfula of India beyond the Ganges, on the eaft ;
•1. on the north, the main land or empire of the Great Mogul ;
3. on the weft, the Peninfula within, ci on this fide the Ganges.
The two latter divifions are alfo called the Hither India or Indoftan,
and the other the Farther India. The divifions are all extenfive
and very populous.

■•:• The

•"»

S.V.

Kingdoms »
Acham.
Ava.
Arracon.
Pegu.
Martaban.
Siam.

Provinces.
Bengal.

Englifli,

Englifh and
Dutch,

Naugraciit.

Jefuat.

Patna.

Necbal.

Gore.

Rotas.

Sorer.

Jeflelmere.

Tata or SInda.

Bucknor.

Coajls.

COROMANDEL.

{

INDIA.

The Farther Peninfula.
Toivnt* Kingdoms,

Chandara. Malacca.

Ava. Tonquin.

Arracon. Laos.

Pegu. Conchin China.

Martaban. Cambodia.

Siam. Chiampa.

Mogul's Emfnre.
Toivns. Provinces.

Multan.

Kaican.

Cabul.

Candifh.

Berar.

Chitor.

Ratipor.

Narvar.

Gualeor.

Agra.

Delly.

("5)

To'wns.
Malacca.
Cachao orKeccio.
Lanchang.
Thoanoa.
Cambodia.
Padram.

Labor or Pencah. Lahor.
Hendowns. Hendowns.

Caflimere. Caffimere.

Jengapour. Jengapour,

Afmer or Bando. Afmer.

Malabar.

Toiuns.

Calcutta. Multan. Multan.

Fort William. Kaican. Kaican.

Huegly. Cabul. Cabul.

Dacca. Candifh. Medipour,

Malda. Berar. Berar.

Chatigan. Chitor. Chitor

CaiTumbazar. Ratipor. Ratipor.

Naugracut. Narvar. Narvar.

Rajapour. Gualeor. Gualeor.

Patna. Agra. Agra.

Necbal. Delly. Delly.

Gore.

Rotas.

Jagar.J.

Jeflelmere.

Tata.

Bucknor.

The Hither Peninfula.

0iief To'wns.
Madura. Tanjour. Trincombar, Danes. Ne-
gapatan, Dutch. Bifnagar. Portanova, Dutch.
Fort St. David, Engliib. Pondicherry, Cony-
mere, French, Coblon. Sadrafapatan, Dutch.
St. Thomas Portuguefe. Fort St. George or
Madrafs, EngiiHi. Pellicate, Dutch. Golconda.
Gani or Coulor diamond mines. Maflulapatan,
Englifh and Dutch. Vizacapatan, Englifli. Bim-
lipatan, Dutch, Orixa. Ballafore, Englifli.
Tegapatan, Dutch. Angengo, Englifli. Cochin,
Dutch. Callicut, Tellicherry, Englifli. Ca-
nanore, Dutch, Monguelo»-e, Balfilore, Dutch
and Portuguefe. Raalcoida diamond mines,
Cawar, Engliili. Goa, Portuguefe R'ajapore,
French. Dabal, Lnglifli. Dundee, Shoule,
Portuguefe. Bombay, Englifli, Baflalm, Sal-
fette, Daman, Portuguefe. Surat. Sv^ralley.
Barak, Englifh and Dutch. Amedabat. Cam-
baya. Diu, Portuguefe.

H h a The

(116)

ASIA.

P. VII.

Polygamy, the dodrines of Mahomet, and various forms of
idolatry deform many parts of this land. In the European fet-
tlements Chriftianity is profefled. Each of the numerous kingdoms
of India are governed by one and fometimes more kings or princes,
who exert the moft defpotic power over their fubjefts.

2. Cli»iate and Soil.] The air in the northern parts of India is
very dry and healthy, but in the fouthern provinces, efpecially in
the vallies and low lands near the fea and rivers, it is very hot and
moid. In fome places they are obliged to ereft their houfes upon
liigh pillars to fecure them from the floods during the rainy feafon,
at which time they have no communication with each other but by
boats ; and fuch ftorms of wind, thunder and lightning happen
about the equinoxes on the fliifting of the monfoons, as are feldom
feen in Europe. The year is not divided into fummer and winter
as with us, but into the dry and wet feafons, or into the eafterly
and wefterly monfoons. The monfoons are periodical winds which
prevail in thefe tropical climates ; during our fummer they blow from
the north eaft ; and during our winter again from the fouth weft.
When the ftorms ceafe, which take place on their changing, there
are fea and land breezes near the coaft, which fliift every twelve
hours.

The foil is in general exceeding fertile, efpecially thofe parti
that a'e overflowed bv the floods, which like thofe of the Nile are
periodical, and enrich the grounds with the mud and flime they
depollt on their farface.

3. Plant Sy Animals y Minerals.'] India produces corn, rice, pepper,
and a variety of garden plants and drugs ; pomegranates, tamarinds,
citrons, dates, grapes, almonds, guavas, cocoa-nuts, plumbs, plan-
tanes, mangoes, pine apples, lemons, oranges, limes, melons, jaccas,
mulberries, and a variety of apples, pears, and other fruits ; fugar
canes, cotton, indigo, &c.

The quadrupeds are elephants, rhinocerofes, camels, dromedaries,
feorfes, afl*es, mules, oxen and buffaloes; tigers, lions, leopards,
wolves, jackalls, muflc cats, very large bats, apes and monkies ; red
deer, fallow deer, elks, antelopes, ibeep, goats, kids, hogs, hares,
&c. birds of the moft beautiful plumage embellifli the foreft. The
rivers abound in fifli, but many of them are greatly infefted by
crocodiles. Serpents and fcorpions abound in every part of India,
and Mufl:etoes, locufts, and other infefts of a funilar nature, are
very troublefome to the inhabitants. The mines yield gold, dia-
monds, rubies, topazes, amethifts, beryls, afterias or cats eyes, and
other precious ftones or gems. Travellers inform us that mines of
lead, iron, copper, and even filver are found in Indoftan j and quar-
ries of ftone are in great plenty.

4. Mountainsy Rivers.] The moft remarkable mountains of India
are thofe of Caucafus which divide it from Ufbec Tartary, and
thofe of Naugracut which feparate it from Tibet j befides thefe
ihere arc chaini of mountains on both peninfulas running from

north

'ht^ 1

S. V.

INDIA.

("7)

north to fouth almoft the whole length of the country. On the
hither or Weftern Peninfula it is fumnier on one fide of thefe
mountains when it Is winter on the other. Thus a fouth weft
wind prevails for months on the coaft of Malabar, attended by
prodigious and conftant rains, while the weather is ferene on the
coaft of Coromandel on the eaft ; and when on the change of the
monfoon no veffel dare venture to ftay on the coaft of Coromandel,
they periodically return to Bombay on the weft.

The principal rivers are in the Farther India, the Domea, the
Mecon, the Menan and the Ava ; in the Hither In(iiu ire the Indus
and the Ganges. The Indians are perfuaded that ti.e Ganges does
not take ita rife from the bofom of the earth, but defcends from
Heaven into the paradife of Dcvendre, and from thencfe into
Indoftan : they therefore hold its waters in the greateft reverence,
crowding in multitudes from the renioteft parts of the country to
wafli in i:hem j they think themfelves favoured by Heaven if tliey are
permitted to expire on its banks ; and he who accidentally meets death
by its waters, is not only fuppofed to have been himfelf purified
from fin, hut that even his furviving family participate in the
blefling, and they are ever after treated with peculiar marks of
refpedt and regard. Such are the miftaken notions of that poor
harii^lefs race the Hindoos or Gentoos ; their priefts are the Bramins
the followers of the celebrated Brumma. To be a ftranger among
thefe people is a fufficient fecurity, provifions are furniflied by
hofpitality, and when a peafant is alked for water he runs with
alacrity and fetches milk,

5, Mannf(i3ures, Commerce.'] The different kingdoms and pro-
vinces of India traffic with each other, and with the neighbouring
iflands, the nations of China, Tartary, Perfia and Arabia, but their
principal trade is with European nations. The exports are gold,
diamonds, ivory, filks, mullins, chintzes, dinntie?, calicoes, lacquered
wares, and various toys, different kinds of gums, drugs, &c. From
Europe arc imported broad cloth, lead, flints and cutlery wares,
wrought plate, watches and looking glall'es, with other goods of
inferior value for the ufe of the natives.

The empire of Indoftan, particularly the kingdom or province of
Bengal, from the mildnefs of its climate, the fertility of its foil, and
the induftry of the Hindoos, has been always remarkable for its
commerce j every village has its canal, every town its river, and
the whole kingdom the Ganges, which falling by various mouths
into the bay of Bengal, opens a communication with the ocean for
exporting the produce and manufactures of this famous country.
While the houfe of Tamerlane filled the throne of Indoftan the
balance of trade was greatly in favour of Bengal : it was at that
period one of the richeft, moft populous, and beft cultivated king-
doms in the world ; the bullion it annually received from the
Englifti, Dutch, French, Danes and Portuguefe ; the gold froiii the
gulphs of Arabia and Perfw, and the treafures from the other parts of

• India

;

(1 18)

ASIA.

P.VII.

India were prodigious. Even under the revolted viceroys it ap-
peared fuperior to the partial rapine of thofe impolitic nabobs
Vfho plundered the people but to fquander it amongft them ; an4
the catalogue of its calamities feems only to have been BUed by the
coming in of foreigners. Since that period the troubles and civil
wars which have ravaged this kingdom have been tragical in the
extreme. The country has been depopulated, diftrefs of every kin4
has fucceeded to plenty and eafe, many of the principal cities have
been rendered defolate, the moft fertile fields in the wprld laid
wafte, and near five millions of harmlefs and induftrious people either
expelled or deftroyed.

6. Languages.] The inhabitants of Siam, in the Farther Peninfula,
ufe two languages ; the one called properly Siamefe, and the other '
Balli : the former, which is the language commonly fpoken, has
thirty feven letters; the latter, which is the learned language, or
that in which their books or writings are compofed, has thirty
three letters, all confonants; the vowels and diphthongs are ex-
preffed by peculiar charatters diftindt from the letters, as in the
Hebrew. Both thefe languages are written from left to right, and
refemble the Chinefe in chiefly confiding of monofyilables, an4
having neither conjugation nor declenfion ; like th?t too, they are
both highly accented, fo that the delivery of then[i approaches nearly
to fipging.

The inhabitants of Malacca, in the Farther India, are accounted
mere favagei in their manners j yet their language, the Malayan
tongue, is efteemed the fineft in all the Indies, where it is fpoke as
common as the French in Europe.

The languages of Indoftan or the Hither India are various, but
may all be included under three general heads :

The Shanfcrit, an original language, intermixed with a number
of words and even phrafes from the Perfian and Arabic, is univerfally
fpoken throughout the empire of Indoftan, and is the current language
of the country.

The Perfian is the language of the polite circles, and prevails ii^
moft of the courts of the Eaft, as the French does in thofe of
Europe.

The Arabic is the learned, or if we may be allowed the term,
the claflical language of Indoftan : here, as in Perfia, their records
and a few books are preferved in this language.

7. Hijiory.] Of the ancient hiftory of this country but little is
known. Early in the thirteenth century it fuffered the ravages of
Jenghifcan, and on the clofe of the fourteenth was conquered by
Tamerlane or Timur Beck. The Grand Moguls or Emperors of
Indoftan are very emulous of tracing their defcent from Tamerlane,
and always pretend to reign in right of him. In 1738, Nadir
Shaw of Perfia or Kouli Khan, ravaged Indoftan and plundered
Delhi its capital.

SECTION

s.vi.

PERSIA,

("9)

SECTION VI.

. . Persia.

Modem Perfia comprehends the ancient Hyrcania, Badtria,
Sufiana, Parthia, Media and part of AiTyria, Iberia and Colchis.
This extenfive country is fltuated between the twenty-fifth and forty'
fifth deg. N. latitude, and between the forty-fifth and fixty-feventh
deg. £. longitude. It is bounded on the eafl: by the dominions of
the Mogul, by Ulbec Tartary, the Cafpian fea, and Circaflla on
the north ; by the Indian ocean and the Gulph of Perfia or Baffora
on the fouth ; and on the weft by Arabia and the Turkifh
empire.

1. Di'viftons.^

Diviftonr. Chief Towns.

Easte RN. Mefched or Thus, Efterabad, Herat, Gafna, Can*

dahor, Sigiftan.
Southern. Makeran, Lar, Gombroon, Ormus, Schiras.
SoUiH-wEST. Schoufter, Caibin, Ifpahan, Hamadam, New Julpha,

Arnova, Courmebad.
North-west. Tauris or Ecbatana, Ardevil, Naxivan, Teflis,

Gangea, Terki, Ferrabat, Gilan, Refcod, Der-

bent, Baku.

Climatey Soil.] In thofe parts bordering upon the mountains,
which are ufually covered with fnow, the air is very cold ; in the
midland provinces it is naturally ferene, pure and exhilarating ; but
the hot winds which fometime blow over long traits rf Tandy defarts
from the fouth and eaft, are extremely futTocating, and a blaft
fometimes ftrikes the traveller dead in an inftant.

The foil varies as much as the air, being in fome parts exceed-
ingly barren ; but in others very fruitful, efpecially where they caa
turn the ftreams of water into the plains and vallies.

2. Plants^ Jnimalsf Minerals.] The animal and vegetable pro-
ductions of Perfia are much the fame with thofe of India. Their
fheep, however, are remarkable for having fix or feven horns each,
and their tails very heavy. The Perfian horfes are very beautiful
and high fpirited.

Perfia produces copper, iron, lead, antimony, fulphur, falrpetre
and emery : here are plains near twenty leagues over covered with
fait, and fome with faltpetre and allum ; and in fome parts of
Carmania in particular the fait is faid to be fo hard that the poorer
fort of people ufe it inilead of (tone for building their cottages.
' In

! ,

■'

r '

PS 4

(l20)

ASIA.

P. VII.

-}.]

In the provinces of Fars and Sklrvan there are great quantities of
bole-armoniack and a fort of marie ufed by the "ativcs irftead of
foap. Near the Cafpian feas there are fprings of Naphtha, which
frequently takes fire on the furface and in great quantities runs
flaming into the fea to an alnioft incredible diftance from t'le fliore.
There are different kinds of Naphtha in Perfia, the dark kind
fupplie; the place of oil in lamps, and is ufed as fuel ; the white
fort, found in the Peninfula of Apcheran, is both taken as a co'-dial
and mediciniB, and ufed externally j it is faid to be carried into
India, where being properly prepared it makes a moft beautiful
and durable varniih.

The Perfian marble is of va'*ious colours, and fome is almofl: as
tranfparent as cryftsil ; mii^eral azure is alfo found in this country,
but the moft valuable mines are thofe in which the turquois ftones are
contained. ■,

3. Mountains, Rivers.] The principal mountains of Perfia are
thofe of Caucafus and Arrarat, fometinies called the mountains of
Daghiftan^ which fill all the ifthmus between the Euxine and
Cafpian feas. The enonnou5 ridge of Taurus, together with its
branches, runs through the country from Natolia to InJia.

There are very few rivers in Perfia, but the moft rema»-kable are
the Kur, anciently Cyru< j and Aras, anciently Araxes. The Indus
runs on the eaft, ^s the Euphrates and Tigris do on the weft of
Perfia. The fcarcity of water in this country has given rife to many
ingenious methods of co'iveying it to the cities, corn fields and
gardens. Wells of a prodigious depth and breath are in many
places dug, out of which, with the nfliftance of oxen, they draw up
water in leather buckets which are enjptied into large cifterns or
refervoirs, and conveyed off by aquedufts and canals j fome of thefe
are ca,rried under ground to the diftance of twenty or thirty
leagues.

4. MunufiiHureSy Commerce, Roads."] The principal commodities
of Perfia are filks, mohair, camblets, carpets, leather, embroidery,
and gold and filver laces and threads.

Their foreign trade is carried by Europeans fhips, having few of
their own j and their commerce is now almoft ruined by the per-
petual wars they have been engaged in, which have defolated the
face of the country_and uncivilized the difpofitions of the inhabitants.
Formerly great numbers of travellers, intending to journey with
their merchandizes and co^nmo^dities from one city or province tp,
another, aflembled focially together and formed themfelves into
caravans, frequently conflfting of four or five hundred perfons, with
a ftill greater number of camels and other beafts of burden; at
ftated diftances they found raravanferas or inns^ proyided either at
the public expence, or by the benevolence of individuals, for theiiT;
reception, fr?e from the expence of lodging j. or they pitched their,
tents, which they always brought with them on, thefe e?cpeditions,
in fome vgrdant fpot, where they might find watec agd pafture fpi;

their

atd

mil

3. VI.

PERSIA.

(lai)

.. (.'beails and purchafe provifions for themfelves. The fame public
attention, or private philanthropy, which provided places of reft
and fountains of water, had alio levelled the mountain, or raifcd
the valley, and fmoothcd the road to fafety and convenience. But
fince the civil Jifputes and inteftine commotions have fufpended
the operation of the laws and the execution of juftice ; fince the
horrors of war have ravaged the country, thefe advantages have
confiderably fallen off: the highways are neglected and infolled
with banditti, who feize on the caravans and plunder tlicm as
lawful prize J the caravanferas are deferted or become receptacles
for robbers ; and the fountains are dried up, or their fources choaked
with the mouldering ruins.

5. Curiofities.] The baths near Gombroon are highly eftecmed
for their falutary cffefts j but the principal natural curiufity in this
kingdom is a combuftible ground about ten miles diflant from Baku,
where the followers of Zo'"oafter perfnm their devotions ; it is
impregnated with the moft amazing inflammatory qualities, and
round it are feveral fmall old tjmples : in one of thefe the votaries
ibew a large hollow cane ftuck in the ground, out of which iflues a
flame refembling that of a lamp filled with very pure fpirits, and
this they hold is the fncred flame of univerfal fire.

