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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m6thode. by errata ned to lent une pelure, fapon d 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 32X i' ^SiiaSixmrt^c^u t^>- i^ ._ ^ id^LjsA^^ -^7a is*^ I . J i^i«;«"fc»te" ■ ~1 UISTOUY OF TUB llEYOLUTIOXS IX CL'r^Cl'^- rnoM THE 9UUVEKHION Ol . t«- III • V r' -ir TO 'VilB (.ONIIUDSS or Vir.NNA, ■r:\T» A li V M Si;li(EIjL. r^ TO NVinCli IS AI.llKD IRA^CE ,,,,,„, ,,,„„.. rn.ss >N ..«■«, roL^m ..an,«M. ^N.> ,, - , UY .1 UAHHKTT, M. J>. WITH A coyriir.wr.sbivK a>'..u> M iCE. rtAU, AM. TIIKOKMAS STATES IN prnLisHi^n nv ei^vin iu:nt. ," ;;^,-|."'~'""~'r "if ilt'rT""'^'*^ I'.N IKl.i;!'. i„ „,e CU.,Vs Oin.... of rU^UM Lr^(:n <'w- I'is'r.c. .>f Conn..Mic-u.. . ~i^w^»w^J t M iity afe&>Ragft^£'^'g^"'y [UlL'l'licllt. .jS CONTENTS. ftp. Publisher's Notice, 5 Author's Preface, 7 Life of Koch, 13 CHAPTER I. Introduction, 17 CHAPER II— PERIOD I. From the invasion of tlie lloinan Empire in the Weal, by the Bar- barians, to the time of Charlemagne, A. 1). 400 — 800, ■ • . 41 CHAPTER III.— PERIOD II. FromCharlemagne toOito the Great, A. D. 800— 962, . ... 63 CHAPTER IV.— PERIOD HI. From Otto the Great to Gregory the Great, A. D. 9G2— 1074, . . 79 CHAPTER v.— PERIOD IV. From Pope Gregory VIII. to Uoniface VIII., A. D. 1074—1300, 101 CHAPTER VI.— PERIOD V. From Pope Boniface VIII. to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, A. U. 1300—1453, 165 CHAPTER Vll— PERIOD VI. From the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, to the peace of Westphalia, A. D., 1453—1648 207 ;. ' ! * ■'r' mmmi^'m^^^^?' \l m IT CONTENTS. CllAPTKIl VIII.-I'KUIOU Vll. From tlio rc;ice ..f Wes■ "'""■'^' '•'"""• ''" U.inks. .1... uni-.a aav:.n.:.u.s ol . .onMUMuliou^ u.ul an .labor.,.. IHstorv. 1„ ;,nU.r iu>rr....lv ... .l.-i., .1,. wo.k to th. present nmc, a .ketch of the Revolutions w. France. IJel.i.nn. I'ohn-l. .u,l Greece, winch ..ccnrrcl in IBIU) ; also u narm.ive ol the recent events ir. (ireut Britain, of .he French Uevolmion of February, 18.18. and the Revolutions which have recently occurred tn (ler- .nany and Italv, have been pr-.pred with nnu-h labor and care, and added to ."he iH...sent edition, n.akiuK it .he u,os. complete historical work on Modern Europe ye, olFered .o the pnid.c. In fnll conf.dence that i, will be ionnd deservin, o, the h.,h Character it has ..stained a.,r 1. as a valuable and nd.hihl t ,uide .o a knowledge of the History of Modern Ih-rope .t .s I Lv ollered to the patronage of the friends of Uselul Knowledge, j ^y THE AMERICAN ['UlU-ISHER. n .J ^.,.^-,(.s^:^»^^ss^>^Tmfx^ ' 1^ mil, hi' uboriitc tiim-, ii III, iiild • rri'i'llt -bruury, in (icr- iiil euro, ■omplole hlic. till' hijj[h ( raitllt'lll I )l)t' it is owledge, AUTIIUK'S I'RKFAOE. Tin; workliiTi' pri'sfiiti'.i to tin; public, is ii siiinniary of itii! Uevo- luiioiis. biiili iriMicrul iiiid pm-tiriiiiir, wliii'li hiivi;liiip|K!m'il in Hurope siiitf 111.' I'xiiiirti.iii ol' till! Uoriiiui Kiiipire. in thi; (iitli ci'iitiiry. Ai an I'li'iucniary book, it will he tbiinil iisfrnl to tlioHe who wi.sli to have a coiii'iM.' iuul yi-ncnil view of tin; Biicrestiivi; rcvolutioiw that liiivo clmnirud the iiHpci't of Htalcrt uiiil kiiiifiloniH, ami givtiii birtli to tho existing policy anil establiHlied onlL'i- of society in modern times. Without sonic pi-eliniinary acfiuaintance with the annals of these rcvoliitiiiii,s. wi', can nriiliiT study tlie history of our own country to [uivaiitayi;, nor appreciute the influence which the iliU'cri'iit states, formed from tho wreck of the ancient Homan Empire, reciprocally exercised on each other. Allied, ai it were, by the geographical po- sition of their territories), by a conformity in their religion, language, and manners, these states contracted new attachments in the ties of mutual interests, wliich the progress of civilization, commerce, and industry, tended more and more to cement and confirm. Many of them, whom fortune had elevated to the summit of jiower and pros- perity, carried their laws, their arts and institutions, both civil and military, far bi'yond the limits of their own dominions. The exten- sive sway wiiich the Homisli liii'rarchy held fiir nearly a tiiousand years over the greater part of the European kingdoms, is well known to every reader of history. This continuity of intercourse and relationship among the powers of Europe, became the means of forming them into a kind of repub- 1 <> r ! j-,t i I 1 '4 im?^sm0^- St»»i«*s* VIU rRKFACK limn Ry«trm ; it frnvr l.irth to a .mli-mal l:.w mul ronvrnt.otnl r.u'htn, ,;„„„,.,, ,.„ tlu, MK.vnm...l of tn.ituv, .U..1 ^\n• nH,.,r.-H ..f nmm..m |mu:tuu, A ImMiil'lf I'liuilutioi. Hpr.intf up ainniiu cc.iit.'inii.ir.ii-y sUituH. Tlu'irjruloUKU-,.. m..l .•v.n tlinr c.m.p.'titionM sin.l .livi.ioi.M, coMtril.utnl to ih.. progroHHof r.ivili/.ution. a.ul tlu- atlMiunuMU of tlwil l.ijjh HUilo of pr,i;...-tmi. K. wl.id. 111! luimiu. h.m.mu'cn a.ul iuHtilutioim have bci'ii riirrif-l l.y tlio iiatioiiH of modi-in Kiiropi'. It \h tli.-HC poliliral coniuTti-mH. this ivrii.n.ral ii.liw.'iu f ItintV .lon.s a.Ml tiM.ir nvolutionn, a.ul e.pccMally tl.c vuri.-ti..« of system wliici. Europe i.a. experieiu-ea in the lap.c of ko ...any a-c., tluit rcpiire to i.e .ievlop.-.l i.. .i ^."^^''1 vi>w- ^"'^l' '"^ ^'"'^ ^^'^"•'' l"""' fcKses lo be the objuct of llif present woi'U. The author ha« here ren.odeie.i hi. '• Views of the llevoh.tior.H of the Middle Ajres," (pubiishtHl i.. 1T'.«).) a..d exten.U.d or abridired the dilVerent periods aerordinir t.. ci.ru,n.lanc..s. In .•ontinnin- th.s work .lown to the i-resent tinie, he ha. dee.ned neressary to .■oneludo nt the Kre.>eh Uevolution, as the numerouB results ..f that -real event .ire too mui'l. i..volved in unreitai-My t,. be dearly or nnpar- ! tiully exhibited by eonlcmiwrary writers.* The work Ib divided into el-hl periods of tia.e.t ..erordn.- w.th the pri..ripal revoh.tio... which have changed, in suceessio.., the !«- litical state of Kurope. At the head of e.ich pe.-iod. is placed e.ther the desi.r,>alion of it« p.uticuhK revolutio.., or that ol" .!..• power or empire which held the .isce.ubvney .it the ti..u.. In linnt..,fr h.s treatise solely to hia IlevoUuio..s of Europe, the writer h.is not touched upon thoBe of Asi.i .md the E.ist, exe.ept i.. bo Tar us they have had immediate i..flae,u^e o., the destinies of Europe. Coti- sciouB also that the distingui.hing ch.iracteristic of an luBtor...n is veracity, and that the tcBti.nony of a writer who ha. not In.nself been an eye-witnesB of the events he record., cannot be .el.ed on * ,n ,. cmion nf 1=^. iron, which .he P--"';--;"'';'^ V^ib^r'^ir'''''"' '" bee,. c,.n.,„n„l by Ih. r..h.ur. M Srha-ll. d„wn ... ,he a«h .,f N..v. n.b.r, 181... t Nine ni the last e.lilic.i.R. i».h..h>iL' th.' oomiH.iation. r:J »5!«!W«-*R>3»S3ES35!WSS®'^1 iJWSS? iiiiiion if t lull lutioin :a, thiit ' ■h i)ro- I lliKIri Ot iiiL' lliin olicliulu ii !jrri';it r impiir- iiig with , tllC IK)- )d either )ower or itiiij^ liin luiH not r as they e. Coii- Rtoriun is il liiinself rehed on Tnlili-au ha» ^ 1 Willi implicit roii(i,|,.|ir(-. ihe iiiilhurhaH iiii|i<)N,.,l on liiruHflfihe invu- rial.l<. iwl.Mpfriiin^r, with mtuimiIuuh rarr, il.,. prinripal luilhnrities Hii.l vi.ii.-hir. „|- ,arh |m iiud aii.l country that Imvi' jruidr.l him during hi« ri-HiMircheH, in Htdertin^ and .■x;ll^illirl^f hin nrntcriiilM by tlin lorrh (.r pati.'iit (TiticiMi,,. VVilh.)iit thi« lahor iind preoaution, the iv.)rl< W(Miid h.ive hiii ti of no avail as an rlrairntary hrip I., thnso who were dcwiroiiH of iic.cpiirinjr a more minute and Hohd knowledge of hiritory. A« a uxrt'iil and Huhniiliary accoinpiininient, an Intrnilnction hni been prrfixc.l ia wlii.di are i;iven some i,'.'neral remarkH on history and «oo),'rapliy, sin also on jreiualorry and chronolutry. whi.di may be Peifaril.d an auxiliary «ci..nceK. Tlic^r preliminary notices are fol- lowed l.y a short outline of icnt history, down to the time of (he lliirhurian invaKioii in the fifth ci'ntury. With this grand ern the prrHcnt worli j.roperly eorinm-nces, when a new scries of king- domsand governmenU) njiiung up in Eurojie. ^1' "\\ S«>f5|^W»*S«? ! m i -™p«Tr?r^™>R#»^ ■ i*^.m n ^fi^-^ ^s&Q^^. -^^mm^^^^^^'^^^''^^''"' LIFE OF KOCH. Christophkr William Koch, oqiiallv distinguished as a lawyer and a Iparncd liisi(,ritin, was l.oni on the 9tli of Ma" 17;{7 at liduxwill.T, a .-iiii.ll town in the -tinniory of Lichtenberff in Als;(«-, wiiicii then belonocd to the Prii.co of Hesse-Darmstadt. His father, who was a ninnher of the Chamber of Finance under that prince, sent him to an excellent school in his native place, where he received liie rudiments of iiis education. At the ajre of thirteen, he went to the Protectant University of Strashourt,', where lie prosecuted his studies under the celebrated Schtrpdm. Law was the profession to which lie was def lined; but lie allowed un early predilection for the study of history' and tlie sciences connec'ted with it, such as Diplomatics, or the art ol deciphering- and verifyinir ancient writs and chartulnries, GrtiraJo'^y, Chrniwlninj, &cc. Scha'pflin was not slow to appre- ciate the risini; merit of his pupil, and wished to make him the com|)anion of his labours. Hv. admitted him to his friendship, and became the m.'ans of e>tablishin<. hiiu as his successor in thatfauious political academv, which his reputation had formed at Strashour^r, |,y attractini,^ to that city the youth of the first families, and Iroiii all jiarts of Europe. Koch devoted much of his time to the Canon Law, and soon gave a proof of the pro- press he had made in that branch of study, bv the Academical Dissertation which he published in 1761, under the title of Commcnta/io do. Cnllatione dig/iitn/iim rt brneficiorv/ii ecclesi- asticornm in impcrio Romaiio-Qcnnanico. This treatise was a prelude to his Commentary on the Prngmatic Sanction, which he published in 1789— a work which excited an extra- ordinary sensation in Catholic Germanv, and procured the author the favourable notice of sucli prelates as were most eminent for learning and piety. After takiniT his academic den^ree, Koch repaired to Paris in 17(5-2, where he staid a year; honoured with the society of the most distine ti.ue, the tule "^t^"f^^^ ;;;.,,, p,..,.l, arcording to tho stalulcs of for ihe chair of S^-l'''^ ' f . ,^ ,„,,'^ of ,„eril but max- pableof supply ug h.s place .i> '^^ ' , ,. gj,^ flj,, .-ere Lay of the PO 'l'";^^ --'X J n Ve head of /hat diplo- thu.s l'-^^"«'^^f^^-\ " ^r:Kl7v >a s, gave to the public so great matic school, which, lor >im> >' » - ^ a nun,ber of .nimsters '-"'^ ^''^'l'^/^^ „flv,,a him the chair of ; ,„ 1779 the ^'''^'''X^'i^;^^^^Gomu<:.u, which he i .bUc G-X;^-;';, !^^^ r^;-.;..h n., who knew well ^ declined. ^'^''^7,^'" .. ,oi m.lime.ited him with the dignity how to distinguish meut, ""'",; ,ii,,. between that ot of Knight of the E-nP;;;;^ - ,S"e About the same period , baron and the simple ^^'^ ?^{;.:^V „^ Strasbourg, which he 1 he obtained the cha.r o P«^'":,/;,'^^^l, ,, ,^, jhe FreT.ch Revolu- held until that University ^^^ ^^'P ^^ ^fj^ ,^, „f Alsace sent : tion. Towards the end of 17S.), t c r u.i ^^^^^ hi.u as their envoy ^"^-;';;,i^^'f heir civil and re- Constitutional Assembly, the m.'iUM^ ^^^.^^^ ^^. ligious rights, according to tl e f- " "' '^;''^^. „(■ j,,,,. 17th of succeeded- in obtaining for ''jX.jl'^ ^i^^^*^, ,,J j '.lar-ed thai August^ 1790, which -- '-i'i;^^^t';^re not included the ecclesiastical benefice^ ot the rot i . >j„,,,.,„b,,r prece- „nong those wh ch the decree o ^'^^;\^^^' .y^^,, /,..,„er .ling.1tad placed at the 'I'^jr^;^, ; J^' ,^ au act, bearing ratified by the King. .....Unlence of the Revolution had .-"^'"^I'S.^SS ur"irSm";u assemblage of youth, dispersed tiom Otiasuoui ,• ..^.^ .,nd the natura beauties svhich the reputation "^ ^ 'V 1 nu'i^^t T hese disastrous of the place, had attracted ^^'''^' ^^J;"^Va lime whe.i he was events interrupted the career of Koh at .^;^^^^^ capable of rendering the "^f Vh^r. If to Pub larth^^ Being From- that moment he J*^;"^*-' ':'""! ,^;,!;''A..enblv. he op- ^P^Tlh' S ^ht tn ^ e^ Sle "^So^ and .aumatei; ^^ ssxc^?:^ When p;t^;-;;;t:;:;r: ;;::c: that Assembly, he "-"f ^;::;f ' ^^^^'i^hr rtoUl thi cala- and, in a Report which he me n m^^^^^^^ ^^ E^ei^--_. ■-i-;vs:«5;iS^»,^ssft*3^i4ii^5i;S#^^^3^^3S-:K-S LIFE OF KOCH. 15 ; Koch on the j lO lime, (■lures ; i iiics of j 111 incn- ill the jn were il (liplo- so grenl chair of ■hich he low well 2 (lis'iiity n llial of lie period vhich he 1 Re vol 11- ;;ai-c sent ; and ihe il and re- lios. He ,; 17lh of lar-ed thai t iiicliuh-'d ber prece- he former ;-l,bearinij roved and lution had of youth, ill beauties dif^astrous ell he was lis country, rs. Being ibly. he op- ultimately mnniltee of :e of peace ; d the cala- •ihould be ,,,, by their J' clamours, silenced the remonstrances of Koch, when, on the yOlli ol April, he spoke in opposition to a measure which proved so fatal to France, An oHicial Idler wliicli he addressed, 10th of Auirust. to the constituted authorities of the Lower Rhine, Midiri.iitly expressed the iiorror with which that day's proceed- iiiL's had inspired him. He procured, moreover, the concurrence o( his felliiw-citizen.s in a resistance, which he had then .some reason to hope would be made a common cause by the other provinces. This letter drew down upon him the persecution of the ruling- party. He was immured in a prison, where he lanLruished for eleven months, and from which he had no pros- pect of escape, except to mount the scatfold. The revolution of the 9th Tliermidor restored him to liberty, when he was ap- pointed, by the voice of his fellow-ciiizen.s, to the Directory of their provincial department. He endeavoured by all means in his power to defeat the measures that were taken to injure his constituents ; and had influence enough, it is said, to prevent the sale of the funds belonifinir to manufactories and hospitals. He then resumed with pleasure those functions which he had unwillingly accepted ; in 1790, he recommenced his professorship of public law, and relumed with new zeal to his literary labours, which ha.l been too long interrupted. Six years he spent in these useful occupations; from which, howe'ver, he was once more detached by a decree of the Senate, which nominated him a ineiiiber of the Tribunal. This nomination Koch accepted, in the hope of being useful to his Protestant countrymen, and to the city of Strasbourg, in obtaining the re-establishment of the reformed religion, and its restoration in the University, He did, in eliect, exert himself much in behalf of religion, ac- cording to the confession of Augsburg, as well as of the Pro- testant Academy at Strasbourg, which was suppressed at this period. The Tribunal ha\ itig been suppressed, Koch declinei! all places of trust or honour which were oilered him ; and only requested permission to retire, that he might have a short interval for him- self between business and the grave. A pension of ^000 francs was granted him, without any solicitation on his part. In 1808, he returned to Strasbourg, where he continued to devote him- self to letters, and in administering to the public good. About the end of 1810, the Grand-master of the Univer.s'ity of Franci.' conferred on him the title of Honorary Rector of the Academy of Strasbourg, His health, which had been prolonged by a life of great temperance and regularity and the peace which results from a good conscience became disordered in 1812, when he fell inio a slate of languor, which terminated his life on the 25th \ N'^ "'i>. \ir^ LIFE OF KOCH. I] October 1S13. His colleagues, the professors ofStJ.sho,nj^ ' rt^^t ^ol-uH bv ^ Ohn.nucht, an eminent .cniptor .n which \va> "'^.^"^''V .;. l,inbjeci o examine the natural or physical structure of the earth ; while Dolitical geography illustrates the different divisions of the earth which men have invented, such as kingdoms, states, and pro- vinces This science is also divided, relatively to the tunes of which it treats, into ancient middle-age, and modern geography -Ji ''~-^^"^n-"'"Xif^, '^mw- with I riaiis, , it lit j well ine oi ' lorian ! fubles, laders, essen- guard ide by ssion ; ', I judg- i : That j ictions, ! 0, wri- ve had ght al- c same 3 writ- o have las had iroid all said to se, geo- nk. In arrative le limes I as to viously Here fore, ihful in- cal, and inbraces. red as a )bjeci to while the earth and pro- times of ography INTRODUCTION. 21 Anrient geography ia that which explains the primitive stale of the world, ami iis poiilical divisions prior to ine subversion ot ihe Roman Empire in ihe west. By ihe geography of the middle ages, i.s under.-itood that which acquaints us with the political state of the niitions who figured in history from the fifth century to the end of the fifteenth, or the beginning of the sixteenth. Modern geography represents to us the state of the world and its political divisions, from the sixteenth century to the present time. Antiquity has handed down to us the works of several very eminent geographers, the most celebrated of whom are Strabo, Ptolemy, Pomponius Mela, Pausanias, and Stephanus of Byzan- tium. Among the moderns who have laboured in this depart- ment of geography, those more particularly deserving of notice, HreCUivorius,Cellarius,Briet,D'Anville, Gosselin, Mannert, and Ukert. The geography of the middle ages is but little known ; and remains yet a sort of desert which demands cultivation. There does not exist a single geographical work which gives a correct representation of that new order of things, which the German nations introduced into Europe after the downfall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century. The literati of France and Ger- many have thrown some rays of light on certain parts of these obscure regions ; but no nation in Europe can yet boast of having thoroughly explored them. Of modern authors, the most conspicuous as the restorer of geographical science, is Sebastian Monster, a German, who published a voluminous work o.j cosmography, towards the middle of the sixteenth century. The Flemings and the Dutch have been among the earliest cultivators of geography since the revival of letters. Ortelius, Gerard Mercator, Varenius, Janson, Bleau, and Fischer, are well known by the maps and learned works which they have produced. Among the number of celebrated French geographers are to be reckoned Sanson, Delisle, Cassini, D'Anville ; and more recently Zannoni, Bauche, Mentelle, Barbid du Bocage, Malte- Brun, &c. Delisle is the first who submitted geography to the touchstone of astronomical observation. Biisching, a German, wrote u work on geography, which has been translated into several languages, and has received various additions and improvements, especially in the hands of the French transla- tors. M. Ritter, a professor at Berlin, published a work in which he gives a new and scientific form to geography. It was during the latter half of the eighteenth century, that the attention of the learned was turned more particularly towards J li •li' iff I : I fUt CHAFTIK I. geographvi when a series of the most elegant maps appeared in all the principal states of Europe. The wars" that sprun;? from the revolution encouraged several engineers and geographers, both foreigners and Frenchmen, to publish those masterpieces of their art, the charts and plans of the countries that had served as the theatre of hostilities. Connected with geography is the science of Statistics, or the study of the constitution and political economy of stales. Two Italians, Sansovino and Botero, about the end of the sixteenth century, were the first that attempted to treat this as a particular science, separate and distinct from geography. The Germans followed nearly in the footsteps of the Italian writers ; they introduced statistics into their Universities as a branch of study, and gave it also the name by which it is still known. » It was chiefly, however, during the course of the eighteenth century that the governments of Europe encouraged the study of this new science, which borrows its illustrations from history, and constitutes at present an essential branch of national polity. Genealogy, or the science which treats of the origin and descent of illustrious families, is not less important to the knowledge of history, than geography. It teaches us to know and distinguish the principal characters that have acted a con- spicuous part on liie theatre of the world ; and by giving us clear and explicit ideas of the ties of relationship that subsist among sovereigns, it enables us to investigate the rights of succession, and the respective claims of rival princes. The .study of Genealogy is full of difficulties, on account of the uncertainty and fabulous obscurity in which the origin of almost every great family is enveloped. Vanity, aided by flattery, has given birth to a thousand legendary wonders, that fall to pieces at the touch of sound criticism. It is by the light of this science that we learn to distinguish certainties from probabilities, and pro^'abilities from fables and conjectures. Few families who have o':cupied the thrones of former dynasties, or who now hold pre-eminent rank in Europe, can trace their genealogy beyond the twelfth century. The House of Capet is the only one that can boast of a pedigree that reaches back to the middle of the ninth century. The origin of the royal families ol Savoy, Lorrain, Brunswick, England, and Baden, belongs to the eleventh century ; all the others are of a date posterior to those. A single fact in diplomatics has proved sufficient to discredit a multitude of errors and fables, that tradition had engrafted on the legends of the dark ages. From the examiniitions that have been made of ancient charters and records, there is abun- dant evidence that, prior to the twelfth century, among families IL **■?"' IT •din from lers, eccs rved r the Two tenth rular nans ihey ludy, , was ntury r this , nnd n and o the know t con- ng us ubsist hts of unt of in of itlery, all to 'this ities, ilies now aiogy only iddle les ot to the these, credit rafted s thai abiin- mi nio iin ilius INTRODUCTION. «l even the most illuHtrioiis. the distinction of surnames was un- known. The greiitost noblemen, nnd the presumption is much stronger that common gentlemen, never used any other signa* ture than their bupti.smni name ; to which they sometimes an- nexed that of the dignity or order with which they weie invested. There was therefore little chance of distinguishing families from each other, and still le^s of distinguishing individuals of one and the same family. It was only towards the end of the eleventh century, nnd during the era of the crusades, that the use of family names was gradually introduced; and that they began, in their public transactions, to superadd to 'heir baptismal and honorary names, that of the country or territory they possessed, or the castle where they had their residence ; and it must have required nearly two hundred years before this practice became generol in Europe. The Germans were the first, after the Reformation, who combined the study of genealogy with that of history. Among their most distinguished genealogists mny be mentioned Rein- erus Reineccius, Jerome Hcnninges, Elias Reusner, Nicolas Riltershusius, James-William Imhof, and the two Gebhards of Luneburg, father and son. The work of Henninges is much sought after, on account of its rarity ; but the genealogical labours of the two Gebhards are particularly remarkable for the profound and accurate criticism they display. The principal writers on this subject among the French are, D'Hozier, Gode- froy, Andrew Duchesne, St. Marthe, Father Anselme,Chazot de Nantigny, and M. de St. Allais. Chronology, or the science of computing time, represents facts or events in the order in which they have occurred. The historian ought by no means to neglect to ascertain, as nearly as possible, the exact and precise date of events ; since, without this knowledge, he will be perpetually liable to commit anachro- nisms, lu confound things with persons, and often to mistake effects for causes, or causes for effects. This st idy is not without its difficulties, which are as perplex- ing as thi-y are singularly various, both in kind and degree. These embtrrassments relate chiefly, 1. To the age of the world ; 2. 1 he different forms of the year ; 3. The number of years that elapsed from the creation to the birth of Christ ; 4. The variety of epochs or periods of reckoning time. Many of the ancient philosophers maintained that the vi'orld was eternal. Ocellus Lucnnus, a Greek philosopher of the Py- thagorean sect, attempted to prove this hypothesis, in a treatise entitled De Unicerso, which the Marquis D'Argens and the Abb^ Batteux have translated into French. Aristotle followed I }M5l" a ki.i'ii'it'-i' 94 CHAfTKIl I. I in the footsteps of OcpIIuh. His opinion nn to lh« c.icm*y ol the uiiivprsp, is (lotniled nl length in liis i-oinin»'ntarips on Phy 's. Sumo luntivru phiiosojjhiTs, w BiiHon, Hiunilton, Dolomu-u, Suu«siire, Faiijiis dc St. Fond. Sec. Iiuvc iissijrnt-d to our gl'ibe on exisicnci' long nntorior to the ur(?m wIumi history comini-nri's. Their reasoning they support by the nmformiilion of the Riobe itself, as well as the time that must have necessarily elapsed before the earth, in the progressive operations of nature, could be rendered a suitable habitation for man. The most ancient account that we have of the origin of «be world, and of the human race, is derived from Mohos This leader ond lawgiver of the Jewish nation, lived about 1600 years before Christ ; and nearly 1000 before Herodotus, the most an- cient profane author whose works have been handed down to our times. According to Moses and ihe Jewish annals, the history of the human race does not yet comprehend a period of six thousand ycarr. This account seems to be in opposition to that of several ancient nations, such as the Egyptians, Indians, Chaldeans, Thibetians, and Chinese, who carry back their chro- nology to a very remote date, and far beyond what Moses has assigned to the human race. But it is sufficient at present to remark, that this high antiquity, which vanity has led these na- tions to adopt as a reality, is either altogether imaginary, or purely mythological, founded on a symbolical theology, whose mysteries and allegories have been but little understood. This primeval epoch is usually filled with gods and demigods, who are alleged to have reigned over these nations for so many my- riads of years. , Traditions so fabulous and chimerical will never destroy the authenticity of Moses, who independently of his nativity, and the remote age in which he lived, merits implicit credit from the simplicity of his narrative, and from the circumstance, that there has never yet been discovered on the surface, or in the internal structure of the earth, any organic evidence or work of human art, that can lead us to believe that the history of the world, or more properly speaking, of the human race, is ante- cedent to the age which the Jewish legislator has assigned it. With regard to the division of time, a considerable period must, no doubt, have elapsed before men began to reckon by years, calculated according to astronomical observations. Two sorts or forms of compulation have been successively in use among different nations. Some have employed solar years, cal- culated by the annual course of the sun ; others have made use of lunar years, calculated by the periodical revolutions of the moon. All Christian nations of the present day adopt the solar is ' .! ■ ; ■< ». Il" JJ ! Wlii l'' l, ' !i p iW by Two use s.cal- c use if the soUir rrriJ r INTKoniJCTlON. 2fi fronr; wh«l<) the lunur onlruluiion is lluit followivl by the Mb- iiiinciiini. 'I'lit' Holiir yi-nr coiiftistn of UM (liiy.t, ft hoiir?*, 48', 46",:iO"': 111.' Iiiniir ynr, ..f.'Wl diiy^ ;J lioiiri, JM', US", li>"'. The iiivcriiioii, or iiior'- jiropi-rly ^|)»•ukin^.^ itii- calciiliilioii of ihc sdliir y»'ar, is dm* lo ihc nnci'iii K>'y|iiiiiriN, wlio, by the posiiion of llii'ir rountry, iis wrll as by ibe pi'riodical overflow- ings iiiid obhiii(j>< (if ihi' Nib', bad i-itiiy ■'I'ld obvious induce- nicni*' for iimkiiii; iistrnnoniical nbscrviiiions. 'fb*^ .solar year has urnb'ri;orio, id procfsn of lime, various oorrcclioti iirid de- notninatioris. The most rprnarkablf of these are iiidu-ateil by the distiuctions, Ntill in u*e, of the Julian, the Ctregorian, and th»' Reformed year. Julius Cicsar introduced into ;he Roman empire, the solar or Ejfyplian year, whicb Itiolc from him the name of the Julian year. This he substituted instead of the luimr year, which the Komans had used before his time. It was distinguished, on ac- coimt of a slight variation in the reckoning, into the common and bissextile or leap year. 'I'lie commoii Julian year consist- ed of 366 days ; and the bissextile, whiili returned every four years, of 36fi days. This computation was faulty, inasmuch as it allowed UHi) days, and entire hours, for the annual re- volution of the sun; being nn excess every year, of 11', 14", 30'", beyond the true time. This, in a long course of ages, had amounted lo several days ; and began, at length, to deranpe the order of the seasons. Pope Gregory XIII.,' wishing to correct this error, employed an able mathematician, named Louis Lilio, to reform the Julian year, according to the true annual course of the sun. A new calendar was drawn up, which was called after the name of that pontiff, the Gregorian calendar ; and as, in consequence of the incorrectness of the Julian era, the civil year had gained ten days, the same Pope ordered, by a bull published in 1681, that these should be expunged from the calendar ; so that, in- stead of the 6th of October 1582, they should reckon it the 16th. The Catholic States adopted this new calendar without the least difficulty; but the Protestants in the Empire, and the rest of Eur jpe, as also the Russians and the Greeks, adhered to the Julian year ; and hence the distinction between the old and new style, to which it is necessary to pay attention in ail public acts and writings since the year 1682 of the Christian era. The difference between the old and new style, which, until 1699, was only ten days, and eleven from the commence ment of 1700, tnust be reckoned twelve days during the pre sent century of 1800; so that the 1st of J'anuary of the old vear, answers to the 13th of the new. m ^M^' 2H CHAPTER I. The Reformed Year or Calendar, as it is called, is distinct from the Gregorian, and applies to the calculation of the year, which was made by a professor at Jena, named Weigel. It differs from the Gregorian year, as to the method of calculating the time of Easter, and the other moveable feasts of the Chris- tian churches. The Protestants of Germany, Holland, Den- mark and Switzerland, adopted this new calendar in 1700. Their example was followed in 1752, by Great Britain ; and in 1753, by Sweden ; but since the year 1776. the Protestants of Germany, Switzerland and Holland, abandoned the reformed calendar, and adopted the Gregorian ; and there is, properly speaking, no nation in Europe at this day, except the Russians and the Greeks, which makes use of the Julian calendar, or old style/ But it is not merely the variations that have prevailed as to the form and computation of the year, that have perplexed the science of chronology ; the different methods of commencing it, have also been the source of much confusion. The Komans, from the time of Julius Caesar, began the year on the first of January. The ancient Greeks at first reckoned from the win- ter solstice, and afterwards from midsummer; the Syro-Mace- donians or Seleucidoe, commenced from the autumnal equinox. The sacred year of the Jews, began with the first new moon after the vernal equinox, that is, in the month of March ; and their civil year began with the new moon immediately follow- ing the autumnal equinox, that is, in the month of September. The same diversity of practice which we observe among the ancients, existed also in the middle ages. The Franks, under the Merovingian kings, began the year with the month of March. The Popes began it sometimes at Christmas, or the 25th of De- cember ; sometimes on the 1st of January ; and sometimes on the 25lh of March, called indiscriminately the day of the Annun- ciation or Incarnation. Under the Carlovingian princes, two methods of beginning the year were generally prevalent in France, — the one fixed its commencement at Christmas, or the 25lh of December, and the other at Easter ; that is, at the day on which that moveable feast happened to fall. This latter custom prevailed also under the Capetian kings, and it was not suppressed until near the middle of the sixteenth century. Charles IX., by an edict published in 1564, ordered, that in France the year should henceforth commence on the 1st of Ja- nuary. Previously to this edict, it sometimes happened, from the variable date of Easter, that the same month was found to occur twice in one and the same year. For example, the year 1358 having begun on the 1st of April, on which Easter diiy •: I I I ) I < ' J i t ! t ! C II y 6 ti c ci h 1 (J h tl IL 'vr^m^s^m^^i W': istinct year, -1. It laling Chris- Den- I 1700. ; and in I nts of ormed operly issians lar, or I as to ed the encing omans, first of ic wiii- -Mace- uinox. moon I ; and follow- ember. ng the , under March, of De- nies on ^nnun- !s, two ent in or the He day latter vas not enlury. that in of Ja- from und to le year er day IMTPODVCTION. 87 n 11 happened to fall, did no*, terminate until the 20th of April fol- lowing, that is, on the eve preceding Easter. There were con- sequently in this year, nearly two complete months of April. Since the reign of Charles IX., it has continued the invariable practice in France to begin the year on the 1st of January. In England, the year used to commence on the 25th of March, and the old style was there observed until 1753 ; when, by vir- tue of an act of Parliament, passed in 1752, the beginning oi the year was transferred to the 1st of January. It was decreed also, at the same time, that, in order to accommodate the En- glish chronology to the new style, the 3d of September 1752, should be reckoned the 14th of the same month. ' It is easy to conceive the perplexity and confusion that must have been introduced into chronology, as much by the differ- ence of styles as by the different methods of commencing the year. Nothing is more probable, than that we should here find mistakes and contradictions which, in reality, have no ex- istence ; and the more so, as the writers or recorders of public acts, who employ these different styles, or date the beginning of 'he year variously, never give us any intimation on the sub- ject ; and all reckon promiscuously from the year of Christ's nativity, without informing us whether they follow the old or the new style — whether they commence the year in the month of January or March, at Easter or at Christmas. Modern chronologists have found much embarrassment in calculating the number of years that elapsed between the crea- tion and the birth of Christ. Father Petau, one of the most learned men in this science, admits, that this point of chrono- logy is to be established rather by probable conjectures than so- lid arguments. There have even been reckoned, according to Fabricius, about a hundred and forty different opinions respect- ing the epoch of Christ's nativity. Some fix this era m the year of the world 3616, while others carry it back to the year 6484. This great discordance of opinions arises from the con- tradictions found to exist between the three principal texts of the Old Testament. The Hebrew text, for instance, to which most chronologists gives the preference, fixes the deluge in the year of the world 1656 ; while, according to the Samaritan text, it happened in 1307 ; and, according to the Septuagint, in 2942. The system at present most accredited, is that of Archbishop Usher, an Irish prelate, who, founding his calculation on the Hebrew text, fixes the date of Christ's nativity i.> the year of the world 4000. A variety of epochs prevailed at difllerent times ; as most na- tions, both ancient and modern, who had governments and laws f t '4^ ■i •i ■i'i r' 28 CHAPTER I. of their own, adopted chronological eras that were peculiar to themselves. The ancient Greeks had their Olympiads, and the Syro-Macedonians the era of the Seleucidae. The Romans calculated by consulships, which became the era of their public acts ; and besides these, their historians used to reckon from the foundation of the city, which goes back 752 years beJore Christ, or 3249 after the creation. The era of Dioclesian, in- troduced in honour of that emperor, and sometimes also called the era of the martyrs, began in the year 284 after Christ, and was for a long time used in the West. But, without stopping here to enumerate the different eras of antiquity, we shall rather restrict ourselves at present to the pointing out of those that belong lore properly to modern history, viz. 1. The era of the modern Greeks. 2. Of the modern Jews. 3. Of the Spa- niards. 4. The Hegira, or Mahometan era. 6. The Diony- sian, or Christian era. The era of the modern Greeks is known by the name of the Mundane era of Constantinople. It begins 6508 years before the birth of Christ. The first year of the Incarnation thus falls in the year of the world 5509 ; and, consequently, the year 1823 of the Christian era answers to the year 7331 of the Mun- dane era of Constantinople. Under this system, two kinds of years are in use, the civil and the ecclesiastical. The former commences with the month of September, the other has begun sometimes on the 21st of March, and sometimes on the 1st of April. This era is followed, even at this day, by the Greek church. The Russians, who adopted it from the Greeks, along with the Christian religion, made use of it even in their civil acts, until the reign of Peter the Great. That emperor, in 1700, abolished the Mundane era of Constantinople, and sub- stituted in its place, the Christian era, and the Julian calendar or old style. The modem Jews have likewise u mundane era ; as they reckon from the creation of the world. It commences on the 7th of October of the Julian year, and reckons 3761 years be- fore Christ. The year 3762 of the world, is the first of the Christian era, according to the Jews ; and the current year (1823) answers to the year 5583 of their mundane era. In Spain, the era began with the year of Rome 714, thirty- eight years before the birth of Chrisi ; being the time when the triumvirate was renewed between Ctesar Octavianus, Mark An- tony, and Lepidus. The Spaniards, wishing to give Octavia- nus some testimony of their satisfaction on being comprehended within his province, began a new era with this event,* w! ifh prevailed not only in Spain and Portugal, but also in Africa, I Ji.t|J ! f!L,j,a-j,i i juiyi'-,Mi4Jfi y'Miin T ;ror, in nd sub- alendar i i INTROOUCTIOIf. 99 and those parts of France which were subject to the dominion or the Visigoths. It is of great importance to know, that the Spaniards and Portuguese constantly employed this era in their annals and public acts, so late as the 14ih and 15th centuries, when they substituted the Christian era in its place. The era which the Mussulman nations follow is that of Ma- homet, called ihe Hegira, or the Flight of the Prophet. It be- gan on the 16th of July 622 A. C, and is composed of lunar years. In order to find out in what year of the vulgar era any given year of the Hegira falls, it is necessary first to reduce the lunar into solar years, and then add the number 622. Far example, the year 1238 of the Hegira, answers to the year 1823 of the vulgar, or Christian era. It began on the 18th of Sep- tember 1822, and ended on the 7th of the following September Dionysius or Denys the Little, a Roman Abb<5, who lived in the time of the Emperor Justinian, about the year of Chri^l 530, was the author of the vulgar era, which afterwards received a more perfect form from the hands of the venerable Bede, an English monk, about the year 720. Before that time, ihe Latins, or Christians of the West, employed the era of the Consuls, or that of Dioclesian. Denys the Little, imagining it would be more convenient for the Christians to reckon their time from the birth of Christ, applied himself with great industry to calculate the number of years that had elapsed from the Incarnation to his own times. Modern chronologists have remarked, that both Denys and Bede were mistaken in their calculations ; but a difference of opinion prevails on this subject, as may be seen in the learned work of Fabricius. There are some of these chronologists who date the birth of Christ thirty-four years earlier, whik oiLers find adiflference of but one year, or at most four, between the true epoch of the nativity, and that adopted by Denys. This disagreement of the modern chronologists has given rise to the distinction between the true era of the birth of Christ, and the Vulgar or Dionysian era, which the general usage has now consecrated and established. In France, this era was not introduced until the eighth century. AVe find it employed, for the first time, in the acts of the Coun- cils of Germany, Liptines, and Soissons, held in the years 742-3-4, under Pepin, surnamed the Short. The Kings of France never used it in their public acts, until the end of the ninth century ; and the Popes only since the eleventh. In order to compare the difTerent eras, and to facilitate the process of reducing the years of one into those of another, » scheme has beeen proposed called the Julian period. Thr in- vention of this is due to Joseph Scaliger, a professor at Leyden, ) ■ 1^1^ * I ill »! H F 1 g ip^ • ! li i 1: pi lii \\ \ m CHAPTER I. and well known by his chronological works. He g«ve it the name of Julian, because the Julian year served as the basis of it. It is composed of the several products of the cycles of the sun, the moon, and the indictions multiplied by each other. The cycle of the sun is a period, or revolution of twenty- eight solar years ; at the end of which the same order of years returns, by a kind of circle or cycle. Its use is to indicate the days on which each year commences, and the Dominical Let- ters. These are the first seven letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, D, E, F, G, which are employed to indicate the seVen days of the week, more particularly the Sabbath (dies Dominica.) At the end of twenty-eight years, of which this cycle is composed, there returns a new order or series of years, so similar to the preceding, that the dominical letters again answer exactly to the same days. The cycle of the wwon comprises nineteen lunar years, twelve of which are called common, and the remaining seven interca- lary ; these yield a product of 6939 days 18 hours, according to the calculation of the ancients ;* and are equal to nineteen Julian or solar years. By means of this cycle always re- curring, the new moons fall again on the same days and the same hours on which they had happened nineteen years before; so that, for all the new moons, the cycle which is to come is entirely similar to the preceding. The cipher which indicates the year of the cycle, is called the golden number, because they used to write it in characters of gold in the ancient calendars, where it was employed to mark the times of the new moons. The cycle of indiations is a cycle which recurs every fifteen years ; and which, like those already mentioned, was frequent- ly employed in charters and public records. The origin of these indictions is generally referred to a contribution or cess appointed, for fifteen years, by the Romans, and afterwards re- newed for the same period. They began in the reign of Con- stantine the Great, that is, about the year of Christ 313, and are distinguished into three kinds; 1. That of Constantinople, which was employed by the Greek Emperors, and began on the 1st of September; 2. That which was termed the Imperial, or Caesaroan indiction, the use of which was limited to the West, and which began on the 25th of September ; and, 3. The Roman or Pontifical indiction, which the Popes employed in their bulls. This last began on the 25th of December, or the 1st of January, according as the one or the other of these days was reckoned by the Romans the first of the new year. The cycle of the sun, comprising twenty-eight years, and that of the moon nineteen, when multiplied together, give a i 1 i Y t ) e o « 1 IWtfJ^iW ii !aWfctorn empire, brought along with it the revival of literature and the fine arts, and the renovation of civil society in Europe. Although ancient history docs not enter into the plan of the following work, nevertheless it appeared necessary to give here a brief sketch of it to the reader, with the view of connecting the order of time, and the chain of the great events that have occurred from the remotest ages to the present day. We have divided it into three periods, the first of which embraces 3000, the second 1000, and the third 500 years. The first period, which comprises thirty cemurics, is almost wholly fabulous. The notices of it that have been transmitted to us are very imperfect. The order of time cannot be estab* lished on any solid foundation. Even the authenticity of the famous Parian marbles, has been called in question as spurious ; and there is no other chronology that can guide our steps through this dark labyrinth of profane history. The only lite- rary monuments that are left us of these remote and obscure ages, are the book? of Moses and the Jews. Herodotus, the earliest profane historian, wrote more than a thousand years after Moses, and about 450 before Christ. He had been prece- ded several centuries by Sanchoniathon the Phoenician ; but the work of this latter historian is lost, and there exists only a few scattered fragments of it in Porphyry and Eusebius. li appears, therefore, that of the 4500 years that fall within the compass of ancient history, the first thirty centuries may, without inconvenience, be retrenched. Amidst the darkness of those ages, we discover nothing but the germs of societies, gov- ernments, sciences and arts. The Egyptians, the Israelites, the Phoenicians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, or Chaldeans, made then the most conspicuous figure among the nations of Asia and Africa. The Egyptians and Chaldeans were the first who cultivated astronomy. Egypt was long the nursery of arts and sciences. The Phcenicians, without any other guide than the stars, boldly traversed unknown seas, and gave a vast extent of intercourse to their commerce and navigation. They founded many celebrated colonies, such as Carthage in Africa, and Malaga and Cadiz on the shores of Spain. The history of Europe, which is utterly unknown during the first two thousand years, begins to exhibit in the third millenary, a few slight notices of ancient Greece. A multitude of petty stales had then taken root ; most of which, us Argos, Athens and Thebes, had l)een founded by colonies from Egypt. The ^ieMdhmmmMmm*^, 1 ilury, .f the ' rature tjrope. of the e here j ecting I have p have i3000, almost imitted eslab- of the irioiis ; r steps ily lite- Dbscure us, the years prece- n ; but only a within [s may, :ness of ;s, gov- jtes, the ildeans. [ions of lltivated :ience&. j, boldly Ircourse many laga and Iring the jllenary. )f petty I Athens The INTBOOUCTION. 33 Greeks, in imitation of the Phccnicians, applied themselvei« to arts, navigation, and commerce. They established numerous colonies, not only on the coast of Asia Minor, but on those of Italy and Sicily. That in lower Italy or Calabria, was known by the name of Magna Griecia. It was during the second period of ancient history, or in thi; fourth millenary, that great and powerful monarchies arose; which contributed to the progress of arts and civilization, and the perfection of society. These are commonly reckoned five, viz. the Egyptian, the Assyrian, the Persian, the Macedonian, and the Roman ; all of which successively established them- selves on the ruins of each other. The history of the two first monarchies is enveloped in mystery and doubt. Of the ancient Egyptians, nothing now remains but their pyramids, their temples, and obelisks, — monu- ments which can only attest the power and grandeur of the ancient sovereigns of Egypt. As to the Assyrian antiauities, the contradictions that we find between the narratives of Herodotus and Ctesias, cannot fail to make us reject, as fabulous, the details of the latter, respecting the magnificence of Ninus, Semiramus, and Sardanapalus, the supposed monurchs of Assyria and Babylon. Nothing certain is known of this empire, or the conquests of these kings, beyond what we find recorded in the annals of the Jews. Shalmaneser, King of Assyria, subdued the kingdom of Sama- ria or Israel, about the year of the world 3270 ; and Nebu- chadnezzar, one of his successors, conquered that of Judah and Jerusalem, about the year 3403. The Persian monarchy was founded by Cyrus, who put an end to the dominion of the Assyrians and Babylonians, by taking the city of Babylon, about the year of the world 346^ The empire, when at its greatest height, under Darius Hystaspos, comprehended all that part of Asia which stretches from the Indus to the Caspian Sea, and from the Euxine to the shores of the Mediterranean. Egypt in Africa, and Thrace in Europe, were subject to i's laws. After a duration of nearly two centuriesj it was finally destroyed by the Macedonians in the year 3672. Greece, which was at first divided into several petty king- doms, changed its condition towards the commencement of the fourth millenary ; when its principal cities, till then governed by kings, formed themselves into detached republics. An en- thusiasm for liberty spread over all Greece, and inspired every bosom with the love of glory. Military bravery, as well as arts, and talents of all kinds, were fostered and encouraged by public frames, the principal of which were the Olympic. Two cities, f O i u< %\ t !■ 1 ... .'t hi^ IB 34 CHAPTBR I. Athens and Lacedemon, fixed upon themselves for a time the eyes'of all Greece. Solon was the legislator of the former, and Lycurgiis of the latter. To these two republics all the rest suc- cumbed, either as allies, or by right of conquest. Athens has rendered herself immortal by the victories which she gained over ihe Persians, at the famous battles of Marathon, Salamis. and Platan ; fought a. m. 3512, 3522, and 3523. The ascendency which these victories procired the Atheni- ans over the rest of the Greek states, excited the jealousy of the Lacedemonians, and became the principal cause of the famous civil war which arose in 3572, between these two repub- lics, and which is known '/y the name of the Peloponnesian war. This was followed by Vf rious other civil wars ; and these dis- asters contributed to greatly exhaust the Greeks, and to break that union which had been the true source of their prosperity and their glory. Philip, King of Macedon, had the address to turn these unhappy divisions to his own advantage, and soon made himself master of all Greece. The battle of Chteronea, which he gained over the Athenians about the year of the world 3664, completed the conquest of that country. Alexander the Great, son of Philip, afterwards attacked the Persian empire, which he utterly overthrew, in consequence ol the three victories which he gained over Darius Codomannus, the last of the Persian kings, at the passage of the Granjcus in 3668, at Issus in 3669, and near Arbela in 3672. The monarchy founded by Alexander fell to pieces afler his death. From its wreck were formed, among others, by three of his generals, the three kingdoms of Macedon, Syria and Egypt ; all of which were conquered in succession by the Ro- mans, A. H. 3836, 3936, and 3972. Greece itself had been reduced to a Roman province, after the famous sack of Corinth, and the destruction of the Achsean league, a. m. 3856, or 144 years before Christ. The empire of the Greeks was succeeded by that of the Romans, which is distinguished from all its predecessors, not by its extent and duration, than by the wisdom with which it was administered, and the fine monuments of all kinds which it has transmitted to posterity. The greatness of this em- Eire was not, however, the achievement of a single conqueror, ut the work of ages. Its prosperity must be chiefly ascribed to the primitive constitution of the Republic, which inspired the Romans with the love of liberty, and the spirit of patriotism — which animated them to glory and perseverance, and taught them to despise dangers and death. Their religion, likewise, served as a powetful engine to restrain and direct the multitude, according to the views and designs of the government. tl semble a romance rather than a true history. The cultivation of letters and arts among the Romans, did not, properly speaking, commence until the third period ; and after they had had intercourse with civilized nations, as the Carthaginians nnd Greeks. It was not until 484 years after the building of the city, that they struck their first silver coinage ; and ten years afterwards, they equipped their first fleet against the Carthaginians. It is at this period, also, that truth begins to dawn upon their history, and to occupy the place of fable and tradition. Besides their native historians, Titus Livius, Florus, and Velleius Paterculus, several Greek authors, as Po- lybius, Plutarch, Appian of Alexandria, Dion Cassius, &c. have furnished useful memorials on this period. The history of Polybius, especially, is a work of the highest merit. The 7 Ik f.' 1 ( I. I Ih^ 4ic ; .1 r- > ■ u a.; J' m m Hi 3R nilAPTER I. Blalexman will there find lessons on polilich and government and the soldier instructions in ilie art of war. A long scries of foreign wars put the Romans in possession of the fsles of the Meditcrranoan, Spain, Northern Africa, Egypt, Gaul, lllyria, Macedonia, Greece, Thrace, and all Asia, as far as the Euphrates. The destruction of the powerful re- public of Carthage was the grand ciist of the die that decided the empire of the world in favour of the Romans. Carthage was a colony which the ancient Phcnicians had founded on the coast of Africa, near the modern city of Tunis, in the year of the world 3119, and 130 before the founding of Rome, in imitation of their mother country, the Carthaginians rendered themselves famous by their merchandise and their marme. The extent to which they carried their commerce, and the force necessary for its protection, rendered their arms every where victorious. They gradually extended their conquests along the shores of Africa, in Spain, and the islands of the Mediterranean. The attempts which they had made to get possession of Sicily, was the occasion of embroiling them in a war with the Romans. For nearly two hundred years, Rome and Carthagr disputed between them the empire of the world ; and it wat not until these two mighty rivals had, more than once, made each other tremble for their independence, that the Carthaginians yielded to the yoke of the conqueror. Their capital, after a siege which lasted nearly three years, was completely laid in ruins by the famous ScipioiEmilianus, the scholar of rolybius No monument of the Carthaginians now remains to point oui the ancient splendour of that republic. Their national archives md all the literary treasures they contained, perished with the city, or were destroyed by the Romans. The destruction of Carthage happened in the year of Rome 608, and of the world 36)56, the same year that witnessed the sack of Corinth. The fall of Carthage, and more especially the conquest of Greece, Egypt, and the Asiatic kingdoms, occasioned a wonder- ful revolution in the manners and government of the Romans The riches of the East, the arts and institutions of the van quished nations, brought them acquainted with luxuries they had never known, which soon proved the fatal harbingers of \ vice. Their patriotism and love of liberty insensibly declined. I and became extinct : powerful and ambitious citizens fomented I insurrections and civil wars, which ended in the subversion of I the republican government, and the establislunent of monarchy Two triumvirates appeared in succession. The first consisteil of Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus, and was dissolved in conse- rnrnent ssesnion Africa, [ill Asia, LTful re- live iiled inns had if Tunis, nding of iHginians ind their lorce, and ins every conquests ds of the lession of with the CarthagP j \ td it wot ' ; ice, made ihagiiiianii il, after a ly laid in Polybiua point out I archives I ^ with the .ruction of the world th. jnquest of a wonder- Romana f the van juries they •bingers of declined, fomented jver.sion ol monarchy it consisteil in conse- tNTKOI , UIIOM. 91 quence of the civil wiir that aro!«e among the triumvirs. Casar, havings con(|ui>red Foiii|)i>y ut the bnttle of Pharsalia, in the y»Mir «»f Komf 706, became master of the empire, under the title of perpetuul dictiitor. This new elevation of fortune he did not long enjoy ; he was assiisNinutcd in the senate by a band of cn^^'»W«*« 30 cHArrBR I. had been reserved at first for the pf«fM«, was nfterw»rds Iran** ferred to this body ; but as the iiiiliiiiry re wholly subordinate to the prince, and as ho had also i»i his coininand a numeroui guard, it is easy to perceive that the luilliority of the senate wn» but precarious, and by no means u counterpoise to that of the prince. A government so constructed could not insure the welfare and happiness of the people, except under princes as humane as Titus, as just and enlightened as Trajon ond the Antonines ; or so long as the forms introduced by Augustus should »« respect* ed. It could not fail to degenerate into arbitrary power, under tyrants such as Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, and Domitian ; and tne senate must then have been but a servile instrument in the hands of the prince, employed by him to facilitate the means of satiating his passions and his tyranny. The maxims of absolute power soon became the fashionable and favourite doctrine. Civilians began to teach publicly, that all the authority of the senate and the people was transferred to the prince ; that he was superior to the laws ; that his power extended to the lives and fortunes of the citizens ; and that he might dispose of the state as his own patrimony. These en- croachments of despotism, joined to the instability of the imperial throne, the decay of military discipline, the unbridled license of the troops, the employing whole corps of barbarians in their wars, must all be reckoned among the riumber of causes that hastened the downfall of the Roman empire. Constantine the Great, was the first of the emperors that em- braced Christianity, and made it the established religion of the state in 324. He quitted the city of Rome, the ancient residence of the CtBsars, and fixed his capital at Byzantium, in 330, which took from him the name of Constantinople. Anxious to provide for the security of his new capital, he stationed the flower of his legions in the East, dismantled the frontiers on the Rhine and the Danube, and dispersed into the provinces and towns, the troops who had heretofore encampeu on the borders of these great rivers. In this way he secured the peace and tranquillity of the interior, and infused, for a time, a new vigour into the government ; but he committed a great mistake in giving the first example of making a formal division of the stale between his sons, without regard to the principle of unity and indivisi- bility which his predecessors had held sacred. It is true, this separation was not of long continuance ; but it was renewed afterwards by Theodosius the Great, who finally divided the empire between his two sons in the year 395 ; Arcadius had the eastern, and Honorius the western part of the empire. This C c C ei t( n ei R «l »( n< bl g« w fa m •««*M'»'* f *""ii'iii _i iii t »ii i»wttf ii !ji i (t. i j.;,,ji%^ i jw 1 n tranv* irdinnte meroua ate wns of the welfare nnne as nes ; or respecl- r, under in ; and il in the leans of [lionable cly, that ferrcd to is power that ho bene en* imperial cense of their ises that er( lat em* of the esidence which provide of his line and wns, the of these nquillity into the ing the between indivisi- rue, this renewed ded the had the This INTIODirCTION. 39 latter comprehended Italy, Uaul, Britain, Spain, Northern Afri- ca, Khutia, Viiidclicia, Noricum, Pannonia, and Illyria. It wai duritif^ the mifn of HnnuriuM, and under the admmistration of hiii minister Slilicho, that the memorable invasion of the barba- rians huppenud, which wns followed shortly aAer, by the de- ntruction of the Western Empire. It is with this great event, which gave birth to a variety of new states and kingdoms, that the following History of the Revo- lutions of Europe commences. It is divit^d into nine sections or periods of time, according to the successive changes which the political system of Europe experienced from the iiAh to the nineteenth century. In the Ant, which extends to the year 800, the barbariana, who invaded the Western Empire, formed new states in Spain, Gaul, and Italy ; and produced a complete revolution in the governments, laws, manners, letters, and arts of Europe. It was during this period that the Franks gained the ascendency over the other European nations ; that the Popes laid the ground- work of their secular power ; that Mahomet founded a new re- ligion in Asia, and an empire which extended through Africa into Spain. In the second period, which extends from 800 to 962, a vast empire was erected, and again dismembered, after enjoying a short-lived splendour. From its wreck were formed new king- doms, which have served as the basis for several states of mo- dern times. Others were established by the Normans, Russians, and Hungarians. In the third period, which terminates with the year 1072, Germany became the preponderating power, and began to de- cline, through the abuse of the feudal system. The House of Cap«t mounted the throne of France ; and the Normans achiev- ed the conquest of England. The Northern nations, converted to Christianity, began to make some figure in history: the mo- narchy of Russia became great and powerful ; while the Greek empire, and that of the Romans, fell into decay. During ihe fourth period, which ends with the vear 1300, the Roman Pontifls acquired an immense sway. This is also the epoch of the Crusades, which had a powerful influence on the social and political state of the European nations : The dark- ness of the middle ages began gradually to disappear ; the esta- blishment of communities, and the enfranchisement of the serfs, gave birth to new ideas of liberty. The Roman jurisprudence was restored from the neglect and oblivion into which it had fallen, and taught in the universities : Italy was covered with a multitude of republics, and the kingdom oi the two Sicilies, and T fi '• «r 11 ^ til b i 40 CHAPTER I. of Portugal were founded : The inquisition was established in Franco, and Magna Charta in England : The Moguls in the east raised, by their conquests, a powerful and extensive empire. The^A period, ivhich ends at the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, witnessed the decline of the Pontifical jurisdiction : Learning and science made some progress, and various important discoveries prepared the way for still greater improvements : Commerce began to flourish, and extend its in- tercourse more widely: The European states assumed their present form ; while the Turks, an Asiatic race, established their dominion in Europe. The sixth period, from 1463 to 1648, is the epoch of the re- vival of the belles lettres, and the fine arts ; and of the discovery America: It is also that of the Reformation of religion accom- plished in Germany ; the influence of which has extended over all the countries in the world. It was likewise during this period that Europe was desolated by religious wars, whtch eventually must have plunged it again into a state of barbarism. The peace of Westphalia became the basis of the political sys- tem of Europe. In the seventh period, from 1648 to 1713, this federal system was turned against France, whose power threatened to overturn the political balance of Europe. The peace of Utrecht set bounds to the ambition of its aspiring monarchs, while that of Oliva adjusted the contending claims of the North. The European states, delivered from the terror of universal dominion, began to think the establishment of it an impossibility ; and losing conceit of the system of political equipoise, they sub- stituted in its place maxims of injustice and violence. The eighth period, which comes down to 1789, is an epoch of weakness and corruption, during which the doctrines of a libertine and impious philosophy led the way to the downfall of thrones and the subversion of social order. [The consequences of this new philosophy bring tis to the ninth period, during which, Europe was almost entirely revolu- tionized. The present history terminates with the year 1815, which forms a natural division in this revolutionary epoch; the final results of which can be known only to posterity ] I \ r tl li I o a ri hi to til fi A m Vfl at si( i Tl go th< Lc wc •>V*PM|i>(^ - l»^«n gradually tending towards Us downfall. Its energies were exhausted^ and It required no great efforts to lay prostrate that gigantic power which had almost lost its strength and activit/^fJe vices of the government, the relaxation of discipline, the ani- mosities of faction, and the miseries of .he people, all announced he approaching ruin of the empire. Divided by mutual"'^ busies, enervated by luxury, and oppressed by despotism, the of^rrr""* V" "•* Tt'^^V^ *'"'^'^"'' ">« numerous swarms of barbarians from the North, who, unacquainted with luxury, and despising danger and death, had learned to conquer in the ranks of the Imperial armies. ^ Several of the Emperors, guided by a short-sighted policy, had received into the.r pay entire battalions of foreigners ; an^d to recompense their services, had assigned them settlements in ht i„. f ' P'*""""' "'^ "** ^.""P''*- T''"^ 'he Franks obtained, by way of compensation, territories in Belgic Gaul: while simi. lar grants were made in Pannonia and in Thrace, to the Vandals Alans. Goths, and other barbarians. This liberklity of the Ro: mans, which was a true mark of weakness, together with the vast numbers of these troops which they employed in their wars prey. Towards the close of the year 406, the Vandals the Thp ri l^T'r'"'' '^^ downfall of the Western empire. Ihe example of these nations was soon followed by the Visi- goths, the Burgundians, the Alemanns.' the Franks, the Huns. Lo^trf '• AM !"""'• '^' """'«• "»« Ostrogoths, and the i!!! «f r ^" "'"*" "■"'""'• ""'• *•»« ««^«P'i»n of the Huns; were of German origin. ' 1 1 ■i I 17 i^K 48 CIIAPTKR 11. The Vanpals, it appears, were originally settled in that imrt of norihern Germany which lies between the Elbe and the Vis- tula. They forined'a branch of the ancient Suevi, as did also the Burgundians and the Lombards. After the third century, and under the reign of the Emperor Probus, we find them, with the Burgundians, engaged in warring against the Romans on the Rhine. In the time of Aurelian, (272) they established them- selves in the western part of Dacia, that is, in Transylvania, and a part of modern Hungary. Oppressed in these districts by the Goths, they obtained from Constuntine the Great, settlements in Pannonia, on condition of rendering military service to the Romans. They remained in Pannonia, until the commencement of the fifth century, when they set out on their emigration to- wards Gaul. It was on this occasion that they associated them- selves with the Alans, a people originally from Mount Caucasus, and ancient Scythia; a branch of which, settled in Sarmatia near the source of the Borysthenes or Dnieper, had advanced a« far as the Danube, and there made a formidable stand against the Romans. In their passage through Germany, the Vandals and the Alans joined a body of the Suevi, who also inhabited the banks of the Danube, eastward of the powerful nation of the Alemanns. United in this rude confederacy, they entered Gaul, plundering and destroying wherever they went. Mayence, Worms, Spire, Strasbourg, and many flourishing cities of Gaul, were pillaged by these barbarians. The Goths,' the most powerful of these destructive nations, be^ran to rise into notice in the third century, after the time of the Emperor Caracalla. They then inhabited the cr>untry be- tween the Vistula, the Dniester, the Borysthenes, and Jie Tanais or Don. It is not certain whether they were originally from these regions, or whether, in more remote times, they inhabited Scandinavia, from which, according to Jornandes, a Gothic au- thor, they emigrated at an early period. It is however certain, thai they were of German extraction ; and that, in the third and fourth centuries, they made the Ceesars tremble on their thrones. The Emperor Aurelian was compelled (274) to abandon the pro- vince of Dacia to their dominion. This nation, the first of the German tribes that embraced the Christian religion,' was divided, in their ancient settlements lieyond the Danube, into two principal branches. They who inhabited the districts towards the east and the buxine Sea. between the Dniester, the Borysthenes, and the Tanais, were colled Ostrogoths ; the Visigoths were the branch which extend- ed westward, and occupied ancient Dacia, and the regions situ- ated between the Dniester, the Danube and the Vistula. At* ' ' - | g ftjJv.«,^^wtta.,JteA ^J^#v It Mft e Vis. d also sntury, ™, wilh ins on I them* lia, and by the ' ' lenls in to the ; cement ion to- 1 them- I ucasus. < armatia ' Ivanced | against 1 Vandals i habited { n of the i dGaul. ayence, ifGaul, lations, time of itry be- Tanais ily from ihabited Ithic au* Icertain, lird and thrones. [the pro- Lced the llemeuts ley who Ine Seat lis, were extend* Ins situ* la. At> PBKIOD I. A. D. 406—800. 411 tacked in these vast countries by the Huns, (375) some were Rubjugfaled, and others compelled to abandon their habitations. A part of the Visigoths then fixed their abode in Thrace, ia MiBsia, and the frontiers of Dacia, with consent of the emperors ; who granted also to the Ostrogoths settlements in Pannonia. At length the Visigoths, after having; twice ravaged Italy, sacked and plundered Rome, ended their conquests by establishing themselves in Gaul and in Spain. One branch of these Goths appears to have been the Thuringians, whom we find in the fifth century established in the heart of Germany, where they erected a very powerful kingdom. Tub Fbanks were probably a confederacy which the German tribes, situated between the Rhine, the Maine, the Weser, and the Elbe, had formed among themselves, in order to maintain their liberty and independence against the Romans. Tacitus, who wrote about the commencement of the second century, did not know them under this netv name, which occurs for the first time in the historians of the third century. Among the German tribes who composed this association, we find the Chauci, the Sicambri, the Chamavi, the Cherusci, the Bructeri, the Catti, the Ampsivarii, the Ripuarii, the Salii, kc.* These tribes, though combined for the purposes of common defence, under the general name of Franks, preserved, nevertheless, each their laws and form of government, as well as their particular chiefs, and the names of their aboriginal tribes. In the fourth, and towards the beginning of the fifth century, the whole country lying within the Rhine, the Weser, the Maine, and the Elbe, was called Francia. Another confederation of the German tribes, was that of the Alemanns ; unknown also to Tacitus. It took its origin about the commencement of the third century. Their territories ex- tended between the Danube, the Rhine, the Necker, the Main, and the Lahn. On the east, in a part of Franconia and modem Suabia, they had for their neighbours and allies the Suevi, who, after having long formed a distinct nation, were at length blended wilh the Alemanns, and gave their country the name of Suabia. The Alemanns rendered themselves formidable to the Romans, by their frequent inroads into Gaul and Italy, in the third and fourth centuries. The Saxons, unknown also to Tacitus, began to make a figure in history about the second century, when we find th<>m settled beyond the Elbe, in modem Holstein, having for their neighbours the Angles, or English, inhabiting Sleswick Proper. These nations were early distinguished as pirates and free- booter* ; and, while the Franks and the Alemanns spread them- I ; ; I ! i'^I 44 CHAPTER II. selves over the interior of Gaul, the Saxons infested the coaoU and even extended their incursions into Britain. The Franks having penetrated into Gaul with their main forces, the Saxons passed the Elbe, and in course of time, occupied, or united in alliance with them, the greater part of ancient Francia, which took from them the name of Saxony. There they suhdivided themselves into three principal branches; the OstpLUiam to the east, the Westphalians to the west, and the Angriaiis or Angrivarians, whose territories lay between the other two, along the Weser, and as far as the confines of Hesse. The HiTNS, the most fierce and sanguinary of all the nations which overran the Roman Empire in the fifth century, came trom the remote districts of northern Asia, which were altogether unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans. From the de- scriptions which the historians of the fifth and sixth centuries have given us of them, we are led to believe, that they were Kalmucks or Monguls originally. The fame of their arms had begun to spread over Europe so early as the year 376 of the Christian era. Having subdued the Alans, and crossed the Tanais, they subverted the powerful monarchy of the Goths, and gave the first impulse to the great revolution of the fifth cen- tury, which changed the face of all Europe. The Eastern empire first felt the fury of these barbarians, who carried fire and sword wherever they went, rendered the Emperors their tributaries, and then precipitated themselves on the West under the conduct of the famous Attila.' Several of the nations we have now enumerated, divided among themselves the territories of Gaul. This province, one of the richest and most important in the Western empire, was repeatedly overrun and devastated by the barbarous hordes of the fifth century. The Visigoths were the first that formed settle- ments in it. On their arrival under the command of King Aiulf or Adolphus, (412,) they took possession of the whole country lying within the Loire, the Rhine, the Durance, the Mediter- ranean, and the Alps. Toulouse became their capital, and the residence of their kings. The Burgundians, a people, it would appear, originally from the countries situated between the Oder and the Vistula, fol- lowed nearly in the track of the Visigoths ; as we find them, about the year 413, established on the Upper Rhine and in Switzerland. After the dissolution of the empire, they suc- ceeded in establishing themselves in those parts of Gaul, known by the names «f the Sequanois, Lyonnois, Viennois knd Nar- bonnois, viz. in those districts which formed, in course of lime, the two Burgundies, the provinces of Lyonnois, Dauphiny and '^t ' ayj^^^.^dkd IM; w PERIOD I. A. D. 406— SOO, 45 I Provence on this side of the Durance, Savoy, the Pays de Vand, he Valais and Switzerland." These counlrie, then assumed j the name of the Kingdom of the Bnrgundians. I .v,7r .^'-^f '■^' ""d "if. S"EV' became flourishing nations on I the banks of the Upper Rhine and the Danube. Thev invaded hose countries in Gaul, or the Ger mania Prima of the Romans, known since under the names of Alsace, the Palatinate, May- ence, &c. ; and extended their conquests also over a considerable part of Rhetia and Vmdelicia. At length the Franks, having been repulsed in different ren- counters by the Romans, again passed the Rhine (430,) under the conduct of Clodion their chief; made themselves masters of the greater part of Belgic Gaul, took possession of Tournav, tambray and Amiens ; and thus laid the foundation of the new kingdoni of France m Gaul. The Romans, however, still main- tained their authority in the interior of that province, and the brave^tius their general made head against all those hordes of barbarians who disputed with him the dominion of Gaul. »K« ,r! "' V crisis that the Hcjns made their appearance on he theatre of war. The fierce Attila, a man of great military talents, after having overthrown various states, conquered Pan- noma, and different provinces of the Eastern empire on the right bank of the Danube, undertook his famous expedition into Ga°j|. Marching along the Danube from Pdnnonia, at the head of an innumerable army,^ he passed the Rhine near the Lake of Con- stance, pillaged and ravaged several places, and spread the terror of his arms over all Gaul. The Franks and the Visigoths united their forces with those of the Roman General, to arrest the K'n'r M^^1?"^T"\ .^ '''""dyand obstinate encounter took place (451,) on the plains of Chalons-sur-Marne, or Mery- and m^'th r^.S°'*,'''"i- .Thierry, King of the Visigoth's, the field of battle. Night separated the combatants ; and Attila, who found his troops too much exhausted to renew the combat resoved to retreat. The following year he made a descei.l on Italy, and committed great devastations. This proved hi* last expedition ; for he died suddenly on his return, and the i monarchy of the Huns expired with him. I The defeat of the Huns did not re-establish the shattered and | ruinous affairs of the Romans in Gaul. The Salian Franks ^ ! under their kings Meroveus and Childeric I., the successors of ' Clodion, extended their conquests more and more ; till at leneth I Uovis, son of Childerit I., put an end to the dominion of the i Romans in that country, by the victory which he gained in 486 I at S>oissons, over Syagrius, the last of "the Roman generals, who ' |i 4 -J a^Pfek- -*-fer iP- tP B 40 CRAPTBR n> died of a broken heart in consequence of this defeat. The Ale* munns afterwards having disputed with him the empire of the Guuis, he routed them completely (496.) at the famous battle of Tolbiac or Zulpich ;» seized their estates, and soon after em- braced Christianity. Emboldened by his new creed, and backed by the orthodox bishops, he attacked the Visigoths, who were of the heretical sect of Arius, defeated and killed their king, Alaric II., in the plains of Vougle, near Poitiers, (507,) and stripped them of all their possessions between the Loire and the Pyrenees." Gaul became thus, by degrees, the undisputed possession of the Franks. The descendants of Clovis added to their conauests the kingdom of the Burgundians (634,) which they totallv overthrew. . • u ■ T hpoe same princes increased their possessions in the intenoi of Germany, by the destruction of the powerful kingdom of the Thurinojans (631,) comprising those vast countries between the Werra, the Aller, the Elbe, the Saal, the Mulda, and the Danube ; and which are now known under the names of »axonv, 1 hu- ringia, Franconia, the Upper Palatinate," &c. Thts kingdom they divided with their allies the Saxons, who obtained the nor- thern part of it, situated between the Unstrut and the baal. While the Visigoths, the Burgundians, the Franks and the Alemanns, were disputing with each other the conquest of Gaul, the Vandals, the Suevi, and the Alans, turned their ambitious views towards Spain. After having settled some years in Gaul, these tribes passed the Pyrenees (409.) to establish themselves in the most fertile regions of Spain. The Vandals seized Bff. tica, and a part of Gallicia ; the Suevi seized the rest of Gal- licia ; while the Alans took possession of Lusitania, and the province of Carihagena. The Alans afterxyards submitted to the sway of Gonderic, King of the Vandals (420,) while the Suevi preserved their native princes, who reigned in Gallicia and Lusitania ; this latter province having been abandoned by the Vandals, (427,) when they passed into Afric^. Meanwhile new conquerors began to make their appearance in Spain. The Visigoths, pressed by the Romans in Gaul, took the resolution of carrying their arms beyond the Pyrenees. Under the conduct of th^ir King, Adolphus, they made them- selves masters of the city of Barcelona (in 416.) Euric, one o the successors of this prince, took from the Romans (472) all that yet remained of their possessions in Spain ; and Leovigild, another of their kings, completed the conquest of all that coun- try (584,) by reducing the kingdom of the Suevi. The mo- narchv of the Visigoths, which in its flourishmg state comprised, besides the continent of Spain, -SepHmania or Languedoc lO ^l'' ^fe^5S="' PERion I. A. D. 406—800. 47 e Ale* of the ittic of r em- lacked ( were king, ,) and nd the sputed ded to which nterioi of the ten the inube; Thu- ngdom le nor- lal. nd the 'Gaui, bitious I Gaul, iselves id B(r> •f Gal- nd the tted to lie the rallicia ned by ;arance Gaul, renees. i them- , one of 172) all ovigild, it coun- 'he mo- 1 prised, edoc io Gaul, and Mniiritonia Tingitana in Africa, maintained its exi^t* ence until the commencement of the eighth century ; when, as we shall afterwards see, it was finally overthrown by the Arabs. Northern Africa, one of the finest possessions of the Romans, , was wre'«ted from them by the Vandals. Count Boniface, who had the government of that country, having been falsely accused at the court of the Emperor Vnlentinian III., and believing him- self ruined in the esteem of that prince, invited the Vandals over to Africa; proposing to them the surrender of the provinces intrusted to his command. Genseric was at that time king of the Vandals. The preponderance which the Visigoths had ac- quired in Spain, induced that prince to accept the ofier of the Roman General ; he embarked at the port of Andalusia, (427,) and passed with the Vandals and the Alans into Africa. Mean- time, Boniface having made up matters amicably with the Impe- rial court, wished to retract the engagements which he had made with the Vandals. Genseric nevertheless persisted in his ^enterprise. He carried on a long and obstinate war with the Romans ; the result of which turned to the advantage of the barbarians. Genseric conquered in succession all that part of Africa pertaining to the Western empire, from the Straits of Cadiz as far as Cyrenaica, which was dependent on the empire of the East. He subdued likewise the Balearic Isles, with Sardinia, Corsica and a part of Sicily. The writers of that age who speak of this invasion, agree in painting, in the most lively colours, the horrors with which it was accompanied. It appears that Genseric, whose whole sub- jects, including old men and slaves, did not exceed eighty thou- sand persons, being resolved to maintain his authority by terror, caused, for this purpose, a general massacre to be made of the ancient inhabitants of Africa. To these political severities were added others on the score of religion ; being devoted with all his subjects to the Arian heresy, he as well as his successors became the constant and implacable persecutors of the orthodox Christians. This prince signalized himself by his maritime exploits, and by the piracies which he committed on the coasts of Italy and the whole Roman empire. Encouraged, as is supposed, by the Empress Eudoxia, who wished to avenge the death of her bus* band Valentinian III., he undertook an expedition into Italy, (455,) in which he made himself master of Rome. The city was pillaged during fifteen days by the Vandals, spoiled of all its riches and its finest monuments. Innumerable statues, orna- ments of temples, and the gilded cupola of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, were removed in order to be transported to Africa ; % ■! ! 4S VIIAHTBR li< I! toRclher with many thousands of illustrious cantjyes. A Tcwel loaded wiilj the most precious monunients of Rome, perishod in the nnssape. , . , • • l j j The dominion of the VandaU in Africa lasted about a hundred vear^. Their kingdom was destroyed by the Emperor Justmian, who reunited Africa to the empire of ihe Last. Oilimer, the jii^l king of the Vandals, was comiuered by Belixarius, (5J4,) and conducted by him in triumph to Constantinople. Britain, inaccessible by its situation to most of the invaders that overran the Western empire, was infested, in the fifth cen- tury, bv the northern inhabitants of that island,— the free Britons, known" by the name of Caledonians or Picts, and Scots. I he Romans having withdrawn their legions from the island (446,) to employ them in Gaul, the Britons, abandoned to their own strength,' thought proper to elect a king of their own nation, named Vortigern ; but finding themselves still too weak to resist the incursions of the Picts and Scots, who, breaking over the wall of Severus, pillaged and laid waste the Roman province, thev took the imprudent resolution of calling in to their succour the Angles, Saxons, and Jutlanders, who were already dis- tinguished for their maritime incursions. A body of these An- glo-Saxons arrived in Britain (450,) in the first year of the reign of the Emperor Marcian, under the command of Hengist and Horsa. From being friends and allies, they soon became ene- mies of the Britons ; and ended by establishing their own do- minion in the island. The native islanders after a protracted 8trug.r|e. were driven into the province of Wales, where they succeeded in maintaining their independence against their new conquerors. A number of these fugitive Britons, to escape froin the yoke of the invaders, took refuge in Gaul. 1 here they were received by the Franks into Armorica and part of Ly- onnois, to which they gave the name of Brittany. The \nglo-Saxons founded successively seven petty king- doms in Britain, viz. Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Northura- berland. East Anglia, and Mercia. Each of these kingdoms had severally their own kings ; but they were all united in a political association, known by the name of the Heptarchy. One of the seven kings was the common chief of the confede- racy; and there was a general convention of the whole, called ttittenagemot, or the assembly of the wise men. Each king- dom was likewise governed by its own laws, and had its se^ia- lale assemblies, whose power limited the royal authority. This federal system continued till the ninth century, \vhen Eg- lert the Great succeeded in abolishing the Heptarchy (827,1 and • aised hiiiisell to be King over all England HJ. ii i i ■ ■ In tho midst of this general overthrow, there were still to \m neen in Italy the phantoms of the Roman eniperori, feebly sun- portinff a diginty which h.ul ionjr since ioM its splendour. This hne country had been desolated by the Visigoths, the Huns, and the Vandals, m succession, without becoming the fixed re- , sid.nce of any one of these nations. The conquest of ihiil an- cient seat of the hrst empire in the world, was reserved for the ; Heruls and the Rugians. For a long time, these German na- tions, who are generally supposed to have emigrated from the DamL 'ti ^?' ^"'^ I*"'" '»PPr«»'--hing towards the Danube. They served as auxiliaries to the Romans in Italy, after the example of various other tribes of their countrymen being resolved to usurp the dominion of that country, thev chose for their king Odoacer, under whose conduct they seized Ravenna and Rome, dethroned Romulus Momyllus Aucrustu- lus, the last of the Roman Emperors (476,) and put an "entire end to the empire of the West. The Heruls did not enjoy these conquests more than seven- teen years, xvhen they were deprived of them in their turn by the Ostrogoths. This nation then occupied those extensive countries on the right bank of the Danube, in Pannonia, Illy, na, and Thrace within the limits of the Eastern empire. Thev had rendered themselves formidable to the Romans in that quarter, by tneir frequent incursions into the very heart of the empire, fhe Emperor Zeno, in order to withdraw these dan- gerous neighbours from his frontiers, encouraged their kinc Iheodoric, as IS aHegod, to undertake the conquest of Italy from the Heruls This prince immediately penetrated into the country ; he defeated the Heruls in several actions ; and at S * ^T f''""''' '° ^''"'himself up in the city of Ravenna (489,) where, after a siege of three years, he foil into the hands of i the conqueror, who deprived him at once of his throne and his life ' 1 heodoric deserves not to be confounded with the other bar^ barous kings of the fifth century. Educated at the court of ' Constantinople, where he passed the years of his youth, he had learned to establish his authority by the equity of his laxvs. ' and the wisdom of his administrations. He ruled an empire < which, besides taly, embraced a great part of Pannonia, Rhetia. : Noricum, and Illyria. This monarchy, formidable as it was, did not exist beyond the space of sixty years : after a sanguinary warfare of eiffh- teen years, it was totally subverted by the Greeks. The Em- peror Justinian employed his generals, Belisarius " and Nui- «!s, in recovering Italy and Sicily from the hands of the Goths, rhis nation defended their possessions with determined obsii- 4 if fe^ ^'1^ i»1, I* CMAPTIR n. nacv Kncouragcd by Totila. one of their last king., thcv main.aim"l a proUacto^ struggle a«ninst the «re^l*«' ""'I. ""^;, rnSrable Access It w«. durin, J^'-v^r th.u he t^ ol Rome WHS piUnged afresh, and at length (ol7,) diMnnntu.i oy with he exception of that part of Rhelia and Noncum wh ch Thf A^ nanns'occupied. anS which during the war between he Greeks and the Goths, had become the possession of the l-rank^. A new revoUuion happene'. in Italy. (5»^.) ^y .^»)\";TZ f .V „ I nrnhnrds This people, who originally inhabited the Intrnnart of Germany on the Elbe, and formed a branch o?tt gre^natiln of the Levi, had at length fixed themseWes ?n Pannon a (527.) after several times changing ihe.r abode Thev "henTo ned with the Avars, an Asiatic people, against the Genfdrwho possessed a formidable dominion in ancient Dac.a, ' hrjrhank of the Danube. This state was soon over- turned by the ctinbne" forces of the two nations and the who e terrilorieVof the Gepidm passed (565) under the dominion of the Avlrs The Lombards also abandoned to them their pos- leLu. IS in Pannonia. and went in quest of new ^ettlemen no Italy It was in the spring of 568 that they began_ the„ route under the conduct of their King Albo.n. who. without comineTo regular combat with the Greeks took from then,, ,n src's^ion. a great number of cities and provinces. Pav.a which he Gofhs had fortified with care, was l^e only town Tha opposed him with vigorous resistance ; and -t d.d^^ot ur ' render till after a siege of three years, in 572 Ihe Lombara kinis made his town the capital of their new dominions, wh.oh, hesfderUpper Italy, known more especially by the name of LolrdVconp el ended al.o a considerable part o the middle and lower disi^icts, which the Lombards gradually wrested ^'The'reSlluibn of which we have just now given a summary view c lianged the face of all Europe ; but it iiad a more ^ar- i^ular influence on the fate of ancient Germany. H'eber- nank tribe whose former boundaries were the fth.ne and the Zub now extended their territories beyond these rivers ?S;t^„i.venam.^fU^-ati^.^ rfedtSrire'&t Faxons. Frisians. Alemanns. ;hcy wiin \h ^ ;)t of 1 rhich I ly no irhich ished •ccks, ,vhich >n the nks." vnsion 3(1 the branch \selve8 abode. nst the , Dacia, \ over- ; whole nion ol ;ir pos- lements n theii kvithout icm, in Pavia ly town Inot sur- onibard , which, name of le middlp wrested lummary liore par- .M.e Ger- :\nJ the le rivprs. Icitus, fell lix grand llemaniis. PBRIOD I. A. D. 406 — 800. n Suabians, nnd Bavarians,'* which cmhriiced all the regions nU lerwardf coinprchciided under the name of Oermany. The Aleinunns. and thoir neighbours the Suabians, occupied, nlonji with the Bavnriiuis, the jjreater part of what is called Uppor (ftTinnny, on both sides of the Danube as far as the Alps. The Franks, masters of a powerful monarchy in Gaul, prcaerved, under their immediate dominion beyond the Rhine, a part of ancient France, lojjetlier with the territories of which they had deprived the .\lemanns'* and the Thuringians. In short, in all Lower Germany, no other names were to be found than those of the Thuringians, Saxons, and Frisians ; and as to the eastern part, situated beyond the Saal and the Elbe, as it had been deserted of inhabitants by the frequent emigrations of the German tribes, and by the total destruction of the kingdom of the Thuringians, it was seized in turn by the Slavi, or Slavo- nians. a race distinguished from the Germans by their language ■nd their manners. This nation, different colonies of which still occupy a great Start of Europe, did not begin to figure in history until the burth century of the Christian era. Jornandes, a Gothic writer of the sixth century, is the first author who mentions them. He calls them Slavi, or Slavvia ; and distinguishes them into three principal branches, the Venedi, the Slavi, and the Antes, whose numerous tribes occupied the vast countries on the north of the Euxine Sea, between the Vistula, the Niester, the Nie- per, tec. It was after the commencement of the sixth century that these nations emigrated from their ancient habitations, and spread them.«elves over the east and south of Europe. On the one side, they extended their colonies as far as the Elbe and the Saal ; on the other, they crossed the Danube, and penetra- ted into Noricum, Pannonia, and Illyria; occupying all those countries known at this day under the names of Hungary, Sclavonia, Servia, Bosnia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Carniola, Carin- thta, Stiria, and the march of the Venedi. The history of the sixth century, presents nothing more memorable than the bloody wars which the emperors of the East had to maintain against the Slavians of the Danube. Those colonies of ihetn who first distinguished themselves on the Elbe, the Havel, the Oder, and in the countries situated to the north of the Danube, were the Czechi, or Slavi of Bo- hemia ; the Sorabians inhabiting both sides of the Elbe, be- tween the Saal and the Oder, in the countries now known under the names of Misnia, Saxony, Anhalt and Lower Lusnce ; the Wilzians, or Welatabes, and the Abotriles, spread over Bran- denburg, Pomerania, and Mecklenburg proper ; and, lastly, the H^ CHAPTBR I). Mornvi. or Moravinnn, M'Ulod in Mornvin, and in a p«rt «f mo. dern Hui.gHry. We fimi, in llu' s.