The mofl: magnificent remains of antiquity in Perfia are the ruins
of Perfepolis, the ancient metropolis of the kingdom, confilling of
fuperb columns, fpacious ftair-cafes, grand portals and beautiful
pilafliers, adorned with figures in bailb relievo. About a league
diftance from thefe ruins is a famous mountain fituated between two
fine plains. It is an eitire rock, and having been levelled by art
its fides are quite perpendicular : there are various fij^ires upon it
reprefented in bafs-relicf, and feveral tombs cut out of the rock,
with two finail edifices, and feveral infcriptions. Tliefe are fup-
pofed to have been the burial places of the ancient kings of Perfia,
but the zeal of the Mahometans, who thir.k it meritorious ro deftroy
all kinds of images, and the injuries of time have greatly Jefaced
them.

A modern edifice of an extraordinary kind is to be feen at
Ifpahan. This is a pillar fixty feet high, erecled by Shaw Abbas,
after the fuppreflion of a rebellion, and confids of the fculls of beafts.
He had made a vow to build fuch a colunm pf the fculls of the
rebels, but upon their fubmiflion he fubftituted thofe of brutes,
obliging each of them to furniili one.

6. Religion.] The profeflion at prefent eftabliibed in Pei-fia is
that of Mahomet J but they differ from the Turks by following the
feft of AH, whom they confider as the genuine fuccefibr of Ma-
homet ; while the Turks afl'ert that Omar and Abu Bekr are the
true fucceflbrs of their prophet, and therefore charge the Porfian*
with hcrefv.

\ 1

i m

i i

But

(122)

ASIA.

P. vir.

But the ancient religion of Perfia is the worfliip of the Magi,
which is ftill profefled in this empire and the Indies. The pro-
feflbrs of it feeni to have a peculiar veneration for fire, and the
inflammable foil near the city of Baku, already defcribed, is the
principal fcene of their devotion.

7, Language^ Learning.] The language of Perfia varies in the
different provinces ; the Perfic is only fpoken in its purity in the
fouthem parts of the kingdom, in the city of Ifpahan, on the borders
of Arabia, and on the coafts which Jkirt the Gulf of Perfia ; in the
parts which border on the Cafpian fea the Turkifh language pre-
vaik, and the provinces of Ghilan and Mazanderan ufe a mixture
of both J but in all parts of the kingdom public writings, records,
and works of learning are in Arabic j many words of which are alfq
ufed familiarly in the converfation of the polite, who ftill affecl a
lubltmity of expreflion.

The poetical writings of the Perfians are in high efteem all ~ver
the ^aftj but their learning is at prefent at a very low ebb, und
educatJdn fo totally negleded, that perfons in the higher ranks are
Scarcely taught to read or write. Scribes however are numerous
and very expert; they carry the lines like thofe who write in
Hebrew, from the right hand to the l.ft.

8. Hijiory ] It appears from the b;jok of Genefis, that Cheder-
laomer, king of Elam or Perfia, is a powerful prince in the time
of Abraham. About the time of the captivity of Ifrael this
country was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar of Habylon. After
this it was a province of Media, till Cyrus, under whom the Jews
returned from their captivity, gained the afcendency over theMedes,
and eftabliflied a great empire, which continued till it was over-
thrown by Alexander the Great. In 250, before the Chriftian aera,
the Perfians revolted from the fucceflbrs of Alexander, and founded
a new empire, under the name of the Parthian. The Parthians or
Perfians had frequent wars with the Romans, but neither of them
gained any permanent advantage over the other ; and m 65 1 an
end was put to this empire by the Sarazens. After this period the
country underwent a variety of dreadful revolutions, and was
conquered fuccefilvely by Jenghis Khan in 121 8, and by Tamerlane
in 1392. In the beginning of the fifteenth century the family of
Sophi afcended the throne, fince which time the country has been
harraflfed by civil wars. In the beginning of the preient century
Nadir Shaw put the fovereign to death, afcended the throne,
ravaged Indoftan, dethroned the Mogul, and behaved with fuch
cruelty that in the year 1 747 his own relations and principal ofiicers
afTaflitnated him in his tent. After his death a number of compe-
titors laid claim to the crown, which occafioned a horrid fcene of
bloodllied till 1763, when Kherim Khan, the prefent king, was
placed on the throne; but the kingdom is ftill in a weak and
languifhing condition.

SECTION

tudeJ
tudeJ
by til
of

StonJ
Hail
D\
Pet
Desi
FelI

S.Vir. ARABIA.

SECTION VII.

(»3)

^1;

Arabia.

Arabia extends from the thirty-fifth to the fixticth dcg. caft longi-
tude, and from twelve dcg. thirty niin. to t dirty dcg. north lati-
tude. It is bounded ( n the north by Afiutic Turkey, on the fnuth
by the Indian ocean, on the eaft by the Eu;'hrates and tlie giilphs
of Bafibra and Ormus, and on the we(l by the Red Sea.

1. Divtfions.] It is divided into three parts, Arabia Petrteaor the
Stony, Arabia Deferta or the Defart, and Arabia Felix or the
Hajipy.

Dlv'tfons. Chief Towns.

Vetkjea. Suez.

Deserta. Mecca, Siden, Medina, Dlnifiir.
Felix. Mocha, Sibit, Hadramut, Calieen, Segur, Mufcat,

Jamama, Elcalf.

2. CUmatey Soil and -vegetalle ProduB'ions ] The climate is va-
l-ious The fouihern parts are intenfcly hot. The winds which
pafs over tiaifls of fand are penetrating and fuffocating, and the
lands thcmfelves become formidable, being fometimcs raifed in fuch
clouds ns to bury whole caravans. In the fandy defart it fcarcely
rains throughout the year, but the few vegetables which fuch a fpot
is capable of producing depend for moiflure on the copious dews
which defcend every night after funfet j other parts of Arabia arc
refrefhed with gentle rains.

Arabia the Stony, is the wildernefs in which the children of I-G-
rael were forty years miraculoufly fuppoited, and its different rocks
and fpots, and the mountains of Horeb and Sinai, may be accounted
curiofities, as having been the fcenes of fcripture hiliory.

Arabia the Defirt is fomewhat lefs rocky, confifting principally
of fruitlefs trads of burning fands ; it has, however, forae fpots of
land covered with verdure at certain feafons of the year, and feed-
ing numerous flocks and herds : but thefe are principally near the
Euphrates, the only river of any conftquence which waters this ex-
tensive cojiintry. There are a few others, fuch as the Nageiran, the
Pran, and the Chaty ; but thefe are fo fmall as to be at all times in-
confiderable, and ip the fummer feafon they are generally dried up.
The Eaftern manner of travelling in caravans efpecially obtains in
croflinw thefe defarts ; a frugal fare ferves the camel and his rider,
but water feems above all a neceffary f upply. They feldom encumber
themfelves with tents, the conrtant ferenity of the Iky rendering
fuch a precaution unneceffary. At nights the camels are difpofed in
a circle, where they lie with their heads outwards ; within them
their furniture and lading are arranged in exaft order ; and the cen-
tre

I
I

■i .i

Oh)

ASIA.

p.vir.

tre is occupied by the travellers, who, layin^T carpets on the fand,
take others to cover tlicm, and make a pillov/ of fuch wearin;i an-
rarcl as they carry with them, to change or vary their drefils. Should
invaders apjir^ach, t!ic fititliful camels are inllantly alarmed, and by
their rilinj; and trampling, awake tlic tired travellers, and put them
on their yiiard.

Arabia th 'J Happy is in many plices very barren ; fome vallies,
however, between the mountains, and a few of the plains, which
are fo fituated as to be well fupplied v.'ith water, are pleafant and
fruitful, producing corn, pulfc, flowers, peaches, apricots, dates,
grapes, Icniom-, or.in^ujs. Sec. in great perfection. This country al-
fo fupplies Euroj)e with great variety of drugs, fuch as myrrh, fran-
kincenl'c, balms, manna, aloes, and gum olibanum ; and it produces
in great plenty that berry which is imported into Europe under the
name of Turkey coiTee.

In Arabia there arc mines of gold, fil.cr, diamonds, rubles, and
firdonyxcs of extraordinary bu.uity and colour.

The. Arabs in general are a wandering people. There is, however,
a conflderable trade cari-icd on from Mocha by the Englidi and
Dutch companies that are fettled there. The Portuguefe carry on
a trade with Mofcat, and the Turks with Suez.

3. Curio lities.'] The principal curiofiiies in this province are the
mofques at Mecca and Medina ; the former was the birth place of
Mahomet, at the latter is his tomb. To both thefe places great
numbers of pilgrims annually refort, but more particularly to Mec-
ca ; every Muffulman being obliged to make this pilgrimage once in
his life, or at leaft: to fend a deputy. The roof of the mofque at
Mecca is covered with gold, and has an hundred gates. That at
Medina is fupported by four hundred pillars, and furniflied with
three hundred filver lamps continually kept burning ; and under
cloths of fdvor and gold refts the coflin or tomb of the impoftor.
Chriflians are forbid approaching Mecca or Medina within a limited
didance on pain of being burnt alive.

4. Religion t Language.] The Arabians in general are Mahome-
tans, hut many of the wild tribes of rovers are itill x igans. Their
language, which for copious and expreffivc elegance, has been pre-
ferred, as has been already obferved, by Turks, Perfians, and other
inhabitants of the eall^, even to their own, is hardly fpoken in its
purity in any part of Arabia ; Arabe/lc, or corrupt Arabic, being
the common dialed of the country. The ancient Arabic, which is
faid to be a dialed of the Hebrew is taught in their fchools like
Greek and Latin in Europe, and ufed by all the Mahometans in
their worfhip ; for as the Koran was originally wrote in that lan-
guage, they will not fuffer it to be read in any other ; they fuppofe
it to have been the language of Paradife, and think no man can at-
tain a thorough knowledge of it without a miracle, it being com-
pofedof feveral millions of words ; it is faid that there are in it a
tlioufand different names for a camel, and five hundred for a lion.

5. Literati,

S.VII.

ARABIA.

('^5)

5. lAterat'if Learning.] The names of Avcnzoar, Avicenna,
Honain, Mefuach and Thograi have been eminent in jihydc, agro-
nomy and mathematicks. To the Arabians we are indebted for that
fimjjie and very elegant invention, the e?:|)rening of all poflible num-
bers by means of the ten digits ; and indeed from them moll of the
literary and fcientific imi)rovePMjnts of E'.irope were derived ; bat
thofe are now either totally loft in the land where tt-^y originated,
or dwindled into blind con)e(5tiire, oLTcurc and myflerioiis jargon,
or fupcrftitious piognofticution. The dcpreJ;itions of the robbers,
perhaps more than even tlie defirts, render foliriry and walk* many
parts of this land, where fplendid ruins only remain as nioiniinents
of their ancient grandeur.

6. htftory.] Arabia was never yet conquered by any foreign
power, though f'veral attempts I'.ave l.>ecn made for that jiuqiofo.
About the year 622 the Arabians bcj^in to din^Inouifli »''';''»-'*".l.c:
under the name of Saracens ; for M.;lionKd, at ' ar time, made
himfclf the head of a fj>5l, which in about elc\ en ov '.wclvc years
made thcmfclvcs nnllcrs of ail Arabia, and prefently after eKtendcd
their conquers over a gi eat jiart of the wovid. After, this the feat
of their empire was removed to Bagdat and fell under the Turks,
wliile Arabia underwent fome internal revolutions but retained its
independency.

SECTION VIII.

Asiatic Isles.

1. Kur'tle TJlanJs.'] The Kurile Iflands reach from the vicinitv
of Japan to tiie fouthern promontory of Kamtfchatka, the principal
of thefe form the land of JefTo or Jedfo. The natives generally drcl's
in long rube-, and carry on fome trade with the RulTians and Ja-
panefc, but they cannot be faid to be under any particular govern-
ment. The foil is in general rocky and barren, the coafts are dan-
gerous, and in fome of them there are volcanoes.

2. Japan.'} The Japan or Niphon Iflands are fituated between
thirty and forty^one deg. north latitude, and between one hundred
and thirty and one hundred and forty-fcven deg. north latitude.
The air is healthy in almoft every pait of this empire, the foil fruit-
ful and highly cultivated, producing corn, rice, tea, a vaft variety
of fruits, timber, &c. Here are numerous herds of cattle, and the
mountains afford mines of gold, filvcr, copper, tin, lead and iion,
and quarries of flate and marble.

There are four volcanoes in Japjin, one of which is very dread-
ful ; and in the neighbourhood of thefe burning mountains are feve-
ral medicinal fprings. Among the artificial curiofities is a famous
coioflus of copper gilt: It is of a prodigious fize, its thumb bei

uitecn

•mt

(126)

ASIA.

P.VIL

fourteeo inches in circumference, an J the other parts in propor*
tion.

The Japanefs are very ingenious mechanics, and excel the Chi-
nefe in the various works which are common to both nations. They
are very fair dealers, but under pain of crucifixion have expelled the
Portuguefe who had made near a third part of the empire profelytes
to their faith. Many of the converts fufFered martyrd<»m with the
niort unlhaken fortitude, and after being harraffcd near forty years,
thirty-feven thoufand of them attempting at length to defend them-
felves by arms were all cut off in one day. The intrigues of the
Miflionaries themfelves, the jealoufies of the ' • or priefls of Ja-
pan, and the fecret machinat'ons of the Dutch .idv enturers, are all
blamed for bringing about thefe cruel perfecutions. The Dutch are
now the only Europeans who are allowed to trade here, and even
thefe are under the moil humiliating and degrading reftn<5lions.

The language of Japan is fimilar to that of China, but much more
grammai cal, copious and polite ; they alfo write in charafters, but
ihey are *'!tferent from the Chinefe. The bonxi or priefts ftudy
philofopliy mathematics, &c. and teach the fcienccs to youth in
iheir academies, of which they have great numbers.

The grofTeft idolatry prevails in Japan ; and in common with other
nations of the Eaft, they believe in the metempfychofis or tranfmi-
gration of the foul.

3, FormoJ'a.~\ The luxuriant ifland of Formofa receives its name
from its extraordinary beauty : It lies to the eaft of China, and
pretty much anfwers the dcfcription of that country, to which it is
ttioft'y fubjed by conquefl:.

The original natives are reprefented as an inoffeiifive difinterefled
people, of great purity of manners, and focial, benevolent and fin-,
cere ; they (till poffefs part of the ealliern quaiter of the ifland, and
retain all their primitive cuftoms.

4. Ladrones.] The Ladrone, or Marian iflands, in the Pacific
Ocean, are fituated in one hundred and forty deg. eaft longitude,
and between twelve and twenty-eight deg. north latitude ; they are
about twenty in number, and were difcovcred by Magellan in 1521.
Guam is the only ifli,nd which can < • laid to be inhabited, where
the Spaniards have a foit and a fmail garrifon ; and mod of their
galleons touch here in their voyage from Acapulca in America, to
Manilla.

Tinian, another of the Ladrones, was once well peopled, but a
dreadful mortality fwept off the greateft part of the natives, and the
remainder removed to Guam. Several Englifh navigators have touch-
ed at this ifland, particularly Commodore Anfon, who met with
great refrefliment for his crew, not lefs from the falubrity of its air,
than from its fruits and other vegetable produflions, many of which
are powerful antidotes againft the fcurvy.

The flying proas of the o^ -ginal native*? n.re faid to fail after the
rate of near feven leagues an hour.

5. Ph'iUppine

lol

thl
drl

an4

hit

fin

ga^

pre

S, VIII.

ASIATIC ISLES.

(127)

5. Philippine J/Ita:] Tlie Philippine Iflanr's, difcovered by Ma-

illan

_ I, received tins name in honour of Phili .< 11. ot Spain, who co-
ld iifed them. They Ii<; between nineteen jnd fifty deg. nortli Uti-
tade, and between one hundred and fourteen and one hundred and
thirty deg. eaft longitude : They are about one thoufand one hun-
dred in number ; the principal of which are Manilla or Luconis.,
Sf.mar or Philippina, Mafbate, Mindoro, Luban, Paragoia, Panay,
liCyta, Bohol, Sibu, Negro Iflands, St. John's, Xolo and Min-
danao.

Thefe fertile iflands are inhabited by four or five different nations ;
as the Blacks or Aborigines, who occupy the woods, mountains
and defart places , the defcendants of the Chinefe, wlio oncc were
in poffeflion of the coafts ; the Malays and Mahometans, who come
hither from Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo and Macaflar, the S'pauiards,
Portuguefe, and other Europeans j and a mixture comp<mnded of
all thefe.