-vi.Mil. .•. niury. n chief named Sumo, who ruled over iniuiy of ihe.o nuiioM!.. Ho foughi suc- ceH.fullv u-^uin.l ihc armies of Kins OxiT'-b.-rt. Iii^ M.ppo.ed thai ihis man wus u Frank iiu-rihunl. whom several of ihe Sla- vian tribes hud elected as their chief. There is one thing which, at ihi^ period, ouRht above all to fix our attention, and that i. the influence which the levolulion of the hfih century ha.l on the governments, laws, manners, sciences, and arts of Europe. The German tribes, m establish- inff themselves in the provinces of the Western empire, mlro- duced along with them the political institutions by which ihry had been governed in their native country. The governmems of ancient Germany were a kind of military democracies, und-r general, or chiefs, with the prerogatives of kings. All matt. r» of importance were decided in their general assemblies, com- posed of freemen, having the privilege of carrying arms, and Hoing to w.ir.'" The succession to the throne was not hcredi- farv ; and though it became so in fact in most of the new German stales, still, on the accession of their princes, they were; attc,,. tive to preserve ilie ancient forms, which evinced the primitive right of election that the nation had reserved to itself. The political division into cantons (gaw,) long used in ancient Germany, was iiiiroduccd into all the new conquests of the Ger- man tribes, to facilitate the administration of justice. At the head of every canton was a justiciary officer, called (xrav, m Latin C«/,rriiorial Kriitit, iitul not im- posed upon ihi'in at a clause, or »'NS('ntiai coruiiiinii of the tenure. li ix thiTi'liirt' wroiiif to rejfiini this (li^■i^i()M of Iimd.s us having given rise to tiffs. War was the favourite orinpation, the only honourable rank, and the inalienablo preronmivc of u German. They were .soldiert not of necessity or constraint, but of their own free will, and because they despised every other employ- ment, and every other mode of life. Despotism was, therefore, never to bi> apprehended in a government like this, where the great body of the nation were in arms, sat in their general as- semblies, and marched to the field of war. Their kings, how- ever, soon invented an expedient calculated to shackle the national liberty, and to augment their own influence in the pub- lic assemblies, by the number of retainers which they found means to support. This expedient, founded on the primitive manners of the Germans, was the institution of fiefs. It was long a custom among the ancient Germans, that their chiefs should have, in peace as well as in war, a numerou.s suite of the bravest youths attached to their person. Beisides provi- sions, tliey supplied them with horses and arm$,and shared with them the spoil which ihey took in war. This practice subsisted even after the Germans had established themselves in the pro- vinces of the Western Empire. The kmgs, and, after their example, the nobles, continued to entertain a vast number of companions and followers ; and the better to secure their alle- giance, they granted them, instead of horses and arms, the enjoy- ment of certain portions of land, which they dismembered Irom their own territories. These grants, known at first by the name of benefices, and afterwards of Jiefs, subjected those who received them to personal services, and allegiance to the superiors of whom they held them. As they were bestowed on the individual possessor, and on the express condition of personal services, it is obvious that originally fiefs or benefices were not hereditary; and that they returned to the superior, when the reason for which they had been given no longer existed. The \aws and jurisprudence of the Romans were in full prac- tice through all the provinces of the Western Empire, when the German nations established themselves there. Far from super- seding or abolishing them, the invaders permitted the ancient inhabitants, and such of their new subjects as desired it, to hve conformably to these laws, and to retain them in their courts of 1 1 1 ' ? m M,^ m S4 CHAPTER 11. lustice Nevertheless, without adopting this system of jum. " r"" teVXi ':t llela in the Ro.an provinces, to have the.r ancUnt customs, to which they were so pecuharly attached, di- ^•^Th'e C" Vef ^t'sETn-d Ripuarian Franks, those of the Vil^oths the Bu gundians, the Bavarians the AngU>-Saxons ViMgotns, uie u">b , , T„,,,bards, were collected P.n .ans as well as of their attachment to that personal l.berty Gt-r lans, as weii a^' " characteristic of human ; and 'nJeP«"d'^"'^*='.^^^''^;j^ '" According to these laws, every . of cattle. Murder 'J^J» "J'^' equivalent, which was more rSrs^vl'l^ai't-r/dyren. «„. o,c.„dUio„ », "'E°*"v''f "™a„ wa» exempt Trom cotpor.l p.ml,hm«-, .«d in hand. Hence, we ua a ^^ customs of the ir UTI8> their great theit i, di- I )fthfc xons, lected erned loose. A the iberty luman every reance those ieredi- allow- ed, by lumber ir ; and s more tion of It; and \ parties ; 1 sword of God, i of the sting in , encou- ss on all ^ments them to ich they and rob- standara i perfidy ourt, the the bane- after the 1 a single learnmgi PERIOD I. A. D. 406—800. 85 it is true, had for a lonn; time been gradually falling into decay, and a corrupt taste had bcpun to appear among the Romans in works of genius and imagination ; but no comparison can be made between the state of literature, such as it was in the West anterior to the revolution of the fifth century, and that which we find there afier the conquests of the German nations. These barbarians, addicted solely to war and the chase, de- spised the arts and sciences. Under their destructive hands, the finest monuments of the Romans were levelled to the ground ; their libraries were reduced to ashes ; their schools and semi- naries of instruction annihilated. The feeble rays of learning that remained to the vanquished, were unable to enlighten or civilize those enemies to knowledge and mental cultivation. The sciences, unpatronised and unprolocted by those ferocious conquerors, soon fell into total contempt. It is to the Christian religion alone, which was embraced, in succession, by the barbarous destroyers of the empire, that we owe the preservation of the mutilated and venerable remains which we possess of Greek and Roman literature.'^ The cler- gy, being the authorized teachers of religion, and the only inter- preters of the sacred writings, were obliged by their office to have some tincture of letters. They thus became, over all the East, the sole depositaries of learning; and for a long series of ages, there was nobody in any other rank or profession of life, that occupied themselves with science, or had the slightest ac- quaintance even with the art of writing. These advantages which the clergy enjoyed, contributed in no small degree to augment their credit and their influence. Every where they were intrusted with the management of state affairs ; and the offices of chancellor, ministers, public notaries, and in general, all situations where knowledge or the art of writing was indis- pensable, were reserved for them ; and in this way their very name (clericus) became as it were the synonyme for a man of letters, or any person capable of handling the pen. The bish- ops, moreover, held the first rank in all political assemblies, and in war marched to the field in person, at the head of their vassals. Another circumstance that contributed to raise the credit and the power of the clergy was, that the Latin language continued to be employed in the Roman provinces which had been sub- jected to the dominion of the German nations. Every thing was written exclusively in the Roman tongue, which became the language of the church, and of all public acts ; and it was long before the German dialects, which had become universally pre- valent, could be reduced to writing. The corrupt pronunciation of the Latin, and its mixture with foreign idioms and contsruc- mmM m )i irif M 66 CHAPTER II. tiuns, pr.ve birth, in course of time, to new languages, which still retain evidence of their Roman origm, such as the Italian, Snat.i>h, Portuguese, French and English languages. In the filh and following centuries, the Teutonic language or that spoken bv the conquerors of Gaul, was called hngim Francica; this was distinguished from the Ung^m Romana, or the language spoken by the people ; and which afterwards gave rise to the modern /rench It appears, therefore, from what we have just Led, that the incursion of the German tribes mto the provinces ; of the West, was the true source of all the barbarity, ignorance , and superstition, in which that part of Europe was so long and so universally buried. , , There would have been, therefore, every reason to deplore a revolution, not less sanguinary in j»\^lf '*^"" ^'^"^'.''""V" Jl" consequences, if, on the one hand, it had not been the instru- ment of delivering Europe from the terrible despotism of the Somans ; and, on^the other, if we did not find, in the rude m- stiiuiions of the German conquerors, some germs of hberty» which, sooner or later, were sure to lead the nations of Europe to wiser laws, and better organized governments. Amon ! ' kin Joms, viz. that of Austrasia, which comprehended bast- i I ern^rance, being all that part of Gaul situated between the i i Meuse, the Scheid, and the Rhine ; as we I as the German pro- • ' vinces beyond the Rhine, which also made a part of that mo- i narchv. the whole of Western Gaul, lying between the Scheid, I the Meuse and the Loire, was called Neustria. Burgundy, i J] mifif mur^ «; Till T! PERIOD I. A. D. 406 — 800. hich lian, the that •ica ; uage I the just inces -ance > ^"^ ore a n its istru- if the ; ie in- ' berly, ' urope ' i n em- id, for ; pow- !)lovi3, whole oihs.* ih the ider it of the le wis- it once sters of nors ot if their of tht ans, to- erovin- rinc.ipal i East- een the lan pro- lat mo- Scheld, rgundy. ff7 Aquitain, and Provence, were considered as d jpondencies of this latter kingdom. Dagobert II., King of Aiistnisia, having been assassinated, in 678, the Kmgnf Neustria, Thierry III., would in all probability have reunited the two monarchies ; but the Auslrasians, who dreaded and detested Ebroin, Mayor of Nousiria, elected a mayor of their own, under the nominal authority of Thierry. ThLs gave rise to a sort of civil war between the Austrasians and the Neustrians, headed by Pepin Heristal, Mayor of Auslrasia, and Bertaire, Mayor of Neustria, who succeeded Ebroin. The battle which Pepin gained at Testry, near St. Quentin (687.) decided the fate of the empire ; Bertaire was slain, and Thierry III. fell under the power of the conqueror. Pepin afterwards confirmed to Thierry the honours of royalty, and contented him- self with the dignity of mayor, and the title of Duke and Prince of the Franks; but regarding the throne as his own by right of conquest, he vested in himself the sovereign authority, and granted to the Merovingian Prince, nothing more than the mere externals of majesty, and the simple title of king. Such was the revolution that transferred the supreme authority of the Franks to a new dynasty, viz. that of the Carlovingians, who with great moderation, still preserved, during a period of sixty- five years, the royal dignity to the Merovingian princes, whom they had stripped of all their power." Pepin d'Heristal being dead (714,) the partizans of the ancient dynasty made a last efTort to liberate the Merovingian kings from that dependence under which Pepin had held them so long. This prince, in transferring the sovereign authority to his grand- son Theodwald, only six years of age, had devolved on his widow, whose name was Plectrude, the regency and guardian- ship of the young mayor. A government so extraordinary emboldened the factious to attempt a revolution. The regent, as well as her grandson, were divested of the sovereignty, and the Neustrian grandees chose a mayor of their own party named Rainfroy ; but their triumph was only of short duration. Charles Martel, natural son cf Pepin as is supposed, having escaped from the prison where he had been detained by the regent, passed into Austrasia, and then caused him.self to be proclaimed duke, after the example of his father. He engaged in a war against Chilperic II. and his mayor Rainfroy ; three successive victories which he gained, viz. at Stavelo, Vinci near Cambray, and Soissons, in 716-17-18. made him once more master of the throne and the sovereign authority. The Duke of Aquitain having delivered up King Chilperic to him, he confirmed anew the title of royalty to that prince ; and li :# H •1 S [tl i' ■-tM ■^ 68 CHAPTEB II. shortly after raised his glory to its highest pitch, by the brilliant victories which he gained over the Arabs (732-737,) in the plains of Poitiers and Nnrbonne. r r>i. ^ Pepin le Bref, (or the Short) son and successor of Charles Marlel, finding his authority established both writhin and with- out his dominions, judged this a favourable opportunity for re- uniting the title of royalty to the power of the sovereign. He manacred to have himself elected King in the General Assem- bly of the Franks, which was convened in the Champ-de-Mars, in the neighbourhood of Soissons. Childeric III. the last of the Merovingian kings, was there deposed (752,) and shut up in a convent. Pepin, with the intention of rendering his person sacred and inviolable, had recourse to the ceremony of corona- tion ; and he was the first King who caused himself to be solemnly consecrated and crowned in the Cathedral of Soi9- sons, by St. Boniface, first archbishop of Mayence.* Tho example of Pepin was followed soon after by several princes and sovereigns of Europe. The last conquest he added to his do- minion wai- nie province of Languedoc, which he took (75») from the Arabs. , , „ .a- The oricrin of the secular power of the Roman pontiHs com- mences with the reign of Pepin. This event, which had so peculiar an influence on the religion and government of the Euro- pean nations, requires to be detailed at some length. At the period of which we write, there existed a violent con- troversy between the churches in the East, and those in thn West, respecting the worship of images. The Emperor Leo the Isaurian had declared himself against this worship, and had proscribed it by an imperial edict (726.) He and his successors persisted in destroying these objeUs of idolatry, as well as in persecuting those who avowed hemselves devotees to this heresy. This extravagant zeal, which the Roman pontiffs blamed as excessive, excited the indignation of the people against the Grecian Emperors.'^ In Italy, there were frequent rebellions against the imperial officers that were charged with the execution of their orders. The Romans especially, took occasion, from this, to expel the duke or governor, who resided in their city on the part of the emperor ; and they formally erected themselves into a republic (730,) under the pontificate of Gregory H-, by usurping all the rights of sovereignty, and, at the same time, reviving the ancient names of the senate anil the Roman people. The Pope w-- recognised as chief or head of this new republic, and had the general direction of allatlairs, both at home and abroad. The territory of this republic, formed 01 the dutchy of Rome, extended, from north to south, from I n^ '.^SfiSSSMESI IW } rilliant ' plains Charles I with- for re- 1. He j \.ssem- !-Mars, last of hut up person corona- ^ f to be ! if Soia- 3 The I ices and | his do- le (759) fls corn- had so le Euro- ent con- j in thn ror Leo and had ccessors ill as in to this pontiffs • people frequent red with Uy, took D resided formally ontiticate nty, and, jtiate and if or head ill affairs, ic. formed II th, from r?^ il PBRIOO I. A. D. 406 800. 6» Viterbo as far as Terracina ; and from east to west, from Narni to the mouth of the Tiber. Such was the weakness of the Eastern empire, that all the efforts of the emperors to reduce the Romans to subjection proved unavailing. The Greek vice- rr»y— the Duke of Naples, who had marched to besiege Rome, was killed in battle, together with his son ; and the exarch him- self was compelled to make peace with the republicans. This state of distress to which the Grecian empire was re- duced, afforded the Lombards an opportunity of extending their possessions in Italy. Aistolphus their king attacked the city of Ravenna (751,) where the exarchs or governors-general of the Greeks had fixed their residence ; and soon made himself master of it, as well as the province of the exarchate,-^ and the Pen- tapolis. The exarch Eutychius was obliged to fly, and took shelter in Naples. This surrender of the capital of Grecian Italy, emboldened the Lombard King to extend his views still farther ; he demanded the submission of the city and dutchy of Rome, which he con- ■iidered as a dependency of the exarchate. Pope Stephen II. bt'came alarmed, and began to solicit an alliance with the Greek empire, whose distant power seemed to him less formi- ilable than that of the Lombards, his neighbours ; but being r.kisely pressed by A.istolphus, and finding that he had no suc- cour to expect from Constantinople, he determined to apply for protection to the Franks and their King Pepin. The Franks, at that time, held the first rank among the na- tions of Europe ; their exploits against the Arabians had gained theni a high reputation fnv mlour over all the West. Stephen repaired in person to France, and in an interview which he had with Pepin, he found means to in»»rest that prince in his cause. Pepin did not yet regard himself as securely established on a throne which he had so recently usurped from the Merovinf^ian frinces ; more especially as there still existed a son of Childeric IL, named Thierry, and a formidable rivalry in the puissant dukes of Aquitain, who were cadets of the same family. He had no other right to the crown than that of election ; and this title, instead of descending to his sons, might perhaps serve as a pretext for depriving them of the sovereignty. Anxious to render the crown hereditary, he induced the Pope to renew the ceremony of his coronation in the Church of St. Denis ; and, ut the same time, to consecrate his two sons, Charles and Car- joman. The Pope did more ; he disengaged the King from the oath which he had taken to-Childeric, and bound all the nobility of the Franks, that were present on the occasion, in the name of Jesus Christ and St. Peter, to preserve the royal dignity in •if 'I »u ^ m 4 * f llWi (to CHAPTER n. the riffht of Pepin and his .lescendants ; and lastly, that he n.isrhi ilu- more ellectuaily secun- the aitachment of Pep.n und hi!feons and procure for' himself .he li'-le of be.ngthe.r pro- teclor, he publicly conferred on ihem the honour of being pain- *^"sn "real condescension on the part of the Pope could not hut ex.-itrihe gratitude of Pepin. He not only promised him sue- cour against the Lombards ; he engaged to recover the exarchate from their hands, and make a present of it to 'he H«ly See he even made him a grant of it by anticipation, which he signed at the Castle of Chiersi-sur-rOise, and which he likewise caused to be signed by the princes his sons.** It was in fulhlment of tSese sti^pulations thai Pepin undertook (755-^) two successive expeditions into Italy. He compelled A.stolphus to acknowledge himself his vassal, and deliver up to him the exarchate with the Peutapolis, of which he immediately put his Holiness in possession. This donation of Pepin served to confirm and to Ixtend the secular power of the Popes, which had already been augmented by various grants of a similar kmd. The original document of this singular contract no longer exists; but he names of the places are preserved which were ceded to the pontifical hierarchy.** . . i,„ „„«- ^ In the conclusion of this period, it may be proper to take some notice of the Arabs, commonly called ,^«;^'^7«- «"tll and irruption into Europe. Mahomet, an Arab of noble birth, and a native of Mecca, had cons.iiuled himself a prophet a legis a tor, and a conqueror, about the beginning of the seventh century of the Christian era. He had been expelled from Mecca 622) on account of his predictions, but afterwards ^f "/^'l a' »« head of an army; and having made himself master of the city, he succeeded by degrees, in subjecting to his yoke the numerous tribes of Ardbia. His successors, known by the name of La- 1 or vicars spiritual and temporal of the prophet, followed the Le triumphant career. They propagated their religion wherever they extended their empire and "^ran with their conauests the vast regions both of Asia and Africa. Ssyria, PalSne Egypt. Barcl Tripoli and the whole nortern coasts of Africa, were won from the Greek empire by the Caliphs who at the same time (651) overthrew the powerful monarchy of the Persians ; conquered Charasm, Transox.ana, and the In- dies, and founded an empire more e'ften.sive than that ol the Roman" had been. The capital of the Caliphs, which had on- ginXlcen at Medina, and 'afterwards at Cufa, was transferred (661) by the Caliph Moav.a I. to Damascus '" Syrm : and by the Caliph AlmaLor, to Bagdad in Irak-Arabia, (766) which was founded hv that prince. .'«*jiii ?■ . It PERIOD 1. A. D. 406 — 800. dl at he n :iiid r pro. j pain- lot but n sue- rebate See ; signed :aused lent of lessive .vledge e with less in nnd to y been iriginal )Ut the to the e some if their th, and legisla :eritury tt (622) at the he city, merous of Ca- nllowed religion ih their Syria, n coasts !aiiphs; anarchy the In- of the had ori- nsferred and by 1) whicn It was under the Calipbnle of Wulid (711,) that the Arabs first invaded Europe, and aituckod ilu; iiioiiarcliy of ihe Visigoths ill Spain. This cnonurchy had already sunk under the feeble- ness of its kings, and the despotic preropiiivos which the gran- dees, and especially the bishops, hud arrogated to tbeinselves. These latter disposed of the throne at ihuir pleasure, having declared it to be elective. They decided with supreme authority in the councils of the nation, and in all affairs of state. Muza at that time commanded in northern Africa, in name of the Ca- liph Walid. By the authority of that sovereign, he sent into Spain one of his generals, named Taric or Tarec-Abcnzara, who, having made a descent on the coasts of Andalusia, took his station on the hill which the ancients called Caipe, and which has since been known by the name of Gibraltar (Gibel-TaricJ or the hill of Taric, in commemoration of the Arabian general. It was in the neighbourhood of the city Xeres de iu Frontera, in Andalusia, that Taric encountered the army of the Visigoths, commanded by their King Roderic. The battle was decisive, as the Visigoths sustained a total defeat. Koderic perished in the flight; and Muza, the Arabian governor, having arrived to second the efforts of Taric, the conquest of all Spain followecl as a consequence of this victory.*' Septimania, or Languedoc, which then made a part of the Visigoihic monarchy, passed at the same time under the dominion of the Arabs. These fierce invaders did not limit their conquests in Europ^ to Spain and Languedoc ; the Balearic Isles, Sardinia, Corsica, part of Apulia and Calabria, fell likewise under their dominion : they infested the sea with their fleets, and more than once car- ried terror and desolation to the very jratet. of Rome. It is pro- bable even that all Europe would have submitted to their yoke, if Charles Martel had not arrested the career of their victories. He defeated their numerous and warlike armies in the bloody battles which were fought near Poitiers and Narbonne (732- 737,) and at length compelled them to shut themselves up within the province of Languedoc. The unity of the empire and the religion of Mahomet, did not long remain undivided. The first dynasty of tlie Caliphs, that of the Oinmiades, was subverted ; and all the princes of that family massacred by the Abassides (749,) who seized the caliphate.'* A solitary descendant of the Onmiiades, named Ab- dalraham, grandson of the fifteenth Caliph Huscham, was saved in Spain, and fixed his residence at Cordova ; and beina acknowledged as Caliph by the Mussulmans there, he detached that province from the greil empire of the Arabians. ^756.) This revolution, and the confusion with which it was accom- 'i' ^.v •■!■? m 1 CIIAPTRa II. I! pnnied, gave fresh cournpe to the xninll number of Visigoths, who, to rscnpp the iMnhoiiifliin yoke, hml retireil In the moun. tains of A^lurin?'. Issuiii-j from lh»'ir retreats, they retaliated on the Intitlels ; an6,) the Bobeiiiians {81 1,) Sec, acknowledged lheiii«-lves his tributaries; and l)y a treaty of peace whicii he concluded with Hemming, Kill*,' of Jutland, he fixed the river Eyder, «« the northern limi? of his empire aKninst the Danes. Besides these, the powerful monarchy of the Avars,' which comprehended all the .ounlries known in modern times by the names of Austria. Huiiirary, Transylvania, Sclavonia, Dalmalia and Croatia, was completely subverted by him (791 ,) and he likewise despoiled the Arabians of all that part of Spain which is situated between the Pyrenees and the Ebro (796,) as also of Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. In Spain he established military com- manders under the title of Margraves. Of these conquests, the one that deserve.i the most particu- lar uilenlion is that of Italy, and the kingdom of the Lombards. At the solicitation of Pope Adrian I., Charles undertook an ex- pedition against the la>l of the Lombard kings. He besieged that prince in his capital at Pavia ; and having made him pri- soner, after a long siege, he shut him un in confinement for the rest of his days, and incorporated his dominions with the mo- narchy of the Franks. The Dukes of Benevento, who, as vassals of the Lombard kings, then occupied the greater part of Lowor Italy, were at the same time compelled to acknowledge the sovereignty of the conquerors, who allowed them to exer- "ise their hereditary rights, on condition of their paying an annual tribute. The only pla-os in this part of Italy that re- mained unsubdued, were the maritime towns, of which the Greeks still found means to maintain the possession. In order to secure the conquest of this country, as well as to protect it against the incursions of the Arabian.?, Charles estab- lished several marches and military stations, such as the marches of Friuli, Tarento, Turin, Liguira, Teti, &c. The downfall of the Lombards, put an end to the republican govern- ment of the Romans. During the blockade of Pavia, Charles having gone to Rome to be present at the feast of Easter (774,) was received there with all the honours due to an Exarch and a Patrician ; and there is inconteilable proof that he after- wards received, under that title, the rights of sovereignty over Rome and the Ecclesiastical Stales. The Patrician dignity, instituted by Constantine the Great, ranked, in the Greek eiripire, next after that of emperor. It wm Miii ^^^^^s mmit \328r- Rome |iliiiulcrc(l \>y liiu VuiulaU. P. 17. I 1! I 1' ^^ 1' '•SI' ffl J Anglo-Saxoni landing in England. P. Js, km ii'ii »' It: ■''I'M V . ptRroD II, A. D. 800—962. 05 ' of nur.h con5.i,lor™t,on, ihnt even fmrh.irinn king,, ihe de.itroveri I for fM> h<„,or.r at llw.- Cm.rt of ConMnntinopln. Tho exu "hJ of l{„v,.nMnw..r..srr,K.raIly invented with it, „ ,d exercised umh.J I this t.tl.. rathor than that of cxar.-h or poiernor. the auth " tv I whTh they enjoyed at R«,„c. Pope Stephen F had twtj nlihouKh these princes appear never to hove exercised the riahr rc^'^r,huK ,, ^erely „.s an honorary title, «o lonTa Yea n thL' StS'LT t e'rh^'f "rV^T""'''' ""'^ from Rome 1: he State, of the Church. Charles no sooner saw himself master of that k.npdojn than he affected to add to his li e" of Ki„S the I- ranks and Lombards that of Patrician of the Romans and Wan to exercise over Rome and the Ecclesiastic "sTates Ihooe entp'ST-hS ''''-' ''' ""'''' ^"'P— ^ «-"' S This prince returned to Rome towards the end of the year 800 m order to mciuire into a conspiracy which some ol^'ho Roman nobihiy had concerted a^ainsl ihelife of Pope Leo III The whole affair having been Siscussed in his presence and I'^iratThe" 1 ""' ^"'' t^'^y ^^'"•'"••'''^'1' Charles went "3 assist at the so emn mass which was celebrated in St. Peter's Church on Christmas day (800.) The Pope. anxLs o show him some public testimony of his gratitude. ;hose the mo „e„" when the prince was on hfs knees a'l the foot of the gra Jdtar to put he imperial crown on his head, and cause him to be nri claimed to the people Emperor of the Romans. ^ iTom this affair must be dated the revival of the Roman Em- Sledllr^^Th'"" ""^ vvhich had been extinct fofZehu^- dred years. The emperors of the East who, durinjr that in'er- val, had continued exclusively in the enjoymen of that tide appeared to have some reason for opposing an innovation whch might eventually become prejudicial to them. The cS which arose on this sub ect between the two emnerors wT, » length (803) terminated^ treaty. The GreekXper^^TeeoJ Zll^" newd'ffnityof Ciharles'(812;) and on thefe condSj they were allowed to retain those possessions, which they stHl held by a feeble tenure in Italy, i . .^jr sun In thus maintaining the imperial dignity against the Greek emperors, Charles added nothing to his real po^er; heacquS from It no new right over the dismembered pro ^"0? he Western empire, the state of which had, for a long time past been fixed by specific regulations. He did not even augment' his authority over Rome, where he continued to exerSX 1 .'.h , ,i3l > 'i^ i t*« 66 CHAPTER in. same rights of superiority under the title of emperor, which he had formerly done under that of patrician. This prince, whose genius soared beyond his age, did not figure merely as a warrior and a conqueror ; he was also a le- gislator, and a zealous patron of letters. Bv the laws which he , , published under the title of Capitularies, he reformed several , abuses, and introduced new ideas of order and justice. Com- , missioners nominated by himself, were charged to travel through the provinces, to superintend the execution of the laws, listen to the complaints of the people, and render justice to each without distinction and without partiality. He conceived like- wise the idea of establishing a uniformity of weights and mea- sures throughout the empire. Some of the laws of that great man, however, indicate a disposition tinctured with the barba- rism and superstition of his age. The Judgments of God are expressly held by him to be legal tests of right and wrong, and the greater part of crimes expiable by money. By a general j law, which he passed in 779, introducing the payment of eccle- i siastical tithes, and which he extended to the vanquished Saxons 1 (791 ) he alienated the affectiom of ihat people ; and the code which he dictated on this occasion, is remarkable for its atrocity ; which their repeated revolts, and frequent returns to paganism, cannot justify. ... , i .i. As to his patronage and love of letters, this is attested by the numerous schools which he founded, and the encouragements I he held out to them ; as well as the attention he showed in m- 1 viting to his court, the most celebrated learned men from every 1 country in Europe. He formed ihem into a kind of academy, or literary society, of which he was himself a member. When I at an advanced age, he received instruction m rhetoric, logic 1 and astronomy, from the famous Alcuin, an Englishman, to I whom he was much attached. He endeavoured also to improve his vernacular tongue, which was the Teutonic, or Imgua i Francica, by drawing up a grammar of that language, giving ! German names to the months and the winds, which had not yet received them ; and in making a collection of the military songs i ! of the ancient Germans. He extended an equal protection tc I I the arts, more especially architecture, a taste for which he had I imbibed in Italy and Rome. Writers of those times speak ' ' with admiration of the palaces and edifices constructed bv his orders, at Ingelheim, near Mentz, at Nimegnen, on the left bank of the Waal, and at Aix-la-Chapelle. These buildings were adorned with numerous paintings, as well as marble and mosaic work, which he had brought from Rome and Ravenna. The empire of Charlemagne, which may bear a comparison I! I! t tl b o o n n; tf in sa 01 V( th th th to mi Fi S^ ist CO sei of thi oth tha cor the fan f-tvVlYi-;. -%fl.ij=f7^^^^j^^:?jt^^^. ?ip5i4^(^-mi«*ife:^?'^^^pe^pp ■ Mmil < ltl. '» I V l llil g t- .' ' ' MMm i Wll I hhe 1 not a le- j I ch he 1 , iveral , Com- •ough listen each like- mea- gre at barba- od are 5, and eneral eccle- laxons ; ; code 1 ocity ; anism, by the jmenls 1 in in- I every idemy, When c, logic nan, to mprove lingua giving not yet y songs ction t( he had s speak i by his eft bank gs were I mosaic nparison PKRIOD 11. A. D. 800—962. •7 P L!::::^ as to its extent with the ancient empire of the West, embraced he prmcpal part of Europe. All &aul, Germany, and Spain mlZZ *^'"-°' '''^'y ^° Benevento, several islands inT I thi^ ?.r ""' ^^'"? .-i consHlemble part of Pannonia. composed th . vast empiro, which, from west to east, extended from the thS"5 ? u" fu ""-^ '^^ ^'-"^'^ : «"d fr«'" ^''"th to no h frlm der t hV^ ^Tl'^r"' "'.'^ '^' ^•^"''"^ S^« »° the River eT de,wh.ch formed the boundary between Germany and Denmark. In defining the hmits of the empire of Charlemagne care pomted with tiie empire with those that were merely tributary The former were governed by officers who might be recalled at the will of the prince ; while the latter were ffee slates, whose only tenure on the empire was by alliance, and the contributions they engaged to pay. Such was the policy of this prince that orihrrt ."'"''r P" -"i'-y ^tationsVhic'h he had'e"tab Istd on the fron lers of Germany, Spain, and Italy, he chose to retain nil f rlP."'"'' "'^ •'"•' dominions, nations who, under the name of tributaries, enjoyed the protection of the Franks, and might act as a guard or barrier against the barbarous tribes of he east and north, who had long been in the habit of making mcursions mto the western and southern countries of Europe^ ^2Z ^l . «<■ Benevento in Italy, who were simply Vas- sals and tributaries of the empire, supplied as it were a rampart or bulwark against the Greeks and Arabians; while the Scla- th„".;rh TT" '^ ^""''"^' ^«""°"'«' I>'»'™''tia, and Croatfa. K ^rtK°"'' "■■ r^**'^ of France, were governed, never- h! Pk:- V '''^";.''!^" '««^«> and in general did not even profess the Christian religion. '^ From this brief sketch of the reign of Charlemagne, it is easv to perceive, that there was then no single power in Europe for^ midable enough to enter into competition with the empire of the Franks. The monarchies of the north. Denmark. Norway and Sweden, and those of Poland and Russia, were not then in ex- istence ; or had not emerged from the thick darkness that still ZZf if ^T i '^""tinental Europe, England then pre- nf in '"P'r ''^ ""^ '7'" ^•""f^'J^'-ate governments, the union of which was far from being well consolidated. The kings of ltrJ°^^ •'■"'^ ''"■'^ incessantly engaged in war with each thnfp T ,Vn "°t. ""til several years after Charlemagne, i that Egbert the Great, King of Wessex, prevailing in the contest '' constituted himself King of all England, in 827. ' The Mahometpn part of Spain, after it was separated from the great empire of the Caliph's, was engaged in perpetual war- ! fare with the East. The Ommiades. sovereigns of CordZ, ' J ¥ I 1 'f^ In* rzrrri H». i'"': IF "tm f . CHAPTER in. far from provoking their western neighbours, whose valour they had a^^adv expehenced, showed themselves, on the contrary. Sttenti e tJ preserve peace and good understand.ng w.th them The Greek emperors, who were con.; lually quarrelhng with the irabs and Bulgarians, and agitated by factions and m est ne cmnmotrons, could no longer be an object of susp.c.on or rivalry " ThuTStVmV': o'f ctriemagne enjoy the glory of being the ascendant power in Europe ; but it did not long sustain .t^ orltnal spfendbr. It would have required a man of extracrdi- narrtaent to manage the reins of a government so extensive and so complicated. Louis-le-Debonnaire, or the Gentle, the Zn anSTuc essor of Charles, did not possess a s>ng « q^l'^* caUon proper to govern the vast dominions which his father had beaueaKed to him. As impolitic as he was weak and super- Sus he had not the art of making himsel either loved or ?e"ed by his subjects. By the imprudent partition of his domi- n^ns beWen h s sons, which he made even in his h etime.he rtheaniennoWitvi^erished" Louis and Charles victorious this enTagm^^^^^ "Wijed their brother to take refuge in Italy. Thev nexf^arched to Strasbourg, wnere they renewed their alli- ance^'SS.) and confirmed it by oath at the head of their troops ' The^princes were on the point of dividing the whole mo- narchv befween them, when, by the interference of the nobility Tev became reconciled to their elder brother, and concluded a tince of Barcelona, and ihe lernlones which Charlemagne naa 'Trwi'rr.reL'l^roS- 'peaking, .ha. n,.o the fa- j ! flower rious in 1 Italy, leir alli- troops.' ole mo- lobility, iluded a •ted the jothaire and the Meuse, Sermany intons of of Gaul and the division the prc- tgne had a France smpire of mmmmmtm i PERIOD II. A. D. 800 — 962. 60 i the Franks, or monarchy of Charlemagne. For a long time it returned the boundaries which the conference at Verdun had assigned it ; and whatever it now possesses beyond these limits was the acquisition of conquests which it has made since the four- teenth century. Charles the Bald was in fact then the first King of France, and it his from him that the series of her kings com- mences. It was moreover under this prince that the govern- ment of the Neustrians or Western Franks assumed a new aspect. Before his time it was entirely of a Frankish or German constitution ; the manners and customs of the conquerors of Oaul every where predominated ; their language (the linirua Jiranctca) was that of the court and the government. But after the dismemberment of which we have spoken, the Gauls im- ported it into Neustria or Western France ; the customs and popular language were adopted by the court, and had no small influence on the government. This language, which was then known by the name of the RoTnan or Romance, polished by the refinements of the «ourt, assumed by degrees a new and purer form, and in course of time became the parent of the modern French. It was therefore at this period, viz. the reign of Charles the Bald, that the Wejtern Franks began, properly speaking, to be a distinct nation, and exchanged their more ancient appellation for that of French; do name by which thev are still known. ' At this same period Germany was, for the first time, embo- died into a monarchy, having its own particular kings. Louis the German, was the first monarch of Germany, as Charles the Bald was of France. The kingdom of Louis for a long time was called Eastern France, to distinguish it from the Western kingdom of that name, which henceforth exclusively retained the name of France. The empire of Charlemagne, which the treaty of Verdun had divided, was for a short space reunited (884) under Charles surnamed the Fat, younger son of Louis the German, and King of Germany; but that prince, too feeble to support so great a i weight, was deposed by his German subjects (887,) and their i example was speedily followed by the French and the Italians The vast empire of the Franks was thus dismembered for ever ! (888,) and besides the kingdoms of France, Germany, and Italy ! U gave birth to three new States— the kingdoms of Lorraine Burgundy, and Navarre. ' The kingdom of Lorraine took its name from Lothaire II younger son of the Emperor Lothaire I., who, in the division which he made of his estates among his sons (855,) gave to this ' Lothnire the provinces situated between the Rhine, the Meuse, i: W m t' .1- p^rd* ,N- «p*'- 'Ii* 70 CHAPTER III< I'-* and the Scheld, known since under the name of Lorraine, Al- sace, Treves, Cologne, Juliers, Liege, and the Low Countries. ^ At the death of Lothaire IL, who left no ma^ or leg't'.nale ^ heirs, his kingdom was divided by the treaty of Procaspis (870.) into two equal portions, one of which was assigned to Lou.s ihe German, and the other to Charles the Bald.^ By a subse- quent treaty, concluded (879) between the sons of Lou.s, .ur- Lmed the Stammerer, King of France, and Lou.s the Young King of Germany, the French division of Lorra.ne was ceded to this latter prince, who thus reunited the whole of that k.ng- dom. It remained incorporated with Germany, at the I'^e when the last dismemberment of that monarchy took place, (896,) on the deposition of Charles the Fat. Arnulph King of Germany, and successor of Charles, bestowed the kingdom of Lorra.ne on Swenlibald his natural son, who after a reign of five years, was deposed by Louis, surnamed the Infant, so., and successor of Arnulph. Louis dying without issue, (912,) Charles the Sim- ple, King of France, took advantage of the commotions in Ger- many, to put himself in possession of that kingdom, which was at length finally reunited to the Germanic crown by Henry, surnamed the Fowler. , , , r n ,„„„j„ Two new kingdoms appeared under the name of Burgundy, viz. Provence or Cisjurane Burgundy, and Transjurane Bur^ eundv. The founder of the former was a nobleman named Boson, whose sister Charles the Bald had espoused. Eleva ed by the king, his brother-in-law, to the^'g'^««}J^lg"'"^l,\";*^« state, he was created, in succession. Count of Vienna, Duke of Provence, Duke of Italy, and Prime M.n.ster, and even obtained in marriage the Princess Irmengarde, daughter of Louis II., Emperor and King of Italy. Instigated by this princess, he did not scruple to raise his ambitious views to the throne. The death of Louis the Stammerer, and the troubles that ensued, afforded him an opportunity of attaching to his interest most of the bishops in those countries, intrusted to his government In an assembly which he held at Mantai le in Dauphin^, (fS.) he engaged them by oath to confer on him the royal d.gn.ty. The schedule of this election, with the signatures of the bishops affix- ed, informs us distinctly of the extent of this new kingdom, which comprehended Franche-Comtcs Ma^on Chalons-sur-Sa. one, Lyons, Vienne and its dependences, Agde. Viviers, Usez. with their dependencies in Languedoc, Provence, and a nart of Slvov. Boson caused himself to be anointed k.ng at Lyons by the archbishop of that city. He mamta.ned Possession of his usurped dominions, in spile of the co.nbined efforts which were .nade by the kings of France and Germany to reduce hira to "ubjection. i V h g i a> c S it tt tl vi fr C(l m in M th di G ti( fn de de CI cit fin pei fm* I, Al. tries. I mate 870.) ^ouis j ubse- j . i.ur- 3ung, :eded king- when },) on nany, ne on i, was >or of Sim- i Ger- h was [enry, undy, Bur- lamed jvated in the uke of tained lis II., he did The nsued, nost of It. In ^9,) he . The s affix- igdom, ■ur-Sa- , Usez, part of Lyons, sion of which ice him PERIOD 11. A. D. 800—969. 71 The example of Boson was followed soon after by Rodolph, I governor of fransjurane Burgundy, and related by the female I side to^the Carlovingians. He was proclaimed king, and crown- ed at at. Maurice in the Valais ; and his new kingdom, situa- ted between Mount Jura and the Penine Alps, contained Swit- { zeriand, a^ far as the River Reuss, the Valais, and a part of ■u\' B ^ . '"*'"''' "'' ^°^°"' '^"PPen'ng about this time, fur- nished Rodolph with a favourable opportunity of extending his frontiers, and seizing a part of the country of Burgundy. These two kingdoms were afterwards (930) united into one. Hugo, kmg of Italy, exercised at that time the guardianship of the young Coiistantine, his relation, the son of Louis, and grand- son of Boson. The Italians, discontented under the government of Hugo, and having devolved their crown on Rodolph II., king of fransjurane Burgundy, Hugo, in order to maintain himself on the throne of Italy, and exclude Rodolph, ceded to him the district of Provence, and the kingdom of his royal ward. Thus united in the person of Rodolph, these two kingdoms passed to his descendants, viz. Conrad, his son, and Rodolph III., his grandson. These princes are styled, in their titles, sometimes Kings of Burgundy; sometimes Kings of Vknne or Aries • sometimes Kiiigs of Provence and Allermnia. They lost, in course of time, their possessions beyond the Rhone and the fsaone; and in the time of Rodolph III., this kingdom had for Its boundaries the Rhine, the Rhone, the Saone, the Reuss, and the Alps. Navarre, the kingdom next to be mentioned, known among the ancients under the name of Vasconia, was one of the pro- vinces beyond the Pyrenees, which Charlemagne had conquered from the Arabs. Among the counts or wardens of the Marches, called by the Germans Margraves, which he established, the most remarkable were those of Barcelona in Catalonia, Jacca in Arragon, and Pampeluna in Navarre. All these Spanish Marches were comprised within Western France, and within the division which fell to the share of Charles the Bald, on the dismemberment of that monarchy among the sons of Louis the Gentle. The extreme imbecility of that prince, and the calam ties of his reign, were the causes why the Navarrese revolted irom France, and erected themselves into a free and indepen- dent state. It appears also, that they were implicated in the defection of Aquitain (853,) when it threw ofT the yoke of i Charles the Bald. Don Garcias, son of the Count Don Gar- ' cms, and grandson of Don Sancho, is generally reckoned the first of their monarchs, that usurped the title of King of Pam- peluna, (858.) He and his successors in the kingdom of Na- ft :!»< t . I 72 CHAPTEH in. varre, possessed, at the same time, the provjnre of Jacca in Arraeon. The Counts of Barcelona were the only Spanish dependencies that, for many centuries, continued to acknowledge the soveieignty of the Kings of France. . •„. .„ On this part of our subject, it only remains for us to point out the causes that conspired to accelerate the downfall of the em- pire of the Franks. Among these we may reckon the inconve- niences of the feudal system,-a system as unfitted for the pur- poses of internal administration, as it was incompatible with the maxims that ought to rule a great empire. The abuse of fiefs was canied so far by the Franks, that almost all property had become feudal; and not only grants of land, and portions of large estates, but governments, dukedoms, and counties, were conferred and held under the title of fiefs. The consequence of this was, that the great, by the allurement of fiefs or benefices, became devoted followers of the kmgs, while the body of the nation sold themselves as retainers of the great. Whoever re- fused this vassalage was despised, and had neither favour nor honour to expect.* By this practice, the liberty of the subject was abridged without augmenting the royal authority. Ihe nobles soon became so powerful, by the liberality of their kings, and the number of their vassals they found means to procure, that they had at length the presumption to dictate laws to the sovereign himself. By degrees, the obligations which they owed to the state were forgotten, and those only recognised which the feudal contract imposed. This new bond of alliance was not long in opening a door to licentiousness, as by a natural consequence, it was imagined, that the feudal superior might be changed, whenever there was a possibility of charging him with a violation of his engagements, or of that reciprocal fidelity which he owed to his vassals. .... j v i ♦ A system like this, not only overturned public order, by plant- ine the germs of corruption in every part of the internal admi- nistration ; it was still more defective with regard to the external operations of government, and directly at variance with all plans of aeerandizement or of conquest. As war was carried on by means of slaves or vassals only, it is easy to perceive that such armies not being kept constantly on foot, were with difficulty put in motion; that they could neither prevent intestine rebellion, nor be a protection against hostile invasion ; and that conquests made by means of such troops, must be lost with the same faci- lity that they are won. A permanent military, fortresses and garrisons, such as we find in modern tactics, were altogether unknown among the Franks. These politic institutions, indis- pensable in great empires, were totally repugnant to the genius PKRIOD 11. A. D. 800—962. 73 of the German nations. They did not evon know what is meant by hnances, or regular .systems of taxation. Their kings had no other pecuniary resource than the simple revenues of their demesnes, which served for the maintenance of their court. Gratuitous donations the perquisites of bed and lodging, fines, the third of which belonged to .he king, rights of custom and toll, added but little to their wealth, and could not be reckoned among the number of state resources. None but tributaries, or conquered nations, were subjected to the payment of certain m- posts or assessments ; from these the Franks were exempted ; they would have even regarded it as an insult and a blow siruck at their national liberty, had they been burdened with a sinele imposition. ° It is obvious, that a government like this, so disjointed and incoherent in all its parts, in spite of the advantages which ac- crued to ,t from no-irishing a spirit of liberty, and opposinecially suffered f'om their incursions, under i I m- ">.i t CHAPTER III. the fpeWn reigns of Chnrlos ihn Bnid, ^nd Charles tho Fat. Not content with the hnvoc which they innde on the coasts, they a^'cridt'd the Seine, the Loire, the (iaronne. nnd the Rhone, carrying fire and sword to the very centre of the kingdom. Nantes, Angers, Tours, Blois, Orleans, Mons, Poitiers, Boiir- deaiix, Rouen, Paris, Sens, Laon, Soissons, and various other cities, experienced the fury of these invaders. Paris was three times .sacked and pillaged by them. Robert the Strong, n scion of the royal House of Capet, whom Charles the Bald had created (861,) Duke or Governor of Neusirin, was killed in battle (866,) while combating with success against the Normans. At length, the terror which they had spread every where was such, that the French, who trembled at the very name of the Norman.s, had no longer courage to encounter them in arms ; and in order to rid themselves of such formidable enemies, they consented to fmrchase their retreat by a sum of money ; a wretched and ieeble remedy, which only aggravated the evil, by inciting the invaders, by the hope of gain, to return to the charge. It is not however at all astonishing, that France should have been exposed so long to these incursions, since, besides the in- efficient state of that monarchy, she had no vessels of her own to protect her coasts. The nobles, occupied solely with the care of augmenting or confirming their growing power, ofTered but a feeble opposition to the Normans, whose presence in the kingdom caused a diversion favourable to their views. Some of them even had no hesitation in joining the barbarians, when they happened to be in disgrace, or when they thought they had reason to complain uf the government. It was in consequence of these numerous expeditions overall the seas of Europe, that the monarchies of the North were formed, and that the Normans succeeded also in founding several other states. It is to them that the powerful monarchy of the Russians owes its origin ; Ruric the Norman is allowed to have been its founder, towards the middle of the ninth century.'' He and the grand dukes his successors, extended their conquests from the Baltic and the White Sea, to the Euxine ; and during the tenth century they made the emperors of the East to trem- ble on their thrones. In their native style of piratical warfare, they embarked on the Dnieper or Borysthenes, infested with their fleets the coasts of the Black Sea, carried terror and dismay to the gates of Constantinople, and obliged the Greek emperors to pay them large sums to redeem their capital from pillage. Ireland was more than once on the point of bein^ subdued by the Normans, during these piratical excursions. Their first in- Tasioti of this island is stated to have been in the year 795 Jai ■TJDW"- Fat. rnaxt.s, Khnne, i?ilom. , Bour- s other is three n Rcion created B (866,) length, that the n!<, had order to ntcd to icd iind ing the lid have ! the in- tier own vith the , oflered ;e in the Some IS, when they had s overall rth were g several \y of the 1 to have iry.' He onquests id during , to trem- warfare, sted with d dismay emperors jillage. ibduedby ir first in- year 796 MHioD II. A. t>. 800— 9fl2. 77 G.eat ravage, wore committed by the harlmrians. who connuor- wh;"L 1" ;'• "'",'""' "'' ^^'""•'•'■"r'l. Dubli,,. and LimeVick. ' w,. ' I n i"""' """ T'"'""" '"'"y '<"'«'l"""'- fhri.lianily Wi. i..lro.luc..d among ihf.n towards the middle of the tenlh muury ; and ,t was not till the twelfth, the tim. „f it. i„v„.sion by the Lnah.sl,, that they suc.-erded in ..xpolling them from the i.sianci, when they were dispossessed of the cities of VVaterford and Dublin(1170) by Henly II. of England. ^^«"^""f'« .hoM"'^f'M" "^^f'''^'*' '^': Shetlan.l and Faroe Islands, and the I.lo of Man, were also discovered and peopled by the Nor- where they founded a republic (874.) which preserved its inde- pendence till nearly the middle of the thirteenth century, when that island was conquered by the Kings of Norway." Norman- dy, ui h ranee, also received its name from this people. Charles the Simple, wishing to put a check on their continual incur- sions, concluded at St C^lair-sur-Epte (892.) « treaty with Kollo or Kolf, chief of the Normans, by whicli he abandoned to them all that part of Nensiriu which reaches from the rivers Andelle and Aure to the ocean. To this he added a part of Vexin, -.uated between the rivers Andelle and Epte ; as also the ter- mory of Brctagne. Ro lo embraced Christianity, and received the baptismal name of Robert. He submitted to become a vas- sal of the crown of Franco, under the title of Duke of Norman- ay; and obtained in marriage the .princess Gisele, daughter of Chares the Simple. In the following century, we shall meet with these Normans of I- ranee as the conquerors of England, and the founders of the kingdom of the two Sicilies The Hungarians, a people of Turkish or Finnish origin, emigrated, as is generally supposed, from Baschiria. a counlrv lying 10 the north of the Caspian Sea, between the Wolgn, the Kama, and Mount Ural, near the source of the Tobol and the Jaik, or modern Ural. The Orientals designate them by the generic name of Turks, while they denominate themselves Magtars, from the name of one of their tribes. After havinir been long dP4,endent on the Chazars,'o a Turkish tribe to thi north of the Paius Mceotis, they retired towards the Danube, to avoid the oppressions of the Fatzinacites;" and established themselves (887) in ancient Dacia, under the auspices of a chief named Arpad, from whom the ancient sovereigns of Hunearv derive their origin Arnulph, King of Germany, employed ♦hese Hungarians (892) against the Slavo-Moravians, who pos- sessed a flourishing state on the banks of the Danube the Morau, and the Elbe.'-' While engaged in this expedition.'they were attacked agam in their Dacian possessions by ihe Pataina- '■!] I N i^! m^m If- «r- 'ITI'' ^1* r w CBAPTRR III. cites, who «»c<'pP(lf!(l nt lonpith in pxpnllinff them from their tprriloric!*.''' 'I'nkinjj advnntiij,'^ afHTwnrd.i of the death of Swiiitopulk, kin^ of the IVlnriiviiin.«, nod the trntiblpH conne* qiiciit on thiit event, ihcy disnevert^d from Moraviii all the coun- try which extends from the frontiers of Mohlaviu, Wnllachia and Transylvania, to the Danube and the Morau. They con- quered, about the same time, Fannonia, with a part of Noricum, which they liad wrested from the (jcrmons ; and thus laid the foundation of a new slate, known since by the name of Hungary. No sooner had tlio Hungarians established themselves in Panrmnin, than they commenced their incursions into the prin» cipal states of Europe. Germany, Iialy, and Oaul, agitated by faction and anarchy, and even the Grecian empire in the East, became, all in their turn, the bloody scene of their ravages and devastations. Germany, in particular, for a long time fell the pfl'ects of their fiiry. All its provinces in succession were laid waste by the.se barbarians, and compelled to pty them tribute, Henry I., King of Germany, and his son Oiho the Great, at length succeeded in arresting their destructive career, and de- livered Europe from this new yoke which threatened its in- dependence. It was in consequence of these incursions of the Hungarians and Normans, to which may be added those of the Arabs and Slavonians, that the kingdoms which sprang from the empire of the Franks lost once more the advantages which the political mstitutions of Charlemagne had procured them. Learning, which that prince had encouraged, fell into a state of absolute languor; an end was put both to civil and literary improvement, by the destruction of convents, schools, and libraries ; the po- lity and internal security of the states were destroyed, and commerce reduced to nothing. England was the only excep- tion, which then enjoyed a transient glory under the memora- ble reign of Alfred the Great. That prince, grandson of Egbert who was the first king of all England, succeeded in expelling the Normans from the island (887,) and restored peace and tran- quillity to his kingdom. After the example of Charlemagne, he cultivated and protected learning and the arts, by restoring the convents and schools which the barbarian.s had destroyed ; inviting philosophers and artists to his court, and civilizing his subjects by literary institutions and wise regulations.'* It is to be regretted, that a reig'n so glorious was so soon followed by new misfortunes. After the Normans, the Danes reappeared in England, and overspread it once more with turbulence and desolation. During these unenlightened and calamitous times, we find k: find rEnioD HI. A. p. »6S— 1074. 19 fine his adventures to ihe c-oa 70 oli„|,^ ,.■'''' '"" T*"' area,,, ,p„ken, we find, in the ton.h'entl ;; „ 'o .;: A,"" ments^rnn,/„7S ?"^"''""' ' ""^ "'•-. rrmLg^e e-' CHAPTER IV. PERIOD m, Prm Otko the Great to Gresory the Great. .. p. 962-1074 comprised, besides the three canton. nf% • i»r "'"*' " Mayence, on this side the Rhin?. u '"'"''' ^^ ''™^' ""^ From the first formation of this kingdom, the royal authority m I ( "' .'. .< v.- ' 'Ji'^* lUii - m \ m •iUSii.,. |. if'i li 80 CHAPTER IV. was limited ; and Louis the German, in an assembly held at Marsen (S51,)had formally engaged to maintain the states m their rights and privileges ; to follow their coumel and advice, and to consider them as his true colleagues and coadjutors in all the affairs of government. The states, however, soon found means 10 vest in themselves the right of (ihoosmg their kings. I he first Carlovingian monarchs of Germany were hereditary. Louis the German even divided his kingdom among his three sons, viz. Carloman, Louis the Young, and Chores the tat; but Charles having been deposed in an assembly held at !• rank- fort (887,) the states of Germany elected in his place Arnulph, a natural son of Carloman. This prince added to his crown both Italy and the Imperial dignity. The custom of election has continued in Germany down to modern times. Louis I'Enfant, or the Infant, son of Arnulph. succeeded to the throne by election ; and that prince having died very young (911,) the states bestowed the crown on a trench nobleman, named Conrad, who was duke or governor of France on the Rhine, and related by the female side to the Lariovin- Pian line. Conrad mounted the throne, to the exclusion ol Charles the Simple, King of France, the only male and legiti- mate heir of the Carlovingian line. This latter prince, how- ever, found means to seize the kingdom of Lorram, which Louis the Young had annexed to the crown of Germany. Un the death of Conrad I. (919,) the choic3 of the states fell on Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, a scion of the Saxon dynasty of the kings and emperors of Germany. , ,. It was to the valour and the wisdom of Henry I., and to his institutions, civil and military, that Germany was indebted foi its renewed grandeur, f hat monarch, taking advantage of the intestine troubles which had arisen in France under Charles the Simple, recovered possession of the kingdom of Lorram, the nobility of which made their submission to him m the years 923 and 925. By this union he extended the limits of Germa- ny towards the west, as far as the Meuse and the Scheld. The kings of Germany afterwards divided the territory of Lorrain into two governments or dutchies, called Upper and Lower Lor- rain. The former, situated on the Moselle, was called the dutchy of the Moselle ; the other, bounded by the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheld, was known by the name of Lothiers or Brabant. These two dutchies comprised all the provinces of he kingdom of Lorrain, except those which the emperors judged proper to exempt from the authority and jurisdiction of the dukes. The dutchy of the Moselle, alone, finally retained the name of Lorrain; and passed (1048) to Gerard of Alsace, leld al I n their \ !.. and all the means \ . The 1 jditary. | s three '• le Fat ; : Frank- | lulph, a i vn both 1 [own to j .rnulph, ng died French ■ France arlovin- ision of J legiti* :e, how- , which ly. On ; fell on dynasty id to his ;bted foi re of the arles the rain, the fie years f Germa- !ld. The f Lorrain wer Lot' illed the hine, the )thiers or vinces of emperors liction of ' retained f Alsace, ]'• 1 ; (. \- m § p^ ^ i ■ w 1 '•: ;X ■;■! ^ , :%: 1''' ' '^^ I' iii I -3 l.,f i n H m m I !i 11 :?to»^ i*:, .-itt "iiif? Flight of Maliomet. P. (io. r ■p Crowning of Chjirlcmagne. P. 05. n m. 1 . {4i r PERIOD III. A. D. 962 — 1074. 81 from whom doscended the dukes of that name, wlio in the eigh- teentli century, succeeded to tlie Imperial throne. As to the dutchy of Lower Lonain, tiie Emperor Henry V. conferred it on Godfrey, Count of Louvain (1108), whose male attendants kept possession of it, under the title of Dukes of Brabant, till 1355, when it passed by female succession to the Dukes of Burgun- dy, who found means also to acquire, by degrees, the greater part of Lower Lorrain, commonly called the Low Countries. Henry L, a prince of extraordinary g.iiius, proved himself the true restorer of the German kingdom. The Slavonian tribes who inhabited the banks of the Saal, and the country be- tween the Elbe and the Baltic, committed incessant ravages on the frontier provinces of the kingdom. With these he waged a successful war, and reduced them once more to the condition of tributaries. But his policy was turned chiefly against the Hungarians, who, since the reign of Louis IL, had repeatedly renewed their incursions, and threatened to subject all Germa- ny to their yoke. Desirous to repress effectually that ferocious nation, he took the opportunity of a nine years truce, which he had obtained with them, to construct new towns, and fortify places of strength. He instructed his troops in a new kind of tactics, accustomed them to military evolutions, and above all, he formed and equipped a cavalry sufficient to cope with those of ti.e Hungarians, who particularly excelled in the art of managing horses. These depredators having returned with fresh forces at the expiry of the truce, he completely defeated them in two bloody battles, which he fought with them (933) near Sondershausen and Meraeburg ; and ;hus exonerated Ger- many from the tribute which it had formerly paid them.' This victorious prince extended his conquests beyond the Eyder, the ancient frontier of Denmark. After a prosperous war with the Danes (931,) he founded the margravate of Sles- wick, which the Emperor Conrad U. afterwards ceded back (1033) to Canute the Great, King of Denmark. Otho the Great, son and successor of Henry I., added the kingdom of Italy to the conquests of his father, and procured also the Imperial dignity for himself, and his successors in Ger- many. Italy had become a distiiict kingdom since the revolu- tion, which happened (888) at the death of the Emperor Charles the Fat. Ten princes in succession occupied the throne during the space of seventy-three years. Several of these prinres, such as Guy, Lambert, Aniulf, Louis of Burgundy, and Berenger I., were invested, at the same time, with the Imperial dignity. Be- renger I. having been assassinated (924,) this latter dignity ceased entirely, and the city of Rome was even dismembered from the kingdom of Italv. I' Mi I "^f^ n V IP 111 ' i ■' !:■#' ' II J^f' III' m. i|f *t'j i 'i. 'j ^m*' "•W» t ■ ■ : 1, I'll ■ ? S8 CHAFTER IV. The sovereignty of that city was seized by the famous Maro* zia, widow of a nobleman named Alberic. She raised her son to the pontificate by the title of John XI. ; and the better to es- tablish her dominion, she espoused Hugo King of Italy (932,) »vho became, in consequence of thi? marriage, master of Rome. But Alberic, another son of Marozia, soon stirred up the people against this aspiring princess and her husband Hugo. Having driven Hugo from the throne, and shut up his mother in prison, he assumed to himself the sovereign authority, under the title of Patrician of the Romans. At his death (954,) he transmit- ted the sovereignty to his son Octavian, who, though only nine- teen years of age, caused himself to be elected pope, by the titlo of John XII. This epoch was one most disastrous for Italy. The weak- ness of the government excited factions among the nobility, gave birth to anarchy, and fresh opportunity for the depredations of the Hungarians and Arabs, who, at this period, wore the scourge of Italy, which they ravaged with impunity. Pavia, the capital of the kingdom, was taken and burnt by the Hunga- rians. These troubles increased on the accession of Berenger II. (950,) grandson of Berenger i. That prince associated his son Adelbert with him in the royal dignity; and the public voice accused them of having caused the death of King Lothaire, son and successor of Hugo. Lothaire left a young widow, named Adelaide, daughter of Rodolph II., King of Burgundy and Italy. To avoid the impor- tunities of Berenger II., who wished to compel her to marry his son Adelbert, this princess called in the King of Germany to her aid. Oiho complied with the solicitations of the distressed queen ; and, on this occasion, undertook his first expedition into Italy (941.) The city of Pavia, and several other places, having fallen into hi- hands, he caused himself to be proclaimed King of Italy, and married the young queen, his protegee. Berenger and his son, bemg driven for shelter to their strongholds, had recourse to negotiation. They succeeded in obtaining for them- selves a confirmation of the royal title of Italy, on condition of doing homage for it to the King of Germany ; and for this pur- pose, they repaired in person to the dirt a«semhle(l at Augsburg (953,) where they took the oath of vassalage under the hand.s of Olho, who solemnly invested them with the royalty of Italy ; reserving to himself the towns and marches of Aquileia and Verona, the command of which he bestowed on his ' uher the Duke of Bavaria. In examining more nearly all that passed in this affair, it ap- pears that it was not without the regret, and even contrary to 1. f % i Maro- her son r to es- r (932,) ' Rome. people Having prison, the title ansmit- ly nine- the titlo I weak- lobiiity, sdiitions ore the Pa via, Hunga- erenger itcd his 1 public othaire, ^hter of 3 impor- arry his nany to stressed ion into , having 3d King lercnger Ids, had )r them- lition of his pur- ngsburg p. hands }f Italy ; Icia and ther the ir, it ap- itrarv to -z=~\ PERIOD II!. A, n. 962—1074. 88 the wish of Adelaide, that Otho agreed to enter into terms of accommodation with Bcrenger, and to ratify the compact which Conrad, Duke of Lorrain, and son-in-law of the Emperor, had made with that prince. Afterwards, however, he lent a favour- able cPT to th.; complaints which Pope John XII., and some Italian noblemen had addressed to him against Berenger and his son ; and took occasion, or. ' ,ir account, to conducl a new Hrmy mto Italy (9f)l.) Bcrenj:. , too feeble to oppose him, re- tired a second time within his fortifications. Otho marched from Pavia to Milan, and there caused himself to be crowned King of Italy ; from thcnco he passed to Rome, about the com- mencement of the following year. Pope John XII., who had himself invited him, and again implored his protection against Berenger, gave him, at first, a very brilliant reception ; and re- vived the Imperial dignity in his favour, which had been dor- mant for thirty-eight years. It was on the 2'd of February 9G2, that the Pope consecrated and crowned him Emperor ; but he had soon cause to repent of this proceeding. Otho, immcdiatolv after his coronation at Rome, undertook the siege of St. Leon, a fortress in Umbria, where Berenger and hi , Queen had taken refuge. While en- gaged in the siege, he received frequent intimations from Rome of the misconduct and immoralities of the Pope. The remon- strances which he thought it his duty to make on this subject, offended the young Pontiff, who resolved, in consequence, to break off union with the Emperor. Hurried on by the impe- tuosity of his character, he entered into a negotiation with Adel- bert; and even persuaded him to come to Rome, in order to concert with him measures of defence. On the first news of this event, Otho put himself at the head of a large detachment, with which he marched directly to Rome. The Pope, however, did not think it advisable to wait his approach, but fled with the' Kinfj, his new ally. Otho, on arriving at the capital, exacted a solemn oath from the clergy and the people, that henceforth they would elect no pojie without his counsel, and that of the Emperor and his successors.** Having then assembled a coun- cil, he caused Pope John XII. to be deposed ; and Leo VIII. was elected in his place. This latter Pontiff was maintained the papacy, in spite of all the efforts which his adversary ide to regain it. Berenger II., after havinsr sustained a long siege at St. Leon, fell at length (9()-l) into the hands of the con- queror, who sent him into exile at Bamberg, and compelled his son, Adelbert, to take refuge in the court of Constantinople. All Italy, to the extent of the ancient kingdom of the Lorn- , bards, fell under the dominion of the Germans ; only a few in mac !■■ I* I' if. * ■» i i ;li l»i .1 n\ i » ■vf I.* l! II 84 CHAPTER IV. irmrilime towns in Lower Italy, with the greater part of Apulia and Calabria, still remained in the power of the Greeks. This kingdom, together with the Imperial dignity, Otho transmitted to his successors on tlie throne of Germany. From this time the Germans held it to be an inviolable principle, that as the im- perial dignity was strictly united with the royalty of Italy, kings elected by the German nation should, at the same time, in virtue of that election, become kings of Italy and Emperors. The practice of this triple coronation, viz. of Germany, Italy, and Rome, continued for many centuries ; and from Otho the Great, till Maximilian I. (1508,) no king of Germany took the title of Emperor, until after he had been formally crowned by the Pope. The kings and emperors of the house of Saxony, did not terminate their conquests with the dominions of Lorrain and Italy. Towards the east and the north, they extended them be- yond the Saal and the Elbe. All the Slavonian tribes between the Havel and the Oder* the Abotrites, the Rhedarians, the Wilzians, the Slavonians on the Havel, the Sorabians, the Dale- mincians, the Lusitzians, the Milzians, and various others ; the dukes also of Bohemia and Poland, although they often took up arms in defence of their liberty and independence, were all re- duced to subjection, and again compelled to pay tribute. In order to secure their submission, the Saxon kings introduced German colonies into the conquered countries ; and founded there several margravatcs, such as that of the North, on this side of the Elbe, afterwards called Brandenburg ; and in the East, those of Misnio and Lusatia. Otho the Great adopted measures for promulga- ting Christianity among them. The bishopric of Oldenburg in Wagria, of Havelberg, Brandenburg, Meissen, Merscburg, Zeitz; those of Posnania or Posen, in Poland, of Prague in Bo- hemia ; and lastly, the metropolis of Magdeburg, all owe their origin to this monarch. His grandson, the Emperor Otho III., founded (in 1000) the Archbishopric of Gnesna, in Poland, to which he subjected the bishoprics of Colberg, Cracow, and Breslau, reserving Posen to the metropolitan See of Magdeburg. The Saxon dynasty became extinct (1024) with tho Emperor Henry II. It was succeeded by that of Franconia, commonly called the Salic. Conrad II.. the first emperor of this house, united to the German crown, the kingdom of Buruundy ; or, as it is sometimes called, tho kingdom of Arle-'. This monarchy, situate between the Rhine, the Rcuss, Mount Jura, the Soaue, the Rhone, and the Alps, had been divided among a certain number of counts, or governors o{' provinces, who, in conse- quence of the weakness of their last kings, Conrad and Kodolph 111., had converted their temporary jurisdictions into hereditary i Vpulia This : niittt-'d s time \ he irn- ; .kings i virtue ' The I y, and Great, ; title of I I Pope. I lid not I in and \ lem be- j etvveen ' lis, the e Dale- rs ; the took lip all re- n order ierrnan several e Elbe, Misnia mulga- nbiirg eburg, in Bo- their 10 III., and, to V, and ebur^. mperor monly house, or, as narchy, ^^Dftiie, certain conse- iodolph reditary 7TJ PERIOD HI. A. D. 962—1074. 8fi and patrimoniiil ofRccs. after the exm pie of the French nobility, who had nlroiuly usurped the same pnwer. The principal and most puissant of these Burgundian nobles, were the Counts ol Pr'>vciu-e, Vicnne, (nflerwards called Dauphins of Vienne,) Sa- voy, Burgundy, and Montbelliard ; the Archbishop of Lyons, Besancon, and Aries, and the Bishop of Basle, Ice. The con- tempt in which these powerful vassals held the royal authority, induced Rodolph to apply for protection to his kinsmen the Emperors Henry II. and Conrad II., and to acknowledge them, by several treaties, his heirs and successors to the crown. It was in virtue of these treaties, that Conrad II. took possession of the kingdom of Burgundy (1032) on the death of Rodolph III. He maintained his rights by force of arms against Eudes, Cunt of Champagne, who claimed to be the legitimate suc- cessor, as being nephew to the last king. This reunion was but a feeble addition to the power of the German emperors. The bishops, counts, and great vassals of the kingdom they had newly acquired, still retained the au- thority which they had usurped in their several departments ; and nothing was left to the emperors, but the exercise of their feudal and proprietory rights, together with the slender remains of the demesne lands belonging to the last kings. It is even probable, that the high rank which the Burgundian nobles en- joyed, excited the ambition of those in Germany, and emboldened them to usurp the same prerogatives. The emperors Conrad II. (i033) and Henry HI. (1038,) were both crowned Kings of Burgundy. The fimperor Loihaire conferred the viceroyalty or regency on Conrad Duke of Zah- ringen, who then took the title of Governor or Regent of Bur- gundy. Berthold IV., son of Conrad, resigned (1156,) in favour of the Emperor Frederic I., his rights of viceroyalty over that part of the kingdom situate beyond Mount Jura. Switzerland, at that time, was subject to the Dukos of Zahringen, who, in order to retain it in vassalage to their government, fortified Morges, Mouden, Yverdun, and Berthoud ; and built the cities of Fii- bourg and Berne. On the extinction of the Zahringian iiuk?». (1 191,) Switzerland became an immediate province of the er.ipive. It was afterwards (1218) formed into a republic , and the "iher parts of the kingdom of Burgundy or Aries were gradually united to France, ao we shall see in course of our narrative. The Hungarians, since their first invasion under Louis I'En- fant, had wrested from the German crown all its possessions in Pannonia, with a part of ancient Noricum ; and the boundaries of Germany had been contracted within the river Ens in Bava- ria. Their growing preponderance afterwards enabled the Ger- .^ ki. ll It '! f ii:»' !■ ■•! "m^' S6 CHAPTER IV. mans to recover from the Hungarians a part of their conquests. They succeeded in expelling them, not only from Noricum, but even from that part of Upper Pannonia which lies between Mount Cetius, or Kahienbcrg as it is culled, and the river Leita. Henry III. secured the possession of these territories by the treaty of peace which he concluded (1043) with Samuel, sur- named Aba, King of Hungary. This part of Hungary was annexed to the eastern Margravate, or Austria, which then be- gan to assume nearly its present form. Such then was the progressive aggrandizement of the German empire, from the reign of Henrv 1. to the year 1043. Under its most flourishing slate, thai i», under the Emperor Henry III., it embraced nearly two-thirds of the monarchy of Charlemagne. All Germany between the Rhine, the Eyder, the Oder, the Leita, and the Alps ; all Italy, as far as the confines of the Greeks in Apulia and Calabria; Gaul, from the Rhine to the Scheldt, the Meuse, and the Rhone, acknowledged the supremacy of the emperors. The Duke? of Bohemia and Poland, were their tri- butaries ; a dependence which continued until the commotions which agitated Germany put an end to it in the thiricenlh century. Germany, at this period, ranked as the ruling power in Europe ; and this preponderance was not owing so much to the extent of her possessions, as to the vigour of her government, which still maintained a kind of system of political unity. The emperors may be regarded as true monarchs, dispensing, at their pleasure, nil dignities, civil and ecclesiastical— possessing very large do- mains in all parts of the empire— and exercising, individually, various branches of the sovereign power ;— only, in affairs of great importance, asking the advice or consent of the grandees. This greatness of the German emperors gave rise to a system of polity which the Popes took great care to support with all their credit and authority. According to this system, the whole of Christendom composed, as it were, a single and individual republic, of which the Pope was the spiritual head, and the Emperor the secular. The duty of the latter, as head and patron of the Church, was to take cognizance that nothing ^hould be done contrary to the general welfare of Christianity. It was his part to protect the Catholic Church, to be the guardian of its preservation, to convocate its general councils, and exercise such rights as the nature of his office and the interests of Christianity seemed to demand. It was in virtue of this ideal system that the emperors enjoyed a precedency over other monarchs, with the exclusive right of elect- ing kings ; and that they had bestowed on them the title of mas- ters of the world, and sovereign of sovereigns. A more impor- 11 t t. FRRIOD III. A. D. 962—1074. 87 tant Drerogatlve was that which they possessed in the election of the Popes. From Otho the Great to Kcnry IV., all the Roman ponlifls were chosen, or at least confirmed, by the emperors. Henry III. deposed three schisniatieal popes (1046,) and sub- stituted in their place a German, who took the name of Clement II. Tlie same emperorafterwardsnominated various other popes of his own nation. However vast and formidable the power of these monarchs seemed to be, it was nevertheless far from being a solid and durable fabric ; and it was easy to foresee that, in a short time, it would crumble and disappear. Various causes conspired to accelerate its downfall ; the first and principal of which necessa- riljr sprang from the constitution of the empire, which was faulty in itself, and incompatible with any scheme of aggrandizement or conquest. A great empire, to prolong its durability, requires a perfect unity of power, which can act with despatch, and com- municate with facility from one extremity to the other; an armed force constantly on foot, and capable of maintaining the public tranquillity; frontiers well defended against hostile Inva- sion ; and revenues proportioned to the e.xigencies of the state. All these characteristics of political greatness weie wanting in the Geman empire. That empire was elective; the states co-operated jointly with the emperors in the exercise of the legislative power. There were neither permanent armies, nor fortresses, nor taxation, nor any regular system of finance. The government was without vigour, incapable of protecting or punishing, or even keeping m subjection, Hs remote provinces, consisting of nations who difl!ered in language, manners, and legislation. One insurrec- tion, though quelled, was only the forerunner of others ; and the conquered nations shook off the yoke with the same facility as they received it. The perpetual wars of the emperors in Italy, from the first conquest of that country by Otho the Great, prove, in a manner most evident, the strange imbecility of the government. At every change of reign, and every little revo- lution which happened in Germany, the Italians rose in arms, and put the emperors again to the necessity of reconquering that kingdom ; which undoubtedly it was their interest to have abandoned entirely, rather than to lavish for so many centuries their treasures and the blood of their people to no purpose. The climate of Italy was also disastrous to the Imperial armies; and many successions of noble German families found there a foreign grave. An inevitable consequence of this vitiated constitution, was the decline of the royal authority, and the gradual increase of ' I \(*m<^ m '!)•• » ill L i\ 'la m ( 1* i il!>i ;;een much less rnpid than in France. The dukos, counts, and mar- graves, that i.s, the governors of provinces, and wardens of the marches, continued for long to be regarded merely as imperial officers, without any pretension?^ to consider their governments as hereditary, or exercise the rights of sovereignty. Even fiefs remained for many ages in their primitive slate, without being perpetuated in the families of those to whom they had been originally granted. A total change, however, took place towards the end of the eleventh century. The dukes and count?, become formidable by the extent of their power and their vast possessions, by de- grees, constituted themselves hereditary officers ; and not content with the appropriation of their dutchies and counties, they tonk advantage of the weakness of the emperors, and their quarrels with the popes, to extort from them new privileges, or usurp tho prerogatives of royalty, formerly reserved for the emperors alone. The aristocracy, or landed proprietors, followed tho example of the dukes and counts, and after the eleventh century, they all b'>'j;an to play the part of sovereigns, styling them- selves, in tiieir public acts. By the Grace of God. At length fiefs became also hereditary. Conrad II. was the first emperor that permitted the transmission of fiefs to sons and grandsons ; the succession of collateral branches was subsequently introduced. The system of hereditary feudalism became thus firmly esta- blished in Germany, and by a natural consequence, it brought on the destruction of the imperial authority, and the ruin of the empire. Nothing, however, was more injurious to this authority than the exlravogant power of the clergy, whom the emperors of the Saxon line had loaded with honours and benefactions, either from a zeal for religion, or with the intention of using them as a counterpoise to the ambition of the dukes and secular nobility. It was chiefly to Otho the Great that the bishops of Germany were indebted for their temporal power. That prince bestowed on them large grants of land from the imperial domains ; he gave them towns, counties, and entire dukedoms, with the pre- rogatives of royalty, s\ich as justiciary powers, the right of coin- ing money, of levying tolls and other public revenues, Sec. These rights and privileges he granted them under the feudal law. and on condition of rendering him military servitude. Nevertheless, as the disposal of ecclesiastical dignities belonged then to the crown, and fiefs had not, in general, becorhe heredi- larj', the Emperor still retained possession of those which he PERIOD III. A. D. 962—1074. \n 89 conferred on the cIrTfry; thoso he b.-stowo.! on u'hom.soPvor he h.-iffprl proper ; usmir them, hou-over, nUv.y. in conformity with hi!" own views and intert'sts. •' The .ame policy that induced Olho to transfer to the hi.hop^ a larpe portion of his domain., led him nl.s,, „, imrnsl them wifh the jrovernment o c.ties. At th,u time, there was a distinction o( towns into r..y« and prfjvrtorinl. The latter were d.-pendent on the d.ikes. while the former, subject immediately m the kinc gnye rise to what has since been called imi.enal ritln. It was of establishmu' counts and burjromasters or mairi.strates to ex- ercisc m their name the right, of justice, civil and criminal, the evjmjr of money, customs, &c. as well as other preromuives usually reserved to the Kinff. Otho conferred the connfies, or governorships of cities where a bishop resided, on the bishops hemsclves. who, in process of time, made use of this new power to subject these cities to their own authority, and render th.-m mediate and episcojml, instead of being immediate and roual as thev were originally. ^ the successors of Otho, as impolitic as himself imitated his example. In consequence of this, the possessions of the crown were, by degrees reduced to nothing, and the authority of the emperors declined with the diminution of their wealth. The bishops at first devoted to the emperors, both from necessity and gratitude, no sooner perceived their own strength, than thev were tempted to make use of it, and to join the secular princes^ in order to sap the imperial authority, as well as to consolidate their own power. To these several causes of the downfall of he empire must be added the new power of the Roman pontiffs, the origin of which is ascribed to Pope Gregory VII. In the followmg Period, this matter will be treated more in detail meantime we shall proceed to give a succinct view of the other states that figured during this epoch on the theatre of Europe The dynasty of the Ommiades in Spain, founded about the middle of the eighth century, was overturned in the eleventh. An insurrection having happened at Cordova against the Ca- liph Hescham that prince was dethroned (10.30,) and the caliph- ate ended with him The governors of cities and provinces, and the principal nobility of the Arabs, formed themselves into independent sovereigns, under the title of kings ; and as many petty Mahometan States rose in Spain as there had been prin- cipal cities. The most considerable of these, were the kin in<* 90 CIIAPTIR IV. power at the expcu.se of the Mahometans. Besides ihu king* dom:s (if Leon and Navarro, then- pxisti'd in Spain at the com- incncprnciil of the en v(>i\th fniiliiry, the county of Caslille, which hud l)t't.'ti disnienibiTc'd from the kinj^doin of Leon, and the county of IJurcclonu, which aciir Cordova, it would have been ( ;i-y fur the Christians u> './utain u complete ascen- dency over ilic MahoiucUUKs, if they ha-l kept llieir forces united. But the King of Navarro fell into the same mi-take that had been so fatal to the Mahometans; he divided his dominions among hie sons (10.'j.j.) Don Garcias, the eldest, had Navarre, and was (he ancestiir of a long line of Navarrese kings ; the last of whom, Jolm iI'Aliiert was deposed (1512) by Ferdinand the Calholi". From Frrdiiiand. 'he younger son, King of Leon and Castillo, were doscon^'i il ai! the soveroifns of Castillo and Leon down to Queen IsmIkIIu who transferred these kingdoms (1 17-1,) by ;;i nTia(,'o, to For!l,uMd the Catlioiic. Lastly, Den Ramira, nutuial son of Sancl.(., was the sUnn from wiiorn sprung all the ki.ig- of Arrugon, down to Ferdinand, who by his mor- riage wiih Isabella, happened to unite all the difTeront Christian Statics in Spain; and put an end also to the dominion of the Arabs and Moor.^ in that peninsula. In France the royal authority declined more and more, from the rapid progress which the feudal system made in that king- dom, after the feeble reign of Charles the Bald. The Dukes and the Counts, usurping the rights of royalty, made war on each other, and raised on every occasion the standard of revolt. The kings, in order to gain over some, and maintain others in their allegiance, were obliged to give up to them in succession every branch of the royal revenue ; so that the last Carlovin- gian princes were reduced to such a state of distress, that, fat from being able to counterbalance the power of the nobility, they had hardly left wherewithal to furnish a scanty subsistence for their court. A change of dynasty became then indispensable ; and the throne, it was evident, must fall to the share of the most powerful and daring of its vassals. This event, which had long been foreseen, happened on the death of Louis V., surnamed tha Slothful (987,) the last of the Carlovingians, who died childless at the age of twenty. Hugh Capet, great-grandson of Robert the Strong, possessed at that time the central parts of the kingdom. He was Count ^. *>. '^"^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) #/ ^ ^*'> #/^' 1.0 I.I 11.25 Hi IM 125 |5o "^" HII^K I |;S 112.0 — 6" 1.8 U II11II.6 ? Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716)872-4503 /. i/.x i CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. C^'nadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques ^ ^ <> 6^ '^ o I n tl V ti CI bl E ill D 01 PBBioo III. A. u. 962 — 1074. of Paris, Duke of France and Neustria; and his brother Henry was master of the dutchy of Burgundy. It was not difficult for Hugh to form a party ; and under their auspices he got himselt proclaimed king at Noyon, and crowned at Rheims. Charles Duke of Lorrain, paternal uncle of the last king, and sole legiti- mate heir to the Carlovingian line,^ advanced his claims to the crown ; he seized, by force of arms, on Laon and Rheims ; but being betrayed by the Bishop of Laon, and delivered up to his rival, he was confmed in a prison at Orleans, where he ended his days (991.) Hugh, on mounting the throne, restored to the possession of the crown, the lands and dominions which had belonged to it between the Loire, the Seine, and the Meuse. His power gave a new lustre to the royal dignity, which he found means to ren- der hereditary in his family ; while at the same time he per- mitted the grandees to transmit to their descendants, male and female, the dutchics and counties which they held of the crown, reserving to it merely the feudal superiority. Thus the feudal government was firmly established in France, by the hereditary tenure of the great fiefs ; and that kingdom was in consequence divided among a certain number of powerful vassals, who ren- dered fealty and homage to their kings, and marched at their command on military expeditions ; but who nevertheless were nearly absolute masters in their own dominions, and often dic- tated the law to the sovereign himself. Hugh was the progeni- tor of the Capetian dynasty of French kings, so called from his own surname of Capet. England, during the feeble reigns of the Anglo-Saxon pnnces, successors to Alfred the Great, had sunk under the dominion of priests and monks. The consequence was, the utter ruin of its finances, and its naval and military power. This exposed the kingdom afresh to the attacks of the Danes (991,) who imposed on the English a tribute or tax, known by the name of Danegelt. Under the command of their kings Sueno or Sweyn L, and Ca- nute the Great, they at length drove the Anglo-Saxon kings from their thrones, and made themselves masters of all England (1017.) But the dominion of the Danes was only of short con- tinuance. The English shook off their yoke, and conferred their crown on Edward the Confessor (1042) a prince of the royal blood of their ancient kings. On the death of Edward, Harold, Earl of Kent, was acknowledged King of England (1066 ;) but he met with a formidable competitor in the person of William Duke of Normandy. This prince had no other right to the crown, than that founded on a verbal promise of Edward the Confessor, and confirmed by an i ' 1 1 i 1 ' . it '1 ■ ■ .. ■ : ^ ■■ - 'W ,; ■ , .. li ■ 1 '4 ^ -i '' '1 I i .