The ciiy of Manilla, the capital of all the Philippines, wnich is
finely fituated, and has as convenient and fafe a port as any in the
world, is a large, wealthy and populous place ; the Iioufes are ele-
gant, the ftreets wide and regular ; it has a cathedral, a college (for-
merly the Jefu its) and feveral convents, congregation-houfcr., and other
fuperb edifices both public and private. Two veflcls fail annually
from this port to Acapulco in New-Spain, loaded widi the precious
produce and manufad'turcr. of the Eaft, which return freighted with
filver, they belong to the King of Spain : It was one of thefe:
rich returning galleons which was taken by Commodore Anfon in

1743-

6. Spice IJIanfJs.'] The Molucca and Banda lilands, or (as they

are more generally called) the Spice? Iflands, are fixtcen in number,
and lie under the equator ; the jirincipal of them are Tcruate, Ty-
dore, Machian, Motyr, Bachian, Amboyna, Gilo'.a, Banda and
Celebes. Thefe illands, wliich produce iucli amazing quantities of
cloves, mace and nutmegs r>s tc fap^:Iy tiie whole woild, ].\ad added
to the luxuries of Europe above two thouiar-d years before we knew
to what part of the earth we were indebted fur them. The Egyp-
tians, Arabians and Porfians formerly brought them througli the
Red Sea, and from thence by the navigation of the Kilo, o** bv Ca-
ravans to the coaft of Egypt, where the Greeks, Romans and Cu-
thaginians rellirted to purchafe the filks and fniccs of India ; and
after them other fucceeding nations, till about rlirce hundred years
fmce the Portugucfe, having doubled the Cape of Good Hope,
fettled faftories in different countries in t!ic Eall:, and at length dif-
covered the native land c^ fragrance and fpices. The i--ngl.fh undc^r
command of Sir Francis l)rake v/crc the next Europeans who vilitcd
thefe iflands ; but the Dutch have expelled them both, garrifoned
the iflands, and monopolized the fpice ti.idc to themfclvcs.

7. Celebes.] The ifland of Celebes or Macalfau which in a ge-
neral view may be confidcrcd as one of tlic fpice iflanJr., is five hun-
dred

**^

!»mVt

(I2S)

ASIA.

P. VII.

II •

dred miles long and two hundred broads and lies under the equator.
Ilje Dutch have a fortification on it ; but the internal part of it is
governed by three of its own kings, the chief of whom refides in
the town of Macaifar.

In this and almoft all the other oriental iflands the houfes are
raifed on ports on account of the floods, and they are only acceflible by
ladders, drawn up at night, for their fecurity againfi renornous reptiles.
The natives, whofe port of Jampoden is the moft capacious in that
part of the world, carry on a confiderab^e trade with the Chlnefe.

8. Sutida IJJss.] The Sunda Iflands are fituated between ninety-
three and one hundred and twenty deg. eaft longitude, and lie un-
der the equator ; they comprehend the very capital iilands of Bor-
neo, Sumatra and Java, befidcs fome of inferior confequence ; among
which are Bally, Lamboe and Banca.

Borneo, the largcH: of thcfe iOands, is eight hundred miles long
and feven hundred broad ; it is unlliacklcd with European fettle-
ments, and it? trade is open to all nations ; its harbours, particularly
ihofe of Ban jar, MafTeen, Succadana and Bornep are much fre-
quented by advcntiirers. Here the Chinefe keep fliops and retail
goods.

The Byayosj, or original inhabitants, arc fubjed to many petty
kings of their ov;n, and inhabit the moft inacceffible mountains ;
they are a moral, chafte and inofFcnfivc people, and extremely fo-
cial with each other. The fea coafts are inhabited by Malayan
Moors, who are governed by Mahometan princes ; but the profeffion
of the ifland is a mixture of idolatry and Mahometanifm.

Sumatra, from the plenty of gold it produces, has been conjec-
tured to be the Ophir of the facrcd writings. The Englifli and Dutch
have made a few f;;ttlements on the co;ill.

Java is principally in the poffcffion of the Dutch. The capital of
it is Batavia, the refidence of their governor-general of the Indies,
who live? here in all the pomp of oriental magmficence ; it is the gene-
ral place of rendezvous for their Eaft 'India fleets, which five times
a year d(part from hence in fquadrons for Europe.

The fuburbs of Bata/ia, which are inhabited by perfons of almofl
every nation, are more populous than tlic city itfcl'"; the Chinefe,
in particular, are computed at one hundred thoufanc, though thirty
thoufand of them were cruelly maflacred in 1 740 by order of the
Dutch governor, Vv'ho after this wicked aiflion embarked for Europe ;
but on his arrival at the Cape of Good Hope he was apprehended
by an order from t'le flates, and remanded back to Batavia in order
to be tried ; he, however, never reached ihat city; it was fufpedted
that he was thrown overboard in his pafTage, in order to prevent an
enquiry into an aflion dctelled by all mankind.

The Andonian and Nicobiir ilhmds lie near the entrance of the
bay of Bengal, and fiunifh the vcffels that touch there with frefli
provifions and tropical fruits. They are in general overrun with
woods ; but being deilitute of thofe rich mines and odoriferous groves,

which

tli|
a

PS
ej

S.VTII.

ASIATIC ISLES.

(129)

irty
he

led
Icr
led

Ian

lie

|3»

which have fo often proved the b .ne of the poor natives wherever
they were found ; no European nation has ever attempted to make
a fettlement there. The inhabitants are a friendly and inoffenHvc
people, they feem to pay a kind of adoration to particular caves, and
exprefs the greateft joy at the appearance of the moon.

10. Ceylon.] The Ifland of Ceylon, near Cape Comorin on the
coaft of Coromandel, is two hundred and fifty miles long and two
hundred broad. This fertile ifland, producing ainioft all the I'ruits
and riches of the Indies, is the original place of the growth of Cin-
namon, from which the Dutch reap fuch extraordinary profit ; this
people expelled the Portuguefe from this iflnnd, and are now in
pofTelfion of all the fea coaft, and to the diftance of ten or twelve
leagues up the country.

The natives, who are called CinglafTcs, arc very inofrcnfive, but
extremely fuperflitious ; they implore the intcrpofition of their faints
and heroes, whom they fu])pofe to be njiniltring fpirits of the grcut
Creator. They have beddes various ido's of monflrous forms. Their
language, which, is peculiar to themfelves, is fkid to be copious,
fmooth, elegant and polite.

They have, by tradition, fomc knowledge of fcripture hiftoiy,
and believe that Ceylon was the Garden of Eden or terrcftrial pa-
radifc. Some -fuppofc that the fleets of Solomon traded with the
Cinglaffes, and that from them they derived their information ; while
others think that they owed it to the Jews, many of whom, it is
faid, were fettled in the hither pcninfula by Nebuchadnezzar.

II. Muldhia Ijles."] Tht iVialdives lie ofl" Cape Comorin, and
extend from feven deg twenty min. north, to one degree fouth la-
titude, but are in no place more than forty leagues broad. The na-
tives are Mahometans, and thofe who hate vifited Mecca have the
priviledge of wearing long beards as marks of fupcrior findity.
They are faid co excej in manufiidures, in literature and fciences,
and to have a particular cfteeiji for aflronomy.

Thefe iflands ire Imall but very numerous. The Prince, who cx-
ercifes his fovereignty over them all, is called Sultan of thirteen pro-
vinces and twelve thoufand iflands. But there is certainly much ex-
aggeration in this founding title, and many of the real ifl.inds arc
uninhabited ; fome being only fluctuating lulls of fand and barren
rocks, and the very largeft, called Male, where the king ufually re-
fides, is no more than a league and a half in circumference.

Few Europeans (except the Dutcli) vifit thefe iflands. They
carry on a very profitable trade lierc in a beautiful fpecics of fhells
called couries, which were formerly ufcd as money by the negroes
on the Coaft of Guinea in Africa. Among other vegetable ])roduc-
tions in thefe iflands, is i; particular fpecics of cocoa tree, whofe
fruit is an excellent medicine in fevers : This tree grows to a large
fize ; and it is confidently alferted that the Maldivians have vefTels
of twenty or thirty tuns burthen, whole hulls, mails, fails, rigging,
anchors and cables are all made from this tree. Tt jlfo af^i^ds them

I i oil

.fiM.

#V.

(»3o)

ASIA.

P. VII.

oil for their lamps, fuel to drefs their food, a pretty Arong kind of
cloth, fugar, and cand'ed fwoetmeats.

Befides the iflands already defcribed, there ate a great many fmall
ones fcattered in the Indean and Chinefe oceans, whofe produce and
inhabitants are nearly the fame with thofe already mentioned.

1 2. South Sea IJlands.] In the great Pacific Ocean there are alio
unnumbered other iflands both detached and in clufters ; Ibme very
extenfive, others quite minute: The European nations but lately
found them out, and have not yet attempted to colonife them. The
natives are unacquainted with literature and the fciences. They are
generally idolatrous and delperate in battle. Without the ufe of me-
tals they have fliewn great ingenuity in their little works of art,
their canoes, their weapons, their cloaths and utenfils ; thefe form
the mofl modern articles in the cabinets of our curiofi, and their
manners are a recent and general topic of converfation with the na>
tions of Europe.

PART

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( 131 )

PART VIII.

DESCRIPTION

O F

'■s '

AFRICA is on every fide furrounded with water except where ic
joins to Afia by the ifthmus of Suez. The northern parts of
this peoinfula, were, in antiquity, celebrated as the feajts of com-
merce, fciences and arts. In later Diys Chriftian churches were
alfo gathered here ; but the dodrines of iVlohammed and various
forms of idolatry now pervade the mod of this quarter of the
globe; and, degrading to human nature, the trafficking in men
forms a principal part of the little commerce they carry on.

The greateft part of Africa lies between the tropics. The An-
cients imagined this part was not habitable on account of tiie heat j
later difcoveries however have ihewn their conjeftures to be erro-
neous. Its coafts have been diftindlly defcribed by the moderns, but
its internal parts are but very little known.

Africa is bounded on the weft by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the
north by the Mediterranean which feparates it from Europe j on the
eaft by the Red Sea and Indian Ocean ; and on the fouth by the
Southern Ocean. It lies between the parallels of thirty-feven deg.
north and thirty-five deg. fouth latitude, and between feventeen deg.
weft and fifty one deg. eaft longitude. It is in length from north to
fouth about four thoufand nine hundred, and four thoufand five hun-
dred in breadth from eaft to weft.

This quarter of the globe may be divided as io the following table :

-''■'M ..i

liz

Morocco

■'.i \

( 132 )

LeH'

Bre-

Longitude from Grecniuich,

Stb.
mile?

aJtl)
miles

/.,»;».,7.

A-

Countries,

Capitals.

in Degrees,
D. M.

in 'I'imc.
H. M.

Morocco

500

480

Fez

— 24 aft.

Algiers

600

400

Algiers

36 49

2 1*

9 bef.

Tunis

4 00

2J0

Tunis

10 c

— 43 bef.

Tripoli

400

300

'I'olemeta

ai 30

li.

I 16 bef.

Barca

700

240

Tripoli

3»

■3 5

5* bef.

Kgyut

600

250

Grand Cairo

31 '8

4 5 bef.

Biliuulgcrid

2500

350

Dara

— 31 aft.

Zaaru

Z400

660

Tcgeffa

— 24 aft.

Negrolatifl

2400

840

Madinga

— 38 aft.

Guinea Pro.

1809

360

Benin

5 4

— 40 bef.

Nubia

940

600

Nubia

7>l

2 12 btf.

Abyflinia

900

800

Gondar

2 20 bef.

Abex

540

130

Doncala

4 36 bef.

Loango

410

300

Loango
St. Salvador

—

II —

— 44 bef.

Congo

540

420

1 bef.

Angola

36q

250

Loando

14 30

— 58 bef.

Benguela

430

180

Benguela

1 1

14 30

- 58 bef.

Mataman

450

240

No Towns

Ancan

900

300

Brava

3 bef.

Zanguebar

1400

350

Mozambique

40 —

% 40 bef.

Monomo-7
tapa ^

960

660

Monomo-
tapa

I 18 bef.

Mouemugi

900

660

Chicova

I 44 bef.

Sofola

480

300

Sofola

3fi 40

a 26 bef.

Tcrde Natal

600

.^30

No Towns

CaiTraria

780 660

C.GoodHope

18 23

1 13 bef.

ISLANDS of AFRICA.

Names.

St. Helena
Afcenfion'l
St. Mat- V

thew 3
St. Thomas
Anaboa,
Princes
Fernan-

dopo.
CapeVerd?

lilands ^

Goree

Canaries

Madeiras

1 Claimed by or
trading ivitli

mas

St. Helena
Uncoloniz'd
St. Thomas

Anaboa

St.Domingo

Port St. Mi-
chael
Palma, St.
Chriftophers
St. Croix,
Funchal

Englilh.

Portuguefe.
Portuguefc.

Portuguefe.
French.
Spaniards.
Portugnefe.

Names.

TlieAzores'
or Weflern
lfIes,almoft
equi-dift.
from Eu-
rope, Afri-
ca and A-
merica.

In the Itlr'.ian

Ocean
Babelmandel
Zocotra
Comora If-
lands
Mauritius
Bourbon

Chief Totuns.

■\

Angra

Babelmandel
Calanfia

Johanna

Mauritius
Bourbon

Claimediy
or trading
tuitb

Portuguefe

OpenTrade
OpenTrade

OpenTiadc

French
French

SECTION

M-

( '33 )

SECTION I.

Egypt.

EGYPT has the Mediterranean for its boundary on tlic noith,
the ifthmus of Suez and the Red Sea on the eaft, Nubia on
the fouth, and the defarts of Barca with the unknown regions of
Africa on the \yeft. It lies between thirty and thirty-fix dcg. caft
longitude, and between twenty and thirty-two deg. north latitude^

1. Diviftons.'] It is divided into Upper and Lower Egypt-

2. Climate.] The ahiioft perpendicular rays of the fun at the
fummer folfticc render the chniate exceffively hot ip that feafon, and
the winters are never fevere. The foutherly winds are foinetimes fo
fuUry here as to oblij^e the natives to immure themfelvts in vauhs
and caves, and fonictimcs they raife fuch clouds of fand as to ob-
fcure the light of the fun, and produce epidemical diforders ; and
once in (\yi or feven years the inhabitants are vifitcd by the plague ;
but this and other difeafes generally ceafe on the coming in of the
Etefian or north wind, and the overflowing of the Nile, which ce-
lebrated river alfo enriches the naturally fandy foil of Egypt, by the
adventitious earth or mud it depofits on the plains.

3. Nile.'] The heavy periodical rains which fall within the Tro-
pics certainly occafion the annual inundations of the Nile. This
reputed father of rivers is fuppofed to have its origin in Ethiopia,
at eleven or twelve degrees of north latitude, and purfues a courfe
of about fifteen Jiundred miles for the moft part in a northern direc-
tion, till it divides into two branches alxjut fix miles below Cairo ;
one of which flretches eaflward, and the other weftward, emptying
thcmfelves into the Mediterranean Sea, at the diftance of a hundred
miles from each otlier ; it hiis alfo feveral other fmaller mouths.
The ancients, who were ignorant of the climates in chofe latitudes,
and who had never obferved any thing fimilar to the overflowing of
the Nile in other rivers, were involved in labyrinths of doubt and
perplexity when they attempted to account for this yearly deluge ;
but the annual rife is now well known to be not peculiar to the
Nile, but common to every other llream that rifes or takes its courfe
within the Tropics, whether in Africa,.. Afia or America.

In the begi:ining of fummer the Nile begins to rife, and during
the firli wee)< its daily increafe is .ibont three or four inches ; the
next fortnight it is confiderably greater in proportion, and thus con-
tinues augmenting with encreafed expedition ; and it is not till after
four months that the river is reduced to its ufual channel. The prin-
cipal cities and towns in Egypt are built on eminences along the
banks of the Nde, and during this period communicate v^'ith each

other

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U 11.6

Hiotograpliic
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Corporation

23 WIST MAIN STREiT

WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80

(716) S77-4S03

•SS

%U''

(134)

AFRICA.

P. VIII.

other by boats. In order to afcertain the daily encrcLfe of the wa-
ter, the gradual rife of it is very exactly meafured, either by wells
funk, or pillars eredtcd and divided for that purpofe, and termed
Nilometcrs or Mikyaffcs. That in the caftle of Old Cairo is a large
fquare refcrvoir, round which runs a handfome gallery, fupported by
twelve marble pillars and arches, with a balluflrade for the conveni-
ence of thofe who look into the water. In the midft of the balon,
through which a canal from the Nile pa/Tes, is an oftagonal pillar of
white marble, regularly or equally divided ; by this the rifing of the
water is determined, and the public criers daily proclaim it through
the capital and other cities.

When the water has rifen about thirty-four feet a general feftivai
is tbferved, the Bafliaw attends, accompanied by the great officers
of ftiite and an innumerable concourfe of people : The dam of the
chali or great canal is cut, the water continues to rife, overflows the
low country, and filling the canals and lakes prepared for its recep-
tion, is diftributed over an extent of laud where nuiural inundation
would never reach ; with incredible labour the water is alfo railed
with buckets and machines from bafon to bafon, one above another,
in Upper Egypt, till having gained the height it is occafionally dif-
tributed over the higher lands , and in this laborious taflf, and in
tilling the land, it is faid that no lefs than two hundred thoufand
oxen are daily employed.

When the Nile rifes about forty-nine feet it is a fign of a plenti-
ful year, but if it exceeds that height.it is productive of great mif-
chief, fweeping away the houfes and drowning the cattle : All this
• ?^luge of waters pours, in ihc Upper Egypt, down the vaft chafms
of lofty rocks and towering cliffs, roaring, dalhing, fmoaking, foam-
ing from fhelving to flielving of interruptive granite, or precipitates
at once, and in one expanfive fheet from the brink of its rocky chan-
nel to the profound, two hundred feet below, with a noife more tre-
mendous than that of the loudelt thunder, raifmg a fmoke or niift
which at a diflance has all the appearance of a cloud ; yet the natives
are faid to venture on rafts down this aftonifhing fall, and to amufe
themfdves by getting within the expanfive Hieet of water, which be-
ing projected with amazing velocity from the ledge above, form over
them as it were one large glafiy arch.