*'*'il t \i^ii ir I w CHAPTER IV. oath which Harold had given him while Earl of Kent. William landed in England (October 14th 1066,) at the head of a conside- rable army, and having offered battle to Harold, near Hastings in Sussex, he gained a complete victory. Harold was killed in the action, and the conquest of all England was the reward of the victor. To secure himself in his new dominions, William constructed a vast number of castles and fortresses throughout all parts of the kingdom, which he took care to fill with Nor- man garrisons. The lands and places of trust of which he had deprived the English, were distributed among the Normans, and other foreigners who were attached to his fortunes. He intro- duced the feudal law, and rendered fiefs hereditary ; he ordered the English to be disarmed, and forbade them to have light in their houses after eight o'clock in the evening. He even at- tempted to abolish the language of the country, by establishing numerous schools for teaching the Norman-French; by pub- lishing the laws, and ordering the pleadings in the courts of justice to be made in that language ; hence it happened that the ancient British, combined with the Norman, formed a new sort of language, which still exists in the modern English. William thus became the common ancestor of the kings of England, whose right to the crown is derived from him, and founded on the Conquest. About the time that William conquered England, another co- lony of the same Normans founded the kingdom of the two Sicilies. The several provinces of which this kingdom was composed, were, about the beginning of the eleventh century, divided among the Germans, Greeks, and Arabians,^ who were incessantly waging war with each other. A band of nearly a hundred Normans, equally desirous of war and glory, landed in that country (1016,) and tendered their services to the Lombard princes, vassals of the German empire. The bravery which they displayed on various occasions, made these princes desirous of retaining them in their pay, to serve as guardians of their frontiers against the Greeks and Arabians. The Greek princes very soon were no less eager to gain their services ; and the Duke of Naples, with the view of attaching them to his interest, ceded to them a large territory, where they built the city of Aversa, three leagues from Capua. The emperor Conrad II. erected it into a county (1038,) the investiture of which he granted to Rainulph, one of their chiefs. At this same period the sons of Tancred conducted a new colony from Normandy into Lower Italy. Their arrival is gen- erally referred to the year 1033 ; and tradition has assigned to Tancred a descent from RoUo or Robert I. Duke of Normandy J h t V V u b h C( tl v: ti tc nn m in a d( d( m tis re ac re! — I William 'aconside- ■lastings in s killed in reward of is, William throughout with Nor- tich he had >rnians,and He intro- he ordered iVe light in le even at- sstablishing h ; by pub- e courts of ned that the I a new sort William )f England, founded on another co- of the two igdom was ith century, ' who were of nearly a y, landed in le Lombard very which :es desirous ins of their eek princes and the lis interest, he city of Conrad li- which he ted a new ival is gen- Eissigned to Normandy rRRioD 111. A. D. 963 — 1074. m -11 i! These new adventurers undertook the conquest of Apulia (1041,) which they formed into a county, the investiture of which they obtained from Henry III. Robert Guiscurd, one of the sons of Tancred, afterwards (1047) completed the conquest of that pro- vince ; he added to it that of Calabria, of which he had also deprived the Greeks (1059,) and assumed the title of Duke of Apulia and Calabria. To secure himself in his new conquests, as well us in those which he yet meditated from the two empires, Robert concluded a treaty the same year with Pope Nicholas II., by which that Pontiff confirmed him in the possession of the dutchies of Apulia and Calabria ; granting him not only the investiture of these, but promising him also that of Sicily, whenever he should expel the Greeks and Arabians from it. Robert, in his turn, acknow- ledged himself a vassal of the Pope, and engaged to pay him an annual tribute of twelve pence, money of Pavia, for every pair of oxen in the two dutchies.* Immediately after this treaty, Robert called in the assistance of his brother Roger, to rescue Sicily from the hands of the Greeks and Arabs." No sooner had he accomplished this object, than he conquered in succession the principalities of Bari, Salerno, Amalfi, Sorrento, and Bene* vento; this latter city he surrendered to the Pope. Such is the origin of the dutchies of Apulia and Calabria; which, af\er a lapse of some years, were formed into a kingdom under the name of the Two Sicilies. As to the kingdoms of the North, the light of history scarcely began to dawn there until the introduction of Christianity, which happened about the end of the tenth or beginning of the eleventh century.^ The promulgation of the Gospel opened a way into the North for the diffusion of arts and letters. The Scandina- vian states, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, which before that time were parcelled out among independent chiefs, began then to form plans of civil government, and to combine into settled monarchies. Their new religion, however, did not inspire these nations with its meek and peaceable virtues, nor overcome their invincible propensity to wars and rapine. Their heroism was a wild and savage bravery, which emboldened them to face all dangers, to undertake desperate adventures, and to achieve sud- den conquests, which were lost and won with the same rapidity. Harold, surnamed Blaatand, or Blue teeth, was the first sole monarch of the Danes, who with his son Sweyn received bap- tism, after being vanquished by Otho the Great (965.) Sweyn relapsed to paganism ; but his son Canute the Great, on his accession to the throne (1014,) made Christianity the established religion of his kingdom. He sent for monks from other coun- I 11 r v, y !? ' i ■« i 1 J' I II ; * ,, ■•>' ■ 1' < i !'■ !? I mm.L 94 CRAPTBR IV. tries, founded churches, nnd divided the kingdom into dioresaei*. Ambitious to distinguish himself as a conqueror, he nf\erwarda subdued England and Norway (1038.) To these he added a part of Scotland and Sweden ; and conferred in his own life- time on one of his sons, named Sweyn, the kingdom of Nor- way, and on nnother, named Hardicanute, that of Denmark. These acquisitions, however, were merely temporary. Sweyn was driven from Norway (1035;) while England and Scotland also shook off the Danish yoke (1042,) on the death of Hardi- canute ; and Magnus King of Norway, even made himself mas- ter of Denmark, which did not recover its entire independence until the death of that prince (1047.) The ancient dynasty of Kings who occupied the throne ol Denmark from the most remote ages, is known by the name of Skioldiings, because, according to a fabulous tradition, they were descended from Skiold, a pretended son of the famous Odin who, from being the conqueror, was exalted into the deity of the North. The kings who reigned after Sweyn II. were called Estrithides, from that monarch, who was the son of Ulf a Danish nobleman, and Estritk, sister to Canute the Great. It was this Sweyn that raised the standard of revolt against Mag- nus King of iSJorway (1044,) and kept prssession of the throne until his death. In Sweden, the kings of the reigning family, descended, as is alleged, from Regner Lodbrok, took the title of Kings of Upsal, the place of their residence. Olaus Skotkonung changed this title into that of King of Sweden. He was the first monarch of his nation thai embraced Christianity, and exerted himself to propagate it in his kingdom. Sigefroy, Archbishop of York, who was sent into Sweden by Ethelred King of England, bap- tized Olaus and his whole family (1001.) The conversion of the Swedes would have been more expeditious, had not the zeal of Olaus been restrained by the Swedish Diet who decided for full liberty of conscience. Hence the strange mixture, both of doctrine and worship, that long prevailed in Sweden, where Je- sus Christ was profanely associated with Odin, and the Pagan goddess Freya confounded with the Virgin. Anund Jacques, son of Olaus", contributed much to the progress of Christianity ; and his zeal procured him the title of Most Christian King. In Norway, Olaus I., surnamed Tryggueson, towards the end of the tenth century, constituted himself the apostle and mis- sionary of his people, and undertook to convert them to Chris- tianity by torture and punishment. Iceland and Greenland * were likewise converted by his efforts, and afterwards became his tributaries (1029.) One of his successors, Olaus II., called i wfewn w w"" '"; dioreue!?. ifterwards e added a i own li fe- ll of Nor- Denmark. . Sweyn d Scotland t of Hardi- mself mas- lepcndence throne oi le name of ition, they the famous to the deity rn II. were son of Ulf > Great. It gainst Mag- f the throne ended, as is fs of Upsal, langed this monarch of himself to )p of York, igland, bap* [iversion of not the zeal lecided for uro, both of , where Je- the Pagan id Jacques, hristianity ; n King. rds the end le and mis* to Chris- reenland ^ ds became II., called PGBioD III. A. o. 982 — 1074. 95 the Fat, and also the Saint, succeeded in extirpating paganism from Norway (1020;) but ho used the cloak of religion to es- tablish his own authority, by destroying several pcity kings, who before this time possessed each thoir own dominions. Christianity was likewise instrumental in throwing some rays of light on the history of the Sclavonian iiations, by imparting to them the knowledge of letters, and raising them in the scale of importance among the civilized nations of Europe. The Sclavonians who were settled north of the Elbe, had been sub- dued by the Germans, and compelled to embrace Christianity. The haughtiness and rigour of Thierry, Margrave of the North, induced them to shake olT the yoke, and to concert a general insurrection, which broke out in the reign of Otho II. (982., The episcopal palaces, churches and convents, were destroyed; and the people returned once more to the superstitions of pagan- ism. Ihoso tribes that inhitbited Brandenburg, part of Pome- rania and Mecklenburg, known formerly under the name of Wilzians and Welatabes, formed themselves into a republican or federal body, and took the name of Lultizians, The Abo- trites, on the' contrary, the Polabes, and the Wagrians," were decidedly for a monarchical government, the capital of which was fixed at Mecklenburg. Some of the princes or sovereigns of these latter people were styled Kings of the Ve?.edi. The result of this general revolt was a series of long and bloody wars between the Germans and Sclavonians. The latter defended their civil and religious liberties with a remarkable courage and perseverance ; and it was not till after the twelfth century, that they were subdued and reduced to Christianity by the continued efforts of the Dukes of Saxony, and the Margraves of the North, and by means of the crusades and colonies which the Germans despatched into their country.'" The first duke of Bohemia that received baptism from the hands, as is supposed, of Methodius, bishop of Moravia (894,) was Borzivoy. His successors, however, returned to idolatry ; and it was not till near the end of the tenth century, properly speaking, and in the reign of Boleslaus II., surnamed the Pious, that Christianity became the e.stablished religion of Bohemia (999.) These dukes were vassals and tributaries of the German empire ; and their tribute consisted of 500 silver marks, and 120 oxen. They exercised, however, all the rights of sovereignty over the people ; their reign was a system of terror, and they seldom took the opinion or advice of their nobles and grandees. The succession was hereditary in the reigning dynasty ; and the system of partition was in use, otherwise the order of suc- cession would have been fixed and permanent. Over a numbei if ^!' m -ra^iJUiU^^*" is:i||t:'L 96 CnAPTER IV. of these purtitionary princes, one was vested willi certain riglits o' superiority, under the title of Grand Prince, according to a i-iiulotn found very prevalent arnon^ the half civilized nations of iiic north and east of Europe." The greater proportiuii of the inhabitants, the labouring classes, artisans, and domestics, wore serfs, and oppressed by the tyrannical yoke of their mas- ters. The public sale of men was even practised in Bohemia; the tithe, or tenth part of which, belonged to the sovereign. The descendants of Borzivoy possessed the throne of Bohemia until 1306, when the male line became extinct. The Poles were a nation whose name does not occur in his- tory before the middle of the tenth century ; and we owe to Christianity the first intimations that we have regarding this people. Mieczislaus I., the first duke or prince of the Poles of whom we posses* any authentic accounts, embraced Christianity (966,) at the solicitation of his spouse Dambrowka, sister ot Boleslaus II., duke of Bohemia. Shortly after, the first bish- opric in Poland, that of Posen, was founded by Otho the Great. Christianity did not, however, tame the ferocious habits of the Poles, wiio remained for a long time without the least progress in mental cultivation.'- Their government, as wretched as that of Bohemia, subjected the great body of the nation to the most deba:jing servitude. The ancient sovereigns of Poland were hereditary. They ruled most despotically, and with a rod ol iron ; and, although they acknowledged themselves vassals and tributaries of the German emperors, they repeatedly broke out into open rebellion, asserted their absolute independence, and waged a succcskIuI war against their masters. Boleslaus, son of Alieczislaus I., took advantage of the troubles which rose in Germany on the death of Otho III., to possess himself of the Marches of Lusatia and Budissin, or Bautzen, which the Em- peror Henry II. afterwards granted him as fiefs. This same prince, in despite of the Germans, on the death of Henry II. (1025,) assumed the royal dignity. Mieczislaus II., son of Bo- leslaus, after having cruelly ravaged the country situate between the Oder, the Elbe, and the Saal, was compelled to abdicate the throne, and also to restore those provinces which his father had wrested from the Empire. The male descendants of Mieczis- laus I. reigned in Poland until the death of Casimir the Great (1370.) This dynasty of kings is known by the name of the Piasts, or Piasses, so called from one Piast, alleged to have been its founder. Silesia, which was then a province of Poland, received the light of the Gospel when it first visited that kingdom ; and had for its apostle, as is supposed, a Romish priest named GeoflTry. who is reckoned the first bishop of Smogra (966.;j KWMW lin riglUB ding to a d nations [torlioii of omestics, heir mas- Bohemia; gn. The emia until ur in his- ve owe to Tiling this le Poles of hristianity a, sister ot first bish- the Great, ibits of the St progress hed as that to the most oland were ih a rod ot vassals and r broke out idence, and leslaus, son [lich rose in iself of the h the Em- This same Henry II. son of Be- lle between ibdicate the father had f Mietzis- the Great lame of the [ed to have sceived the |n ; and had Geoffry. \l ' PERIOD III. A. 0. 962 — 1074. 97 In Russia, Vladimir the Great, great-grandson of Ruric, was the first grand duke tliat embraced Christianity, (988.) He was baptized at Chcrson in Taurida, on the occasion of his marriage with Anna Romanowna, sister of Basil II. and Constantine VIII., Emperors of Constantinople. It was this prince that introduced the Greek ritual into Russia, and founded several schools and convents. The alphabet of the Greeks was imported into Rus- sia along with their religion ; and from the reign of Vladimir, that nation, more powerful and united than most of the other European states, carried on a lucrative commerce with the Greek empire, of which it became at length a formidable rival. At the death of that prince (1015,) Russia comprehended those vast regions which, from east to west, extend from the Icy Sea and the mouth of the Dwina, to the Niemen, the Dniester, and the Bug ; and southward of this last river, to the Carpathian Mountains, and the confines of Hungary and Moldavia. The city of Kiow on the Dnieper, was the capital of the empire, and the residence of the Grand Dukes. This period also gave rise to those unfortunate territorial partitions which, by dividing the Russian monarchy, exposed it to the insults and ravages of the neighbouring nations. Jaroslaus, one of the sons of Vladimir, made himself famous as a legislator, and supplied the Novogo- rodians with laws to regulate their courts of justice. No Ies."j the friend and protector of letters, he employed himself in trans- lating Greek books into the Solavonian language. He founded a public school at Novogorod, in which three hundred children were educated at his sole expense. His daughter Anna married Henry I., King of France ; and this princess was the common mother of all the kings and princes of the Capetian dynasty. Hungary was divided, in the tenth century, among several petty princes, who acknowledged a common chief, styled the Grand Prince, whose limited authority was reduced to a simple pre-ei ; ,:f -u-e in rank and dignity. Each of these princes as- sembled i.rmies, and made predatory excursions, plundering and ravaging the neighbouring countries at their pleasure. The East and the West sufTered long under the scourge of these atro- cious pillagers. Christianity, which was introduced among them about the end of the tenth century, was alone capable of soft- ening the manners, and tempering the ferocity ot this nation^ Peregrine, bishop of Passau, encouraged by Otho the Great, and patronized by the Grand Prince Geisa, sent the first mis- sionaries into Hungary (973.) St. Adelbert, bishop of Prague, had the honour to baptize the son of Geisa, called Waic (994,) but who received then the baptismal name of Stephen. This latter prince, having succeeded his father (997,) changed 7 Hi! ;i;^' i hi I r M "' ' • i t . til 'I ^ — ... . , . MJH i m i M ^WIi rr" ^ i 01 CIIAPTBR IV. entirely the aspect of Hungary. He nssumed the royal dignity, with the consent of Pope Sylvester II., who sent him on this occasion the Angelic Crowi,,'^ as it is cnlled ; the^snme, accord- ing to tradition, which the Hungarians use to this dny in the coronation of their kings. At once the apostle and the law- giver of his country, Stephen I. combined politics vyith justice, and employed both severity and clemency in reforming his sub- iect« He founded .several bishoprics, extirpated idolatry, banish- ed anarchy, and gave to the authority of the sovereign, a vigour and efficiency which it never before possessed, lo him like- wise is generally ascribed the political division of Hungary into counties, as also the institution of palatines, and great officers of the crown. He conquered Transylvania, about 10U2-J, ac- cording to the opinion of most modern Hungarian authors, and formed it into a distinct government, the chiefs of which, called Vaivodes, held immediately of his crown. The history of the Greek empire presents, at this time, nothing but a tissue of corruption, fanaticism and perfidy. The throne, as insecure a8 that of the Western empire had been, was filled alternately by a succession of usurpers ; most of whom rose from the lowest conditions of life, and owed their elevation solely to the perpetration of crime and parricide. A supersti- tion gross in its nature, bound as with a spell the minds of the Greeks, and paralyzed their courage. It was carefully cherished by the monks, who hud found means to possess themselves ol the government, by procuring the exclusion of the secular clergy from the episcopate ; and directing the attention of princes to those theological controversies, often exceedingly frivolous, which were produced and re-produced almost without inter- mission." Hence originated those internal commotions and distractions, those schisms and sects, which more than once divided the empire, and shook the throne itself. These theological disputes, the rivalry between the two pa- triarchs of Rome and Constantinople,'' and the contests respect- ing the Bulgarian converts, kd to an irreparable schism between the churches of the East and the West. This controversy was most keenly agitated under the pontificate of .Tohn Vlll., ami when the celebrated Photius was patriarch of Constantinople ; and in spite of the efforts which several of the Greek emperors and patriarchs afterwards made to effect a union with the Romish See, the animosity of both only grew more implacable, and »nded at last in a final rupture between the two churches. A ' govornment so weak and so capricious as that of Constantinople, could not but be perpetually exposed to the inroads of foreign enemies. The Huns, Ostrogoths, Avars, Bulgarians, Russians. ^J\ il dignity, m on thii le, accord- ny in ihe I the law- ih justice, g his suh- ry, hnnish- n, n vigour I him like- ingary into ■at omccrs 002-3, nc- ilhors, nnd [lich, called ne, nothing rhc throne, , was filled whom rose ir elevation A supersii- inds of the y cherished emselves of cular clergy f princes to frivolous, thout inter- notions and » than once the two pa- pats respect- ism between iroversy was n VIII., and stantinople ; ek emperors the Romish Incable, and lurches. A nstantinople. R of foreign >s, Russians, riRioD lit. A. D. 962 — 1074. 99 Hungarians, Chazars, and Patzinacites, harassed the empire on the side of the Danube ; while the Persians'" were incessantly e.xhiuisting its strengtii in the East, and on the side of the Eu- phrates. All thpfo nations, however, were content with merely desolating the frontiers of the empire, and imposing frequent contributions on the Greeks. It was a task reserved for the Lombards, the Arabs, the Normans, and the Turks, to detach from it whole provinces, and by degrees to hasten its downfall. The Lombards were the first that conquered from the Greeks the greater part of Italy. Palestine, Syria, and the whole pos- sesiioiis of the Empire in Greater Asia, as well as Egypt, Nor- I them Africa, iind the Isle of Cyprus, were seized in the seventh j century by the Arabs, who made themselves masters of Sicily," and three times laid siege to Constantinople (669, 717, 719.) They would have even succeeded in taking this Eastern capital, and annihilating the Greek empire, had not the couraj^e of Leo the Isuurian, and the surprising effects of the Gregeois, or Greek Fire," rendered their efforts useless. At length, in the eleventh century, the Normans conquered all that remained to the Greeks in Italy ; while the SeljuU Turks, who must not be confounded with the Ottoman Turks, deprived them of the greater part of Asia Minor. Turk is the generic appellation for all the Tartar nations, '" mentioned by the ancients under the name of Scythians. Their original country was in those vast regions situate to the north of Mount Caucasus, and eastward of the Caspian Sea, beyond the Jihon, or Oxus of the ancients, especially in Charasm, Tran- soxiana, Turkestan, ice. About the eighth century, Ihe Arabs had passed the Oxus, and rendered the Turks of Charasm and Transoxiana their tributaries. They instructed them in the re- ligion and laws of Mahomet ; but| by a transition rather extra- ordinary, it afterwards happened, that the vanquished nnposed the yoke on their new masters. The empire of the Arabs, already enfeebled by the territorial losses which have been mentioned, declined more and more, from about the middle of the ninth century. The Caliphs of Bagdad had committed the mistake of trusting their persons tu a military guard of foreigners,'" viz. the Turks, who, taking ad- vantage of the effeminacy of these princes, soon arrogated to themselves the whole authority, and abused it so far, as to leave the Caliphs entirely dependent on their will, and to vest in them- selves the hereditary succession of the government. Thus, in the very centre of the caliphate of Bagdad, there rose a multi- tude 01 new sovereignties or dynasties, the heads of which, under the title of Emir or Commander, exercised the supreme L ■ I' ' 100 CHAPTER IV. I power ; learinff nothing more to the Caliph than a pre-eminence of dignity, and that rHther of n xpirittiiil than u ttrnal marks of hoiniijje and ri'.xpcrt which were paid him, his name cnntiniio Togrul Beg, grandson of Seljuk, had the boldness to cause himself to be proclaimed Sultan in the city of Niesabur,*" the capital of Cho- rasan, and formally announced himself as a conqueror (1038.) This prince, and the sultans his successors, subdued by de- grees most of the provinces in Asia, which formed the caliphate of Bagdad.^' They annihilated the power of the Bowides reduced the Caliphs to the condition of dependents, and al length attacked also the possessions of the Greek 'empire -' i < fv '' i ' j'..jj . ff^wr ■-*s-?r-*rtte**t^ftJCS^^asMW ^eminence rnl nature, ihifh were i\ iiio!i()Uca, ^rruiiicil all rtis, accom- wever.pre- It masters, , whenever uhdi. Thai thought ol the title of d conferred rizicr. This ted even in h ; and his /inu service iph employ- ceierate its asty among ['hief Com- veroignty of r, was then lan religion, cept him as pire, fallen tribe, from rthrew the V fetters on I, known by ich took its f wandered passed the Isan. Rein- this coali- ogrul Beg, mself to be ital of Cho- ror (1038.) ued by de- le caliphate Bowides nts, and at npiro PIRIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300. — — -.- ) 101 I' Alp-Ari«lnn, the nephew ond immediate successor of Togrul Beg, {(iiitird II sii,'niil victory in Armenia, over the Emperor Roiniuiiis Di<>!,'i'n<'s (1071) who was there taken prisoner. Tho confusion which this event caused in the Greek empire, was favourable to the Turks, who seized not only what re- mained to the recks in Syria, but also several provinces in Asia Minor, such ns Cilicia, Isauria, Pamphylia, Lycia, Pisidia, Lycnonia, Cappadncia, Galatia, Ponlus, and Bythinia. The empire of the Seljukides was in its most flourishing state under the sultan Maiek Shah, the son and successor of Alp-Arslan. The caliph Cayem, in confirming to this prince 'he title of Sultan and Chief Commander, added also that of Commander of the Faithful, which before that time had never been conferred but on the caliphs alone. On the death of Ma- Ick (1092,) the disputes that rose among his sons occasioned a civil war, and the partition of the empire. These vast territories were divided among three principal dynasties descended from Scljuk, those of Iran, Herman, and Ronm, or Rome. This latter branch, which ascribes its origin t > Soliman, great-grand- son of Scljuk, obtained the provinces of Asia Minor, which the Seljukides had conquered from the Greeks. The princes of this dynasty are known in the history of the Crusades by the name of Sultans of Iconium or Cogni, a city of Lycaonia, where the sultans established their residence after being de- prived by the crusoders of the city of Nice in Bythinia. The most powerful of the three dynasties was that of the Seljukides of Iran, whose sway extended over the greater part of*^ Upper Asia. It soon, however, fell from its grandeur, and its states were divided into a number of petty sovereignties, over which the Emirs or governors of cities and provinces usurped the supreme power.^ These divisions prepared the way for the conquests of the crusaders in Syria and Palestine ; and fur- nished >i1so to the Caliphs of Bagdad the means of shaking ofT the yoke of the Seljukides (1162,) and recovering the sove- reignty of Irak- Arabia, or Bagdad. CHAPTER V. PERIOD IV. From Pope Gregory VII. to Boniface VIII. a. d. 1074—1300. A NEW and powerful monarchy rose on the ruins of the Ger- man empire, that of the Roman PontifTs; which monopolized both spiritual and temporal dominion, and extended its influ- ,1-i 'sit . ^■|j ■».p|#i ;^': If fit B-^ Ip- 102 CHAPTER ▼. ence over all the kingdoms of Christendom. This supremacy, whose artful and complicated mechanism is still an object of astonishment to the most subtle politicians, was the work of Pope Gregory VII., a man born for great undertakings, as re- markable for his genius, which raised him above his times, as for the austerity of his manners and the boundless reach of his ambition. Indignant at the depravity of the age, which was immersed in ignorance and vice, and at the gross immorality which pervaded all classes of society, both laymen and ecclesi- astics, Gregory resolved to become the reformer of morals, and the restorer of religion. To succeed in this project, it was ne- cessary to replace the government of kings, which had totally lost its power and efficiency, by a new authority, whose salutary restraints, imposed alike on the high and the low, might restore vigour to the laws, put a stop to licentiousness, and impose a reverence on all by the sanctity of its origin. This authority was the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, of which Gregory was at once the creator and inventor. This extraordinary person, who was the son of a carpenter at Saona in Tuscany, named Bonisone, or according to others, descended of a Roman family, had paved the way to his future greatness under the preceding pontiffs, whose counsels he had directed under the title of Cardinal Hildebrand. While Cardi- nal, he engaged Pope Nicolas II. to enter into a treaty with Robert Guiscard (1059,) for procuring that brave Norman as an ally and a vassal of the Holy See. Tiiking advantage, like- wise of the minority of Henry IV., he caused, this same year, in a council held at Rome, the famous decree to be passed, which, by reserving the election of the pontiffs principally to the cardinals, converted the elective privileges which the em- 'perors formerly enjoyed in virtue of their crown rights, into a personal favour granted by the Pope, and emanating from the court of Rome. On the death of Pope Nicolas II., Cardinal Hildebrand pro- cured the election of Alexander II., without waiting for the or- der or concurrence of the Imperial court ; and he succeeded in maintaining him in the apostolical chair against Pope Honorius II., whom the reigning empress had destined for that honour. At length, being raised himself to the pontifical throne, scarce- ly had he obtained the Imptirial confirmation, when ho put in execution the project which he had so long been concerting and preparing, viz. the erecting of a spiritual despotism,' extend- ing to priests as well as kings ; making the supreme pontiff'the arbiter in all affairs, both civil and ecclesiastical — the bestower of favours, and the dispenser of crowns. The basis of this I I f iniiiiiMrTii •- iprenincy, object of work of rs, as re- times, as ch of his hich was nmoralily d eccles'- orals, and it was ne- ad totally e salutary ht restore impose a authority Bgory was carpenter to others, his future Is he had ile Cardi- rcaty with nan as an age, like- ame year, le passed, cipally to the em- Its, into a rom the )rand pro- or the or- eeded in ^onorius t honour. e, scarce- ic put in rting and extend- jontiffthe bestower is of this PBBlOii IV. A. D. 1074— 130U. 103 dominion was, that the Vicar of Jesus Christ ought to be su- perior to all human power. The better to attain his object, he began by withdrawing himself and his clergy from the autho- rity of the secular princes. At that time the city of Rome, and the whole ecclesiastical states, as well aa the greater part of Italy, were subject to the kings of Germany, who, iu virtue of their being kings of Italy and Roman emperors, nominated or confirmed the popes, and installed the prefects of Rome, who there received the power of the sword in their name. They sent also every year commis- sioners to Rome, to levy the money due to the royal treasury. The popes used to date their acts from the years of the empe- ror's reign, and to stamp their coin with his name ; and all the higher clergy were virtually bound and subject to the secular power, by tlie solemn investiture of the ring and the crosier. This investiture gave to the emperors and the other sovereigns the right of nominating and conflrming bishops, and even of de- posing them if they saw cause. It gave them, moreover, the right of conferring, at their pleasure, those fiefs and royal pre- rogatives which the munificence of princes had vested in the Church. The emperors, in putting bishops and prelates in possession of these iiefs, used the symbols of the ring and the crosier, which were badges of honour belonging to bishops and abbots. They made them, at the same time, take the oath of fidelity and allegiance ; and this was the origin of their depen- dence, and their obligation to furnish their princes with troops, and to perform military service. Gregory VII. prohibited, under pain of excommunication, all sovereigns to exercise the rights of investiture, by a formal de- cree which he published in a council assembled at Rome in 1074. There was more than the simple ceremony of the ring and the crosier implied in this interdict. He aimed at depriving princes of the right of nominating, confirming, or deposing prelates, as well as of receiving their fealty and homage, and exacting military service. He thus broke all those ties by which the bishops were held in allegiance and subordination to princes ; making them, in this respect, entirely independent. In suppressing in> veslitures, the ponlifT had yet a more important object in view. It was his policy to withdraw both himself and his successors, as well as the whole ecclesiastical state, from the power of the G man kings; especially by abolishing the right which these princes had so long exercised of nominating and confirming the ropes. He saw, in fact, that if he could succeed in rendering the clergy independent of the secular power, it would follow, by a natural consequence, that the Pope, as being supreme head of .-:.J1 h ,■1 t w n 104 CHAPTER ▼. the clergy, would no longer be dependent on the emperors ; while the emperor, excluded from the nomination and investi* ture of bishops, would have still less right to interfere in the election of pontifls. This affair, equally interestmg to all sovereigns, was of the utmost importance to the kings of Germany, who had committed the unfortunate error of putting the greater part of their domains into the hands of ecclesiastics ; so that to divest those princes of the right to dispose of ecclesiastical fiefs, was in fact to de- prive them of nearly the half of their empire. The bishops, vainly flattering themselves with the prospect of an imaginary liberty, forgot the valuable gifts with which the emperors had loaded them, and enlisted under the banners of the Pope. They turned against the secular princes those arms which the latter had imprudently trusted in their hands. There yet subsisted another bond of union which connected the clergy with the civil and political orders of society, and gave them an interest in the protection of the secular authority, and that was, the marriages of the priests ; a custom in use at that time over a great part of the West, as it still is in the Greek and Eastern Churches. It is true, that the law of celibacy, al- ready recommended strongly by St. Augustine, had been adopted by the Romish Church, which neglected no means of introducing it by degrees into all the churches of the Catholic communion. It had met with better success in Italy and the south of Europe than in the northern countries ; and the priests continued to marrv, noi only in Germany, England, and the kingdoms of the North, but even in France, Spain, and Italy, notwithstanding the law of celibacy, which had been sanctioned in vain by a multitude of councils. Gregory VII., perceiving that, to render the clergy completely dependent on the Pope, it would be necessary to break this Eowerful connexion, renewed the law of celibacy, in a council eld at Rome (1074;) enjoining the married priests either to quit their wives, or renounce the sacerdotal order. The whole clergy murmured against ihe unfeeling rigour of this decree, which even excited tumult and insurrection in several countries of Germany ; and it required all the firmness of Gregory and his successors to abolish clerical marriages, and establish the law of celibacy throughout the Western churches.*^ In thus dissolving the secular ties of the clergy, it was far from the in- tention of Gregory VII. to render them independent. His designs were more politic, and more suitable to his ambition. He wished to make the clergy entirely subservient to his own elevation, and even to employ them as an instrument to humble and subded the power of the princes. ItUJHHL •mperoM ; id invest!- ere in the as of the :ommitted r domains le princes fact to de- ! bishopa, imaginary erors had pe. They the latter connected ciety, and authority, in use at the Greek libacy, al- m adopted Producing inmunion. of Europe itinued to >ms of the islanding vain by a omplelely )reak this a council either to he whole is decree, countries egory and iblish the In thus >m the in- is designs e wished ation, and id subded • PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300. The path had already been opened up to him by the False Decretals, as they were culled, fnrtred about the beginning of the ninth coniury, by the famous iin|)()sior Isidore, who, with the view of diminishing the authority of the metropolitans, advanced in these lotlers, which he attributed to the early bishops of Rome, a principle whose main object was to extend the rights of the Romish See, and to vest in the popes a jurisdiction till then unknown in the church. Several Popes before Gregory VII. had already availed themselves of these False Decretals ; ' and they had even been admitted as true into different collec- tions of canons. Gregory did not content himself with rigidly enforcing the principles of the impostor Isidore. He went even farther ; he pretended to unite, in himself, the plenary exercise both of the ecclesiastical and episcopal power ; leaving nothing to the archbishops and bishops but the simple title of his lieu- tenants or vicars. He completely undermined the jurisdiction of the metropolitans and bishops, by authorizing in all cases an appeal to the Court of Rome ; reserving to himself exclusively the cognizance of all causes termed major — including more es- fiecially the privilege of judging and deposing of bishops. This ntter privilege had always been vested in the provincial councils, who exercised it under the authority, and with the consent of the secular powers. Gregory abolished this usage ; and claimed for himself the power of judging the bishops, either in person or by his legates, to the exclusion of the Synodal Assemblies. He made himself master of these assemblies, and even arroga- ted the exclusive right of convocating Genera/ Councils. This pontiff, in a council which he held at Rome (1079,) at length prescribed a new oath, which the bishops were obliged to take ; the main object of which was not merely canonical obedience, but even fealty and homage, such as the prelates, as lieges, vowed to their sovereigns ; and which the pontiff claimed for himself alone, bearing that they should aid and defend, against the whole world, his new supremacy, and what he called the royal rights of St. Peter. Although various sovereigns maintained possession of the homage they received from their bishops, the oath imposed by Gregory nevertheless retained its full force ; it was even augmented by his successors, and ex- tended to all bishops without distinction, in spite of its incon- sistency with that which the bishops swore to their princes. Another very effectual means which Gregory VII. made use of to confirm his new authority, was to send, more frequently than his predecessors had done, legates into the different states and kingdoms of Christendom. He made them a kind of gov- ernors of provinces, and invested them with the most ample it' II 1 1 ■ '•^i , : p.? r- i' |. ,, ' ^ \>' 1-* n^ 106 CHAPTFIl V. powers These legates soon obtained a knowledge of all the afTairs of t]\e provinces delegated to their care ; which greatly impaircd the authority of the metropolitans and provincial coun- cils, as well as the jurisdiction of the bishops. A clause was also inserted, in the form of the oath imposed on the bishops, which obliged them to furnish maintenance and support for these legates ; a practice which subsequently gave place to fre- quent exactions and impositions on their part. While occupied with the means of extending his power over the clergy, Gregory did not let slip any opportunity of making encroachments on the authority of princes and sovereigns, which he represented as subordinate to that of the Church and the Pope. As supreme head of the Church, he claimed a right of inspection over all kings and their governments. He deemed himself authorized to address admonitions to them, as to the method of ruling their kingdoms; and to demand of them an account of their conduct. By and by, he presumed to listen to the complaints of subjects against their princes, and claimed the right of being a judge or arbiter between them. In this capacity he acted towards Henry IV., emperor of Germany, who en- joyed the rights of sovereignty over Rome and the Pope. He summoned him to Rome (1076,) for the purpose of answering before the synod to the principal accusations which the nobles of Saxony, engaged in disputes with that prince, had referred to the Pope. The emperor, burning with indignation, and hurried on by the impetuosity of youth, instantly convoked an assembly of bishops at Worms, and there caused the pontiff to be deposed. No sooner was this sentence conveyed to Rome, and read in presence of the Pope in a council which he had assembled, than Gregory ventured on a step till then quite unheard of. He im- mediately thundered a sentence of excommunication and depo- sition against the Emperor, which was addressed to St. Peter, and couched in the following terms : — " In the name of Almighty God, I suspend and interdict from governing the kingdom of Germany and Italy, Henry, son of the emperor Henry, who, with a haughtiness unexanipied, has dared to rebel against thy church. I absolve all Christians whatever from the oath which they have taken, or shall here- after take, to him ; and henceforth none shall be permitted to do him homage or service as king ; for he who would disobey the authority of thy Church, deserves to lose the dignity with which he is invested. And seeing this prince has re''ubed to submit as a Christian, and has not returned to the Lord whom he hath forsaken, holding communion with the excommunicated, and despising the advice which I tendered him for the safety of bis tl s li ti fi P p w w i w'- — — —• ■ memmmm if all the h greatly ;ial coun- luse was bishops, pport for ce to fre- mer over f making ns, which I and the 1 right of i deemed as to the them an ) listen to aimed the s capacity , who en- 'ope. He mswering he nobles eferred to id hurried assembly : deposed. I read in bled, than He im- md depo- St. Peter, rdict from y, son of ipled, has Christians mil here- tted to do obey the ith which to submit m he hath ated, and ety of hi3 n^ PBBIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300. soul, I load him with curses in thy name, to the end that peo- ple may know, even by experience, that thou art Peter, and that on this rock the Son of the living God has built his church ; and that the gates of hell shall never prevail against it." This measure, which seemed at first to have been merely the effect of the pontiff's impetuosity, soon discovered of what im- portance it was for him to persevere, and what advantage he might derive from it. In humbling the emperor, the most pow- erful monarch in Europe, he might hope that all the other sovereigns would bend before him. He omitted nothing, there- fore, that might serve to justify his conduct, and endeavoured to prove, by sophistries, that if he had authority to excommuni- cate the emperor, he might likewise deprive him of his dignity; and that the right to release subjects from their oath of allegi- ance was an emanation and a natural consequence of the power of the Keys. The same equivocal interpretation he afterwards made use of in a sentence which he published against the same prince (1080,) and which he addressed to the Apostles St. Peter and St. Paul, in these terms : " You, fathers and princes of the apostles, hereby make known to the whole world, that if you can bind and unbind in heaven, you can much more, on earth, take from all men empires, kingdoms, principalities, dutchies, marquisates, counties, and possessions, of whatsoever nature they may be. You have often deprived the unworthy of patri- archates, primacies, archbishoprics, and bishoprics, to give them to persons truly religious. Hence, if you preside over spiritual affairs, does not your jurisdiction extend a fortiori to temporal and secular dignities ? and if you judge the angels who rule over princes and potentates, even the haughtiest, will you not also judge their slaves ? Let then the kings and princes of the earth learn how great and irresistible is your power ! Let them tremble to contemn the commands of your church ! And do you, blessed Peter, and blessed Paul, exercise, from this time forward, your judgment on Henry, that the whole earth may know that he has been humbled, not by any human contingencies, but solely by your power." Until that time, the emperors had exercised the right of confirming the Popes, and even of deposing them, should there be occasion ; but, by a strange reverse of preroga- tives, the popes now arrogated to themselves the confirmation oi the emperors, and even usurped the right of dethroning them. However irregular this step of the pontiff might be, it did not fail to produce the intended effect. In an assembly of the Im- perial States, held at Tribur (1076,) the emperor could only obtain their consent to postpone their proceeding to a new election, and that on the express condition of his submitting It w r ■ 108 CHAPTER V. himself to the judgment of the Pope, and being absolrnd immr- dinlcly from tno excommunication he had incurred. Inconse- quence of this decision of the States, Henry crossed the Alps in the middle of winter, to obtain reconciliation with the Pope, who then resided with the famous Coantess Matilda, at her Casllo of Canossa, in the Modenese territory. Absolution was not granted him, however, except under conditions the most hu- miliating. He was compelled to do penance in an outer court of the castle, in a woollen shirt and barefooted, for three suc- cessive days, and afterwards to sign whatever terms the pontiff chose to prescribe. This extraordinary spectacle must have spread consternation among the sovereigns of Europe, and made them tremble at the censures of the Church. After this, Gregory VII. exerted his utmost influence to en- gage all sovereigns, without distinction, to acknowledge them- selves his vassals and tributaries. " Let not the emperor imagine," says he, in a letter which he wrote to the German nation, " that the church is subject to him as a slave, but let him know that she is set over him as a sovereign." Fiom that time the pontiff" regarded the empire as a fief of his church ; and afterwards when setting up a rival emperor to Henry IV., in the person of Hermann of Luxemburg, he exacted from him a formal oath of vassalage. Gregory pursued the same conduct in regard to the other sovereigns of Europe. Boleslaus II., King of Poland, having killed Stanislaus Bishop of Cracow, who had ventured to excommunicate him, the pontiff" took oc- casion from this to depose that prince ; releasing all his sub- jects from their oath of fidelity, and even prohibiting the Polish bishops henceforth to crown any king without the express con- sent of the Pope. This aspiring pontiflT stuck at nothing ; he regarded nothing, provided he could obtain his object. However contrary the customs of former times were to his pretensions, he quoted them as examples of authority, and with a boldness capable of imposing any thing on weak and ignorant minds. It was thus that, in order to oblige the French nation to pay him the tax of one penny each nouse, he alleged the example of Charlemagne, and pretended that that prince had not merely paid this tribute, but even granted Saxony as a fief to St. Peter; as he had con- quered it with the assistance of that apostle. In writing to Philip I. of France, he expressed himself in these terms: " Strive to please St. Peter, who has thy kingdom as well as thy soul in his power; and who can bind thee, and absolve in heaven as well as on earth." And in a letter which he addressed to the Princes of Spain, he attempted to persuade them, that the 1 1 ! I j.ii.iiifcLMJii ii Jlirtt l j.Ata-.J SlwIWWiiMWBWIi'WI'WW' immmmmmmmi'ammiimiHiHI'r Il '•■ i0 'I i'l idimmr- I [n conse- j the Alps he Pope, 1, at her ition WH8 most hu- ter court iree sue- le pontifl ust have ope, and :e to en- ge them- emperor German ut let him that time irch ; and ry IV., in sm him a e conduct slaus II., Cracow, took oc- his sub- he Polish )ress con- nothing, jtrary the quoted )able of was thus the tax of emagne, is tribute, had con- irriting to terms : well as )solve in ddresaed . that the le ;e PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300 109 kingdom of Spain, being originally the property of the Holy See, they could not exonerate ihcinsclves from payinij him a lax on all the lands they haO con(|uerpil frwii the Infidels. He affirmed to Solomon, King of Hungary, that Stephen I,, on receiving his crown at the hands of Pope Silvester II., had surrendered his kingdom as free property to the Holy Sen ; and that, in virtue of this donation, his kingdom was to be considered as a part of the domain of the church. He wrote in exactly the same style to Geysa his immediate successor. In one of his letters to Sueno, King of Denmark, he enjoins him to deliver up his kingdom to the power of the Romish See. He refused (1076,) to grant the royal dignity to Demetrius Swiiiimir, Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia, except on the express condixion, that he should do him homage for his kingdom, and engage to pay the Pope an annual tribute of two hundred golden pieces of By- zantium. This poniifThad the art of disguising his ambition so dexterously, under the mask of justice and piety, that he pre- vailed with various other sovereigns to acknowledge themselves his vassals, Bertrand, Count of Provence, transferred to him his fealty and homage, to the prejudice of those feudal obliga- tions he owed to the Empire. Several princes of Italy and Ger many, influenced by artifice or intimidation, abandoned the emperor, and put themselves under submission to the Pope. His eflbrts were not equally successful with William the Con- queror, King of England, whom he had politely invited by letter, to do him homage for his kingdom, after the manner of his royal predecessors. That prince, too wise to be duped by papal im- position, replied, that he was not in a humour to perform homage which he had never promised, and which he was not aware had ever been performed by any of his predecessors. The successors of Gregory VII., followed in the path he had opened up ; giving their utmost support to all his maxims and pre- tensions. In consequence, a very great number of the princes of Christendom, some intimidated by the thunders of ecclesias- tical anathemas, others with a view to secure for themselves the protection of the Holy See, acknowledged tllC'^■e usurped powers of the Popes. The Kings of Portugal, Arragon, England, Scotland, Sardinia, the two Sicilies, and several others, became, in course of time, vassals and tributaries to the Papal Sec ; and there is not a doubt, that the universal monarchy, the scheme of which Gregory VII. had conceived, would have been com- pletely established, if some of his successors had been endowed with his vast ambition, and his superior genius. In every other respect, circumstances were such as to hasten and facilitate the progress of this new pontifical supremacy. It J; M'-iiiJ -. "in* il cj- ] f-r «•'•'< * I0i no CHAPTER V. hnd commenced in a barbarous age, when the whole of tho Wostorri world was covered wilh the darkness of ignorance ; and when mankind knew neither the just rights of sovereignty, nor the bounds which reason and equity should have set to the authority of the priesthood. The court of Rome was then the only school where politics were studied, and the Popes the only monarchs that put them in practice. An extravagant supersti- tion, the inseparable companion of ignorance, held all Europe in subjection ; the Popes were reverenced with a veneration resembling that which belongs only to the Deity ; and the whole world trembled at the utterance of the single word Excommu- nication. Kings were not sufficiently powerful to oppose any successful resistance to the encroachments of Rome ; their au- thority was curtailed and counteracted by that of their vassals, who seized with eagerness every occasion which the Popes ofTered them, to aggrandize their own prerogatives at the expense of the sovereign authority. The Emperor of Germany, who was alone able to countervail this new spiritual tyranny, was at open war with his grand vas- sals, whose usurpations ho was anxious to repress ; while they, disrespecting the majesty of the throne, and consulting only their own animosity against the emperor, blindly seconded the pretensions of the pontifT. The emperor, however, did all in his power to oppose a barrier to this torrent of ecclesiastical despotism ; but the insolence of Gregory became so extrava- gant, that, not content to attack him with spiritual weapons, he set up rival emperors, and excited intestine wars against him ; and his successors even went so far as to arm the sons against their own father. Such was the origin of the contests which arose between the Empire and the Papacy, under the reign of Henry IV., and which agitated both Germany and Italy for a period of several centuries. They gave birth, also, to the two factions of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the former Imperial, and the other Papal, who for a long course of time tore each other to pieces with inct .ceivable fury. Henry V., son and successor of Henry IV., terminated the grand dispute about the investitures of the ring and the crosier. By the Concordat which he concluded at Worms (1122) with Pope Calixtus II., he renounced the ceremony of the ring and the cross ; and granting to the churches free liberty of election, he reserved nothing to himself, except the privilege of sending commissioners to the elections, and giving to the newly elected prelates, after consecration, the investiture of the regalian rights, by means of the sceptre, instead of the ring and crosier. The ties of vassalage which connected the bishops with the empc- .rt»*i t H i p»r iilW J i |i i pa l "!M ll» »! l jl>J »«l| I Wii,Ll l [W ■■MM e of the ' norancc ; ereignty, j •ict to the then the i the only j supersti- 1 I Europe i eneraiion the whole ipose any their au- ir vassals, he Popes le expense ountervail jrand vas- 'hilc they, Iting only onded the did all in lesiastical I extrava- apons, he linst him ; ns against •sts which e reign of taly for a the two Imperial, tore eaih nated the le crosier. 122) with ring and election, ■ sending y elected lan rights, ier. The the eropc- PRRIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300. Ill tors, were still preserved by thi" trnnsnction, rontrnry to the in- tentions of Gregory VII.; but tho onipcrors bcintf ril)liged to approvo of tho persons whom ihr Church should bcTciirior pre- sent, lost their chief influence in tho eloctions, and wore no longer entitled, ns formerly, to ijrnnt or refuse invostituro. These broils with tho court of Komo, tho check which they gave to the Imporinl nulhority, joined to the incrousitig .jbiises of the feudal sy.xlem, nflforded tho princes !\nd states of tho Em- pire tho means of usurping the heritable succession of their dutchies, counties, and fiefs ; and of laying the foundations of a new power, which they afterwards exercised nndor tho name of territorial superiority. Frederic II., compelled by the pressure of events, was the first emperor that sanctioned the territorial rights of the states by charters, which he delivered to several princes, secular and ecclesiastic, in the years 1220 and 1232. The Imperial dignity thu.i lost its splendour with the power of the emperors ; and the constitution of the Empire was totally changed. That vast monarchy degenerated by degrees into a kind of federal system ; and the Emperor, in course of time, became only the common chief, and superior over the numerous vassals of which that association was composed. The extra- ordinary efforts made by the Emperors Frederic I. and II. of the house of Hohenstaufen,* to re-establish tho tottering throne of the empire, ended in nothing; and that House, one of the most powerful in Europe, was deprived of all its crowns, and perse- cuted even to the scaffold. The empire thus fell into gradual decay, while the pontifical power, rising on its ruins, gained, day by day, new accessions of strength. The successors of Gregory VII. omitted nothing that policy could suggest to them, in order to humble more and more the dignity of the Emperors, and to bring them into a state of absolute dependence, by arrogating to themselves the express right of confirming, and even of deposing them ;* and com- pelling them to acknowledge their feudal superiority. Being thus no longer obliged to submit their election to the arbitration of the Imperial court, the ambitious pontiffs soon aspired to absolute sovereignty. The custom of dating their acts, .ind coining their money with the stamp and name of the emperor, disappeared after the time of Gregory VII. ; and the authority which the empe- rors had exercised at Kome, ceased entirely with the loss of the prefecture or government of that city ; which Pope Innocent III. look into his own hands (1198,) obliging the prefect of Rome to swear the usual oath of homage to the Apostolic See, which that magistrate owed to the emperor, from whom he received iH'(^ I t; iJ i 'i^' ,1 I 119 CHAPTBR V. the prcfciture. Hence it imppened, thnt the chiefs of the Em- pire. olilii,'iil lo ( ornproinisf with a pinver which liiey had learned lo ilrcad, had no longer any difliculty in recoijnisinj^ the entire iii(ie|K'iu!t'iue of the I'opes ; even formally renouncing the riijlits of hii;li sovereignly whidi their predecessors had enjeyed, not only over Konie, hut over llie Ecclesiastical Slates. The domains of the church were likewise considerably increased by the .icquisitions which Iimocenl III. made of ihe March of Ancona, and the dulcliy of Spoleio; as well as by the per- Mnial property or Pat ri mini i/ of tlie Countess Matilda'' which the Emperor" Frederic 11. ceded to Honorius III. (1220,) and which his successors in the Apostolic chair formed into the pro- vince Iniown by the name of the Patrimnny of St. Peter. One of the gimul means which the Popes employed for the advancement of their new authority, was the multiplication o( Religious (.)rders, and the way in which they took care lo man- ape these corporations. Before the time of Gregory VII., the only order known in the West was thnt of the Benedictines, divided into several families or congregations. The rule of St Benedict, pre.-cribed at the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle (817) to all monks within the empire of llie Franks, was the only one allowed by the Romish Church ; just, as that of St. Basil was, and still is, the only one practised in the East by the Greek Church. The first of tliese newly invented orders was thnt oi Grammont in Limosin (1073.) authorized by Pope Gregory VII. This was followed, in the same century, by the order of Char- treu.\, and that of St. Antony.' The Mendicant orders took their rise under Innocent III., near the end of the twelfth, and beginning of the thirteenth century. Their number increased in a short time so prodigiously, that, in 1274, they could reckon twenty-three orders. The complaints which were raised on this subject from all parts of Christendom, obliged Pope Gregory to reduce them, at the Council of Lyons, to four orders, viz. the Hermits of St. William or Augusiines, Carmelites, the Minor or Franciscan friars, and the Preaching or Dominican friars. The Popes, perceiving that they might convert the monastic orders, and more particularly the mendicants, into a powerful engine for strengthening their own authority, and keeping the secular clergy in subjection, granted by degrees to these frater- nities, immunities and exemptions tending to withdraw them from the jurisdiction of the bishops, and to emancipate them from every other authority, except that of their Heads, and the Popes. They even conferred on them various privileges, such as those of preaching, confession, and instructing the young; 33 being the most likely means to augment their credit and their MMMMMr •MMniN ^ ■-: it 1', i -, 4i !«■ i ., 1 , i ,t , ■ M*!. 1 t' r 1 1 t .ir 1 f ■> MMMMMMWI 1^1 I'M I I "Mil. WWI I w .ij ffig . f*jll,4 PKRIOD IV. A. 0. 1074 — 1300. iia inflnonce. The conHcquoncc vvn«, that tho iiionkii were fre- (jiieiitly employed by the Pnpex in (juiility of leh'utes nrul inirc sjonnricst ; thiy were feared and rettpeciud by soverei^nM, nin- gularly revered by the people, and lef slip no occasion of exulting a power to which alone they owed their promotion, their re- spectability, and ail the advantages they enjoyed Of all the Mucccssnrs of Orcgory Vn.,he who fB»*irMWed him most in the superiority of his genius, und the extent of his knowledge, vint Innocent III., who was of tho family uf the Count.s of Segni, and elevated to the pontificate at the age of 37. He was as ambitious as thot pontifT, and equally fertile in resources ; und he even surpassed him in the boldness of his plans, and the success of his enterprises. Innocent an- nounced himself as the iucce$tor of St. Peter, Met up by God to govern not only the Church, but the whole world. It was this Pope who first made use of the famous euinpnrison about the sun and the moon : Ai God, says )\e, has placed two great luminaries in the firmament, the one to rule the day, and the other to give light by night, to hat he established two grand powers, t)u pontifical and the royal ; and at the vtoon receives her light from the tun, so does royalty borrow itt splendour from the Papal authority. Not content to exercise the legislative power as he pleased, by means of the numerous decretals which he dispersed over all Christendom, this pontiff was the first that arrogated to him- self the prerogative of dispensing with the laws themselves, in vJrtu^of what he termed the plenitude of his power. It is to him also that the origin of the Inquisition is ascribed, that terrible tribunal which afterwards became the firmest prop of sacerdotal despotism ; but what is of more importance to re- mark, is, that he laid the foundations of that exorbitant power, which his successors have since exercised in collating or pre- senting to ecclesiastical dignities and benefices. The secular princes having been deprived of their rights of nomination and confirmation, by the decrees of Gregory VII. and his successors, the privilege of electing bishops was re- stored to the clergy and congregation of each church, and to the chapters of convents ; the confirmation of the elected pre- lates belonged to their immediate superiors ; and collation to the other ecclesiastical benefices was reserved for the bishops and ordinaries. All these regulations were changed towards the end of the twelfth century. The canons of cathedral churches, authorized by the Court of Rome, claimed to them- selves the right of election, to the exclusion uf the clergy and the pe pie ; while the Popes, gradually interfering wiu elec- 8 n ii ■ 114 CHAPTER V. '(( f if: r t\ tions and collations, found means o usurp the nominMion a^^^ collation to almost all ecclesiastical benefices The pr nciple J these usurpations was founded on the false decreals ; accord- ing to which all ecclesiastical jurisdiction emanates from he court of Rome, as a river flows from its source. It "s from the Pope that archbishops and bishops hold that portion of authon- tv with which they are endowed ; and of which he does not /ivest himself, by the act of communicating it to them; but is rather the more entitled to co-operate with them in the exercise - of that jurisdiction as often as he may m«yi°Vf- This principle of a conjunct authority, furnished a very plau- sible pretext for the Popes to interfere in collation to benefices. This collation, according to the canon law, ^f '"g «f ««"»;j'° the jurisdiction of bishops, it seemed natural that the Pope, who concurred in the jurisdiction, should also concur in the privileges derived from it, namely, induction or collation to be- Sefices From the right of concurrence, »«l"efore Innocent III. proceeded to that o{ preventionM^og the firs pontiff that made use of it. He exercised that right, especially with regaM to benefices which had newly become vacant by the death of the r incumbents, when at the Court of Rome; in which cases it was easy to anticipate or get the start of the bishops In the same manner, this right was exercised m remote d'O^e «s, by means of legates a latere, which he dispersed over the different ^TIorthlrSroTpm-^ntion were deriyni the provmonal jnandates, and the GrOces Expectatives, ("/^.'•^'"""LP" ' " Bulls) letters granting promise of church livings before they became vacant.^ The Popes not bavmg legates eve^r where and wishing, besides, to treat the bishops with some respect, beean by addressing to them letters of recommendation in fa- vou' of those persons for whom they were anxious to procure benefices. These letters becoming too frequent and importu- nate, the bishops ventured to refuse their compliance ; on which the Popes began to change their recommendations into orders i or mandates ; and appointed commissioners to enforce their ! execTon by means of ecclesiastical censures. These man- i dates were succeeded by the GrAces Expectattres, which pro- i perlv speaking, were nothing else than mandates issued for be- Telke^^whose titulars or incumbents were yet alive. Lastly appeared the Reservation,, which were distinguished into ge- nSal and special. The first general reservation was that o benefices becoming vacant by the incumbents dying at 'he Court of Rome. This was introduced by Pope Clement IV m 1266, in order to exclude for ever the bishops from the right o! concurrence and prevention in benefices of thnt kind. Im IV' nination and e principle ol tals; accord- tes from the [t is from the tn of authori* he does not them; but is 1 the exercise » ler. ! a very plau- I to benefices. I essential to at the Pope, ;oncur in the ollation to be- , Innocent III. itiff that made rith regard to death of their > hich cases it hops. In the p ! dioceses, by j jr the different he provisional \ lary grants or ! Ts before they j i every where, } some respect, iindation in fa* i )U8 to procure j t and importu- ince ; on which j ins into orders | I enforce their These man- 's, which, pro- 5 issued for be- alive. Lastly iiished into ge- on was that of ing at the Court !lement IV. in ; •om the right of kind. P8KI0D IV. A. D. 1074—1300. 116 This first reservation was the forerunner of several others, such as the reservation of all cathedral churches, abbeys, and priories ; as also of the highest dignities in cathedral and colle- giate churches ; and of all collective benefices, becoming vacant during eight months in the year, called the Pope's months, so that only four months remained for the ordinary collators ; and these too, encroached upon by mandates, expectatives, and re- servations. The Popes having thus seized the nomination to episcopal dignities, it followed, by a simple and natural process, that the con/irmation of all prelates, without distinction, was in like manner reserved for them. It would have even been reck- oned a breach of decorum to aJJr'- ? an archbishop, demanding from him the confirmation of a bishop nominated by the Pope ; so that this point of common right, which vested the confirma- tion of every prelate in his immediate superior, was also anni- hilated ; and the Romish See was at length acknowledged ovei the whole Western world, as the only source of all jurisdiction, end all ecclesiastical power. An extraordinary event, the offspring of that superstitious age, served still more to increase the power of the Popes ; and that was the Crusades, which the nations of Europe undertook, at their request and by their orders, for the conquest of Palestine or the Holy Land. These expeditions, known by the name of Holy Wars, because religion was made the pretext or occasion of them, require a somewhat particular detail, not merely of the circumstances that accompanied them, but also of the changes which they introduced into the moral and political condition of society. Pilgrimages to Jerusalem, which were in use from the earliest ages of Christianity, had become very frequent about the beginning of the eleventh century. The opinion which then very generally prevailed, that the end of the world was at hand, induced vast numbers of Christians to sell their possessions in Europe, in order that they might set out for the Holy Land, there to await the coming of the Lord. So long as the Arabs were masters of Palestine, they protected these pilgrimages, from which they derived no small emoluments. But when the Seljukian Turks, a barbarous and ferocious people, had con- quered that country (1075) under the Caliphs of Egypt, the pil- grims saw themselves exposed to every kind of insult and op- pression.* The lamentable accounts which they gave of these outrages on their return to Europe, excited the general indigna- tion, and gave birth to the romantic notion of expelling these Infidels from the Holy Land. Gregory VII. was the projector of this grand scheme. He addressed circular letters to all the sovereigns of Europe, and .'ir , 1 ■ 1 1;! ■ i 1^ ■■' I I «■! fV 3^ r 116 CHAPTEK V. \!': ft invited them to make a general crusade against the Turks. Meantime, however, more nressing inlerest>«, and his quarrels with the Emperor Henry IV., obliged him to defer the projected enterprise ; but his attention was soon recalled to it by the re- presentation of a pilgrim, called Peter the Hermit a native of Amiens in Picardy. Furnished with letters from the Patriarch of Jerusalem to the Pope and the princes of the We^t, this ardent fanatic traversed the whole of Italy, France, and yerma. ny • preaching every where, and representing, m the liveliest colours, the profanation of the sacred places, and the miserable condition of the Christians and poor pilgrims in the holy Land. It proved no difficult task for him to impart to others the fanati- cism with which he was himself animated. His zeal was pow- erfully seconded by Pope Urban II., who repaired "» person to France, where he convoked the council of Clermont (1096,) and pronounced, in full assembly, a pathetic harangue, at the close of which they unanimously resolved on the Holy War. It was decreed, that all who should enrol their names in this sacred militia, should wear a red cross on their right shoulder : that they should enjoy plenary indulgence, and obtain remission of all their sins. , From that time the pulpits of Europe resounded writh exhor- tations to the crusades. People of every rank and condition were seen flocking in crowds to assume the signal of the cross ; and, in the following year, innumerable bands of crusaders, from the diflerent countries of Europe, set out, one after another on this expedition to the East.' The only exception was the Ger- mans, who partook but feebly of this universal enthusiasm, on account of the disputes which then subsisted between the Em- peror and the court of Rome.'* The three or four first divisions of the crusaders, under the conduct oi chiefs, who had neither name nor experience, marched without order and without disci- pline ; pillaging, burning, and wasting the countries through which they passed. Most of them perished from fatigue, hun- ger, or sickness, or by the sword of the exasperated nations, whose territories they had laid desolate." To these unwarlike and undisciplined troops succeeded regu- .ar armies, commanded by experienced officers, and powerful princes. Godfrey of Bouillon (1096,) Duke of Lorrain, accom- panied by his brother Baldwin, and hi. cousin Baldwin ofBoutg, with a vast retinue of noblemen, put himself at the head ofthe first body of crusaders. He directed his march through Ger- ; many, Hungary, and Bulgaria, towards Constantinople, and I was soon followed by several French princes, such as "ilugh the Great, brother of Philip I. King of France.; Robert Duke of mmmHmllm Ij it the TiiAs. 1 his quarrels the projected n it hy the re- it, a native of , the Patriarch , the West, this , B, and Germa- 1 the liveliest the miserable he Holy Land, lers the fanati- zeal was pow- ■d in person to )nt (1096,) and ue, at the close ^ War. It was I in this sacred shoulder : that in remission of led with exhor- and condition of the cross ; rusaders, from fter another, on on was the Ger- enthusiasm, on 'tween the Em- ar first divisions vho had neither without disci- untries through )m fatigue, hun- )erated nations, succeeded regu- fl, and powerful jorrain, accom- IdwinofBourg, V the head of the ch through Ger- istantinople, and uch as Hugh the Robert Duke of W! PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074 — 1300. 117 Normandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Stephen VI., Count of Blois ; Eustace of Boulosrne, brolner to Godfrey de Bouillon, and Robert Count of Flanders, who all preferred the route by Italy. They passed the winter in the environs of Bari, Brin- disi, and Otranto ; and did not embark for Greece until the fol- lowing spring. Boemond, Prince of Tarentum, son to Roger, Earl of Sicily, at the instigation of the French grandees, took the cross, after their example, and carried with him into the East the flower of the Normans, and the noblesse uf Sicily, Apulia, and Calabria. Lastly, Raymond IV., Count of Tou- louse, accompanied by the Bishop of Puy, traversed Lombardy, Friuli, and Dalmatia, on his passage to the Holy Land. The general rendezvous of the crusaders was at Chalcedon in Bythinia. It is supposed that their forces united, amounted to six hundred thousand combatants. They commenced their exploits with the siege of Nice, capital of the empire of Roum, ,of which thev made themselves master, after having repulsed the Turks who had advanced under the command of the Sultan Kili-Arslan, the son of Soliman, premier sultan of Roum. Ano- ther victory gained over the same sultan (1097) in the Gorgo- nian valley in Bythinia, opened for the crusaders a passage into Syria. There they undertook the siege of the strong city of Antioch, which they carried after an immense loss of lives (1098.) Having at length arrived in Palestine, they planned the attack of Jerusalem, which the Caliph of Egypt had just recovered from the Turks ; and which the crusaders, in their turn, carried by assault from the Egyptians (1099.) This city was declared the capital of a new kingdom, the sovereignty of"^ which was be- stowed on Godfrey of Bouillon, though he refused to take the title of king. This famous prince extended his conquests by a splendid victory, which lit gained that same year near Ascalon, over the Caliph of Egypt. On his death, his brother Baldwin succeeded him, and transmitted the throne to his cousin Bald- win of Bourg, whose posterity reigned in Jerusalem until the destruction of that kingdom by Saladin (1187.) Besides the kingdom of Jerusalem, which comprehended Pa- lestine, with the cities of Sidon, Tyre, and Ptolemais, the cri* saders founded several other states in the East. The earldom of Edessa, first conquered by Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, passed to several French princes in succession until the year 1144, when it was subdued by Atabek-Zenghi commonly called Sanguin. The principality of Antioch fell to the share of Boe- mond, prince of Tarentum, whose heirs and descendants added to it, in 1188, the County of Tripoli, which had been founded (1110) by Raymond, Count of Toulouse, one of the crusaders. !l B'' ;* ;s [? 1 1 I lla CHAPTBR V. But they were deprived both of the one and the other of these sovereignties by the Mamelukes in 1268, w ho afterwards (1289) conquered Antioch and Tripoli. Lastly, the kingdom of Cyprus which Richard Cceur-de-Lion, King of England, took from the Greeks (1191,) was surrendered by that prince to Guy de Lu- signan, whose posterity reigned in Cyprus till the year 1487, when that island was taken possession of by the republic of V 6niC6 The transient duration of these diflPerent states, presents no- thin| suprising. The Christians of the East, disunited among themselves, surrounded on all hands, and incessantly attacked by powerful nations, found themselves too remote from Europe to obtain from that quarter any prompt or eflfective succour. It was, therefore, impossible for them long to withstand the efTorts of the Mahometans, who were animated as well as the Chris- tians by a sectarian zeal, which led them to conibine their forces against the enemies of their religion and their prophet. The enthusiasm of religious wars did not however become extinct until nearly two centuries. It was encouraged and supported by the numerous privileges which popes and sovereigns con- ferred on the invaders, and by the rich endowments that were made in their favour. All Europe continued to be in motion, and all its principal sovereigns marched in their turn to the East, either to attempt new conquests, or maintain those which the first crusaders had achieved. Six grand crusades succeeded to the first ; all of which were either fruitless, or at least without any important and durable success. Conrad III., Emperor of Germany, and Louis VII., King of France, undertook the second (1147,) on account of the conquests of Atabek-Zenghi, who, three years before, had made himlelf master of Edessa. The third (1189) was headed by the Emperor Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa ; Philip Augus- tus King of France; and Richard Coeur-de-Lion of England; and the occasion of it, was the taking of Jerusalem by the fa- mous Saladin (1187.) The fourth was undertaken (1202,) at the pressing instigation of Innocent III. Several of the French and German nobility uniting with the Venetians, assumed the cross under the command of Boniface, Marquis of Montferrat ; but instead of marching to Palestine, they ended their expedi- tion by taking Constantinople from the Greeks. The fifth cru- sade (1217) was conducted by Andrew, King of Hungary, at- tended by many of the princes and nobility of Germany, who had enlisted under the banner of the Cross in consequence of the decrees of the council of Lateran (1215.) The Emperor Frederic II. undertook the sixth (1228.) By a treaty which he I c e (( i mmm •WM jther of these rwards (1289) om of Cyprus took from the Guy de Lu- 18 year 1487, « republic of I, presents no- lunited amone , antly attacked | ' > from Europe , e succour. It | and the efforts { 1 as the Chris- ne their forces prophet. The }ecome extinct and supported lovereigns con- lents that were \ p be in motion, | eir turn to the i in those which , of which were j nt and durable nd Louis VII., . account of the )fore, had made was headed by ; Philip Augus- n of England; ilem by the fa- aken (1202,) at il of the French 8, assumed the of Montfenat ; id their expedi- The fifth cru- ■ Hungary, at- Germany, who consequence of The Emperof treaty which ha PKRiOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300. 119 concluded with the Sultan of Egypt, he obtained the restoration of Jerusalem and several other cities of Palestine ; although they did not long continue iti his possession. The Carizniian Turks, oppressed by the Moguls, seized on the Holy Land (1244,) and pillaged and burnt Jerusalem. That famous city, together with the greater part of Palestine, fell afterwards under the dominion of the Sultans of Egypt. The seventh and last grand crusade, was undertaken by Louis IX. King of France (1248.) He conceived it necessary to be- gin his conquests by that of Egypt; but his design completely miscarried. Being made prisoner with his army after the action at Mansoura (1250,) he only obtained his liberty by restoring Damietta, and paying a large ransom to the Sultan of Egypt. The unfortunate issue of this last expedition, slackened the zeal of the Europeans for crusading. Still, however, they retained two important places on the coast of Syria, the cities of Tyre and Ptolemais. But these places having been conquered by the Mamelukes (1291,) there was no longer any talk about crusades to the East ; and all the attempts of the Court of Kome to revive them proved ineffectual. It now remains for us briefly to notice the effects which re- sulted from the crusades, with regard to the social and political state of the nations in Western Europe. One consequence of these, was the aggrandizement of the Roman Pontiffs, who, during the whole period of the crusades, played the part of su- preme chiefs and sovereign masters of Christendom. It was at their request, as we have seen, that those religious wars were undertaken ; it was they who directed them by means of their legates, — who compelled emperors and kings, by the terror of their spiritual arms, to march under the banner of the Crosb — who taxed the clergy at their pleasure, to defray the expenses of these distant expeditions, — who took under their immediate protection the persons and effects of the Crusaders, and eman- cipated them, by means of special privileges, from all depend- ence on any power, civil or judiciary. The wealth of the clergy was considerably increased during the time of which we spe^, both by the numerous endowments which took place, and by the acquisition which the Church made of the immense landed property which the pious owners sold them on assuming the badge of the Cross. These advantages which the See of Rome drew from the crusades in the East, were inducements to undertake similar expeditions in the West and North of Europe. In these quar- ters we find that the wars of the cross were carried on, 1. Against the Mahometans of Spain and Africa. 2 Against the ir ( , I- ■«. I!|il'^. 'I ' ! - ' i ii h 130 CHAPTER v. Emperors and King!) who refused obedience to the orders of the Popes. ''^ 3. Against heretical or schismatic princes, such as the Greeks and Russinns. 4. Against the Slavonians and other Pagan nations, on the coasts of the Bahic. 6. Against the Waldenses, Aibigenses, and Hussites, who were regarded as heretics. 6. Against the Turks. If the result of the crusades was advantageous to the hier- archy, if it served to aggrandize the power of the Roman Pon- tiffs, it must, on the contrary, have proved obviously prejudicial to the authority of the secular princes. It was in fact during this period that the power of the emperors, both in Germany and Italy, was sapped to the very foundation ; that the royal house of Hohenstaufen sunk under the determined efforts of the Court of Rome ; and that the federal system of the Empire gained gradual accessions of strength. In England and Hungary, we observe how the grandees seized on the opportunity to increase their own power. The former took advantage of their sove- reign's absence in the Holy Land, and the latter of the protec- tion which they received from the Popes, to claim new privi- leges and extort charters, such as they did from John of England, and Andrew II. of Hungary, tending to cripple and circumscribe the royal authority. In France, however, the result was different. There, the kings Vieing freed, by means of the crusades, from a crowd of restless and turbulent vassals who often threw the kingdom into a state of faction and discord, were left at liberty to extend their prerogatives, and turn the scale of power in their own favour. They even considerably augmented their royal and territorial revenues, either by purchasing lands and fiefs from the proprie- tors who had armed in the cause of the cross ; or by annexing to the crown the estates of those who died in the Holy Land, without leaving feudal heirs ; or by seizing the forfeitures oi others who were persecuted by religious fanaticism, as heretics or abettors of heresy. Finally, the Christian kings of Spain, the sovereigns of the North, the Knights of the Teutonic order, and of Livonia, joined the crusades recommended by the Popes, itom the desire of conquest; the' former, to subdue the Ma- hometans in Spain, and the others to vanquish the Pagan nations of the North, the Slavonians, Finns, Livonians, Prus- sians, Lithuanians, and Courlanders. It is to the crusades, in like manner, that Europe owes the use of surnames, as well as of armorial bearings, and heraldry. " It is easy to perceive, that among these innumerable armies of crusaders, composed of different nations and languages, some mark or symbol was necessary, in order to distinguish particular orders of the ;, such as the IS and other Against the regarded as s to the hier- Roman Pon- ly prejudicial n fact during I in Germany liat the royal eflforts of the Empire gained Hungary, we ty to increase )f their sove- a( the protec- im new privi- n of England, 1 circumscribe There, the )m a crowd of kingdom into o extend their ir own favour. ind territorial n the proprie- r by annexing le Holy Land, forfeitures oi m, as heretics ngs of Spain, eutonic order, by the Popes, )due the Ma- the Pagan onians, Prus- rope owes the nd heraldry. " ible armies of jguages, some uish particulu FIRIOD IV, A. D. 1074—1300. 121 iiiitinnH, or signalize their commanders. Surnames nnd coins of arms were employed as these distinctive badges; the latter especially were invented to serve as rallying points, for the vas- sals and troops of the crusading chiefs. Necessity first intro- duced them, and vanity afterwards caused them to be retained. These coats of nrms were hoisted on their standards, the knights got them emblazoned on their shields, and appeared with them at tournaments. Even those who had never been at the cru- sades, became ambitious of these distinctions ; which may be considered as permanently established in families, from about the middle of the thirteenth century. The same enthusiasm that inspired the Europeans for the crusades, contributed in like manner to bring tournaments into vogue. In these solemn and military sports, the young noblesse wore trained to violent exercises, and to the management of heavy arms ; so as to gain them some reputation for valour, and to insure their superiority in war. In order to be admitted to these tournaments it was necessary to be of noble blood, nnd to show proofs of their nobility. The origin of these feats is ge- nerally traced back to the end of the tenth, or beginning of the eleventh century. Geoffrey of Preuilly, whotn the writers of the middle ages cite as being the inventor of them, did no more, properly speaking, than draw up their code of regula- tions. France was the country from which the practice o tournaments diffused itself over ail other nations of Europe. They were very frequent, during all the time that the crusading mania lasted. To this same epoch belongs the institution of Religious and Military Orders. These were originally established for the purpose of defending the new Christian States in the East, for protecting pilgrims on their journey, taking care of them when sick, &c.; and the vast wealth which they acquired in most of the kingdoms of Europe, preserved their existence long after the loss of the Holy Land ; and some of these orders even made a conspicuous figure in the political history of the Western nations. Of all these, the first and most distinguished was the Ordet of St. John of Jerusalem, called afterwards the Order of Mal- ta. Prior to the first crusade, there had existed at Jerusalem a church of the Latin or Romish liturgy, dedicated to St. Mary, and founded by some merchants of Amalfi in the kingdom of Naples. There was also a monastery of the Order of St. Be- nedict, and n hospital for the relief of the poor or afflicted pil grims. This hospital, the directors of which were appointed by the Abbot of St. Mary's, having in a very short time become iM 132 CMAPTBR V. )■ ft* immensely rich by numerous donations of lands and B«>ignoric8, both in Europe and Palestine, one of its governors named Ge- rard, a native of Martigues in Provence, as is alleged, took the regular habit (1100,) and formed with his brethren a distinct congregation, under the name and protection of St. John the Baptist. Pope Pascal II., by u bull issued in 1114, approved of this new establishment, and ordained, that after the death of Gerard, the Hospitallers alone should have the election of their superintendent. Raymond du Puy, a gentleman from Dau- phin*!, and successor to Gerard, was the first that took the title of Grand Master, .ie prescribed a rule for the Hospitallers ; and Pope Culixtus li., in approving of this rule (1120,) divided the members of the order into three classes. The nobles, called Knights of Justice, were destined for the profession of arms, making war on the Infidels, and protecting pilgrims. The priests and chaplains, selected from the respectable citizens, were intrusted with functions purely ecclesiastical ; while the serving brethren, who formed the third class, were charged with the care of sick pilgrims, and likewise to act in the capacity of soldiers. These new knights were known by the name of Knights of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, and were dis- tinguished by wearing a white octagon cross on a black habit. After the final loss of the Holy Land, this order established themselves in the Isle of Cyprus. From this they passed into Rhodes, which they had conquered from the Infidels (1310.) This latter island they kept possession of till 1322 ; and being then expelled by Soliman the Great, they obtained (1530) from Charles V., the munificent grant of the Isle of Malta, under the express terms of making war against the Infidels. Of this place they were at length deprived by Buonaparte in 1798. The order of Templars followed nearly that of St. John. Its first founders (1119) were some French gentlemen; the chief of whom were Hugo de Payens, and Geoflrey de St. Omer. Having made a declaration of their vows before the Patriarch of Jerusalem, they took upon themselves the special charge of maintaining free passage and safe conduct for the pilgrims to the Holy Land. Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, assigned them an apartment in hia palace, near the temple, whence they took the name of Knights of the Temple, and Templars. They ob- tained from Pope Honorius II. (1120) a rule, with a white habit; to which Eugene III. added a red cross octagon. This order, af^er accumulating vast wealth and riches, especially in France, and distinguishing themselves by their military exploiu for nearly two centuries, were at length suppressed by the CounciJ of Vienna (1312.) i .initmiuBMitji ind seignoriet, | )rs named Ge- eged, took the hrcn a distinct r St. John the [114, approved >r the death of lection of their an frnm Dau> t took the tide > Flospitallers ; [1120,) divided e nobles, called ssion of arms, ilgrims. The ctable citizens, cal ; while the 'e charged with the capacity of ! ihe name of 1, and were dis- \ black habit, der established lev passed into Infidels (1310.) 122 ; and being ed (1530) from alta, under the Of this place 798. St. John. Its nen; the chief de St. Omer. the Patriarch scial charge of the pilgrims to assigned them snce they took irs. They ob- a white habit ; This order, ally in France, ■y exploits for by the Council r PKBIOO IV. A. D. 1074—1300. U8 The Teutonic order, according to the most probable opinion, took its origin in the camp before Acre, or Ptolemais. The honour of it is ascribed to some charitable citizens of Bremen and Lubec, who erected a hospital or tent with the sails of their vessels, for the relief of the numerous sick and wounded of their nation. Several German gentlemen having joined in this esta- blishment, they devoted themselves by a vow to the service of the sick ; as also to the defence of the Holy Land against the Infidels. This order, known by the name of the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem, received confirmation from Pope Celestin III. (1192,) who prescribed for them the rule of the Hospital of St. John, with regard to their attendance on the sick; and with regard to chivalry or knighthood, that of the order of Templars. Henry Walpott de Passcnheim was the first grand naster of the order; and the new knights assumed the white habit, with ablack cross, to distinguish them from the other orders. It was under their fourth grand master, Hermann de Saltza (1230,) that they passed into Prussia, which they conquered (1309.) They fixed their chief residence at Marien- burg; but having lost Prussia in consequence of a change in the religious sentiments of their grand master, Albert de Bran- denburg (1^8,) they transferred their capital to Mergentheim in Franconia. A fourth order of Hospitallers founded in the Holy Land, was (hat of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem, who had for their principal object the treatment of lepers ;'* and who, in process of time, from a medical, became a military order. After having long resided in the East, where they distinguished themselves in the Holy wars, they followed St. Louis into France (1254,) and fixed their chief seat at Boigny, near Orleans. Pope Gregory XIII. united them with the order of St. Maurice, in Savoy; and Henry IV. with that of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, in France. On the model, and al\er the example of these four military orders, several others were founded in succession, in various kingdoms of Europe.'-'' All these institutions contri- buted greatly to the renown of chivalry, so famous in the Middle Ages. The origin of this latter institution is earlier than the times of which we now speak, and seems to belong to the tenth, or the beginning of the eleventh century. The anarchy of feu- dalism being then at its height, and robberies and private quar^ rels every where prevailing, several noble and distinguished individuals, devoted themselves, by a solemn vow, according to the genius of the times, to the defence of religion and its minis- ters ; as also of the fair sex, and of every person sufTering from distress or oppression From the end of the eleventh century, » \ ', If i H i, V > *. .f**- Mi i *)it I) 1 1 124 CMAPTSR V. to tho timo when the crufincles begnn, wr find chivalry, with itn pomp and its ceremonies, tstnbli^hed in nil the principal ntates of Europe. This 9alutury institution, by in! expeditions) ^ears, hasten- e. The cru- |[anized than leir laws and , and acquire litics. Some ved in Greece, era had been e city of Con- avages of the ' art. It pre- grandeur and ation, and call light of which tns especially, ntinued inter- id the city ol tning familiar if communica* in this way liters, were making ;h as VenicOi [s in their ope* rarlike stores :ure for them* the seaports tpire. Their towns in ig their atten* s of Ham- IS is generally fch afterwards tatic Leagut.* led in marine ley exchanged s of Italy and PRRIOD IV. A. 0. 10T4 — 1306. 13d "II The projprpss of inJu.