4. Product.] Egypt, which was formerly the granary of the
Roman empire, as it is at prefent of the neighbouring countries,
abounds with wheat, rice, barley and other fpecies of grain. They
have generally three crops in the year ; the firft of Icttices and cu-
cumbers, tlic fccond of corn, the third of melons ; and the fruits
common to hot climate?, as oranges, lemons, grapes, figs, olives,
dates, plantains, pKinc trees, fugar-canes, &c. thrive exceedingly
here. The meadows yield the richeft pafture in the world, the grafs
being ufually as high as the cuttle, vaft numbers of which are fatted
in ihcm.

The

•>.

■■3^

S.I.

EGYPT.

('35:)

'%A

The animals of Egypt feem to partake of the fecundity of the
foil, for the cows it is faid always bring two calves at a time, and
flieep yean twice in a year, having two lambs at the iirfl and one at
the fecond ; a goat is often followed by four kids which (he has
brought in fix months. Oxen abound here. The Egyptian horfes
are held in great efbem, and a fine breed of afTes are likewife found
here ; alfo wild affes, camels, antelopes, tigers, hyenas, apes,
ichneumons, camcleons, the crocodile, the hippopotamus or river
horfe, &c. Among the reptiles are the bafilifk or cockatrice, and
the alp, whofe bite llupifies the patient, and throws him infenfibly
into a deep fleep, which puts a period to his life, as the unhappy
Cleopatra voluntarily experienced.

The birds are numerous both wild and tame, particularly oftriches
of prodigious fize, which if clofely purfued will ftrike back with
their legs like a horfe, eagles, hawks, a prodigious number of wa-
ter fowl, as pelicans, flamingos, ftorks, &c. but thofe peculiar to
the Nile are the ibis, the goofe with golden featiicrs, the rice hen
and the fak fak.

5. Trade.] Before the navigation to India was difcovered by the
Europeans, this country was the uni\ erfil mart for the produce and
manufacftures of the Eafl, but that b:anch of trade is now greatly
declined ; mof^ of tlie European powers however have confuls at
Egypt. Several Englidi veflcls arrive annually at Alexandria, fome
of which are laden on account of the owner ; but the principal part
are freighted by the Jcwifh, Armenian and Mahometan traders.

They export great quantities of unmanufadluretl as well as pre-
pared flax, cotton and leather of different kinds, alfo a great variety
of medicinal roots and drugs for dying. Their imports are Italian
fllks, Englifh cloth, tin and lead, French trinkets, Afiatic filks,
carpets and (jnccs, and a variety of articles from Barbary. The
traffic by land is chiefly carried on by caravans.

6. Curiofities.2 It would require volumes to defcribe the afto-
nifhing remains of ancient temples, palaces, columns, ilatuss, paint-
ings, &c, that are fo profufely fcattercd over a great part of this
once renowned country. Thofe fuiprifing monuments of antiquity,
the Pyramids of Egypt, which baffle the rcfearchcs of the deepeft
antiquary to fix with preciflon their origin, are fituated near Cairo,
at the foot of thofe mountains which feparate Egypt from Lybia.
One of the largeft of tiiefe is five hundred feet higli, and its bale
above fiK hundred feet fquare. The external part is compofed of
great fquare flones cut from the rock which lies along the ancient
courfe of the Nile, whofe original bed is ftill vifihie ; it is hollow
within, and the apartments are lined with highly poiiflied" granite :
It is afcended by circular fleps on the outlide, and the entrance into
it is at the height of about forty-eight feet, where travellers difchargc
piftols to diflodge the bats which frequent thefe places in great num-
bers. On the top of this pyramid the adventurers who have af-
cended it have carved their names. At fome didaoce from this is the

celebrated

^4^

Iff'

(136)

AFRICA.

P.VIII.

celebrated Sphinx, of prodigious dimenfions, and cut out of tho
folld rock. The Mahometans have battered and disfigured this
image ; it is hollow within, and from hence it has been fuppofedthc
pricfts bawled out their oracular anl'wcrs.

One of the pyramids, about one hundrei and fifty feet high, is
built with bricks of uncommon dimenfions, faid to have been formed
of the mud of the Nile mixed with chopped draw, and hardened by
the fun. From the nature of the materials, it is conjectured that the
cnflaved Ifraclites were the conftrudtors of this ftupcndous work ;
their own hiltorian Jofcphus informing us, that when the memory
of jofeph's fcTviccs was extlnguifhed, and the kingdom pafTed to
anotlicr family, the Jews were treated with great ngour, and com-
pelled to cut canals for the Nile, build walls, and eredl pyramids.
Near this are the famous catacombs of Egyjjt : In thefe rcpofito-
ries of the dead ; embalmed bodies or mummies, fwathes or bandages,
and fome entire cotlins of fycamore or Pharoah's fig-tree, are fhll to
be feen, which have certainly continued in thwfe fubterraneous cham-
bers upwards of three thoufand years.

The famous lahvriinh near the banks of the Nile, containing
twelve palaces and one thoufand houlcs, all of marble, and molUy
underground, witli but one entrance to it, and full of intricate
turnings and windings ; the very capacious Lake Moeris, dug in order
to prevent the irregularities of the Nile ; the vail and numerous
grottos in a mountain near Ofyut cut out of the rock, one of which
is large enough to contain fix hundred horfe ; at Alexandria, Pom-
pcy's pillar, and the obelifk of Cleopatra, with innumerable other
antiquities, are all of them reckoned among the curlofities of this
country.

7. Language^ Learning, Prof:jfton.'] The Coptic, which was the
original language of Egypt, was fucceeded by the Greek when the
kingdom was conquered by Alexander. The Greek continued to
be Ijtokcn till the Arabs took poflciTion of Egypt, and ever llnce that
period the vulgar Arabic has been the common language ; the Cop-
tic and modern Greek however' (till continue in ufe.

Learning is at a very low ebb in this ancient feminary of the
fcicnccs ; the native Mahometans and Arabs are as igno. :nt as can
well be conceived ; and the little learning of the country, which
feems to be confined to reading, writing and book-keeping, is en-
tirely in the hands of the Coptics, who on this account meet with
confiderable encouragement from the rich and great.

The Coptics piofefs ChrilHanity ; the adherents of the Greek
church are likewile pretty numerous, as are alfo the Jews.

8. Hiflory.] Egypt is one of the oMefl: kingdoms in the world.
In remote antiquity it underwent many revolutions from its neigh-
bours the Canaanites and hthiopians, and even from wandering tribes
of Scythians ; it was fucceflively fubjecled to the Aflyrians, Ba-
bylonians, Peifians, Macedonians, Romans and Saracens, and Mama-
lukcs, and at this day it acknowledges the government of the Porte.

SECTION

S.IL

B A R B A R Y.

(»37)

SECTION II.

Barbarv.

Barbary, in a general view, extends from the Atlantic Ocean to
Egypt near two thoufanJ miles in length, and from the Metliterra-
pean fea to the Lybian defarts feven hundred and fifty miles, and
comprehends in fucceflion from wed to eaft the countries of Mo-
rocco and Fez, which form one diftin<5l empire, aud the Itates of
Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Barca, which form one gre.it political
confederacy under the Purte or 'J'urkifii government, however in-
dependent they may be on each other in their internal .policy and
government.

1. Divifions.] In Morocco empire are the towns of Morocco,
Fez, Maquinez, Taradani, Tangier, 8al](.e, Ctiita, Tetuan, Ar-
zilla and Santa Cruz. In Algiers Tremefen, Oian, Algiers, Bugia,
Conflantina : In Tunis, Carthage, Tunis, iVfcara : In Tripoli, Tri-
poli : In Barca Defart, Docra.

2. Rivers, Mountains, Climate.'] The coafls of Barbary are
well watered by fcveral copious dreams, v.'hich have their fourcc
among tlie mountains of Atlas, on the tops of which fuow is con-
ftaotiy fcen during the whole year. The climate is generally tem-
perate, but during the fummer the heats are fbmctinies cxcefiive.

3. Soil, Plants, Ammals.~\ The foil is extremely iortile in corn
and paflure, and produces dates, figs, grapes, olives, almonds, ap-
ples, pears, cherries, plumbs, citrons, lemons, oranges, pomegra-
nates, with plenty of roots and herbs in their kitchen gardens ; and
(excellent hemp and flax grow on the plains. Algiers produces
fait petre, and great quantities of fait, and lead and iron are found
in leveral parts of Barbary. Filh and fowl abound here. Their
other animals area fine breed of horfcs, camels, dromedaries, affes,
mules, cows, fliecp, goats^ hares, rabbits, lions, tigers, leopards,
mondrous ferpcnts, and all kind of reptile?, bears, porcupines, fox-
es, apes, ferrets, weafels, moles, canieleons, &c. ^

4. Curiafities.'] Salt mountains and faline lakes, hot fj)rings and
fulphureous caverns, are the natural curiofities of this country. Ruins
of ancient cities, temples, altars, amphitheatres, aqucdutfts, refer-
voirs, baths, triumphal arches, maufolea, columns and Itatues, are
among the antiquities of this country, and many of the modern
buildings are fpacious and fplendid, covered with lofty roofs fup-

fiorted by pillars of marble. Spacious courts adorned with large gal-
eries, fountains, marble bafons and filh ponds, often diUinguiih the

houfes

s n

it ?|

'1 'm

<■' ti

(fJR)

AFRICA.

P. vrii.

fcoufes of the affluent, as well as the colleges, mofques, baths and
hofpitals, which are pleufantly fhaded with orange and lemon irees,
loaded with fruit throughout the whole year.

5. Mantifofiiirts, Commerce.^ 'I he internal trade of Barbary is
carried on by catavans; their exports arc inanufa£lured leather, fine
n«t>, handkerchiefs carpets elephants teeth, oftrich feathers, copper,
tin, wool, hides, honey, wax, fruits, gums and drugs. In return
for their expoits, the I'.uropeans furniHi them with timber, artillery,
gunpowder, and various nianufadures. Commercial affairs are
generally tranfacted by the Jews and Chriftians who have fettled
among them j and the latter have eftablifljcd filk and linen manu-
fafturffs here.

6. Pra/i^Jiw, Language] The do^rines of Mahomet is the na-
tional profelfion. I he langua.)e varies greatly ; in fome of the
inland countries an ancient African language is ftill in ufe ; in the
maritime countries and fea-port towns a corrupt Arabic is fpoken ;
and that medley of languages which is fpoken in many of the ports
f>f the Med^ter^a^can, and known to the failors by the name of
Lingua-Fraiica, is alfoufed here.

7. Litem? ure.] Liearning, as may well be prefumed, is at a very
low ebb in Harhary, even fome of their governors have been in-
capable of reading and writing. There are however feveral col-
leges and fchools in their cities and towns, in which the dodon of
the laws, and other literati, are maintained, fome at the public
expence and others by exercifing the mendicant profeflion ; the
veneration in which they are univerfally held never failing to enfure
their fuccefs. The Koran is efteemed the perfeftion of all human
learning, and when once the ftudent has gone through it, he is
fuperblv drefled, placed on liorleback, and conducted in triumph
th'-ough the town bv his (chool-fellows.

8. Hiftory.] The cirv of Tunis in Barbary (lands not far from the
Fkce where Oood ancient Carthage, a city built by Queen Dido,
whob'ought a colony of Tyrians hither in 883 before the Chriftian
xra. The Carthaginian republick foon grew formidable to all its
neighbours, and extended its commerce and empire, till dalliing
with the Romans, it was entirely deft''oyed by rhem at the con-
clufion of the third Punic war \n 148 before the Chriftian sera. It
continued a part of the Roman empire till 439, when it was taken
by the Vandals; and in 534 it was retaken by the Greek emperor.';.
In 644, this ftate, together with the reft of Barbary, was fubdued
by the Saracens, whofe conquefts extended to moft parts of Spain ;
but being driven from thence, and nearly falling vidlims to the
Spaniards, they in the ftvteenth century implored the proteftioii
of ihe Turkiih admiral, Barbaroffi, who freed them from the
Spanifli yoke, but impofed his own in its place. The power of the
Turks in thefe ftates, however, is very much decrfeafcd, and in
fome parts it is even fcarccly nominal.

SECTION

S. III.

AFRICA,

<«39)

SECTION III.

Western Parts of Africa.

1 . Zaara."] Zaara or the Defart, and the adjoining countries of
Bilidulgerid on the north, and T'ombut on the fouth, are much
involved \v. geographical uncertainty. I hey are altogether bounded
on the north by Barbiry, on the well by the Atlantic, on the fouth
by Negroland, and on t!ie eaft by Nubia and Egvpt j comprehend-
ing an immenfe extent of burning fands, whofe (lerility no labour
can overcome, unlefs near the few rivers and fprings virliich vifit
this parched laiul. The foil of Zaara and Bilidulgerid, even where
capable of cultivation, barely produces corn, rice and mi!Iet, fuf-
ficient for the exigencies of its fcaiity inhabitant?. Dares, indeed,
i'e in general plentiful, with fome other fruits, on v/hich the
natives principally fubfifl. Defcendants of various tribes of Arabs
and Ikrebers, or the original natives of Barbary, are the inhabitants
of this dreary country ; and the hiilory both of themfelves and their
land is pretty much the fame with that of .Arabia and its roving
tribes. Lions, tigers', wolves, and other favage animals, add to
the horrors of this inhofpitable land, through which, however,
caravans annually pafs between Barbary and Nigritia. The roving
natives of this defart land, fc.- want of other marks, are under the
receflity of obferving the ftars in their excurfion, and can talk with
tolerab'e preciilon auout their number, fituatlon and divifions ; ard
in Bilidulgerid the'C are feminarics for the inft»-u6lion of youth,
who, according to their abilities, are raifed to the rank of priefts
or judges.

Touibut is well watered by canals cut from the Niger, as well
as by a number of fprings which fertilize the foil and render it
produdlive of all kinds of grain, and aluud every neceflury of life.
The king of this country poflelles prodigious quavtities of gold, and
his whole court is reported to eat out of vefle! : of that metal,

2. Ntgrohniti.] '1 he extenfive country of Negroland or Nigritia,
include; the entire fpace betv/een Zaara and Guinea, comprehend-
ing many and various nations. The parts that we are acquainted
with are thofe that lie on the banks of the navigable rivei's which
have been vifited by Europeans.

■^rhe principal rivers in Nigritia are the Scherbro, Sierra-Leona,
Sertos, Gambia and Niger or Senegal ; they abound in filh, but are
greatly infefted with alligators. The barks are adorned with
beautiful trees fwarming with birds of the maft lively plumage,
and luxuriant forefts teeming with life in various forms ; elephants,
tigers, lions, apes and ferpents of aftoniiliing dimenfions j deer,

hogs.

-A m

C«4o)

AFRICA.

P.VIIT.

hogs, hares, Sec. The gum forces arc inimcnfc on the fides oF
the Scpcg? ; the beauritul iflands oK Sicra Leona are covered
with palms irom which the nniivcs nr.ke ^"cat quantities of wine;
rice and millet grow in luch quantiti< s on the fldi-, of the rivers
as amply ta fup; ly the natives with f<)od ; lemons oranges, bananas
and citrons arrive at vnft perfection ; a:ui in the interior parts of
the country ananas, Indian fi^s water melons, white prunes,
calFava, and different forts of puife, are produced in the greatert.
abundance. The dodlrines of iVloliamnied generally prevail in this
country; and in fome parts there are feujinaries \'here the Arabic
is taught. The Maralnits are a diilind oider of men, whofc
tlignity defccnds to all their male off p'-ing, forming a numerous
ecclefiaftical body, and having vaft revenue^ appropriated for their
maintenance. They fpend much of their time in the tuition of
their children, who.n they carefully inftrurt in the principles of the
Lcvitical law; which, rext to the doflrines of the Koran, is ti-eated
with the greateft rcfpecl. The great volume of the Marabut
inftitutions is written i'l a hnguMge entirely different fom that of
the vulgar, and i fuppo^fd to be a corrupt Hebrew or Arabic.
Some of the Mirnbuts travel from province to province inilruCting
the natives ; ail places are open to them, and during the rage of
the mod fanguinary conteil they pafs unmolefted through the fields
of war.

There are nations in Negroland of whom the Europeans do not
even know the names; among thofe whom they are acquainted with,
and who ufe different tongues or dialers, are the Muiidingoes, the
Jalloiffs, Pholeys and Portuguefe ; which laft mentioned people,
after corquerirg this country, have fo intermingled with the original
natives and lived fo much after their manner, they have now nearly
loff every trait of the pnrticuhir European vifage and complexion,
though t!iey Hi II retain a fort of Portuguefe dialed and fome rude
notions of the Chriilian profeliion.

Manufactures and arts are little pra6tifed here ; fmiths and cutlers
are the principal mtchanics : the women fpin and weave a little
cordon.

The habitations of the negroes In general are fmall low conicat
huts, with no other light than what is admitted at the door. T he
towns are always raifed in a circular form, with fpiral ftrcets ;
hence in a village of inconfidcrable extent a perfon is often obliged
to walk a great way, when by ll>ort incerfefting ftreefs a few paces
would fuffice. Some neg'oes of didit^itian, h-jwever, particularly
the defcendants of the Portuguefe, affeft the European ftile of
architefture, and build houfes tolerably well adapted to the
climate.

The Europeans have many fcttlenients on the rivers of this
country : Here they procure vatl quantities of gums, bees wax, gold,
elephants teeth, (kins of ^ild beafts &c. and here it is a melancholy
truth they carry on the iniciuitous traffic of dealing in men.

3. Guinea,

■■^M^

S. III.

AFRICA.