«iry, iln- proinciion which ."'ovprcignn exlondeu to it, und ihc puins ihcy took lo chrck ilio di^ordiTs of foudaliNiTi, contributed lo the pro:4pority of lowii^, by linily aug- menting their pnpulutioii anil llieir wealth. This produced, about the liniPM we arc spenkinj^ of, an ndvantn^eou)* cban^fc in the civil nnd .social coiulitioti of the pensile, 'riirou^lutut the principal stales of Europe, cities bei,'ari, after the Iwelflh centu- ry, lo erect themselves into political bodie.s, and lo form, by de- grees, a third order, di.^tinct from that of the clergy und nobilily. Before this period, the inhabitants of town^ enjoyed iieillier civil nor political liberty. Their condition was very little better than that of the peasantry, who were all ^erfs, attucheii lo the soil. The rights of cilizen.ship, and the privileges derived from it, were reserved for the clergy and the noblesse. The Counts, ni governorsi of cities, by rendering their power hereditary, had approurialed to themselves the rights that were originally oi- tachea to their functions. They used them in the most arbi- trary way, and loaded the inhabitants with every kind of oppres- sion that avarice or caprice could .suggest. At length, the cities which were either the most oppressed, or the most powerful, rose in rebellion against this intolerable yoke. The inhabitants formed themselves into confederations, to which they gave the name of Comiiiunes or Free Corpora- tions. Either of their own accord, or by charters, obtained very often on burdensome terms, they procured for themselves a free government, which, by relieving them from .servitude, and all impositions and arbitrary exactions, secured them personal liberty and the possession of their elTecls, under the protection of their own magistrates, and the institution of a militia, or city guard. This revolution, one of the most important in Europe, first took place in Italy, where it was occasioned by the frequent inter- regnums that occurred in Germany, as well as by the distur- bances that rose between the Empire and the priesthood, in the eleventh century. The anathemas thundered ^t^inst Henry IV., by absolving the subjects from the obedience they owed their sovereign, served as a pretext to the cities of Italy for shaking ofT the authority of the Imperial viceroys, or bailifls. who had become tyrants instead of rulers, and for establishin:; free and republican governments. In this, they were encoura- ged and supported by the protection of the Roman pontifls, whose sole aim and policy was the abasement of the Imperial authority. Before this period, several maritime cities of Italy, such of Naples, Amain, Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, emboldened by the advantages of their situation, by the increase of their populalior Z «i i <»'.■. "4 ' ^ Il ifi f % I u 1M CHAPriil V. and (neir commerce, hail nirendy qu. 'nripiited themselves fVom llio Imp'.'rinI yoke, nnd erected tlternstlvcit into republicM, Their nxiimpU' WHS followed by the ciiies oi Lombnrdy nnd the V'ene* tiitti territory, especiiilly Milmi, Pnvin, Ajti, Cremona, Lodi, Cnino, Furinn, PIncf ntin, Veronii. Pndun, Sec. All thesn citiei. atiiinutcd with the cnthu!«ia!im of liberty, adopted, about the be* ginnin^^ of the twelfth century, consuls nnd popular forms of Uoverninent. They formed a kind of military force, or city guord, and vested m themselvcoi the ri/fhts of royally, and the power of umkinj^, in their own name and authority, alliances, wars, and treaties of pence. From Italy, this revolution ex» tended to France and Uerrnnny, tlie Low Countries, and Eng* land. In all these different states, the use of Communes, or boroughs, was established, and protected by the sovereigns, who f-mploycd these new institutions as a powerful check against the encronchinents and tyranny of the feudal lords, III Frniife, Louis the Vat, who began his reign in 1108, was the first king that granted rights, or constitutional charters, to certain cities within his domain, cither from political niotivei, or the allurement of money. The nobility, after his example, eagerly sold liberty to their subjects. The revolution became general ; the cry tor liberty was raised every where, and into* rested every mind. Throughout all the provinces, the iiihabi* bants of cities solicited charters, and sometimes without waiting for them, they formed themselves voluntarily into communities, electing magistrates of their own choice, establishing companiek of niiliiia, and taking charge themselves of the fortiflcations and wardenship of their cities. The magistrates of free cities in northern France, were usually called mayors, sheriffs, and liv- erymen ; while, in the wouth of France, they were called syndics and consuls. It soon became an established principle, that kings alone had the power to authorize the erection of corporate towns. Louis VIII. declared that he regarded all cities in which these corporations were established, as belonging to his domain. They owed military service directly and personally to the king ; while such cities as had not these rights or charters, were obliged to follow their chiefs to the war. In Germany, we find the emperors adopting the same policy as the kings of France. The resources which the progress of commerce and manufactures opened to the indnstry of the in- habitants of cities, nnd the important succours which the empe- rors, Henry IV. and V., had received from them in their quar- rels with the Pope and the princes of the Empire, induced them to take these cities under their protection, to augment their num- ber, and multiply their privileges. Henry V. was the first em- nselvcft flfom iblicH. Thrir nd the V'ene* einona, Lodi, I thcsn cities nbout the be* iilar furrns of force, or city nity, and the ity, alliances, evolution ex* ea, and Eng* ommuncs, or rcreigns, who heck against I, in llOS, was I charters, to tical motives, his example, jtion became •re, and into- 9, the inhabi* thout waiting communities, n^ companies fications and ree cities in rifls, and litr> nlled syndics )ie, that kings porate towns. which these imain. They king ; while re obliged to same policy e progress of try of the in- ch the cmpe- n their quar- nduced them nt their num- the first em< rr.HioD IV. A. D. 1074 — 1300. 127 1 peror that adopted thin lino of' policy. He grnnti-d freedom to the inhabitants of Movcrai cities even to artixiinx and triidesriion ; whose condition, at that time, was nn dn^rriKlcd aiiil (Icbascd os that of Mi'rfi*. H present them 10 affranchised ic paid to the e enfranchise- he free citie their serfs .**• reign of Louis lent. The son 1 letter (1180,) .scd at Orleans, a general law longing to the lat slavery was by birth thould s denominated '.and jtitt and ■•^k rll .'I* i 111 ;.? '' ■ PBRIUD IV. A. o. 1074 — 1300. 129 right that the fact should correspond with the name. He invited, at the Riime time, all the nobility to imitate his example, by granting lilwrty to their serfs. That prince would have en- nobled the homage he paid to nature, if the gift of liberty had been gratuitous on his part ; but he made it a mere object of finance, and to gratify those only who could afford to pay for it ; whence it happened, that enfranchisements advanced but very slowly ; and examples of it are to be found in history, so late an the reign of Francis I. In Germany, the number of serfs diminished in like manner, after the twelfth century. The crusades, and the destructive wars which the Dukes of Saxony and the Margraves of the North carried on with the Slavian tribes on the Elbe and the Baltic, having depopulated the northern and eastern parts of Germany, numerous colonies from Brabant, the Netherlands, Holland and Friesland, were .'ntroduced into these countries, where they formed themselves into establishments or associa- tions of free cultivators of the soil. From Lower Germany the custom of enfranchisements extended to the Upper provinces, and along the banks of the Rhine. This was encouraged by the free cities, which not only gave a welcome reception to the serfs who had fled to shelter themselves from oppression within their walls, but they even granted protection, and th«> .ights of citizenship, to those who had settled within the precincts or liberties of the town ;'" or who continued, without changing their habitation, to reside on the lands of their feudal superiors. This spirited conduct of the free cities put the nobles of Ger- many to the necessity of aiding and abetting, by degrees, either the suppression or the mitigation of slavery. They reimbursed themselves for the loss of the fine or tax which they had been in the habit of levying, on the death of their serfs, by an aug- mentation of the quit-rent, or annual cess which they exacted from them on their being afTranchised. In the Low Countries, Henry II., duke of Brabant (1218,) in his Inst will, granted liberty to all cultivators of the soil ; — he afTranchised them on the right of mortmain, and ordained, that, like the inhabitants of free cities, they should be judged by no other than their own magistrates. In this manner, liberty by degrees recovered its proper rights. It assisted in dispelling the clouds of ignorance and superstition, and spread a new lustre over Europe. One event which contributed essentially to give men more exact notions on government and jurispru- dence, was the revival of the Roman law, which happened about the time we now speak of. The German tribes that de- stroyed the Western Empire in the fifth century, would natu- wfti'm ■t"- !'n] aawhu I I* H 130 CHAFTER V. rally despise a system of legislation, such as that of the Romans, which neither acrorded with the ferocity of their manners, nor the rudeness of their ideas. In consequence, the revulmjun which occasioned the downfall of that empire, brought at the same lime the Roman jurisprudence into desuetude over ail ihe Western world.'^ A lapse of several centuries, however, was requ':ed, to rec- tify men's ideas on the nature of society, and to prepare them for receiving the laws and institutions of a civilized and re- fined government. Such was the general state and condition of political knowledge, when the fame of a celebrated civilian, called Irnerius, who taught the law of Justinian publicly at Bologna, about the commencement of the twelfth century, at- tracted to that academy the youth of the greater part of Europe. There they devoted themselves with ardour to the study of this new science. The pupils, instructed by Irnerius and his suc- cessors, on returning home, and being employed in the tribunals and public ofRces of their native country, gradually carried into practice the principles which they had imbibed in the school oi Bologna. Hence, in a short time, and without the direct inter- ference of the legislative authority, the law of Justinian was adopted by degrees, as a subsidiary law in all the principal states of Europe. Various circumstances contributed to acce- lerate the progress of this revolution. People had felt for a long time the necessity of a new legislature, and the insuffi- ciency of their national laws. The novelty of the Roman laws, as well as their equity and precision, arrested the atten- tion of all Europe ; and sovereigns found it their interest to protect a jurisprudence, whose maxims were so favourable to royalty and monarchical power, and which served at once to strengthen and extend their authority. The introduction of the Roman jurisprudence was soon fol- lowed by that of the Canon law. The Popes, perceiving the rapid propagation of this new science, and eager to arrest its progress, immediately set themselves to the work of raising that vast and astonishing edifice the Canon law, as an engine to pro- mote the accomplishment of their own greatness. Gratian, a monk of Bologna, encouraged by Pope Eugenius III., compiled a collection of Canons, under the title of the Decret, which he arranged in systematic order, to serve as an introduction to the study of that law. This compilation, extracted from different authors who had preceded him, recommended itself to the world by its popular method, which was adapted to the genius of the times, rope Eugenius III. gave it his approval in 1152, and ordained that it should be read and explained in the schools* Ig'MliMlf'wjii .' l Kmi ii »ji !i r.'tn'Hi- ,4a) < j "WWjliy«*Ml|jll^^ ■ iU»- 7»J i itad lL the Romans, nanners, nor e revuluiiun ought at the tudc over ali r:ed, to rec- prepare them lized and re- ind condition ated civilian, 1 publicly at century, at- irt of Europe. I study of this and his suc- 1 the tribunals y carried into the school ot e direct inter- lustinian was the principal >uted to acce- lad felt for a i the insuffi- r the Roman ted the atten- r interest to avourable to red at once to was soon fol- )erceiving the to arrest its of raising that engine to pro- Gralian, a III., compiled ret, which he duction to the from different If to the world genius of the ovnl in 1152i in the schools. PERIOD IV. A. D 1074 — 1300. 131 This collection of Gratian soon obtained a wide and most sue- cesitful reception ; from the schools it passed to the public tri- bunals, both civil and ecclesiastical, ^t length, Pope Gregory IX., in imitation of the Emperor Justinian, who had caused a collection of his own statutes, and those of his predecessors, to be made by Tribonian, ordered his chaplain Raymond de Pen- nnfort to compile and digest, in their proper order, all the deci- sions of his predecessors, as well as his own ; thus extending to common practice, what had been originally established but for one place, and for particular cases. He published his collection (1235) under the name of Decretals, with an injunction, that it should be employed both in the tribunals and in the schools. If this new system of jurisprudence served to extend the juris- diction, and strengthen the temporal power of the Popes, it did not fail at the same time to produce salutary eflects on the governments and manners of Europe. The peace, or truce of God, which some bishops of France, in the eleventh century, had instituted as a check on the unbridled fury of private quar- rels and civil discord, was established, by the Decretals, into a general law of the church.*" Tke judgments of God, till then used in the tribunals of justice, trial by single combat, by hot iron, hot and cold water, the cross, &c. were gradually abolished. The restraints of the Canon law, added to the new information which had diffused its light over the human mind, were instru- mental in rooting out practices which served only to cherish and protract the ancient ferocity of manners. The spirit of order and method which prevailed in the new jurisprudence, soon communicated itself to every branch of legislation among the nations of Europe. The feudal law was reduced to syste- matic order ; and the usages and customs of the provinces, till then local and uncertain, were collected and organized into a regular form.*" Jurisprudence, having now become a complicated science, demanded a long and laborious course of study, which could no longer be associated with the profession of arms. The sword was then obliged by degrees to abandon the courts of justice, and give place to the gown. A new class of men hus arose, that of the law, who contributed by their influence to repress the overgrown power of the nobility. The rapid progress which the new jurisprudence made, must be ascribed to the recent foundation of universities, and the en couragements which sovereigns granted these literary corpora- tions. Before their establishment, the principal public schools were those which were attached either to monasteries, or cathe- dral and collegiate churches. There were, however, only a few J- « !•■ ; irt' J32 CHAPTER V. colleges instituted ; and these in large cities, such as Rome, Paris, Angers, Oxford, Salamanca, &c. The sciences therr taught were comprised under the seven liberal arts, viz. Gram- mar, Rhetoric, Dialectics or Logic, Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astronomy. The first three were known by the name of Trivium ; and the other four, which make part of mathematics, by that of Qnadrivium. As for Theology and Jurisprudence, they did not as yet figure among the academic sciences ; and there was no school of medicine prior to that of Salerno — the only one of which any traces are discovered, towards the end of the eleventh century. These schools and academies cannot, by any means, be put in comparison with modern universities ; which diflfer from them essentially, both as to the variety of sciences which are pro- fessed, and by their institutions as privileged bodies, enjoying a system of government and jurisdiction peculiarly their own. The origin of these Universities is coeval with the revival of the Roman law in Italy, and the invention of academic degrees. The same Irnerius who is generally acknowledged as the re- storer of the Roman law at Bologna, was also the first that conceived the idea of conferring, with certain solemnities, doc- torial degrees ; and granting license or diplomas to those who excelled in the study of jurisprudence. Pope Eugenius 111. (1153,) when he introduced the code of Graiian into Hj^e aca- demy of Bologna, gave permission to confer the same degrees in the Canon law, as had been customary in the Civil law. These degrees were much coveted and esteemed on account of the honours, immunities, and prerogatives which the sovereign had attached to them. Nothing however contributed more to bring universities into favour, than the privileges and immuni- ties which the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa conferred on them (1158,) by his Authentic, (or rescript, called Hahita.) The ex- ample of this prince was speedily followed by the other so- vereigns of Europe. The teaching of juri.«prudence passed from the school of Bologna to the different academies of Europe. Theology also was soon admitted, as well as medicine ; and these completed the four faculties, as they were called, of which the univer- sities were composed. That of Paris was the first which com- bined all the faculties. It was completed under the reign of Philip Augustus, from whc i it obtained its earliest charter, about the year 1200. Except itself there are only the univer- sities of Bologna, Padua, Naples, Toulouse, Salamanca, Coimbra, Cambridge, and Oxford, that date their origin in the thirteentli century.** ■•«!ii>>«M<>«^ ' .W"WW-" ■MM h as Rome, iences therf , viz. Grain- letry, Music, the name of nathematics, irisprudence, 'iences ; and Jaierno— the ds the end of leans, be put er from them lich are pro- s, enjoying a ^ y their own. i lie revival of . jmic degrees, ed as the re- i the first that ! !mnities, doc- to those who Hugenius 111. into t4»e aca- lame degrees he Civil law. nn account of he sovereign uted more to and immuni- ;rred on them a.) The ex- ihe other so- the school of leology also e completed 1 the univer- st which com- the reign of rliest charter, r the univcr- nca.Coimbra, the tbirleentl) PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300. va The downfall of the Imperial authority, end of the house of Hohonstaufcn, and the new power usurped by the princes and States of the Empire, occasioned a long series of troubles in Germany, and that frightful state of anarchy, known by the name of the Grand Interregftum. Strength then triumphed over law and right ; the government was altered from its basis ; and no other means were found to remedy this want of public security, than by forming alliancies and confederations, such as that of the Rhine,*^* and the Flanseatic League, which began to appear about this time (1253.) The election of the Empe- rors, in which all the princes and states of the empire had for- merly concurred, became then the privilege solely of the great officers of the crown, who, towardts tlic middle of the thirteenth century, claimed for themselves exclu.sively the right of elect- ing, and the title of Electors.^ The princes and slates of the Empire, anxious to confirm their growing power, sought to pro- mote only the feeblest emperors, who were incapable of sup- porting the rights and prerogatives of the crown. The electors, m particular, had no other object in view, than to derive a lucra- tive traffic from elections ; bargaining every time with the can- didates for large sums, and obtaining grunts or mortgages of such portions of the Imperial demesnes as suited their con- venience. One only of these weak emperors, Rodolph, Count of Hapsburg in Switzerland, (1273) disappointed the expecta- tions of his electors. He repressed by force of arms, the dis- orders of anarchy, restored the laws and tribunals to their pristine vigour, and reconquered several of the Imperial domains from the usurpers who had seized them. Inconsequence of the revolutions which we have now detailed, we find very important and memorable changes accomplished in the different provinces of the Empire. The princes and States of the Germanic body, regarding as their own patrimony the provinces and fiefs with which they were invested, thought themselves further authorized to portion them out among their sons. The usage of these partitions became general after the thirteenth century ; and this wrought the downfall of some of the most powerful families, and tended to multiply almost to infinity the dutchies, principalities, and earldoms of the Empire. The EmperoH, far from condemning this practice, which by no means accorded with the maxims of the feudal law, on the con- trary gave it their countenance, as appearing to them a proper instrument for humbling the power of the grandees, and acqui- ring for themselves a preponderatmg authority in the Empire. The ancient dutchies of Bavaria and Saxony experienced a new revolution on the fall of the powerful house of the I 1 'if ;» li if ^r" Ml M: t94 CIIAITEn V Ouelphs, which wns deprived of both these diitchies by the sen- tence of proscription which the Emperor Frederic 1. pronounced against Henry the Lion (IISO,) Duke of Bavaria and Saxony. The first of these dulchies, which hud formerly been dismembered from the Margravatc of Austria by Frederic I. (1156,) and erected into n dulchy and fief holding immediately of the Em- pire, was exposed to new partitions at the time of which we now speak. The bishoprics of Bavaria, Stiria, Carinthia, Cur- niola, and the Tyrol, broke their alliance with Bavaria; and the city of Ratisbonne, which had been the residence of the ancient dukes, was declared immedia/e, or holding of the crown. It was when contracted within these new limits that Bavaria was conferred, by Frederic I. (1180,) on Olho, Count of Wittelsbach, a scion of the original house uf Bavaria. This house afterwards acquired by marriage (1215) the Palatinate of the Rhine. It was subsc(|uently divided into various branches, of which the two principal were the Palatine and the Bavarian. As to the dutchy of Saxony, which embraced, under the Guelphs, the greater part of Lower Germany, it completely changed its circumstances on the decline of that house. Ber- nard of Aschersleben, younger son of Albert named the Bear, first Margrave of Brandenburg, a descendant of the Ascanian line, had been invested in the dutchy of Saxony by Frederic I. (llSO.) but was found much too feeble to support the high rank to which he had been elevated. In conse(|uence, the title, or qualification to the dutchy of Saxony and the Electorate, was restricted, under the successors and descendants of that prince, to an inconsiderable district, situated on both sides of the Elbe ; called since the Electoral Circle, of which Wittenberg was the capital. The princes of Pomeruniaand Mecklenburg, the Counts of Holstein and Westphalia, and the city of Lubeck, took advan- tage of this circumstance to revolt from the authority of the Duke of Saxony, ond render themselves immediate. A part of West- phalia was erected into a distinct dutchy, in favour of the Arch- bishop of Cologne who had seconded the Emperor in his schemes of vengeance against the Guelphic princes. This latter house, whosp vast possessions had extended from the Adriatic Sea to the Baltic and the Northern Ocean, retained nothing more of its ancient splendour than the free lands which it possessed in Lower Saxony, and which the emperor Frederic II. (1235) converted into a dutchy, and immediate fief of the empire, in favour of Otho the Infant, grandson of Henry the Lion, and the new founder of the House of Brunswick. The extinction of the House of Hohenstaufen having occa- sioned a vacancy in the dutchics of Suabia and Francnnia, the •'^:' gig:a^^6MMjjawiasW:Wi»i^^ ft , PiRioD IV. A. P. 1074— ]900. 188 s by the sen- pronounced and Saxony, lismembered (1156,) and r of the Em- of which we irinthia, Cur- trin ; and the if the ancient B crown. It Buvaria was Wittelsbach, se afterwards e Rhine. It of which the d, under the it completely house. Ber* ted the Bear, the Ascanian y Frederic I. the high rank I the title, or ectorate, was f that prince, of the Elbe ; jberg was the ■g, ine Counts i, took advan- y of the Duke jfirt of West- of the Arch- n his schemes latter house, itic Sea to the more of its ssed in Lower J5) converted in favour oi and the new having occa> 'runronia, the diflerent states of these provinces, both secular and ecclfisiasti- cui, found means to render themselves also immediate, (1368.) A nuinbiT of cities which had belonged to the domains of the aiirieiit dukes, were raised to the rank of free and imperial cities ; und the Houses of Bnden, Wurtemberg, Hohen-Zollern, and FurstenbiTg, dale their celebrity from this period. The death of the anti-emperor, Henry le Raspon (1247,) last land- grave of Thuringia, gave rise to a long war between the Mar- graves of Misnia and the Dukes of Brabant, who mutually contested that succession. The former advanced an Expecta- tive, or defd of Reversion of the Emperor Frederic II., as well ns the claims of Jutta, sister of the last landgrave ; and the others maintained those of Sophia, daughter of the langrave Louis, elder brother and predecessor of Henry le Raspon. At length, by u partition which took place (1264,) Thuringia, properly so called, was made over to the house of Misnia; and Henry of Brabunt, surnumed the Infant, son of Henry II. Duke of Bra- bunt, and Sophia of Thuringia, was secured in the possession of Hesse, and became the founder of a new dynasty of landgraves — those of the House of Hesse. The ancient dukes of Austria, of the House of Bamberg, hav- ing become extinct with Frederic the Valiant (1246,) the suc- cession of that dutchy was keenly contested between the niece and the sisters of the last duke; who, though females, could lay claim to it, in virtue of the privilege granted by the emperor Frederic Barbarossa. Ottocar II., son of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, took advantage of these troubles in Austria, to possess himself of that province (1251.) He obtained the investiture of it (1262) from Richard, son of John king of England, who had purchased the title of Emperor at a vast expense ; but Rodolph of Hapsbourg, treating him as a usurper, made war upon him, defeated and slew him in a battle which was fought (1378) at Marchfeld, in the neighbourhood of Vienna. The dutchies of Austria, Stiria, Carinthia, and Carniola, being then detached from the kingdom of Bohemia, were declared vacant, and de- volved to the Empire. The investiture of these the Emperor conferred (1282) on Albert and Rodolph, his own sons. Al- bert, the eldest of these princes, who was afterwards Emperor, became the founder of the Hapsbourg dynasty of Austria. In Italy, a great number of republics arose about the end of the eleventh, or beginning of the twelfth century. These re- publics, though they had cast off the Imperial authority, and cb'nied to themselves the rights of sovereignty, protested, never- theless, their fealty to the Emperor, whom they agreed to recog- nise as their supreme head. The Emperors, Henry V., Lo- 1 |N 4 m ^ iV',\ i<*l* 196 craptbh v. thaire the Saxon, and Conrad III., saw themselves compelled to tolerate an usurpatitin which they were too feeble to represR. But Frederic Barbarossa being determined to restore the royalty of Italy to its ancient splendour, led a powerful army into that kingdom (115S;) and in a diet which he assembled on the plains Df Ronc&glia, in the territory of Placentia, he caused a strict in- vestigation to be made by the lawyers of Bologna, into the rights on which he founded his pretensions to the title of King of Italy. The opposition which the execution of the decrees of that diet met with on the part of the Milanese, induced the Emperor to undertake the siege of their city. He made himself master of it in 1162, razed it to the foundation, and dispersed the inhabitants. This chastisement of the Milanese astonished the Italians, but without abating their courage. They afterwards took ad» vantage of the reverses of the Emperor, and the schism which had arisen in the Romish Church, to form a league with the Erincipal cities of Lombardy (1167,) into which they drew the [ing' of the Two Sicilies, as well as Pope Alexander III., whom the Emperor treated as a schismatic. The city of Milan was rebuilt in consequence of this league; as also that of Alexan* dria, called della Paglia. The war was long protracted ; but the Emperor being abandoned by Henry the Lion, Duke of Ba- varia and Saxony, the most jowerful of his vassals, received a defeat at Lignano, which obliged him to make an accommoda- tion with Pope Alexander III., and to sign, at Venice, a treaty of six years with the confederate cities (1177.) This treaty was afterwards converted, at Constance, into a definitive peace (1183;) by virtue of which, the cities of Italy were guaranteed in the forms of government they had adopted, as well as in the exercise of the regalian rights which they had acquired, whether by usage or prescription. The Emperor reserved for himself the investiture of the consuls, the oath of allegiance,' which was to be renewed every ten years, and all appeals, in civil cases, where the sum exceeded the value of twenty-five imperial livres, (about 1500 francs.) The Emperor Frederic II., grandson of Frederic I., and heir, in right of his mother, to the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, made new efforts to restore the prerogatives of the Empire in Italy. But the cities of Lombardy renewed their league, into which they drew Pope Gregory I A. (1226,) whose dignity and power would be endangered if the Emperor, being possessor of the Two Sicilies, should succeed in conquering the cities of Lom- bardy. The war which ensued (1236,) was long and bloody. The Popes Gregory IX. and Innocent IV., went so far as to preach up a crusade against the Emperor, as if he had been an ij! g fi^ i ^a^f!ajiaMaMife-ja^^^^^j^;i^^^ 1 1 compelled to • lo repre»». e the roynlty my into that on tlie plains ;d a strict in- nto the rights [in(; of Italy. i of that diet Emperor to f master of it e inhabitants, the Italians, irds took ad* chism which gue with the ley drew the er III., whom )f Milan was tt of Alexan- otrncted ; but Duke of Ba- s, received a accommoda- nice, a treaty lis treaty was nilive peace e guaranteed veil as in the lired, whether d for himself e,' which was in civil cases, nperial livres, c I., and heir, Sicilies, made )ire in Italy, e, into which ty and power isessor of the ities of Lom- ond bloody. t so far as to had been nn PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074 — 1300. tat infidel ; whilo ihnt unfortunulo prince, nftprthe most courageous and indofiiliu'iiblc ftrorts, linii tlic mortilicuiion trt sec his troops "nrt" more di>r()infilf'(l Ity the forcrs of ihe Lonuuf. The citit's (if Itiily wvn; no i-moriiT (h-liviTcd from the terror of the Emperors, than they Ift loosf their fury u>,'i\inst each other; impelled by the rii|cre (if confiui'si, mid lorn by the inter- nal factions of the Guclphs and the frbibcllines, as well as by the contests which hud arisen between the noblesse and the free cities. The partisans of the nobles in these cities, were strenjjth- cned by the very measures which had been taken to humble them. The chartered towns by destrovinir that multitude of seignuries, earldoms, and mar({iiisates witn which Lombardy swarmed before the twelfth century, and by incorporating them with their own territories, obliged the deserted nobles and gran- dees to seek an establishment within their walla. These latter, finding their partisans united and powerful, soon attempted to seize the government; and hence orose on interminable source of civil discord, which ended with the loss of liberty in the greater part of these communities. To arrest these evils, and put a check to the ambition of the powerful citizens, they adopted the plan of intrusting the gov- ernment to a single magistrate, to be called the Podesla, who should be chosen in the neighbouring cities. This .scheme was but a palliative rather than a remedy ; and in order to guarantee themselves from the oppression of the nobles, the corporations of several cities gradually adopted the plan of conferring a sort of dictatorship on one of the powerful citizens, or on some prince or noblemon, even though he were a stronger, under the title of Captain ; hoping, in this way, to succeed in re-establishing peace and order. These chiefs or captains contrived, in process of time, to render absolute and perpetual, nn authority which at first was temporary, and only granted on certain conditions. Hence the origin of several new independent sovereignties which were formed in Italy during the course of the fourteenth century, Venice and Genoa at that time eclipsed nil the republics of Italy, by the flourishing state of their navigation and commerce. The origm of the farmer of these cities is generally dated as far back as the invasion of the Huns under Attila (452.) The cru- elty of these barbarians having spread terror and flight over the whole country, many of the inhabitants of ancient Venetia, took refuge in the isles and lagoons on the borders of the Adriatic Gulf; and there laid the foundation of the city of Venice, which, whether we regard the singularity of its construction, or the splendour to which it rose, deserves to be numbered omong the wonders of the world. At first its government was popular, and ■1. I (If I ^ n X 'i )( » . ill: m im>^~m 198 OHAFTKB T. |i administered by a bench of tribuneii whose power was annual. The divisions which nrose amoiij,' these yearly administrators, ih'cnsioruMl the ehjclion of n chief (697,) who took the title of Duke or Dofje. This dignity was for life, and depended on the suflriiKOM of the community ; but he exercised nevertheless the rights of sovereiffnty, and it was not till after a lonjf course ot lime that his authority was gradually abridged ; and the govern* ment, which had been monarchical, became again democratical. Venice, which from il.s birth was a commercial city, enjoyed in the middle a(;e8 nearly the same renown which Tyro had among the trading cities of antiquity. The commencement of its grandeur may be dated from the end of the tenth century, and under the magistracy of the Uoge Peter Urseolo II., whom the Venetians regard as the true founder of their state (992.) From the Greek emperors he obtained for them an entire liberty and immunity of commerce, in all the ports of that empire ; and he procured them at the same time several very important ad« vantages, by the treaties which he concluded with the emperor Olliii III. ami with the Caliphs of Egypt. The vast increase of their (ommerce, inspired these republicans with a desire to ex* tend the contracted bounds of their territory. One of their (irst conquests was the maritime cities of Istria, os well as those of Dalmatia; both of which occurred under the magistracy of Peter Urseolo JI., and in the year 997. They were obliged to make a surrender of the cities of Dalmatia, by the emperors of the East, who regarded these cities as dependencies of their empire ; while the kings of Croatia and Dalmatia also laid claim to them. Croatia having passed into the hands of the Kings of Hungary, about the end of the eleventh century, these same cities became a perpetual source of troubles and wars between the Kings ol Hungary and the Republic of Venice ; and it was not till the fifteenth century that the Republic found means to confirm its authority in Dalmatia. The Venetians having become parties in the famous League of Lombardy, in the eleventh century, contributed by their ef- forts, to render abortive the vast projects of the Emperor Frede- ric I. Pope Alexander III., as a testimony of his gratitude, granted them the sovereignty of the Hadriatic (1177,)*" and this circumstance gave rise to the singular ceremony of annually marrying this sea to the Doge of Venice. The aggrandizement of this republic was greatly accelerated by the crusades, espe- cially the fourth (1204,) which was followed by the dismem- berment of the Greek empire. The Venetians, who had joined this crusade, obtained for their portion several cities and ports in Dalmatia, Albania, Greece and the Morea ; as also the Islands '■^ mmmM u^ =^6". wan annua). inini.itratora, ( the title of •tided on the ■rtheloss the ig course ot I the govern* leinocratical. :ity, enjoyed h Tyro had lencemenl of •nth century, lo II., whom state (992.) Bntirc liberty empire ; and mportant ad- tne emperor St increase of desire to ex» L- of their first il as those of racy of Peter iged to make perors of the their empire; aim to them. of Hungary, cities became the Kings oi 1 not till the :o confirm its nous League by their ef- jeror Frede- lis gratitude, f7,)^ and this of annually jrandizement usades, espe- the dismera- 10 had joined ies and ports ■so the Islands PBiioD IV. A. 0. 1074 — 1300. u» of Corfu, Cephalonia, and Candia or ('r ■|it-l '^!:'l^ Hj !«' .J»*'! ,*' '* i -■ • ' I -. <'■' 140 CHAPTER V. and served as entrepots for their commerce with China and the Indies. Smyrna in Asia Minor, us also the suburbs of Pera an.! Galata at Constantinople, and the isles of Scno, Metelin and Tenedos, in the Archipelaj^o, were ceded to them by the Greek emperors. The kings of Cyprus were their tributaries. The Greek and German emperors, the kings of Sicily, Cas- lille and Arragon, and the Sultans of Egypt, ^jealously sought their alliance, and the protection of their marine. Encouraged by these successes, they formed a considerable territory o'.i the continent of Italy, after the 12th century, of which nothing but a fragment now remains to them. Genoa had at that time, in its immediate neighbourhood, a dangerous rival of its power and greatness. This rival was Pisa, a flourishing republic on the coast of Tuscany, which owed its prosperity entirely to the increase of its commerce and marine. The proximity of these two states --the similarity of their views and their interests — the desire of conquest — and the command of the sea, which both of them desired, created a marked jealousy between them, and made them the natural and implacable enemies of each other. One of the principal .sub- jects of dispute was the possession of Corsica and Sardinia,* which the two republics conte.sted at the point of the sword, after having, by means of their combined force, expelled the Moors, toward the middle of the eleventh century. Pisa, ori- ginally superior to Genoa in maritime strength, disputed with her the empire of the Mediterranean, and haughtily forbade the Genoese to appear within those seas with their ships of war. This rivalry nourished the animosity of the two republics, and rendered it implacable. Hence a continual source of mutual hostilities, which were renewed incessantly for the space of 200 years, and only terminated in 1290 ; when, by the conquest ol Elba, and the destruction of the ports of Pisa and Leghorn, the Genoese effected the ruin of the shipping and commerce of the Pisan republic. Lower Italy, possessed by the Norman princes, under the title of Dutchy and Comt^, became the seat of a new kingdom in the eleventh century — thai of the two Sicilies. On the extinction of the Dukes of Apulia and Calabria, descendants of Robert Guiscard, Roger, son of Roger, Count of Sicily, and sovereign of that island, united the dominions of the two branches of the Norman dynasty (1127 ;) and being desirous of procuring for himself the royal dignity, he attached to his interest the Anti- pope Anacletus II., who invested him with royalty by a bull (1130,) in which, however, he took care to reserve the territorial right and an annual tribute to the Church of Rome. This ■■ ^imm ^ msm^' ^ ^mkm^m^&M^^^ ■ "■•'p .fl- Ti hina and the urbs of Pera Icio, Metelin ihem by the r tributaries. Sicily, Cas- Dusly sought Encouraged ritory on the 1 nothing but hbfiurhood, a his rival was jscnny, which :ommerce and ! similarity of onquest — and ired, created a le natural and principal sub- nd Sardinia,* of the sword, , expelled the •y. Pisa, ori- disputed with ily forbade the shipa of war. republics, and rce of mutual e space of 200 le conquest ol and Leghorn, d commerce ot under the title ingdom in the the extinction mts of Robert and sovereign (ranches of the procuring for ■rest the Anti- alty by a bull e the territorial Rome. This PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300. 141 prince received the crown of Palermo from the hands of a ;nT- dinal, whom the pope had deputed for the express purpose. On ihe death of the Emperor Lothaire, he succeeded in dispossess- ing the Prince (tf Capua, and subduini;^ the dutchy of Naples (1139;) thus completing the conquest of all that is now deno- minated the kingdom of Naples. William II., grandson of Roger, was the principal support of Pope Alexander III.; and of the famous League of Lombardy formed against the Empe- ror Frederic Barbarossa. The male line of the Norman princes having become extinct in William II., the kingdom of the Two Sicilies passed (1189) 'o the House of Hohenstaufen, by the marriage which the Emperor Henry IV., son of Frederic Bar- barossa, contracted with the Princess Constance, aunt and here- trix of the last king. Henry maintained the rights of his wife against the usurper Tancred, and transmitted this kingdom to his son Frederic II., who acquired by his marriage with Jolande, daughther of John de Brienne, titular King of Jerusalem, the lilies and arms of this latter kingdom. The efforts which Fre deric made to annihilate the League of Lombardy, and confirm his own authority in Italy, drew down upon him the persecution of the court of ftome, who taking advantage of the minority of the young Conradin, grandson of Frederic II., wrested the crown of the two Sicilies from this rival house, which alone was able to check its ambitious projects. Mainfroi, natural son of Frederic II., disgusted with playing the part of tutor to the young Conradin, in which capacity he at first acted, caused him- self to be proclaimed and crowned, at Palermo, King of the Two Sicilies, (1258.) The Popes Urban IV., and Clement IV., dread- ing the genius and talents of this prince, made an offer of that kingdom to Charles of Anjou, Count of Provence, and brother of St. Louis. Clement IV. granted the investiture of it (126d) to hirn and hi:^ descendants, male and female, on condition of his doing fealty and homage to the Holy See, and presenting him annually with a white riding horse, and a tribute if eight million ounces of gold. Charles, after being crowned at Rome, marched against Mainfroi, with an army chiefly composed of crusaders. He defeated that prince, who was slain at the battle of Bene- vento (1266,) which was soon after followed by the reduction of the two kingdoms. One rival to Charles still survived, the young Conradin, the lawful heir to the throne of his ancestors. Charles vanquished him also, two years afterwards, in the plains of Tagliacozzo ; and having made him prisoner, together with his young friend Frederic of Austria, he caused both of these princes to be beheaded at Naples (29th October 1268.) Charles did not long enjoy his new dignity. While he was ' 1: i 4 ' 'fi ■■M i Mi I. --IBP ■ m mi^ m t42 CHAPTER V. ,-i t prenwing to undertake a crusade against Michael Paleologus, a schismatic prince who had expelled the Latins from Constan- tinople, he had the mortification to see himself dispossessed of Sicily, on the occasion of the famous Sicilian Vespers (1282.) This event, which is generally regarded as the result of a con- spiracy, planned with great address by a gentleman of Salerno, named John de Procida, appears to have been but the sudden eflectof an insurrection, occasioned by the aversion of the Sici- lians to the French yoke. During the hour of vespers, on the second day of Easter (30th March.) when the inhabitants o' Palermo were on their way to the Church of the Holy Ghost, situated at some distance from the town, it happened that a Frenchman, named Drouette, had offered a private insult to a Sicilian woman : hence a quarrel arose, which drew on a gene- ral insurrection at Palermo. All the French who were m the city or the neighbourhood were massacred, with the exception of one Tcntleinan from Provence, called William Porcellet, who had conciliated all hea- by his virtues. This revolt graduaHv extended to the other ^i. =an cities. Every where the French were put to death on t! : Messi.ia was the last that caught the infection; but tl.t " evolution did not take place till thirty days after the sa;... event at Palermo, (29th April 1282.) It is therefore not true, that this massacre of the French hap- pened at the same hour, and at the sound of the vesper bells, over all parts of the island. Nor is it more probable, that the plot had been contrived by Peter III., King of Arragon ; since the Palermitans displayed at first the banner of the church, having resolved to surrender to the Pope ; but being driven from this resolution, and dreading the vengeance of Charles, they despatched deputies to the King of Arragon, who was then cruising with a fleet off' the African coast, and made him an offei of their crown. This prince yielded to the invitation of the Palermitans ; he landed at Trapani, and thence passed to Pa- lermo, where he was crowned King of Sicily. The whole island submitted to him ; and Charles of Anjou was obliged to raise the siege of Messina, which he had undertaken. Peter entered and took possession of the place, and from that time Sicily remained under the power of the Kings of Arragon ; it b'icame the inheritance of a particular branch of the Arragonese princes ; and the House of Anjou were reduced to the single kingdom of Naples. . . . nu • Spain, which was divided into several sovereignties, both Chris- tian and Mahometan, presented a continual spectacle ot commo- tion and carnage. The Christian States of Castille and Arragon, were gradually increased by the conquests made over the Maho- •an •it' Paleologus, om Constan- iDossessed of spers (1288.) Milt of a con- in of Salerno, ut tlie sudden in of the Sici- Bspers, on the inhabitants of Holy Ghost, i' ppened that 8 lie insult to a ■e\v on a gene- ^o were m the the exception Porcellel, who •volt gradually ere the French Inst that caught take place till th April 1282.) e French hap- le vesper bells, )bable, that the Irragon ; since of the church, ^ ing driven from 1 : Charles, they who was thnn ide him an offei vitation of the passed to Pa- The whole was obliged to rtaken. Peter from that time of Arragon ; it the Arragonese d to the single lties,bothChri8- Itacle of commo- ]le and Arragon. t over the Maho- PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300. m metans; while the kingdom of Navarre, less exposed to con- quest by its local situation, remained nearly in its original stale of mediocrity. This latter kingdom pa.