(i4'>

3. Cuirea.] South of Negroland lies Guinea. This vaft country
in its utmoft extent eoniprehends a great number of kingdoms at. J
nations: it lies between nine deg. eighteen min. north, and fixtecn
deg. forty-five min. fouth latitude, extending in length about two
thoufand five hundred miles along the fea coaft ; but its breadth
cannot be accurately detet mined ; its boundaries on the eaft being
undefined and blended in uncertainty together with the interior and
unknown regions of Africa, which lie round the mountains of the
moon in the centre of this quarter of the globe.
Guinea is diviiied into tlic Uppc" and the Lower.
In Upper Guinea on the north are the grain coaft, the iooih or
ivory coaft, the gold coaft, the Have coaft, and the. kingdom of
Benin.

South of the line the Lower Guinea comprehends the kingdoms of
Loango, Congo, Angola and Ber.j;,ue'a.

Guinea, in its natural hiftory, and its intercou'^fe with Europeans
pretty much anfwers the defcription juft given of Negroland, and
both thefe fertile la'ids, in the midft of their fpontaneous'p*-ofu(ion,
are in common with other tropical countries expofcd to exceflive
heats, to tornadoes, and other tempefts.

Various forms of idolatry and the grofleft fuperftitions are faid to
prevail throughout this extei five country j the natives in fome parts
worfhipping fnakes, goats, tigers and other animals.

4. MaiHman.] Between the moft fouthern extremity of all Guinea
and the Cape of Good Mope lies JVlataman or Matapan, an exten-
five arid wafte, not containing any towns, and having very few
inhabitants. If we are to believe the Portuguefe writers, who
about two hundred years ago pretended to dcfcribe this countrj',
here were nations of Amazons and Cannibals perpetually at war
with each other, in whofe ftiambles the limbs of the captives were
expofed to fale, and who buried their children alive, and recruited
their armies with the ftoutcft of their prifoners. To raife reports,
however, of tliis kind, and thereby to deter adventurers from pene-
trating into unknown countries for gold or other treafures, feems
fometimes to have boen the policy of people lefs cunning than
Europeans.

* 1

r, E C T I O K

(Us)

AFRICA.

P. VIII.

SECTION IV.

Eastern Parts of Africa.

All the reft of Africa lies fouth and ca(t of the countries already
dcfcribed : as the g»*eateft part of it is but little known to Euro-
peans geographical precifioii can hanllv be expefted in laying out
Its divifions ; it is fometimes all included under the general name
of Ethiopia, fometimes it is divided into Cartraria and Ethiopia, and
again it is reduced into divifions more minute.

Beginning at L'-gvpt on the north, already defcribed, the Upper
Ethiopia lies towards the fouth, and Is generally divided into
Nubia, Abvlfinia and Abex. It is bounded on the north by Egypt,
on the eaft by the Red Sea, on the fouth it joins with the Lower
Ethiopia or CafFraria, and on the weft with the undifcovered eaftern
confines of Zaara, Negroland and Guinea.

1. Nubia.] Nubia affords gold, ivory, roots and drugs, with a
variety of medicinal plants ; the inhabitants in general profefs Ma-
hometanifm, but have very few marks of religion among them. In
the few villages of this region they apply themfelves to agriculture j
but the greateft part of them indulge in perpetual indolence, and
like the lions and other favages of this inhofpitable country, wake

'o plunder and deftroy at the keen impulfe of hunger, ft is
nowever, that there are among them fome Chriftians and Jews,
as well as Pagans and Mahometans.

2. Mex.] Abex, which is only a narrow flip of land extending
along the weftern fhore of the Red Sea, is fandy and barren, the
air fultry and unwholefome, and the heat fo intenfe that it produces
few neceflaries of life ; lions, tigers and other hearts of prey roam
the wild wafte unmolefted, belides which there are but few animals,
except deer and ilieep of a prodigious fize.

The inhabitants are a mixture of Egyptians, Arabs and CaHTres.
The Turks having feized all the bays and ports of Abex from Egypt
to the Streights of Babelmandel, the principal of which are Suaquam
and Arquico ; the Abyffinians are hereby ihut out from any com-
munication with the Red Sea, and on the other fides they are fur-
rounded by mountains.

3. AhyJ/inia.'] Abyflinia, in the inland parts however is faid to
be exceedingly fertile ; the Nile, which is fuppofed to have its
fource in this country, periodically overflows and enriches its plains ;
it is plentifully ftocked with animals both wild and tame ; the oxen
are fo large that fome have miftaken them for elephants with horns,
and the camelopardus is much taller than an elephant, but of a very
flender make; its locurts are large and excellent eating. The
Turks annually export great quantities of rice from hence, parti-
cularly

exi

or|

tra
hir
wl

chi

an{
Cyr

S.IV.

AFRICA.

(•435

cularly at the time of the pilgrimages to Mecca, Arabia not afTord-
ing provifion fufticient fo'- tlicir fuftcnniicf ; r!u y alio exchange their
fjlks, ftiiffs, caHic<x;s li; ers and carp rs with the Abyliinians.

The enipcro'- of AbyHlnia, as well as his fub|cd,. conftamljr
living in ient% Iiis can)p always occupies a very large ipace of
ground, and fvoni the regular diflribution of t!ie flrcct , the greax
variety of tenti, (Ircair.crs and other o'naiiKnti, ami the ^reat
number of illnnunations at i:ight, makes a vtry grand appearance,
exhibiting the view of a vail open and icgular ciiv ; in the certre
or other conipicuoiis part of whicli flands the iir.peri.il paviiiion,
greatly exceeding the reil both in magnitude ai d beauty.

The Abyiii:;iaris profefs ChrilVianity, and are fo hoipitable ta
travellers that inns would be fupcrfluous ; but the eni|>eM)r allow*
himfelf a plurality of wives, and he is treated with a fubmilFioa
which is hardly clear of idolatry.

The Galles are a people inhabiting their bordcs, and fubfiltinj
chiefly by the fvvord ; they are defperate in battle, but lledfalt in
their engagements.

In remote antiquity the Ethiopians contefted with the Egyptians,
and they ravaged each others territories. The Perfians under
Cyrus, and afterwards the Romans, made conquefts in this country,
but thefe were not lading. Since thcfe times it has undergone fume
internal revolutions, but continues a kingdom to this day.

4. Africa on the South. 1 South of Abylfmia lies Monormugi, an
exten(ive inland country, abundantly rich in palm wine, oil, ho-^ey,
and gold j the climate is faid to be unfavourable to health, the air
fultry and hot, the inhabitants robbers, many of theuj cannibals,
and grofs idolaters, offering up human vidims as facrifice. Geo-
graphers, however, are much in the dark refpeding this country.

The countries on the fouth eaft coafl: of Africa are in fuccelllon
from the Streights of Babelmandel, Anian or Ajan, Zangucbar,
Monomotapa and Sofola, where Solomon's fleets are fuppofed to have
traded j in thefe rich but torrid countries, the Portuguefc have
exteniive fettlements and poflefllons ; as have the Dutch on the fouth
in Caflri'aria and Terra de Natal.

5. ljlands,'\ Madagafcar is the largeft of the African iflands ;
its climate is very healthy, it abounds in corn, feveral kinds of
vegetables, vines, fruit trees, fugar, honey, gums, precious fl:ones,
different k»nds of ore, cattle, fowl and fifti. The French had oner
fettlements in this ifland, but in 1651 they were driven out by the
natives, who have ever fincc kept it in their own pofl'efllon.

The Azores, though now well peopled and very fertile, were
found deftitute of inhabitants when they were firft difcovered in the
middle of the fifteenth century ; thefe iflands have frequently fuftercd
from violent earthquakes, as has Teneriffe, one of the Canaries, by
eruptions from the Pike.

The African iflands in the Atlantic are fome of them celebrated for
their wines, which alfo bear their names, as Madeira, Canary, &c.

PART

■:i

' f

r y

( «44 )

PART IX,

D E S

I O N

O F

AMERICA.

AMERICA is the iaft but mod extcnfive quarter of the globe.
It was in the latttr end of the fifteenth century when the
Portuguefe had difcovered the paiTage to India by the Cape of Good
Hope, and thus deprived the Italian States of thofe lucrative emo-
luments which they obtained in furnifhing Europe ^vith the coftly
articles of India, which they received by way of the Red Sea, that
America was unfolded to the view of the European States. At that
time they generally acknowledged the fupremacy of the Pope. The
Roman Pontiff was unacquainted with the figure of 'he earth, and
had granted a bull to the Portuguefe, entitling thei to all th6
lands, iflands, &c. they had or fhould difcover to the eaftward of
the meridian of the Azores. Chriflopher Columbus, a native of
Genoa, propofed to his countrymen to evade the force of the bull,
and to retrieve a part of their lod traffic, by failing to India by a
weftern courfe. They were not better geographers than the bifhop
of Rome ; they treated his fchemes as the reveries of a madman.
Pifappointed here, he applied fucceflively to the courts of Lifbon,
Paris and London, but without fuccefs. His Iaft refource was to
the court of Spain ; here his propofals were received with candour,
but with caution. At Iaft, after about eight years attendance, by
the particular countenance of the queen Ifabelia, who raifed the
money nqceflary for the defign on her own jewels, in 1491, with a
fleet of three fbips, and the title and command of an Admiral,
Chriftopher failed from Spain.

Without charts to dired him, or lights from former navigators,
without experience of the winds or currents peculiar to that prodi-
gious tradt of fea which lay before^ he launched at once into thei
boundlefs ocean. Anxious, no doubt, were his own feelings on
this adventurous voyage ; his companions were difcouraged, and
begaa to be mutinous. To encreafe tlieir defpondence, it M^as ob-

ierved

dour,

the

i^.K

^tA

liraK

/t-

itors,

trodU
the

Is on
and
ob-

Irved

»'«»»r»..

■^. 5*r*

.-■^.

«7^

>if

.»!■'

^n^»*

s^?m^^kn^^;

f--

«atf{ft

' y-

— ~ — ■ I ■ ■ ■ ~- .,, _ ._\ —

i fr'">T

»'

♦i^oaotfsUtoji

TC E

^•^f^^

\20

:^r^-f^

.'i -*"

r^^^4

;V:,

'"""*jF"

.^1

.'^ix^n

-^-'' '/^

rA ./

r: //^^

^ /

' ^/^.

SfK.

Va-^/

7JX/,'

^ ">^

-•/I) •

, 1 „_ I-- ■ —

- ,--•» '

y*.-

1 .#-

*>i

'\*''r

NrP

: USouns' Westfr'fini "vtm l^t?nd^c

Xk'

ISTk

J .R T U

f/^

r^*

Walks 1

South

H'JT

■V' \ ^ .

.V*

His.
Oloti.

|g.'L ^

■**^

<^£im

.'«*•„

«ft-

I i

'*^

'trsim^^ -f*

AMERICA.

(•45) r

Itrved that the compafs varied from its former poHtion. The pilots
were ftruck with terror. He ftill had hopes, and for a vfhile en-
deavoured to appeafe and encourage his fellows with the accidental
appearances of land birds and floating Tea weed,s. At length, when
hope feemed ready to leave them all, when the crew began to infid
on his returning, and even threatened to throw him overboard, after
a voyage of thirty-three days they difcovered firft the Bahama iflands,
and afterwards Hifpaniula, which, in contradiftindlion from the India,
of Afia on the eaft, they called the Weft Indies.

In a fubfequent voyage this great adventurer difcovered the Ame-
rican continent. For a while carefTes were heaped upon him^ but
he lived to be treated like a traitor in the very country he had dif-
covered, and was ignominioufly fent over to Europe in. chains.
Here, however, he was honourably acquitted, and had the happi-
nefs to refleft that his adventures had been untainted with cruelty
or plunder, vices which fo horridly deformed the i&s of fuc.ce<eding^
adventurers. i

The extenflve continent of America reaches from the £fty-fixth
degree of fouth latitude to the impenetrable regions of ice and fnows
of the northern frigid zone, where it nearly extends through every
degree of weflern longitude ftom London. On the cafl it is
bounded by the great Atlantic Ocean ; its wcfljrn fhores and fouth-
ern extremity are wafhed by the Pacific and vaft South Sea. It is
in length from north to fouth about nine thuufand miles, apd varies
from its greatefl breadth of three thoufand fix hundred and ninety
miles to that of fixty at the Iflhmus of Darien, where America is
divided into north and fouth.

The following tables contain the divifians of both North fmd
South America.

dV 1 1

■S/^hJ-tl /"iAjlA

ii'i':;

vi/zn X-: 151^1

\ ■'

• •!,

>":'(!-

■ . ,1.

.:.: . r, '';

(

'^S .

i
i

1 •■;

•J ' .

1 . . .

.,..,.

. ■ .J

- 1

. [

■i

K j|

• r: I-,,

V n r ■;■ ") •] a

.t .5

'V -.'vt

• ■\.

■ :1 V.

■ -f ; . r

.-'-'.ixi: ;:••■•
•..'•J.i<j. ' K'.\ :.'.',: ii i >t\.

V -i^-

>**&

('4<5)

XZ"

DESCRIPTION OF

P. IX.

Countries.
North-
America.

Ltn-
Rtb.

miks

Brf.

adth.

miles

Chief Touns.

Latitude.
D. M.

Longitude /rem Creentvicb,

in Degrees.
l\ M.

in Time.
H. M.

New Britain or Efquimaux, Greenland, and the weftern parts, but little known.

1390
500

Canada
Nova Scotia
Amer. States
E. Floiida 7
W. Florida J
Louifiana bounds undetcr
NewMexi
CO, and
California
Mexico, or?
New Spait)5'

la iiuu
:xi-T

lia J

SotTTH-

Amcrica.
Terra Firma
Peru
Amazonia

Guiana.

Brazil
Paraguay.

La Plau
Chili

xcoo

ZOOO

1400
1800
1200

780

2$00

1500

I zoo

aoo } Qvcbcc
250 1 Halifax
7ooiBofton
^^ I ^St. Auguftinc
^4° I iPenfacola
New Orleans

I600 St. Fee
St. Juan

(Joo Mexico

700' Panama
500 l,ima

46 55
44 45
41 »5

8 30

30 3»
30 o

N.
N.
N.
N.
N.
N.

35 3i N.
19 54 N.

8 48

12 I

N.
S.

960

480

700
1 000

Little known to Europeans
C Surinam
f Cayenne

(St. Seballian
^St. Salvadorc
CAlTumption

C Buenos Ayres

joo; St. Jago

6 o
4 56
aa 59
la o

N.
N.
S.
S.

34 lo S.

34 35 S.
33 40 S.

6953
6430

7037
81 10

87 ao
87 5

W.
W.

w.
w.
w
w.

105 o W.
100 5 W.

80 as

7649

w.
w.

55 30

3 4* aft.

S»iS

3 49 aft.

44 16

I 57 aft.

a 32 aft.

6040 w
5831 w.

77 o W.

.■^94aft.
4 18 aft

4 4ai aft

5 45 aft.

5 49 aft
5 48

7 o

aft.
aft.

6 40 aft.

aa aft.
7 aft.

4 J aft.

3 S4

aft.

8 aft.

Terra Magellaoica or Patagonia, not colonized by Europeans, 700 L. 300 B.

PRINCIPAL NORTH AMERICAN ISLANDS.

In Pofef-

In Po/Te/rion

Names,

Chief Towns.

/ton 0/

Names.

Chie/Tovfns

Newfoundland

Placentia

Tobago

French

Cape Breton

Louifbourg

Cuba

Havannah

Spaniards

St. John's
Bermuda Iflds.

Charlotte Town
St. George

Hifpaniola

St.Domingo

y Spain &
i France

Bahama Iflds.

Naflau

Porto Rico

Porto Rico.

Spaniards

Jamaica
JBarbadoes

Kingfton.

I'rinidad

Spaniards

Bridgetown

Margarita

Spaniards

St.Chriftopher$

Baflcterre

Englifli

Martinicn

St. Peter's.

French

Antigua

St. John's

Guadaloupe

Baffeterre

French

Nevis

Charles Town

St. Lucia, St.

French

Montferrat

Plymouth

Bartholomew

French

Barbuda

Defcada and

French

Ataguilla

Marigalanta

French

Dominica

St. Euftatia

Dutch

St. Vincent.

Kingfton

Curaflbu

Dutch

Granada

St. iCeorge

St. Thomas

Danes

St. Croix

RaiTe-End

Danes

■■-

SEC

:tion

' * i-

'"Wo

S.I.

AMERICAN ISLES.

(•47)

SECTION I.

American Islands.

T. Weji Indies.^ The Weft Indian iflands was the firft part of
America difcovered by the Europeans. They are fituated in a
large gulf called the Caribbean Sea, between the continents , of
North and South America, ftretching from the coaft of Florida to
the river Oronooko, and are divided between five European nations,
viz. the Englifh, Spaniards, French, Dutch and Danes.

The climate, allowing for thofe accidental differences which the
feveral fituations and qualities of the land themfelves produce, i.
nearly the fame throughout all the Weft India iflands lying within
the tropics. They are expofed to a heat which would prove into-
lerable, did not the trade wind, as the riflng fun gathers ftrength,
blow on them from the fea, and refrefh the air in fuch a manner as
to render the noon-day heat lefs intenfe than might be expefled.
On the other hand, as the night advances, a breeze begins to rife,
which blows as if it proceeded from the central point of each ifland
to all quarters at one and the fame time. Vafl bodies of clouds
alfo fcreen the inhabitants from the fcorching rays of the vertical
fun.

Their rains are different from ours ; they are rather floods than
ihowers. The waters pour down from the clouds with amazing
impetuoflty ; the rivers fwell in a moment ; new brooks and lakes
are formed, and in a fhort time all the low country is totally under
water. Thefe rains mark out the feafons in the Wefl Indies, where
the whole year is properly a continued fummer. The trees are
always covered with leaves ; frofls and fnows are unknown ; and
indeed the fame defcription may be applied to all the torrid zone.

The confequences of thefe ftornis, however, are trifling when
compared to thofe that attend the hurricanes, to which this part of
the world is very fubjeft ; by thefe the affiduous labour of many
years is often deflroyed in a moment. The hurricane is a violent
guft of wind, rain, thunder and lightning, attended with a dreadful
fwelling of the fea, and fometimes with an eanhquake. As a pre-
lude to the approaching havock, the aflonifhed planter fees whole
fields of fugar-canes whirled into the air, and fcattered over the
face of the adjacent country. The ftrongeft trees of the foreft
are torn up by the roots, and driven about like ftubble ; the wind-
mills are fwept away in a moment ; their utenfils, their fixtures, the
ponderous copper boilers and flills of feveral hundreds weight are
wrenched from the ground, and battered to pieces; their houfes

■■••■• K k 2 ■ .; -di .:asw:. 'fail

I.-

(148)

AMERICA.

P. IX.

fail to give their wonted protcdion, the roofs are torn offy and tho
rain ru/hcs in with a violence almofl irrcfifliblcy or perhaps all is
tumbled down together in one promifcuous ruin.

The inhabitants have Come forewarning of this iipioar of the ele-
ments. Thus, if at the change of the moon the flcy appears very
turbulent, the fun redder than at other times, a dead calm fuccceds
inflcad of the ufual breezes ; the hills are clear of thofe clouds and
mifts which ufually hover about them ; if a hollow rumbling found,
like the rufhing of a violent wind, is lieard in the wells and clefts
of the mountains, the liars at night appear larger than ufual, and
furrounded with a fort of bur; the iky in the north-weft has a
black and menacing ap])earance ; the fea emits a ftrong fmell, and
rifes into raft waves, often without any wind ; the wind itfelf for-
fakes its fteady ftrcam from the eaft, and fliifts to the weft, blowing
violently and irregularly at intermiflion. Thefe figns predict that a
hurricane will happen at the fuccceding full. Nearly the fame flgns
happen at the full, before a hurricane comes on at the change j and
by thefe indications the planters often fecure fome part of their ef-
fedls, together with the lives of themfclves and thofe of their fa-
milies.

Sugar and rum are the ftajjle comriiodities of the Weft Indies.
The fugar is the eflential fait of the plant, extraiSed from the juiqe
by boiling, icumming and chryftallization. The rum is diftilled
from the molaftes, and the dregs of the juice, after the fait is puri-
fied.

Sugar was unknown to the old Greeks and Romans, though it
was made in China in very early times, and from that country the
Europeans obtained their firft knowledge of it. The Portuguefc
were the firlt who cultivated the fugar-cane, anii their firft planta-
tions were in the Madeira iftands, but afterwards removed to firafil,
and fince diffufad over the different iilands of the Weft Indies.
The variety of- tropical fruits flourifh here, as lemons,, orances,
limes, citrons, dates, pomegranates, tamarinds, grapes, pipc-applesa
bananas, coffee, goavas, plaintains, cocoa-nuts, and the cacao or cho-
colate. They produce a variety of fine woods, dyes, guir^s, drugs,
fpices, even nutmeg and cinnamon tr^es are faid to be. found in the
Weft Indies ; a variety of other vegetables alfo, as indigo, to-
bacco, cotton, filk-grafs, 8cc. grow here.

The animals are horfes, affes, mulesj black cattle, goats, fheep
and hogs, opoffums, racoons and rabbits. Of wild and tame fowls
there is a great variety, as ducks, teal, widgeons, geefe, (urkies,
pidgeons, gainea-hens, plovers, flamingoes andTnipes; various
kinds 6f parrots, parroquets, and the beautiful hummiqg-bird.
The bays and rivers abound in turtle, and a variety of fifh, as the
ilionntainis do in ferpents and other noxious animals.

Sugars, him, cotton, indigo, chocolate, coflPee, dying and phyfical
drugs, fpices and hard woods, form the principal exports of thefe
tflands. From the neighbouring continent they import lumber and

provifions j

S.I.

AMERICAN ISLES.

(H9)

provifions ; from Europe, m;inufa(5turcs ; wines fiom the African
iflands ; and here the ini])ious practice of trafficking in men is war-
ranted by human laws, and carried on witli coniplicattd circum-
ftances of cruelty ; and by far the greatelt number of the people in
the Weft India iflands are as bcafts of burthen to tlie remaining
few, and treated bv their lordly maflers worle than horfcs are.

2. Bahamas,] The Bahama iflands, v/hich are laid to be five
hundred in number, though fome of them are mcix'ly rocks, lie to the
fouth of Carolina, between twenty-one and twcnty-leven deg. noith
latitude, and feventy-thrce and eighty-one wed longitude. They
extend along the coafl of Tlorida, tIs far as the I lie of Cuba.
Twelve of tlicm, ho\vc\cr, are large and fertile, but except Provi-
dence ifle they are aimed uninhabited.

3. Bermudas.'] The Bermudas or Summer Iflands, which lie in
the vaft Atlantic Ocean, lie about three hundred leagues calt from
Carolina in thirty-two deg. north latitude, and in fixty-fivc deg
weft longitude, are a clufter of fmall illandi, faiil to be four hun-
dred in number, and containing colle(5tively only about twenty thou-
fand acres. The air is extremely falubrious, and the beauty and
richnefs of the vegetable produe'Hons are as great as can well be
conceived. Though the foil is excellently adapted to the cultiva-
tion of vines, the chief emjjloyment of the inhabitants, who arc
fuppofed to be near ten thoudind, confids in the building and navi-
gating little floops and brigantines, whicli they occupy principally
in the Weft Indian and North American commerce. Thcfe veflels
are equally remarkable for tiieir fwiftncfs, and the durability of the
cedar wherewith they are confl;u>5tcd.

St. George, the capital, is (Ituatcd at the bottom of a haven in an
ifland of the fame name ; it has feven or eight forts, mounting fe-
venty pieces of cannon, contains above a thoufand houfes, a hand-
fome congrcgation-houfe, and other elegant public buildings.

4. Newfoundland^ ^V.] The ifiands pF Newfoundland, Cape
Breton and St. John lie at the mouth of the grejit St. Laurence
river, and are celebrated for the prodigious fhoals of fifh that fur-
round their coafts. The forefls are extcnfive, and the animals va-
rious and many. Newfoundland is watered by many fpacious rivers,
and furnlfhed with feveral large and excellent harbours. About five
thoufand Europeans conftantly refide on the ifland. The chief
towns arc Placentia, Bonavifta and St. John. The Indians or na-
tives are faid to be a gentle, mild and tractable people, eafily gained
by civility and good ufage. The coafts are extremely fubjedb to
fogs, freque.itly attended with ftorms of fnow and fleet, and the
beauties of a ferene fl<y are feldom beheld in this ifland. The foil
in moft parts of the ifland is rocky and barren, but in fome of the
vallles on the fouthern coaft deep and rich. The vegetable produc-
tions are but few : A kind of wdd rye is found in fome of the
vallies ; ftrawberries and rafpberries are found in the woods, which
alfo fuppiy a variety of excellent timber. But the ifland is chiefly

Talued

'^.

^T"

('50)

AMERICA.

P. IX.

valued for its great cod-fifhcry on thofe Hioals called the banks of
Nev/foundland. In this branch of commerce upwards of three
thoufand fail of fmall craft are annually employed ; on board of
which, as well as on fhore for the purpofe of curing and packing
the fifli, upwards of ten thoufand hands are employed. This fifliery
is fuppofcd to increafc the national (lock upwards of 300,0001.
annually, which is remitted to England in gold and filver for cod
fold in the North, m Spain, Portugal, Italy and the Levant.

Very profitable filheries are likewife carried on along the coafts of
New Scotland, New England, and the ifle of Cape Breton.

SECTION II.

British America.

''V :

The vaft continent of America extending from the impenetrable
frozen regions of the ardtic to a high latitude in the (buthern
hemifphere, as it experiences all the varieties of climate which the
earth affords, its foils are various, and it produces mofl of the
metals, minerals, herbs, fruits and wood, to be met with in the
other quarters of the globe, and many of them in the greatefl quan-
tities and perfection.

Its mountains, lakes and rivers are. the largefl in the world.

To begin on the north with this moft extenfive quarter of the
globe, the parts of it which lie within the Arctic circle arc very little
known, few European adventurers having penetrated fo far, their
farthefl difcoveries have never afcertained whether Greenland is an
infular country, or a part of this vaft continent: Greenland has
already been defcribed as a part of the territories of Denmark.

f. Dlvijions.'} The continental territories of the Englilh in
America comprehend New Britain or the country of the Efquimaux»
Canada or the Province of Quebec, and Nova Scotia or Acadia.
On the ead and fouth they are bounded by the Atlantic and the
American ftates ; on the well and north their boundaries are un-
defined and blended with the lands of Indian nations and American
wilds.

3. Climate^ Produce.'] Far to the north, the hardy pine tree,
die only evergreen of polar regions, is no longer feen, and the
cold womb of the earth fecms incapable of giving life to an^.other
produdiona than a few blighted fhrubs. The accumulating fnows
which cover the mountains of thofe folitary and defert tra(fls,
together with the winds which blow from thence near three quarters
of the year, occafion a feverity of cold in this part of the world
even in latitudes which are moderate and pleafant in Europe. A
. >j^;- principal

S.II.

BRITISH AMERICA.

(•51)

principal part of this cxtcnfive country lies in the fame latitude with
rrancc ; but its natural hi(h)ry nearly anfwers the dclcription of
Norway or Sweden. The winters arc long ami feverc ; the fum-
mCrs (hort, warm and picafant. In many places corn as well as
fruits and other vegetables are produced, the meadow lands which
are well watered, yield the moll luxuriant pallurage for vull numbers
of great and fmall cattle, and tobacco in particular is much cul-
tivated and fecms perfoJtly congenial to the foil. Here alfo arc the
moft ancient and extenlive forells in the world, producing the
various fpecies of pines, firs, cedars, oaks, maple, afh, walnut,
beech, elm and poplar.

,3. /tnimaU.] The animals of Btitifli America are alfo fimilar to
thofc of the northern countries of Europe, as buffaloes, boars, tigers,
wolves, moofe deer, (lags, rein deer, goats, foxes, beavers, otters,
lynxes, martens, fquinels, ermines, wild cats, ferrets, weafels,
hares and rabbits.

Of the feathered trilie th.tre are niiml)crs of eagles, falcons,
^ofhawks, tercels, ravens, owls, woodcocks, Inipes, blackbirds,
{wallows, larks, thrulhes, finches, immenie Hocks of geefe, fwans,
ducks, cranes, buftards, partridges, and almoll every fpecies of
wild fowl.

Among their reptiles the rattlefnake is the moll remarkable.

Of (ea fifli there are wiiales, morfes, ica wolves, fta cows,
porpoifcs, cod fifh, herrings, anchovies, pilchards, and various
other kinds, and in the rivers and lakes there are pike, perch, caipr,
trout, &c.

4. Rivers^ Lakes, Buys."] The rivers, lakes and bays in this
part of the world are numerous, large and deep The rivers here,
■which from their magnitude might claim, if in other countries,
particular mention, appear diminutive if compared with the great river
St. Lawrence, in which indeed many of them are ultimately abforbcd.
The fame may be faid of many capacious lakes, when compared
with thofe inland feas, the lakes of Canada ; they are five in
number, the Ontario, Erie or Ofwego, Huron, Michigan, and lake
Superior, the fmallell of which is no lefs that two hundred leagues
an circumference, and lake Su}>erior, by far the moll fpacious, and
containing feveral large iflands, is at leaft fifteen hundred miles iti
circuit. Thele lakes give rile to feveral vail rivers, particularly the
MilTilIippi, which runs from north tc fouth till it falls into the
Gulf of Mexico, after a winding courfe of four thoufand five
hundred miles, receiving in its progrefs the Illinois, the Mifaures,
the Ohio, and other great rivers fcarcely inferior to the Rtune or
the Danube ; and on the north the great river St. Lawrence, which
runs a contrary courfe from the Midiillppi, till it empties itifelf into
the ocean near Newfoundland, after receiving the Outawais, thfc
Champlain, Trois Rivieres, Defpaires, Seguinay, St. Johix'a,
and feteral other rivers, and becoming at its mouth about ninety
miles wide. All thefe lakes are navigable by the larged veiTels,

aod

-*He--^--

(150

AMERICA.

P. IX.-

1) J

and have a communication with each other ; except that the paflage
between Erie and Ontario is interrupted by a ftupendous fall or
catarad, called the Falls of Niagara. Where the rock crofles it,
it is about half a mile broad, and from the bend of the clifF
defciibes a crefcent ; when it comes to the perpendicular fall, which
is one hundred and fifty feet, words cannot exprefs the fenfations
occafion i by feeing fuch a vaft body of water violently thrown from
To amazing an elevation on the rocks below, from which it again
rebounds to a very great height ; and from its being converted into
foam by thefe violent agitations, appears as white as fnow. The
noife of this fall is often heard at the diitance of fifteen miles, and
fometimes much farther ; and the vapour ariling from it, which
refembles a cloud or pillar of fnoke, may alfo be feen at a very
confiderable diilance, and it is varied like the rainbow whenever
the fun and the pofition of the traveller are proper for producing
thac phenomenon. Beafts and fowls frequently lofe their lives in
attempting to fwim acrofs, and are found dafhed to pieces below ;
and fometimes Indians, either through careleffhefs or inebriety,
meet the fame tremendous fate ; which circumftances draw great
tiumbets of birds of prey to the place to feaft on the dead
bodies.

5. New Britain.^ New Britain, which is commonly called the
country of the Efquimaux comprehends Labrador, New North and
South Wales. Our firll knowledge of this part of the world
originated from a projed (hirted in England for the difcovery of
a north-weft pafTage to China and the Eaft Indies. Forbiiher,
and after him Davis, were the firfl: adventurers in this hardy
navigation, and the Streights which they difcovered IHll bear their
names. Early in the feventeenth century Hudfon made three
voyages on the fame adventure ; he entered the Streights which
Jead into that immenfe bay, which, together with the Streights, ftill
bear his name ; he coafted a great part of this new Mediterranean,
and penetrated aa far ns eighty and an half deg. into the
heart of the frozen zone, but was at laft, with feven of his faithful
adherents, committed by the crew in an open boat to the perils of
the icy feas : thefe hardy adventurers were never more heard of,
but the crew returned to Europe. The laft difcoveries of Cook
fecm to prove that this much defired navigation is altogether im-
pfafticable.

The Hudfon's Bay company employ four fhips and one hundred
«nd thirty feamen : they have four forts, viz. Churchill, Nelfon,
New-Severn and Albany, which ftand on the weftern (hore of the
Bay, and arc garrifoned by one hundred and eighty fix men. They
barter EngliHi commodities with the Indians for furs and peltry.
The rudeft workmanihip meets with admirers among thefe uncul-
-tivaieH people, and the moft faulty goods find a ready market ; on
the other hand, the flcins and furs enter largely into Englifli manu-
. :.'9ij:t ijj»,r , . , I failures,

L;7,;-

S. II.

BRITISH AMERICA.

(»53)

failures, and afford materials for opening a beneficial commerce with
feveral European nations.

6. Canada.] The only towns of importance in Canada are
Quebec, Trois Riyieres and Montreal, all fituated on the river
St. Lawrence, by means of which an extenfive commerce is carried
on, employing about (ixty fliips and one thoufand feamen annually,
though it is much interrupted by the fevere winters when the largeft
rivers are frozen over and the ports confequentiy blocked up.
Their exports are ll<ins, furs, ginfcng, fnakcroot, capillairc, wheat,
Sec. their imports the manufactures of Europe and the produce of the
Weft Indian liiands.

Near Quebec is a fine 'ead mine ; the whole country abounds in
coals, and it is affcrted that filver is found in the mountains.

7. Nova Scotia.] The inhabitant* of Nova Scotia export all
forts of lumber, fuch as planks, itavcs, hoops and joifts, together
with immenfe quantities of fifli ; the latter, indeed, is thfilr (taple
commoc'ity, and employs a great number of hands ; their imports
are the produce of the Wtli: Indian iflands and the commodities of
Europe. ^

The principal towns in Nova Scotirt are Halifax on Chebu<f>o
Bay, Annapolis on Fundy Bay, St. John's on the mouth of a river
of the fame name ; but the moft recent cnabliflinicnt, and which
bids fair to become the mofl opulent, is that of Shelbarne town,
founded by the American loyalills or refugees.

7. Hiflory.^ Sir William Alexander fett'cd in Nova Scotia in
1622, but it was furrendered to the French by Charles 1. on the
family alliance between him and that court in 1625. It was re-
covered under Cromwell in 1^54; delivered ayain to the Fronch
by Charlc: II. ; recovered in 1 690 ; ceded to France at the peace of
Rifwick in 1697; conquered again by the Fnglilh in 1710. con-
liimed to them by the treaty of Utreclit in 1714 ; and again by the
treaty of Aix-lii-Chapelle in 174B.

John Verrazen took pofJcfTion of Canada in the name of the King
of France in 1$"^$ \ the French attempted to fettle u in i?'-^4,
and in 1608 built Quebec ; but the whole country was onquered
by the Eng'ilh in 1759, and confirmed to them by u.e ptacc in

VIA

V.j

SECTION

1-n,,

an:

054) AMERICA. P. IX.

SECTION III.

American States.

The thirteen United Provinces of America, or the American
States, form one large rcpubUck ; they are bounded on the north
by Britifh America, on the eaft by the Atlantic Ocean, on the fouth
by Spanifh America, and on the weft by numerous Indian nations,
and thofc cxtcnfive and lofty ridyes the Apalachian or Alligany
mountains. They are fituated between thirty and forty nine deg.
north latitude, and between fixty fcvcn and ninety two deg. welt
longitude, and are nearly in the following order :

I. D'lv'tfiom.'] From north to fouth ; tlie firft four are included
under the general name of New EngLmd.

Provinces. Towns.

New Hampshire. Portfmouth, York, Wells, Biddiford, Brun-

fwick, Newcaitle, Deerfield.
Bofton, Cambridge, Salem, Charles Town,

Plymouth.
Newport, Providence.
Newhaven, Guilford, New London, Norwich,

Salifbury, Nev/town.
New York, Albany, Schenectady, Orange,
Weft Chefter, Jamaica, Soudiampton, Rich-
mond.
Princeton, Perth Amboy, New Brunfwick,
Burlington,Trenton, Ehzabcthtown, Newark,
Bergen, Gloucefter, Salem, Hopewell,
Morris.
Philadelphia, German Town, Frankfort, Abing-
don, Dublin, Radnor, Briftol, Chefter,
i 1 ..-■'!■ Newtown, Reading, Eafton, Lancafter, York,

: :' ::< Carlifle, Oxford, Chichefter, Aquoquine-

minck.
Delaware. Newcaftle, Haverfordweft, Dover, Cranebrook,

Lewis.
Maryland. Baltimore, Annapolis, Oxford, St. Mary's,

Chefter, Somerfet, Princefs Ann, Snow Hill,
Queen's Town, Dorchefter, iftol.
Virginia. Wdliamftjurg, James Town, York, Mafterkout,

Abington.
North Carolina. Wilmington, Edenton, Newburn.
South Carolina. Charles Town, Port Royal, St. James, Chrift

Church.
Georgia. Savannah, Augufta, Fredcrica, Sunbury, Purif-

Massachusett's

Bay.
Rhode Island.
Connecticut.

New York.

New Jersey.

Pennsylvania.

burgh

2. Soili

S. III.

AMERICAN STATES.

(X55)

[ill,

lOUty

irift
irif-
fo/7,

2. Soil^ Climate^ Produfitont.] The natural hittory of the northern
provinces is much the fame with that already given of Britifli
America and Norway or Ruflia, the couniiies here being generally
colder than thofe of Europe in the fame degrees of latitude ; in the
fouthern provinces alfo there arc very extdnfive forcfts containing
the greateft variety of timber, and many of the animals that run
wild in the north, as bears, wolves, tigers or panthers, elks, red
deer, beavers. See. Horfes, cows, fheep and hogs, which were
introduced from Ei^rope, run wild here, and indeed over a great
part of this extenfive quarter of the globe in prodigious numbers.
Great quantities of tobacco, indigo and rice are cultivated in the
fouthern provinces, which alfo produce many of the tropical fruits,
as olives, grapes, oranges, lemons, citrons, &c. Several of the
trees yield gums ; from one there dilHls an oil of great efficacy in
curing wounds, and another produces a balm fuj»pofed to be little
inferior to that of Mecca ; and cotton and filk ai e alfo produced
here.

The lands on the eaftern fliore of America are generally low and
in fome parts fwampy, being one continued level for eighty miles
dirtance from the fea, without diverfity of hill and dale, and with
fcarce even a pebble much lefs a rock to be met with. I'he viplands
are more plcafant. Peaches, apples and other fruits , hemp». flax,
and a vail variety of herbs generally flourifli through the dates ;
Indian corn alfo, or maize, and the oihcr kinds of grain, except
in New England, where the wheat is very fubjeft to be blalled ;
the barley is a hungry gr.iin, and the oats aie lean and chaffy.

In the (tates are found quarries of (lone, mines of coals, lead
and copper, and vail: quantities of iron ore.

3. Commerce.'] A land fo rich in natural produftions and in-
habited by a people acquainted with arts and fcicnces, will hardly
fail to make a confpicuous figure in the commercial world; they have
already done this under the Britifh government, and now having
become independent, they trade on their own account with the
ditferent nations of Europe ; from them they receive various com-
modities and manufactures, and fupply to them the different pro-
ductions of their own extenfive and fertile country ; their trade is
alfo opening out to the moll dillant parts of the earth ; their rivers
feem to favour the moll enlarged plans of commerce ; befides the
va(t rivers Hudfon, Delaware, Sufquehana, Potomack and James's
River, they have feveral others of great depth, length and com-
modious navigation ; and hence many parts are fo advantageoufly
interfered with navigable rivers and creeks that many of the planters
are furniflied with harbours at their very doors.

4. Language, Religion.] Though Englilh is generally the lan-
guage of the States, yet in particular parts where colonies have
fettled from other European nations, their refpedive tongues are
fpoken and their native manners adhered to ; hence a traveller,
eljpccially in Penfylvania or New- York, by pitching upon a particular

place)

^■'

TTT

^mm

Ci^fi)

AMERICA.

P. IX.

place, may imagine himfelf transported to Holland, Germany,
or Sweden ; here he may hear the languages of thofc countries
confbntly fpoken, taught in their fchools, ufed in their places of
worlhip, in their books, and even in their common newfpapcrs. In
this country alfo he may meet with moit of the religious profeffions
to be found in Europe ; and what is accounted more extraordinary,
he may find this diverfity of people, religions, nations and lan-
guages, living in harmony with each other.

5. Learning.] Literature and the fcienccs fcem to be held in
great efteem with the Americans ; befides Inialler fchools they have
colleges or academics from New England to Georgia, as at Caiu-
bridge, Newhaven, New-York, Prince-Town, Philadelphia, Wil-
liam (burgh and Savannah.

When, in the late dilputes, the Carolinians, in common with
the other colonies, refolved againft the ufe of certain luxuries, and
even neceflaries of life, thole articles which improve the mind,
enlarge the underftandiig and corre(5l the taftc, were excepted, the
importation of books bein^ permitted without limitation ; and >^hen
the late civil war was carrying on with the greateft animofity on both
(ides, an a(5t was paflTed by the council and houfe of reprefentatives
of Maflachufetts for incorporating and cftabli{hing a fociety for the
cultivation and promotion of the arts and fciences, entitled The
American Academy of Arts and Sciences : It was therein declared,
that the end and defign of the inftitution of the faid academy was
to promote and encourage the knowledge of the antiquities of
America, and of the natural hiftory of the country, and to deter-
mine the ufes to which its various natural produdlions might be
applied ; to promote and encourage medicinal difcoverics, mathe-
matical difquilitions, philofophical enquiries and experiments, aftro-
nomical, meteorological and geographical obfervations ; improvements
in agriculture, arts, manufadures and commerce ; and in fhort to
cultivate every art and fcience which might tend to advance the
intereft, honour, dignity and happinefs of a free, independent and
Virtuous people.

6. htjlory.] The firft attempt that was made by the Englifli to
fettle in North America was in Virginia in 1607, when James-
Town was built ; but all the fea coaft had been difgovered by
Sebadian Cabot in 1497. New England was firft fettled in 1614
by the Plymouth Company. Part of New York was fettled by the
Dutch in 1608. Soon after the Swedes arrived, and took pof-
feffibn of another part ; but they were all fubdued by the Englilh
in 1 664. Maryland was firft fettled by the Lord Baltimore in
1633; Carolina by fome Englifli noblemen under Charles II.
in 1670; Penfylvania by William Penn, in 1681 ; and Georgia
by General Oglethorpe in 1732. The United Provinces, in cpq-
grefs afiembled in 1776, publilhcd a folemn declaration, in which
they afligned their reafons for withdrawing their allegiance from the
Kifig of Great Britain ; they declared, that they then were, and of

. . . right

■•. Jii.jiii u Jjiii*^

llro-

^ich
(the

S. III.

AMERICAN STATES.

(«57)

right ought to be, free and independent ftates ; and that as fuch
they had full power to levy war, conclude peace, contraft alliances,
cftablifh commerce, and do all other a(5ts and things which indepen-
dent dates may o( rij^ht do. Early in 1778, the French King iirft
acknowleaged their indcpindency, by concluding with them. a treaty
of amity and commerce, under the dcfignation of the United States
of America. In 1782, near the ciofc ot" the year, provifional
articles were figncd at Paris by the liritilh and American com-
mifficners, in which the King of Great Britain acknowledged the
thirteen colonies to be free, fovcrcion and iri'lepcndent ilates ;
which articles were afterwards ratified by a definitive treaty.

SECTION IV.

Territories of Spain in North America.

The Spanifli dominions in North America extend from eighty-
one to one hundred and twenty deg. weft longitude, and lie between
eight and forty-three deg. north latitude. Tliey are bounded on the
north by the American States and numerous Indian nations ; on
the weft their fliores are wafhed by the Pacific ; on the eaft by the
Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic ; and on the fouth they terminate
in the Ifthmus of !Qarien, which joins them to South America.

I. Divifions.] They comprehend the following countries or di-
vifions.

t to

Countries.

the

E. Florida.

and

W. Florida.

Louisiana.

[1 to

N. Mexico.

les-

California.

0, Mexico.

614
the

pof-
llirti

■ ^<\^■u..

;)-.r

■t«

Chief ToivtiT.

St. Auguftine.

Penfacola.

New Oi leans.

St. Fee, St. Antonio, Tuape.

St. Juan.

Mexico, Acapulco, Vera Cruz, Tlafcala, Mo-
choacan, '.\i!iipice, Guaxaca, Tobafco, Cam-
peachy, i^niapa, Soconufco, Vcrapaz, Guati-
mala, Valladolid, Leon, Nycoya, Sta Fee,
C uadalajarra, Zacatecas, St. Barbara, Cinolea,
Charmetlan, Xaiitfco.

2. Climate^ Soil.] So cxtenfive a tracl of country naturally in-
cludes within itfelf a variety of climates and foils. It is generally
warm and pleafant, but the northern parts arc fomctimcs viflted by
chilling winds from the north weft, while the fouihern parts lying
. ...• ; principally

I-

a=s

iav

(158)

AMERICA.

P. IX.

9t»

!»■■

principally \vithin the torrid zone are exceflively hot, and on the
eaftern fhore where the land is low, marfhy and conflantly flooded
in the rainy feafons, the air is extremely inimical to health. During
the winter, ftrong winds prevail in the Gulf of Mexico and the
adjacent feas. Trade winds, monfoons, Tea and land breezes are
experienced here. The foil is generally very fertile, but it is in
the moft mountainous and flerile parts that the mines of fllver and
gold are difcovered.

3. PhmtSi jlnintfllsi'] This country produces rice and the different
kinds of corn ; a great variety of efculent roots and herbs ; indigo,
tobacco, cacao, cotton filk, which is the work of infeds, and is in
itfelf an affemblage of minute creatures ; cochineal, logwood, mo-
hogany, and the different kinds of timber ; a great variety of dyes,
gums and medicines ; and the different kinds of tropical fruits, as
grapes, figs, pine-apples, pomegranates, limes, oranges, lemons,
citrons, &c. together with immenfe quantities of fugar.

The animals firll brought here from Europe hare multiplied in
adonifhing numbers, and many of them run wild in the woods, as
cows, horfes, affes, fheep, goats ; here are ?.lfo buffaloes, moofe-
deer, a fort of lions and tigers, wolves, ounc(.'s, pecarees, monkies,
opolfums, racoons, wild cats, beavers, the armadillo and floth, the
flying fquirrel, a variety of lizards and ferpents, &c.

The birds are peacocks, the macaw, the quam, the curafoe, the
cardinal and the humming bird, linnets, larks, nightingales, &c.
buftards, geefe, cranes, vultures, gulls, cormorants, mews, quails,
with many other fpecies.

The multitude and variety of flfh that abound in the rivers, creeks,
bays and feas in this pait of the world are innumerable ; among
thefe are the manati and five or fix different fpecies of turtle, the
gar fifh and paracood, falmon, turbot, barbel, flcate, mackarel,
pilchards, foals, bonettas and many other fpecies, pearl and other
oyfters, cray-fifh, lobfters and other fhell-fifh.

4. Minerals.'^ Mines of pit coal, iron ore, copper and quick-
filver have been difcovered in the Spanifh part of North America,
and a kind of flone pitch called copel, which the Spaniards ufe as
tar for their fhipping ; it alfo yields turquoifes, emeralds, amethyfls,
lapis lazuli, and other precious ftones, jafper, porphyry, and very fine
marble ; amber and pearls are found on the coafts. There are mines
of gold and fllver in New Mexico, but the value of their pro luce
cannot yet be afcertained. The mines of thefe highly valued metals,
efpecially thofe of filvi. \ in Old Mexico, are prodigious.

Mexico may be confidered as the centre or heart of all the com-
mercial affairs of Spain. The trade of Mexico confifls of three
capital branches. It carries on a traffic with Europe by La Vera
Cruz, fituated on tl\e Gulf of Mexico ; with the Eail Indies by
Acapulco on the South Sea, and with South America by the fame
port. Tljpugh this immenfely rich trade paffes entirely through the
hands of the Spaniards* and in the very centre of their dominions,
.- -\\\ ■ their

p. IX.

on the

flooded

During
and the
:zes are
it is in
Iver and

different
} indigo,
and is in
lod, mo-
of dyes,
Fruits, as
lemons,

Itiplled in
'oods, as
, moofe-
monkies,
(loth, the

rafoe, the
;ales, &c.
s, quails,

s, creeks,
: ; among
iirtle, the
mackarel,
nd other

id quick-

lAmerica,

is ufe as

[methyfts,

very fine

■are mines

pro luce

[d metals,

I the com-

of three

jH Vera

[ndies by

the fame

[ough the

l>nunions,

their

S. IV.

SPANISH AMERICA.

(«59)

their profits are comparatively fmall ; for as they allow the Dutc}^
the Englifli, and other commercial dates to furnifh the greateft part
of the cargoes of the Flota from Spain, ^o the Spanifh inhabitants
of the Philippines, poflefled with the fame fpirit of indolence which
ruined their European anceftors, permit the CK-nefe merchants to
fupply the principal part of the Manilla Galleon, and thus the vaft
produce of their mines is diftributed over the world, and the Dona
are relieved from that prodigious load or burthen of wealth under
which, in a political capacity, they may be rather faid to have la-
boured than grown rich.

SECTION V.

Indian Nations.

The internal parts of North America, and from thence to the
vaft Pacific on the weft, are unknown to Europeans, and inhabited
by numerous nations of Indians. The tribes whofe names we have
heard of are nearly as follows from north to fouth : The Efqui-
roaux, the Ounamies, Outagamics, Algonquils, NepifTmgs, Sakis,
Nokes, Miamis, Hurons, Illinois, Outrachies, Loutres, Savan-
nois, Sioux, Afiiniboils, Chriftinaux, Iroquois, Tufcaroras, Creeks,
Cherokees, Kataubas, Choctaws, Chickefaws, Natchcs, Apaches,
&c. In South America alfo there are immenfe trads of land inha-
bited by independent nations of Indians. In Guiana arc the Caribbees,
Worrows, Accawans and Arrowauks ; in Amazonia, Omaguas and
Yurimaguas ; in Brazil the Tapuyers and Topinamboys ; in Para-
quay the Chaconefe and Guaranis ; and in Patagonia the Pampas,
tlie Coftares and Patagonians.

SECTION VL

South America.

The Spaniards, befides their extenfive territories In North Ame-
rica, have immenfely rich and very extenfive pofTefiions in the iomh.
Indeed, if we except the large province of Brazil, which is in the
hands of the Portuguefe, and the fmaller fettlements of the Dutch
in Surinam, and of the French in Cayenne, all lying on the eaftern
roaft between the rivers Oronoque and La Plata, they claim the
■ - <- ^ >.'.■'■ ■ whole

•ST; ••(i

arx

}> V"'W

(1^0)

A M E R I ~ A.

P. IX.

whole of South America from the northern coaft of Terra Firma
and the Ifthmus of Darien, through many Jarge and fruitful pro-
Tinces to the ftreights of Magellan on its bleak fouthern extremity.

H'tftory.'\ The Spanifh part of America uas early in the fix-
teenth century moftly fubdued by private adventurers, commiffioned
by their court, but their conqueils were attended with the niofl ag-
gravated circuradances of cruelty. Millions of the poor Ameri-
cans fell under the deftrudivc fwords of the Spaniards, their coun-
try was laid wafte, they were robbed of their treafures, and their
Emperors or Incas barbaroufly put to death.

Part of Spanifh America, however, has been reduced in a very
different kind of way ; not by the force of arms, but by the labours
and zeal of Romifli miffionaries. The Jcfuits have in America pre-
vailed upon many thouf^nds of families of the Indians to abandon
their favage manner of life ; they have inftrudted them in arts and
fciences, tau[,ht them the principles of their religion, and entirely
reduced theqi to the European civilization.

As the principal part of South America lies within the Torrid
Zone, its climate and natural produdlions are generally fuch as are
common to tropical climates. Thick fwarm the birds of moft beauti-
ful plumage, the beads of the foreft multiply in aflonifhing abund-
ance, and every fwamp and every fen teem with life in various forms ;
the moll venomous creatures, the mod deadly poifons, and the mort
fovereign antidotes, fineft gums, balfams and fruits abound here.
Its gold and filver mines, and its precious Hones are fufficiently ce-
lebrated. South America alfo, like other tropical countries, expe-
Ticnces periodical winds and tempefts. Rains and floods which drive
the inhabitants to the hills, lay the lowlands under water, and ferti-
lize the foil. The mountains and rivers in this quarter are the largeft
in the "w^orld. The mountains which form the Andes extend above
five thoufand miles in length, nor is their height lefs remarkable than
their extent ; they aie computed to be three miles perpendicular ;
their fummits are always covered with fnow, even in the midft of
the Torrid Zone; many of them are volcanoes, and the greater
part of them mines of the mort precious metals. The rivers which
have their fource in thefe lofty ridges, as the Oronoco, the Ama-
zons, and the Plata, appear like feas encloling in themfelves nume-
rous and extenfive ifles, or pouring their mighty waters into thole
of the ocean with fuch rapidity and force as to frefhen it for many
leagues diftance from the land.

ifi^-i till

SECTION

'*:-i

S.VI. PORTUGUESE TERRITORIES-

(16.)

I. Portuguese America.

greater

which

Ama-

nume-

1:0 thofe

\v many

This country receives its name of Brazil from its abounding with
that kind of wood. It lies between the equator and thirty-five deg.
fouth latitude, and between thirty-five and fixty deg. weft longitude.
It is bounded on the north by the mouth of the river Amazons and
the Atlantic Ocean, by the fame ocean on the eafl, by the mouth of
the River Plata on the fouth, and by a chain of mountains, which
divide it from Paraguay, and the unknown country of the Amazons
on the w«.ti.

The moll capital cities or towns of Brazil are St. Salvadore, Rio
de Janiero and Fernambuco. To thefe three places flota are annu-
ally fent from Portugal, fraught with the various commodities and
manufactures of Europe ; for there as well as in Spain they let other
commercial nations furnifii the principal part of the cargoes of the
flota, though all paHes in the name or through the hands of their
own merchants, who as well as the Spaniards have invariably (liewn
the ftrifteft fidelity, and never once betrayed the truft the foreign
merchants repofed in them, whatever wars there might be between
their refpeftive nations, nor let their goods be difleized, which they
would have been liable to if acknowledged to be foreign property.
The other towns are Para or Belim, St. l^ewis, Siara, St. Luc,
Tignares, Payraba, Tamara, Olinda, Serigippc, Paya, Porto Se-
guro, Spirito Sando, St. Sebaflian, St. Vincent. The returns from
Brazil are its natural produ(^ions, as gold, diamonds and other pre-
cious Hones, fugar, tobacco, hides, indigo, Brazil wood, and other
valuable drugs both for medicine and manufadures ; vaft quantities
of gold, alfo ebony, ivory, &c. firft brought here from their fettle-
ments in Africa, and thus are their immenfe treafures diftributed
over Europe.

hUlory.] A Portuguefe fleet bound for India in 1500, (lood
out lo far to fea to avoid the calms on the African coafl that they
fell in with Brazil. On their report the court of Portugal under-
took to colonize this country ; they transported convidls here ; thefe
treated the original inhabitants with cruelty, who took every oppor-
tunity to retaliate on their invaders. This country, together with
Portugal, fell under the dominion of Spain, and when the Dutch
revolted from that crown they made conquers in this country. Thefe
were afterwards driven out by the Portuguefe, and that they might
ceafe from annoying them, and give up their claims to Brazil, the
Portuguefe in 1661 agreed to pay the Dutch eight tons of gold.

:^--*\

ION

Half-flieet L 1

SECTION

*#■*.

(162)

8. AMERICA.

P. IX.

a. French and Dutch America, Guiana.

The pofleflions of the French on the American continent are
now very inconfiderable. Having loft Canada and Louifiana, they
have no longer any footing in North America ; however, they ftill
retain a fettlement on the fouthern continent of America, to which
they have given the name of Cayenne or Equinodlial France.

This country is fituated between the equator and five deg. north
latitude, and between fifty and fifty-five deg. weft longitude. It ex-
tends two hundred and forty miles along the coaft of Guiana, and
near three hundred miles within land, being bounded by Surinam on
the north, by the Atlantic on the eaft, by Amazonia on the fouth,
and by the territories of the native Indians on the weft.

The country is not yet in very high cultivation ; it produces how-
ever fugar, coflfee, and a prodigious quantity of ufeful trees, plants,
gums, &c.

HtJlory.~\ The French firft cftablilhed themfelves here in 1653 :
After this they abandoned the place ; the Englifh took pofieffion of
it, but the French foon returned and drove them out ; thefe were in
their turn expelled by the Dutch ; the French the fame year obliged
them to evacuate it, and have (ince kept it in their pofTeflion, though
the Dutch have made fome attempts to retake it.

Surinam or Dutch America lies between five and feven deg. north
latitude, is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the River Oroonoco
on the eaft, and north by Cayenne, and the territories of the natives
(On the fouth, and by Terra Firma on the weft. Its produftions are
tiobacco, cotton, fugar, coffee, fkins, flax, and fome valuable drugs
for dying and medicine.

Jii/ioryJ] Under Charles II. the Lord Willoughby, governor of
Barbadoes, firft formed a fettlement in this country. When the
Englifh had difpoA'cfTed the Dutch of New- York, the latter fent a
fleet againft the colony of Surinam and fubdued it ; and at the peace
of Breda it was agreed that each fhould keep the territories they had
won from the oilii!*.

The other parts of Guiana are indeterminate, and unknown to
Europeans.

SECTION

S.VI.

SPANISH TERRITORIES.

(163}

3. Spanish South America.

The dominions of Spain in South America are at follows i
Countries. Chief Towns.

Terra Firma. Panama, Porto Bello, Carthagena, St. Martha,
Rio de la Hacha, Venezuela, Comana, St. Tho-
mas, St. Fee de Bagota, Popayan.
Peru. Lima, Cufco, Quito, Payta, Potofi, Porco.

Chili. St. Jago, Conception^ Baldivia, Imperial, St. John

de Frontiera.
Paraguay. Buenos Ayres, St. Jago, Aflomption, St. Anne,
Cividad Real, Los Reyes.
Spain alfo lays claim to Amazonia and Patagonia.

The climate and foil of Spanifh America vary from the fmoaking
fwamp and parched fand, to the pleafant and healthy upland, and
bleak and barren mountain top ; in general, however, from the per-
petual fnows on the mountain, the air is rendered more cool and
temperate here than in the fame latitudes in Africa.

Among the profuHon of vegetables produced in this part of the
world are the feveral European grains, Indian corn, rice, fiigar-
canes, pine-apples, olives, grapes, tamarinds, oranges, lemons,
dates, figs, bananas, cocoas, almonds, guavas, coffee, pepper, &c.
potatoes, caffava, and feveral other roots ; various kinds of gums
and drugs, as farfaparilla, dragons blood, balfams, rhubarb, Aorax,
guaiacum, ipecacuanha, quinquina or jefuit's bark, the herb para-
guay, &c. tobacco, indigo, hemp, cotton, &c. Unnumbered are
the varieties of trees in the forefts ; fome of thefe are of a kindly
nature, and fupply them with honey, vinegar and drink ; others are
mofl deadly ; fuch in particular is the malignity of the manzanillo
tree, that if a perfon only fleeps under it, his body fwells and is
racked with the fevereft tortures.

The European fruit trees are obliged to be propped here, to ena-
ble them to fuftain the weight of the fruit, and the (Irawberries are
as big as pears. . >

The numbers of animals in Spanifh South America are prodigi-
ous ; the horfes, cowsy &c, originally imported from Europe have
encreafed in adonifhing abundance, they run wild in herds, and are
hunted for the fake of their hides and tallow : The other quadru-
peds are the tapir, the lama^ the vicudna, the guanaco, a fort of
lions, tigers and panthers, deer, foxes, &c. baboons of a large
fize, and prodigious numbers of monkeys of various colours whole
flefh is highly valued, iloths, armadillos, ant-bears, 5ec. t ..'

LI *

Amonf

UU)

AMERICA.

P. IX.

Among the innumerable flights of birds are the condor, th? zuro-
bador ; turkeys, geefe, and all kinds of poultry, wood pigeoi?s»
turtle doves, partridges, fnipes, woodcocks, royal cirapicos, guaca-
mayos, gallinazos, the toucan or preacher, the difpertadore or
awakcncr, &c.

The rivers, lakes and Teas abound in excellent fiOi : In the lad
are whales and Tea wolves, with a variety of other kinds ; and in
the rivers alligators and crocodiles. The number and variety of
fnakes in this country is great ; befides the rattle fnake, here are
found fome which are twenty-two feet long, and thick in propor-
tion ; and if credit may be given to the Spaniards, fwallow a whole
flag at a time : There arc fome that climb up trees, and from thence
dart upon their prey, which they cruih to pieces by twining them-
felvcs round it, and others that live entirely in rivers and prey upon
fifh : There are likewife many of them, which, though terrifying
to the fight, are peifedlly harmlefs.

Emeralds, fapphires, and other precious (lones, and quariies of
lapis lazuli and of loadltone, are found in Spanilh America ^ mines
of gold, filver, copper, tin, quickdlver, iron and lead abound in
the mountains.

Thefe various rich produdlions form the exports of thefe countrieft»
and their imports are the commodities of Europe and the Indies.
The commerce is chiefly carried on here as in Mexico by means of
regularly Hated fleets.

The galleons form a fleet confining of eight men of ^ar of five
hundred tons each, defigned principally to fuj^ly Peru with military
ilores ; but in reality laden* not only with thofe, but with every kind
of merchandize on private accounts. Under the convoy of thefe are
twelve fail of merchantmen, not inferior to the galleons in burthen ;
tiiis fleet is regulated in much the fame manner as the flota, and is
defHned for the exclufive commerce of Terra Firma and the South
dea, as the flota is for that of Mexico. As foon as it arrives at
Carthagena, expreiTes are difpatched to Porto Bello, and to all the
adjacent towns, but particularly to Panama, that they may get ready
all the tfeafure which is depofittd there (and which has nrfl been
brought by the South Sea from Lima, which city may be accouoted
the centre of all the wealth of Chili and Peru) to meet the galleons
at Potto Bello ; here all that are engaged in the various branches
of this extenfive trade affemble. There is no other part of the world
where bufinefs of fucb great importance is trunfa(5bed in fb fhort a
lime ; f^ fometimes in a fortnight the fair is over : During the con-
tinuanct of it heaps of wedges and ingots of filver are thrown on the
wharf withdut any appearance of care ; and the difplay of gold, fil-
ver) and precious flones on one hand, and of the curious workman-
fhip of the different ingenious fabrics of Europe on the other* is
amazing.

>A'

The

Eta

p. IX.

>r, thf zum-
>od pigeoDs,
icos, guaca-
pertadore or

In the laft
ids ; and in

variety of
^e, here are

in propor>
ow a whole
from thence
ining them-
1 prey upon
\i terrifying

quarries of

ica' mines

abound in

; countries
the Indies.
f means of

I'ar of five
^h military
;?ery kind
" thefe are
burthen ;
ta, and is
^e South

ler, IS

The

BklTpNS

SCWtTRS

Gekmani

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Arahia ^

>
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Ettiinpia

Barfjarv | ^ ^
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Portugal

Tiirkv J
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Switzerland ^^
Nrtherlands

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■ I.I \ ''*^***^

Fran' c

Great 1
Britain j"
Ireland

nermonv

pIrussians Fmffia'

'2&itr Poland

RufTia

Sweden

Dtmmarli
Norwav

Canada 7
Nox-aScdia

2 NrwYork
W F«Tflh'«nui

?-qifl Jj Maivja^id

Carolina

Oi.

roTAia

jfTorfrtii

LoumaiMi

Mrxiro

Chili

P«*rvi

TrrraFirma
rav^nne
SuVinam
Brazil

m»^.

Tfti II 11 mmm^^^ftfim^mHm

fjwr

—^- • - i i "

■• ' ■ "

'ft r^

1 o 1 a

la ticks %/^?/^ < A//i^>

:jiip.»j!iiii

"^C_

Vaiidal!

/riAit ChartOuantitfstKfvAntian* tbatwfhavi
Mapptttd appearmanurelnJpfctiotutbtSpaeei beimn
totfreanthfsf ate Kumtrmd in order hoth heftm. luA
SteHtnZfntM late rqut^fintCeuritnet whostf!
It) Kxantinu^lbe rertuitl a^lumnx. we 4uctrtain S>t

Goth S Y^/trInilaru*'~-aiR)tlinie f>fAe ChrifiuuiEm. w /
^jHOP'a' 3 — 's'v'vb WtfriiiihuiirKuthrifain. us yd umubduril hvA
jo b€fi^r«it,iiieJleSUUtsfynniafm Crea^ ihw^ihftmnint/t^trLya in
C7 tftifm 'ntrtt^kOftir&mterp^tfsioneundef T<t/Mivti tCflhii fialion
^ mitr a>e jfepUnhyiin S cctltmXthePich;fi in Inland Hi Awn mJepti
y undfrieturhtlte'liirtarj pow/rfulin Afiajnanyfl/' tbe rwOemJf,
loi^UKotkerhiuuilfhMJkm^alma^l'bMtii'nximitillywetiunn
' pmuteAnlUjinUf^imderaainf Vimem H^vt^lUmjfrcnr. diy riant, fl/ihyltnia
Y^Helnw.r about H90, AA'tefedtrvmEi^-vptin'O i^inin^aKingt *f7clHmlt
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' '^' tSentanE'npifX funded uhcut6?>!'ifcldrrtbeOni.tluauira:tyi'n

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ffartstbe^jacf almdhanypMrtuuUr&unlry
it4m*»«earemtjHnyin^MtiftofMciad Ceoft

K .

(

S. S.VI.

I S L A N

D S.

0^7)

two or ^oirs and a JiveJv fancv Zl *?^',"'an, by the help of thefe

- ' , ^h „.eans the real adve^uref w.Xt '° ^'^" P;°^"«°' ^

•hr'e the romance-writer ohtlJJf ^'^r^ "^'"^"^<^ ^^'^e-

, " °*'^»'°«'i «o inconfiderabie ihare of

'^
\

The vaft country c.
European colonies of 1 ,
by means of the great rivc

perfcifVly explored : Some at. ' le*

Spaniards and Fortuguefe, but . \{i»

many difficulties, that few of the adv... Zoo

gold or other very valuable produce having ■ /.Ted

in the country, Europeans are but little difpofea vu mmit slU^ De%r
fettlement there.

\\^'. 5. PATAGOK«A'"'^t

Patagonia has always been reprefented by geograpers as
inhofpitable country, and in a great meafure delHtute 0^ yfj^
any other incentive to colonization . The Spafliards 'btf'9ft:fl($'tii»'
tempted it in 158 1, built a town which they named Phiiippetille^
and placed about four hundred perfons in it ; but the celebrated Eog-
lifh navigator Cavendifh in 1587, found only one of the! fettlers alive
, on the beach : Twenty -three of them had fet out for the river La Plata
and were never afterwards heard of, and all the reft had perifhed
through famine ; from which circumdacces the place received 'lie
•ame of Port Famine. - ' i

'•: V*:

SECTION

■■ih imminidmi 1 'itfcii it>^

mm^-

M *m^.

the fouth of

bke which were

ed by a volcano.

rough, and cover-

^nces render the cli>

here however humao

dy inhabitants are low

wrapped round their

filh. Theie iflands were

till Magellan difcovered and

of Magellan lie the Falkland iflands be-
lon»^ng tof uie iL»?|iIi(h. As thcfe iflands lie in a flmilar latitude to
that of the fouth of England, they might naturally enough be fnp-
pofed to enjoy nearly the fame climate, were it not a well known
geographical truth, that the fouthern hemiiphere is niuch more in-
clement than the northern one. > ,;
f Falkland iflands, which are divided from each other only by a
f!rait four or five mU^Ji^ breadth, are both dreary and defolate
fyot&f affording neither timber Hior vegetables in any- conflderable
quspjiities : The coafls, hoWever, are frequented by innumerable
>f feals and vaft flights of fowls, particularly penguins and

of Juan Femandes lies to the weft of South Aiherica
ilk tli^^'«hree degrees fouth latitude, and about chree hundred miles
from the <Xi0k of Chili. This romantic ifle diverfifled with woOds
and water, with craggy hills and fenile fpots, is famous for having
given rife to the celebrated romance of Robinfbn Crufoe. It appears
that one Alexander Selkirk, a feaman, and a native of Scotland, was
put afliore, and left in this folitary place by his captain, where he
lived fome years, and was difcovered by Captain Woodes Ro-
gers in 1709 : When taken on board, he had through difpfe to for-
got his native language, that he could with difliculty be underftood :
He was cloathed with the flcins of goats^ would drink nothing but
water, and could not for a conflderable time relifli the fliip's provifl-
ons. During his refldence on this ifland he had killed Ave hundred
gpati|l| which he caught by running down ; and as many more he
marked on their ears and again fet at liberty. Commodore An-
ion's crew caught fome of thefe goats thirty years after, which dif-
covered in their countenances and beards ftrong marks of age. Alex-
ander, on his return to Engknd, was adviied to publifli an account
of his life and adventures in his little kingdom ; and he is faid to

have

/x.'

■I

: fouth of
'hich were
a volcano,
ind cover-
let the cli-
^er fiumao
's are low
3und their
Lnds were
)v€red and

iflands be-
atitude to
h be fnp-
ell known
1 more in-
only by a
1 dcfolate
miiderable
numerable
and

•r

luins

America
red miles
th woMs

having
t appears
and, was

here he
Ides Ro-

(b for-
lerftood :
:bing but

provifi-
hundred

ore he

re An-

ich dif-
Alex-

accoupt

faid to

bate

S.VI.

ISLANDS.

(167)

have put his papers into the hand's of Daniel Defoe, for the purpofe
of preparing them for the prefs ; but that man, by the help of thefc
memoirs and a lively fancy, metamorphofed Alexander Selkirk into
Robinfon Crufbe, and then returned the originals to their proprietor ;
by which means the real adventurer was in a great meafure difre-
garded, while the roniancc-writer obtained no inconfiderable ihare of
literary fame. ■'.■^ . '

-,>*'

f I N I S.

■■lyx-

■»

. ■■'»«'Su»w:'

•/I

. •|<*i

' mM