>;:'cd in succession lo female heirs of different houses. HIniiche of Navarre, dauyhler of Sancho VI., transferred it to the Counts of Champaijiio ( iy.'34.) On the extinction of the male lino of that house, in Henry I. of Navarre (1274,) Joan I., his daughter and heiress, conveyed that kingdom, together with the ComU's of Champagne and Brie, to the crown of France. Philip the Fair, husband of that prin- cess, and his three sons, Louis le Hutin, Philip the Long, and Charles the Fair, were, at the same time, kings both of France and Navarre. Finally, it was Queen Joan H., daughter of Louis le Hutin, and herelrix of Navarre, who tran.sfcrred that kingdom to the family of the Counts d'Evreux, and relim|uished the Comt^s of Champagne and Brie to Philip of V^alois, suc- cessor of Charles the Fair to the throne of France (1936.) The family of the Counts of Barcelona ascended the throne of Arragon (1131,) by the marriage of Count Kaymond-Beren- fuier V. with Donna Petronilla, daughter and heiress of Kamira I., King of Arragon. Don Pedro II., grandson of Kaymond- Berenguicr, happening to be at Rome (1204,) was there crowned king of Arragon by Pope Innocent HI. On this occasion he did homage for his kingdom to that pontiff, and engaged, for himself and successors, to pay an annual tribute to the Holy See. Don James I., surnamcd the Conqueror, son of Don Pedro II., gained some important victories over the Mahometans, from whom he took the Balearic Isles (1230,) and the kingdom of Valentia,'*' (1238.) Don PedroIII. eldest son of Don James I., had dispossessed Charles I. of Anjou and Sicily, which drew down upon him a violent persecution on the part of Pope Martin IV., who was on the eve of publishing a crusade against him, and assigning over his estates to Charles of Valois, a younger brother of Philip called the Hardy, king of France. Don James II., younger son of Don Pedro III., succeeded in making his Eeace with the Court of Rome, and even obtained from Pope toniface VIII. (1297) the investiture of the Island of Sardinia. on condition of acknowledging himself the vassal and tributary of the Holy See for that kingdom, which he afterwards obtained by conquest from the republic of Pisa. The principal victories of the Christians over the Mahome- tans in Spain, were reserved for the kings of Castille, whose history is extremely fertile in great events. Alphonso VI., whom some call Alphonso I., after having taken Madrid and Toledo (1085,) and subdued the whole kingdom of Toledo, was on the point of altogether expelling the Mahometans from Spain, I- 4 1 IP t ' I i ■i. \ m t i" i li ^ll n i i 144 CHAI'TKR V. when n revolution which happened in Africa augmented their iorct'rs by fresh numbers, and thus arrested the progress of the Casiilian prince. . The Zcirides, an Arab dynasty, descended from Zeiri, son of Mounad, reigned then over that part of Africa which compre- hends Africa properly so called (viz. Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers,) , and the Mogreb (comprehending Fez and Morocco,) which they ! had conquered from the Faliniile caliphs of Egypt. It hap- ; pciicd that a new apostle and conqueror, named Aboubeker, son of Oiner, collected some tribes of Arabs in the vicinity of Sugul- messa, a city in the kingdom of Fez, and got himself proclaimed Commander of the Faithful. His adherents took the name of Morabelhin, a term which signifies zealously devoted to religion ; and whence the Spaniards have formed the names Almoravtdes and Mutabovths. Having made him^e aid he marched with his victorious lroop.s, defeated the king of Caslllle at the battle of Badajos (1090,) and subdued the principal Mahometan states of Spain, such as Grenada and Seville, &c. ,. , The empire of the Almoravides was subverted in the twelfth century by another Mahome an sect, called the Moahedivs, oi Almohades, a word signifying Unitarians. An upstart fanatic, named Abdalnmimen, was the founder of this sect. He was educated among the mountains of Sous, in Mauritania, and assumed the quality of Emir (1120,) and the surname of Mo- hadi, that is, the Chief— the leader and director of the faithful. Having subdued Morocco, Africa, and the whole of the Mogreb, he annihilated the dynasty of the Almoravides (1146,) and at the same time vanquished the Mahometan states in Spain. He took also (1160) from the Normans Tunis, Mohadie, and Tripoli, of which they had taken possession. One of his successors, named Naser-Mohammed, formed the project of re-conquering the whole continent of Spain. The immense preparations which he mrle for this purpose, alarmed Alphonso VIII., king of Cas- tille, who immediately formed an alliance with the rfingsof Ar- ragon and Navarre, and even engaged Pope Innocent III. to proclaim a crusade against the Mahometans. The armies of Europe and Africa met on the confines of Castile and Andalusia (1212;) and in the environs of the city Ubeda was foughl a ^ ' • ^ vtfit ^i mm «*« gmented their rogress of the n Zeiri, son of vhich ccnpre- , and Algiers,) o,) which they gypt. It hap- iboubeker, son nity of Sugul- elf proclaimed k the name of ed to religion / IS Almoravides • of the city of nqiiests in the s expelled the le son of Tas- ; and built the of the Mogreb, 3ined the Mn- 1 his victorious tie of Kudajos tates of Spain, I in the twelfth Moahedins, oi ipstart fanatic, sect. He was dauritania, and arnaine of Mo- ot the faithful. I of the Mogreb, i (1146,) and at in Spain. He lie, and Tripoli, his successors, f re-conquering parations which il., king of Cas- ,he kings of Ar- nnocent III. to The armies of e and Andalusia la was fought a hM m 111 i\^' " fl -'" cia, and Seville (1236, et seq.,) and left them only the single kingdom of Grenada. These wars against the Mahometans were the occasion of several religious and military orders being founded in Spain. Of these, the most ancient was that founded and fixed at Alciin- tara (1156,) whence it took its name; having for its badge or decoration a green cross, in form of the lily, or Jleur-de-lis. The order of Calatrava was instituted in 1158; it was confirmed by Pope Alexander III. (1164,) and assumed as its distinctive mark the red cross, also in form of the lily. The order of St. James of Cumpostella, founded in 1161, and confirmed by the same Pope (1175,) was distinguished by a red cross, in form of a sword- Finally, the order of Montesa (1317,) supplanted that of the Templars in the kingdom of Anagon. The Kings of Castille and Arragon having conquered from the Arabs a part of what is properly called Portugal, formed it into a distinct government, under the name of Portocalo, or Por- tugal. Henry of Burgundy, a French prince, grandson of Ro bert, called the Old, Duke of Burgundy, and great-grandson of Robert II., King of France, having distinguished himself by his bravery in the wars between the Castillians and the Mahome- tans, Alphonso VI., King of Castille, wished to attach the young Erince to him by the ties of blood ; and, for this purpose, gave im in marriagr ^is daughter the Infant Donna Theresa ; and created him Count of Portugal (1090.) This State, including at first merely the cities of Oporto, Braga, Miranda, Lamego, Viseo, and Coimbra, began to assume its present form, in the reign of Alphonso I., son of Count Henry. The Mahometans, alarmed at the warlike propensities of the young Alphonso, had marched with a superior force to attack him by surprise. Far from being intimidated by the danger, this prince, to animate the courage of his troops, pretended that an apparition from hea- ven had authorized him to proclaim himself King in the face ot the arrnVt in virtue of an express order which he said he had received from Christ. '^ He then marched against the enemy 10 i •*•. t ■ ii. \ * ^ i ■ « m J' i! t» iP' i.-»' t |i|f >\** 140 CHAPTER V. and totally routed them in the plains of Ouriqne (1139.) This vii-tory, famous in the nnnals of PorluKal, paved the way for the conquest of the cities Leiria, Santarcm, Lisbon, Cintra, Alcazar do Sal, Evora, and Elvas, situated on the banks of the Tagus. Moreover, to secure the protection of the Court of Rome agamst the Kings of Leon, who disputed with him the independence of his new state, Alphonso took the resolution of acknowledging himself vassal and tributary to the Holy See (1142.) He after- wards convoked the estates of his kmgdom at Lamego, and there declared his independence by a fundamental low, w-hich also regulated the order of succession to the throne. Sancho I., son and successor of Alphonso, took from the Mahometans the town of Silves in Algarve ; and Alphonso HI., soon afttr, (1249,) completed the conquest of that province. The first Kings of Po" I, in order to gain the protection of the Court of Rome, were obliged to grant extensive benefices to the ecclesiastics, with regalian rights, and the exemption of the clergy from the secular jurisdiction. Their successors, how- ever, finding themselves firmly estoblished on the throne, soon changed their policy, and manifested as much of indifference for the clergy as Alphonso 1. had testified of kindness and attach- ment to them. Hence originated a long series of broils and quarrels with the Court of Rome. Pope Innocent IV. deposed Sancho II. (124,5,) and appointed Alphonso III. in his place. Denys, son and successor of this latter prince, was excommuni- cated for the same reason, and compelled to sign a treaty (1289,) by which the clergy were re-established in all their former rights. In France, the whole policy of the Kings was directed against their powerful vassals, who shared among them the finest pro- vinces of that kingdom. The Dukes of Burgundy, Normandy, and Aquitaine ; the Counts of Flanders, Champagne, and Tou- louse ; the Dukes of Bretagne, the Counts of Poitiers, ^r, Blois, Anjou and Maine, Alen^on, Auvergne, Angoulfiine, Pe- rigord, Carcassonne, * &c. formed so many petty sovereigns, equal in some respects to the electors and princes of the Ger- manic empire. Several circumstances, however, contributed to maintain the balance in favour of royalty. The crown was he- reditary, and the demesne lands belonging to the king, which, being very extensive, gave him a power which far outweighed that°of any individual vassal. Besides, these same demesnes being situate in the centre of the kingdom, enabled the sovereign to observe the conduct of his vassals, to divide their forces, and prevent any one from preponderating over another. The per- petual wars which they waged with each other, the tyranny which they exercised over their dependants, and the enlighten- " II PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074 — V.VHt. 147 139.) This . way for the lira, Alcazar iho Tagus. loinc against ependcnce of knowledging .) He aflcr- Lamego, and 1 law, which . Sancho 1., homotans the , soon aftt-r, e protection of k'c benefices to mption of the ccessors, how- » throne, soon ndifference for iss and attach- I of broils and nt IV. deposed in his place. IS excommuni- 1 treaty (1289,) • former rights, irected ngninsl the finest pro- ly, Normandy, igne, and Tou- Poitiers, Bar, ngoul6me, Pe- ty sovereigns, s of the Ger- , contributed to I crown was he- [e king, which, far outweighed lame demesnes the sovereign ;ir forces, and ,er. The per- ir, the tyratmy the enhghlen- il ed policy of several of the French kings, by degrees re-estab- lished the royal iiulhnrily, which had been almost annihilated under the last princes of the Carlovingian dynasty. It was at this period that the rivalry between France and Eng- land lind its origin. The fault that Philip I. committed, in making no opposition to the conquest of England, by William Duke of Normandy, \u.\ vassal, served to kindle the flame of war between thesn princes. The war which took place in 1087, was the first that happened between the two nations ; it was renewed under the subsequent reigns, and this rivalry was stiil more in- creased, on occasion of the unfortunate divorce between Louis VII. and Eleanor of Poitou, heiress of Guienne, Poitou, and Gascogne. This divorced Princess married (1152) Henry, sur- named Plantugenet, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and Maine, and afterwards King of England ; and brought him, in dowry, the whole of her vast possession: . But it was reserved for Philip Augustus to repair the fauils of his predecessors. This great monarch, whose courage was equal to his prudence and his policy, recovered his superiority over England ; he strengthened his power and authority by the numerous acces- sions which he made to the crown-lands, 3' (1180-1220.) Be- sides Artois, Vermandois, the earldoms of Evreux, Auvergne, and Alen«,on, which he annexed under different titles, he took Advantage of the civil commotions which had arisen in England against King John, to dispossess the English of Normandy, An- jou, Maine; Lorraine, and Poitou (1203;) and he maintained these conquests by the brilliant victory which he gained at Bou- vines (1214,) over the combined forces of England, the Empe- ror Otho, and the Count of Flanders. ^ Several of the French kings were exclusively occupied with the crusades in the East. Louis VII., Philip Augustus, and Louis IX. took the cross, and marched in person to the Holy Land. These ultra-marine expeditions (1147, 1248,) which re- quired great and powerful resources, could not but exhaust France ; while, on the contrary, the crusades which Louis VIII. undertook against the Albigenses and their protectors, the Counts of Toulouse and Carcassonne, considerably augmented the royal power. Pope Innocent III., by proclaiming this crusade (12(fe,) raised a tedious and bloody war, which desolated Languedoc ; and during which, fanaticism perpetrated atrocities which make humanity shudder. Simon, Count Monfort, the chief or general of these crusaders, had the whole estates of the counts of Tou- louse adjudged him by the Pope. Amauri, the son and heir of Simon, surrendered his claims over these forfeitures to Louis VIII. King of France (1226 ;) and it was this circumstance that i^fl'lJ rp: n ii i 149 CRArTKK V. induced Louis to march in person nt the head of the crusaders, against the Count of Touloiisf, his vatoal uiul cousin. He died at the close of this expedition, lenviuf; to his son and successor, Louis IX., the tasi< of tinishin}r this diMistrous war. By the pence which was concluded at Furis (It2i29,) between the King and the Count, the greater part of Lunguedoc was allowed to re- main in the possession of Louis. One arrangement of this treaty was the marriage of the Count's daughter with Al- phonso, brother to the King; with this express clause, that failing heirs of this marriage, the whole territory of Toulouse should revert to the crown. The same treaty adjudged to the Pope the county of Venaissin, as an escheat of the Counts of Toulouse ; and the Count of Carcassonne, implicated also in the cause of the Albigenses, was compelled to cede to the King all right over the viscounties of Beziers, Carcassonne, Agde, Rodez, AIbi, and Nismes. One consequence of this bloody war was the establishment of the terrible tribunal of the In- quisition,^ and the founding of the order of Dominicans.^ Henry II., a descendant of the house of PInntagenet, having mounted the throne of England, in right of his mother Ma- tilda, annexed to that crown the dutchy of Normundy, the coun- tries of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine, together with Guienne, Gascogne and Poitou. He afterwards added Ireland, which he subdued in 1172. This island, which had never been con- quered, either by the Romans, or the barbarians who had deso- lated Europe, was, at that time, divided into five principal sovereignties, viz. Mun.ster, Ulster, Connaught, Leinster, and Meath, whose several chiefs all assumed the title of Kings. One of these princes enjoyed the dignity of monarch of the island ; but he had neither authority sufficient to secure inter- nal tranquillity, nor power enough to repel with success the attacks of enemies from without. It was this state of weakness that induced Henry to attempt the conquest of the island. He obtained the sanction of Pope Adrian Iv., by a bull in 1155, and undertook, in a formal engagement, to subject the Irish to the jurisdiction of the Holy See, and the payment of Peter's pence,^' xhe expulsion of Dermot, king of Leinster, who had rendered himself odious by his pride and his tyranny, furnished Henry with a pretext for sending troops into that island, to assist the dethroned prince in recovering his dominions. The success of the English, and the victories which they gained over Roderic, King of Connaught, who at that time was chief monarch of the island, determined Henry to undertake, in person, an expedition into Ireland (in October 1172.) He soon reduced the provinces of Leinster and Munster to submission : and after having con- L i 'M e crusadprSi n. He died d successor, iir. By ihe en the King llowed lo re- inenl of this j er wiih Al- i clause, that | of Toulouse I udgcd to the , te Counts of cated also in B to the King sonne, Agde, f this bloody lal of the In* iiinicans.'* genet, having 1 mother Ma- ridy, the coun- with Guienne, Iknd, which he rer been con- vho had deso- ,ve principal jeinster, and itie of Kings, onarch of the o secure inter- ih success the te of weakness e island. He I in 1155, and le Irish to the Peter's peuce.^ had rendered rnished Henry d, to assist the 'he success oi over Roderic, monarch of the an expedition d the provinces ler having con- PERIOD IV. A. 0. 1074—1300. 149 1i •I" w ■trucK'd several forts, and nnininated n vireroy and other crown oflicfrs, hi' took his departure without completing the conour.il nflhe isliinii. Kudcric, Kingof Cnnnuught, submitted in 1175; but ii was not till the rcifrn Henry III., salage of the him (1282;) WU8 defeated ivid, his bro- choly. Hav- ncd to death, if Wales was son Edward, borne by the inted, in cen- Irnage. The [)ns, the want kings,** gave and foment- and superati* 1, aggravated re distracted. »d at the ex- their power, le senate and pportunity of obtained, by nunity of the nd cemented internal com- le incursions lions. It did Sweden from 3a, under the m nations of o conquer. Baltic, were f the ancient riRioD tv. A. D. 1074 — 1300. Ml NormunH, plundering and ravaging the provinces and itlanda of Denmark. Vuldemar I., wi.<se two king- imed the cru- a missionary, Lnia. Birger, ed the throne etext, Carelia the inhabit- gion (1293.) everal of the against their to time, com- These ex- served as an the crusades in history be- of the Life ol in Prussia in em under this bb^ of Oliva, he Prussians, rst bishop oi and indepen- ving repulsed ivert them to it of his age, '1^' PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074 — 1300. 153 Cublished a Crusade against them (131S,) to proselytize them y force. Armies of crusaders were poured into Prussia, nnd overran the whole country nilh fire and sword. The Prussinns took cruel vengeance on the Polonese of Masovia, who had made common cause against them with the crusaders of the East. At length, Conrad, duke of Masovia, finding himself too weak to withstand the fury of the Prussians, called in the Teu- tonic knights to his aid ; and, anxious to secure for ever the as- sistance and protection of that order, he made them a grant of the territory of Culm ; and moreover, promised them whatever lands he might conquer from the common enemy (1226.) This contract having been sanctioned by the Emperor Frederic 11., the knights speedily came into possession of their new domin- ions (1230.) They extended themselves by degrees over all Prussia, after a long and murderous war, which they had car- ried on against the idolatrous natives. That country, which had been peopled by numerous German colonies in succession, did not submit to the yoke of the Teutonic order, until the greater part of its ancient inhabitants had been destroyed. The Knights took care to confirm their authority and their relip'ion in Prussia, by constructing cities and forts, and founding bishoprics and convents. The city of Koninsberg *' on the Pregel, was built in 1255; and that of Marienburg on the No- gat, which became the capital of the Order, i.^ supposed to have been founded in 1280. The Teutonic knights completed the conquest of that coun- try (1283,) by the reduction of Sudavia, the last of the eleven provinces which composed ancient Prussia. We can scarcely conceive how a handful of these knights should have been able, in so short a time, to vanquish a warlike and powerful nation, inspired with the love of liberty, and emboldened by fanaticism to make the most intrepid and obstinate defence. But we ought to take into consideration, that the indulgences of the court of Rome allured continually into Prussia a multitude of crusaders from all the provinces of the Empire ; and that the knights gained these over to their ranks, by distributing among them the lands which they had won by conquest. In this way, their numbers were incessantly recruited by new colonies of crusp- ders, and the nobles flocked in crowds to their standard, to seek territorial acquisitions in Prussia. The increase of commerce on the Baltic, in the twelAh cen- tury, led the Germans to discover the coasts of Livonia. Some merchants from Bremen, on their way to Wisby, in the island of Gothland, a seaport on the Baltic very much frequented at that time, were thrown by a tempest on the coast near the mouth rl|is| *:1 4'^ ■4 1> ^ »« " ' iii) 154 CHAPTER V, of the Dwina (1158.) The ('"sire o<" gain induced them to enter into a correspondence willi the natives of the country ; and, from a wish to give stability to a branch of commerce which miirht become very lucrative, they attempted to introduce the Christian religion into Livonia. A monk of Segeberg in HoN stein, named Mainard, undertook this mission. He was the first bishop of Livonia (1192.) and fixed his residence at the castle of Uxkull, which he strengthened by fortifications. Berthold, his successor, wishing to accelerate the progress of Christianity, as well as to avoid the dangers to which his mission exposed him, caused the Pope to publish a crusade against the Livonians. This zealous prelate perished sword in hand, fighting against the people whom he intended to convert. The priests, aftei this, were either massacred or expelled from Livonia ; but, in a short time, a new army of crusaders marched into the country, under the banner of Albert, the third bishop, who built the city of Riga, (1200) which became the seat of his bishopric, and after- wards the metropolitan see of all Prussia and Livonia. The same prelate founded the military order of the Knights of Christ or Sword-bearers, to whom he ceded the hird of all the coun- tries he had conquered. This order, confirmed by Pope Inno- cent III. (1204,) finding themselves too weak to oppose the Pagans of Livonia, agreed to unite with the Teutonic order (1237,) who, at that time, nominated the generals or provincial masters in I+■; \ .1 '\ 1 ,'■ wm \ «?•"■*' II ■4 iM $ h |Hi m l/SG CHAPTER V. torians have remarked in him the traits of a great mnn, bom to command others, but whose noble qualities were tarnished by the ferocity of his nature, which took delight in carnage, plun- der, and devastation. Humanity shudders at the recital of the inexpressible horrors exercised by this barbarian, whose maxim was to exterminate, without mercy, all who offered the least re- sistance to his victorious arms. The successors of this Mogul conqueror followed him in his career of victory. They achieved the conquest of all China, overturned the caliphate of Bagdat, and rendered the sultans of Iconium their tributaries.** Octai-Khan, the immediate succes- sor of Zinghis, despatched from the centre of China two pow- erful armies, the one against Corea, and the other against the nations that lie to the north and north-west of the Caspian Sea. This latter expedition, which had for its chiefs Gayouk, son of Octai, and Batou, eldest son of Toushi, and grandson of Zinghis- Khan, after having subdued all Kipzak, penetrated into Russia, which they conquered in 1237. Hence they spread over Poland, Silesia, Moravia, Hungary, and the countries bordering on the Adriatic Sea; they plundered cities, laid waste the country, and carried terror and destruction wherever they went.** All Europe trembled at the sight of these barbarians, who seemed as if they wished to make the whole earth one vast empire of desolation. The empire of the Moguls attained its highest point of elevation under Cublai, grandson of Zinghis, towards the end of the 13th century. From south to north, it extended from the Chinese Sea and the Indies, to the extremity of Siberia ; and from east to west, from Japan to Asia Minor, and the fron- tiers of Poland in Europe. China, and Chinese Tartary formed the seat of the empire, and the residence of the Great Khan ; while the other parts of the dominions were governed by princes of the family of Zinghis Khan, who either acknowledged the Great Khan as their supreme master, or had their own particular kings and chiefs that paid him tribute. The principal subordi- nate Khans of the race of Zinghis, were those of Persia, Zagatai, and Kipzac. Their dependence on the Great Khan or emperor of China, ceased entirely on the death of Cublai (1294,) and the power of the Moguls soon became extinct in China.*" As for the Moguls of Kipzac, their dominion extended over all the Tartar countries situated to the north of the Caspian and the Euxine, as also over Russia and the Crimea. Batou-Khan, eldest son of Toushi, was the founder of this dynasty. Being addicted to a wandering life, the Khans of Kipzac encamped on the banks of the Wolga, passing from one place to another with their tents and flocks, acording to the custom of the Mogul and li at mnn, bom » tarnished by [image, plun- recilal of the whose maxim d the least re- red him in his of all China, the saltans of lediate succes- hina two pow- er agfainst the > Caspian Sea. layouk, son of son of Zinghis* ;d into Russia, ad over Poland, rdering on the e the country, !y went.** All s, who seemed [vast empire of ts highest point towards the end extended from lity of Siberia ; and the fron- 'artary formed Great Khan ; ■rned by princes :nowledged the r own particular incipal subordi- ^ersia, Zagatai, lan or emperor 1294,) and the ina.** extended over le Caspian and Batou-Khan, ynasty. Being ac encamped on to another with the Mogul and rsBioD IV. A. D. 1074 — 1300. W Tartar nations.*^ The principal sect of these Khans was called the Graiid or Golden Horde or the Horde of Kipzac, which was long an object of the greatest terror to the KuMsianN, Poles, Lithuanians and Hungarians. Its glory declined towards the end of the fourteenth century, and entirely di^^appeared under the last Khan Achrnet, in 1481. A few separate hordes were III! that remained, detached from the grand horde, such as those of Cassan, Astracan, Siberia and the Crimea ; — all of which were m their turn subdued or extirpated by the Russians.'"' A crowd u( princes, descendants of Vlademir the Oreat, had shared among them the vast dominions of Russia. One of these princes invested with the dignity of Grand Duke, exercised cer- tain rights of superiority over the restt who nevertheless acted the part of petty sovereigns, and made war on each other. The capital of these Grand Dukes was Kiow, which was also regard- ed as the metropolis of the empire. Andrew I. prince uf Suzdal, having assumed the title of Grand Duke (1157,) fixed his resi- dence at Vlademir on the river Kliazma, and thus gave rise to a kind of political schism, the consequences of which were most fatal to the Russians. The Grand Dutchy of Kiow, with its dependent principalities, detached themrelvcs by degree.<) from the rest of the empire, and finally became a prey to the Lithu- anians and Poles. In the midst of these divisions and intestine broils, and when Russia was struggling with difHculty against the Bulgarians, Polowzians,''^ and other barbarous tribes in the neighbourhood, she had the misfortune to be attacked by the Moguls under Zinghid Khan. Toushi, eldest son of that conqueror, having marched round the Caspian, in order to attack tho Polowzians, encountered on his passage the Princes uf Kiow, who were allies of that people. The battle which he fought (1223,) on the banks of the river Kalka, was one of the- most sanguinary lecorded in history. The Russians were totally d<;feated ; six of their princes perished on the field of battle ; and the whole of Western Russia was laid open to the conqueror. The Mo- guls penetrated as far as Novogorod, wasting the whole country on their march with fire and sword. They returned by the same route, but without extending their ravages farther. In 1237 they made a second invasion, under the conduct of Batou, son of Toushi, and governor of the northern parts of the Mogul empire. This prince, after having vanquished the Polow- zians and Bulgarians, that is, the whole country of Kipzac, entered the north of Russia, where he took Rugen and Moscow, and cut to pieces an army of the Russians near Kolomna. Several other towns in this part of Russia were sucked by the it^ ! : I t: 'I h (»!?'!1: 108 CHAPTER V. Moguls, in the commencement of the following year. The laiiilly of the Grand DuWe, Juri II., perished in the sack of Via- deinir; and he himself fell in the battle which he fought with the Moiruls near the river Sila. Batou extended his conquests in Northern Russia as far as the city Torshok, in the territory ol Ndvofrorod. For some years he continued his ravages over the whole'of Western Russia ; where, among others, he took Kiow, Kaminiec in Podolia, Vladeniir and Halitsch. From this we may date the fall of the Grand Dutchy of Kiow, or Western Russia, which, with its dependent principalities in the following century, came into the possession of the Lithuanians and Poles. As for the Grand Dutchy of Vlademir, which comprehended Eastern and Northern Russia, it was subdued by the Moguls or Tartars, whose terrible yoke it wore for more than two hundred years.** An extraordinary person who appeared at this disastrous crisis, preserved that part of Russia from sinking into total ruin. This was Prince Alexander, son of the Grand Duke, Jaroslaus II., who obtained the epithet or suriiame of Newski, from a victory which he gained over the Knights of Livonia near the Neva, (1241.) Elevated by the Khun Batou, to the dignity of Grand Duke (1246,) he secured, by his prudent con- duct, his punctuality in paying tribute, and preserving his al- legiance to the Mogul emperors, the good will of these new masters of Russia, during his whole reign. When this great prince died in 1261, his name was enrolled iri their calendar of saints. Peter the Great built, in honour of his memory, a con- vent on the banks of the Neva, to which he gave the name of Alexander Newski ; and the Empress Catherine I., instituted an order of knighthood that was also called after the name of that prince. . Poland, which was divided among several prmces of the Piast dynasty, had become, at the time of which vve speak, a prey to intestine factions, and exposed to the incursions of the neighbouring barbarians. These divisions, the principal source of all the evils that afflicted Poland, continued down to the death of Boleslaus II. (1138,) who, having portioned his es- tates among his sons, ordered that the eldest should retain the district of Cracow, under the title of Monarch, and that he should exercise the rights of superiority over the provincial dukes and princes, his brothers. This clause, which might have prevented the dismemberment of the state, served only to kindle the flame of discord among these collegatory princes, iriadislaus, who is generally considered as the eldest of these sons, having attempted to dispossess his brothero (1146,) they -«l^ g year. The e sack of Via- e fought with his conquests he territory ol cages over the he took Kiow, From this we ,', or Western the following ins and Poles, comprehended y the Moguls lore than two his disastrous ing into total Grand Duke, ne of Newski, its of Livonia Batou, to the 3 prudent con- erving his al- of these new ben this great eir calendar of lernory, a con- ! the name of • I., instituted ■ the name of princes of the 1 we speak, a ursions of the rincipal source 1 down to the tioned his es- uld retain the , and that he the provincial , which might served only to ratory princes, ildest of these . (1146.) they I PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300. 1» rose in arms, expelled him from Poland, and obliged his de- scendants to content themselves with Silesia. His sons founded m that country, numerous families of dukes and princes, who introduced German coIon.es into Silesia ; all of which, in course !^r SmlrT'r?J'''i° '^' Y'"^' "•■ «"^"''"'»- Conrad, son of Casimir the Jus , and grandson of Boleslaus III., was ih*- TZTJ '\ ^"!'''' u"*" ^"J"^'" '^"'^ ^^"^"^i"- I^ ^vas this pnnce who called in the assistance of the Teutonic Kni""""« cannot be better attested than by the laws passed in the reigns of Ladis- laus and Coloman, about the end of the eleventh and becrjnninff the loss of liberty, or of some member of the body, such as the eye, the nose, the tongue, &c. These laws were" published in heir general assemblies, which were composed of the kinc the great officers of the crown, and the representatives of the clergy and the free men. All the other branches of the execu! ive power pertained to the kings, who made war and peace at their pleasure; while the counts or governors of provinces claimed no power either personal or hereditary " Under a government so despotic, it was easy for the kings of Hungary to enlarge the boundaries of their states. Ladis- laus took from the Greeks the dutchy of Sirmium (1080,) com- prising the lower part of Sclavonia. This same princTextend- ed his conquests into Croatia, a country which was governed for several ages by the Slavian princes, who possessed Upper Sclavonia and ruled over a great part of ancient Illyria and Dalmatia, to which they gave the name of Croatia. Dircislaus xvas the first of these princes that took the title of kin^ (in 984 ) Demetrius Swinimir, one of his successors, did homage to the t;ope, in order to obtain the protection of the Holy Se^ (1076.) 1 he line of these kings having become extinct some time after ' Ladislaus, whose sister had been married to Demetrius Swini- | mir, took advantage of the commoUon that had arisen in Croatia. I I \y , |i i h !' > III \ 'n m M'l 160 CRAPTBR V. and conquered a great part of that kingdom (1091,) and «•• pecially Upper Sclavonia, which was one of its dependencies. Coiom'on completed their conquest in 1102, and the same year he was crowned at Belgrade king of Croatia nnd Dalmatia. In course of a few years, he subdued the maritime cities of Dal- nmtia, such ns Spoiairo, Trau, and Zara, which he took from the republic of Venice.*' The kingdom of Rama or Bosnia, fell at the same time under his power. He took the title of King of Rama(1103;) and Bela II., his successor, made over the dulchy of Bosnia to Ladislaus, his younger son. The so- vereignty of the Kings of Hungary was also occasionally ac- knowledged by the princes and kings of Bulgaria and Servia, and even by the Russian princes of Halilsch and Wolodimir. These conquests gave rise to an abuse 'vhich soon proved fatal to Hungary. The kings claimed for themselves the right of disposing of the newly conquered provinces in favour of their younger sons, to whom they granted them under the title of dutchies, and with the rights of sovereignty. These latter made use of their supreme power to excite factions and stir up civil wars. The reign of King Andrew II. was rendered remarkable bv a revolution which happened in the government (1217.) This Crince having undertaken an expedition to the Holy Land, which e equipped at an extravagant and ruinous expense, the nobles availed themselves of his absence to augment their own power, and usurp the estates and revenues of the crown. Corruption had pervaded every branch of the administration ; and the king, ofter his return, made .several inefTectual efforts to remedy the disorders of the government, and recruit his exhausted finances. At length he adopted the plan of assembling a general Diet (1222,) in which was passed the famous decree or Golden Bull which forms the basis of that defective constitution which pre- vails in Hungary at this day. The property of the clergy and the noblesse were there declared exempt from taxes and military cess; the nobles acquired hereditary possession ol the royal grants which they had received in recompense for their services ; they were freed from the obligation of marching at their own expense on any expedition out of the kingdom ; and even the right of resistance was allowed them, in case the king should mfringe any article of the decree. It was this king also (An- drew II.) that conferred several important privileges and immu- nities on the Saxons, or Germans of Transylvania, who had been invited thither by Geisa II. about the year 1142. Under the reign of Bela IV. (1241.) Hungary was suddenly inundated with an army of Moguls, commanded ^ several chiefs, the principal of whom were Batou, the son of Toushi. and Ga^ )91,) and ««• lependencies. ie same year )nlmntia. In cities of Dai> lie took from la or BosniH, the title of If, made over I. The so* casionally ac* a and Servia, 1 Wolodimir. I soon proved Ivos the right avour of their er the title of se latter made r up civil wars, markable by a [1217.) This y Land, which ise, the nobles lir own power, I. Corruption and the king, to remedy the usled finances. I general Diet r Golden Bull ion which pre- the clergy and es and military t ot the royal their services ; I at their own ; and even the )e king should king also (An- ges and immu* , who had been was suddenly r several chiefsi oushi. and Qw- I.. Venice in tlio lOtli Century. P. 138. Zensliis Klian, the Mogul Prince P. 155. 3rr' I i !■ I' 4 ill 1^ <■ I ytift I ■Jtall.. , *t I i 'f'* .dirn^ PERIOD IV. A. D. 1074—1300 101 I youk, .0,1 of thr gma M,nn 0( tai. Tho Hi.npariarA.. .t.nk i.. efr.>miiia.-y nnd hvm^r j,, pprf,..-! s.vi.rity. ha.l ...■gl...-t..,I to pro vi.l.. ... ...... for thoir .lefiM.co, Having nt Icifil, ralli.-d round tl..- bn.= ..t.r o tl„.:r k.„g. th..y ,,iid,r.d thnr n.,,,,, v.-ry u.-^W- Kcnllv on tlio b.u.ks ol the Sam, whore th.7 w.«r.- MirpriM-d by ll... Mogul, who made terrible havoc of then.. Colo.nnn, the k..ig.. brother, vyas .shiin in the nrtioii ; u.,d thr kin.' hi...v..h ....•cc.d.d wah d.fnr.,liy i„ saving hi.n.df among the i.Ios ol Dahnal.u. fho whole of Hungary was now at the ...ercv 0/ U.0 conquernr, who nt.r,t.lrat..d with his virtoriou.s troops i.,to Srlavon.a, Croatia, D.il.nnlia, Bo.snJn, Scrvia, and Bufgaria; eyry where glutting hi., fury with the blood of the ........Je which he shed in torrents, fhese barbarians seemed deier.nin^ ed to hx their residence in Hungary, when the news of the death of the Khan Octai, and the ncces.ion of his son Gayouk to the Ihrone of China, induced them to abandon their ronqueN' in le» (han three year.., and return to the East loaded with immense booty. On hearing this intelligence, Bola ventured from his place of retreat and repaired to Hungary, where he assembled the remains of his subjects, who were wandering in the forests, or concealed among the mountains. He rebuilt the cities that were laid in ashes, imported new colonies from Croolia, Bohe- mia, Moravia, and Saxony; and, by degrees, restored life and vigour to the state, which had been almost annihilated by the lUoguls. ■' The Empire of the Greeks, at this time, was grnduallv verg- ing towards Its downfall. Harassed on the cast by the Seliu- kian Turks, infested on the side of the Danube by the Hunga- nans, the Patzina.:ites, the Uzes and the Cuinans ; » and torn to pieces by factious and intestine wars, that Empire was making but a feeble resistance to the incessant attacks of its enemies when It was suddenly threatened with entire destruction by the effects of the fourth crusade. The Emperor Isaac Angelus had been dethroned by his brother, Alexius III. (1195,) who had cruelly caused his eyes to be put out. The son of Isaac, called also Alexius found means to save his life; he repaired to Zara, in Dalinatia (1203,) to implore the aid of the Crusaders, who after having assisted the Venetians to recover that rebellious city, were on the point of setting sail for Palestine. The youn? Alexius offered to indemnify the Crusaders for the expenses of any expedition which they might undertake in his favour ; he gave them reason to expect a reunion of the two churches, and considerable supplies, both in men and money, to assist them in reconquering the Holy Land. Yielding to these solicitations, the allied chiefs, insteaa of passing directly to Syria, set sail for ''' i f m :?! t ' iti ii M- mm «i**' -^e*-^ n 102 CRAPTRR V. Thev imtm'(lint«!ly laid sietjn to the citjr, ex- Constiintitiople. They / --- > ; ^- — pelU'd tliu usurper, and reMlort-d Isaac to the throne, in conjunc* tion with his son Alexiu.i. Sfiinuly liiid the CrustiidefN quitted Con; perior genius, who rendered himself formidable by his warlike prowess to the Christians in the East, and deprived them of the fruits of their numerous victories. This conqueror was the famous Saladin, or Salaheddin, the son of Ayoub or Job, and founder of the dynasty of the Ayoubites. The Atabek Noured* din, son of Amadoddin Zenghi, had sent him into Egypt (1168) to assist the Fatimite Caliph against the Franks, or Crusaders of the West. While there, he was declared vizier and general of the armies of the Caliph ; and so well had he established his power in that country, that he eflfected the substitution of the Abassidian Caliphs in place of the Fatimites ; and ultimately caused himself to be proclaimed Sultan on the death of Noured* din (1171,) under whom he had served in the quality of lieu- tenant. Having vanquished Egypt, he next subdued the dominions of Noureddin in Syria ; and, after having extended his victories over this province, as well as Mesopotamia, Assyria, Armenia and Arabia, he turned bis arms against the Christians in Palestine, whom he had hemmed in. as it were, with hi." ^ iA Ir fl.'^i. - ''-• 'tSUi^... 164 CHAPTER ▼. conquests. These princes, separated into petty sovereignties, divided by mutual jealousy, and a prey to the distractions of anorchy, soon yielded to the valour of the heroic Mussulman. The battle which they fought (1187,) at Hittin, near Tiberias (or Tabaria,) was decisive. The Christians sustained a total defeat ; and Guy of Lusignan, a weak prince without talents, and the last King of Jerusalem, fell into the hands of the con- queror. All the cities of Palestine opened their gates to Saladin, either voluntarily or at the point of the sword. Jerusalem sur- rendered after a siege of fourteen days. This defeat rekindled the zeal of the Christians in the West ; and the most powerful sovereigns in Europe were again seen conducting innumerable armies to the relief of the Holy Land. But the talents and bravery of Saladin rendered ali their efforts unavailing ; and it was not till after a murderous siege for three years, that they succeeded in retaking the city of Ptolemais or Acre ; and thus arresting for a short space the total extermination of the Chris- tians in the East. On the death of Saladin, whose heroism is extolled by Chris tian as well as Mahometan authors, his Empire was divided among his sons. Several princes, his dependants, and known by the name of Ayoubites, reigned afterwards in Egypt, Syria, Armenia, and Yemen or Arabia the Happy. These princes S[uarrelling and making war with each othei, their territories iell, in the thirteenth century, under the dominion of the Mamc lukes. These Mamelukes (an Arabic word which signifies a slave) were Turkish or Tartar captives, whom the Syrian mer- chants purchased from the Moguls, and sent into Egypt under the reign of the Sultan Saleh, of the Ayoubite dynasty. That prince bought them in vast numbers, and ordered them to be trained to the exercise of arms in one of the maritime cities of Egypt.'^ From this school he raised them to the highest offices uf trust in the state, and even selected from them his own body guard. In a very short time, these slaves became so numerous and so powerful, that, in the end, they seized the government, after having assassinated the Sultan Touran Shah, (son and succesior of Saleh,) who had in vain attempted to disentangle himself of their chains, and recover the authority which ihsy had usurped over him. This revolution (1250) happened in the very presence of St. Louis, who, having been taken prisoner at the battle of Mansoura, had just concluded a truce of ten years with the Sultan of Egypt. The Mameluke Ibeg, who was at first appointed regent or Atabek, was soon after proclaimed Sul« Ian of Egypt. The dominion of the Mamelukes existed in Egypt for the L*; ~r k^^^u^amam "1 overeignties, istractions of Mussulman, ear Tiberias tained a total thout talents, s of the con- es to Saladin, erusalem sur- feat rekindled nost powerful r innumerable e talents and ailing ; and it ars, that they ere ; and thus 1 of the Chris- oiled by Chris e was divided ;s, and known Egypt, Syria, These princes heir territories 1 of the Mamc ich signifies a le Syrian mer- ) Egypt under ynasty. That ed them to be iritime cities oi highest offices n his own body le so numerous ie government. Shah, (son and 1 to disentangle rity which thsy lappcned in the ken prisoner at ice of ten years eg, who was at proclaimed Sul- Egypt for the j PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1463. 160 space of 263 years. Their numbers being constantly recruited by Turkish or Circassian slaves, they disposed of the throne of Egypt at their pleasure ; and the crown generally fell to the share of the most audacious of the gang, provided he was n na- tive of Turkistan. These Mamelukes had even the courage to attack the Moguls, and took from them the kingdoms of Damas- cus and Aleppo in Syria (1210,) of which the latter had dispos- sessed the Ayoubite princes. All the princes of this latter dynasty, with those of Syria and Yemen, adopted the expedient of submitting to the Mamelukes ; who, in order to become mas- ters of all Syria, had only to reduce the cities and territories which the Franks, or Christians of the West, still retained in their possession. They first attacked thepiincipality of Antioch, which they soon conquered (1268.) They next turned their anna against the county of Tripoli, the capital of which they took by assault (1289.) The city of Ptolemais shared the same fate ; after an obstinate and murderous siege, it was carried sword in hand. Tyre surrendered on capitulation ; and the Franks were entir-i expelled from Syria and the East in the year 1291. CHAPTER VI. PERIOD V. From Pope Boniface VIII. to the taking of ComtantinopU by the Turks, a. d. 1300—1463. At the commencement of this period, the Pontifical power WHS in the zenith of its grandeur. The Popes proudly assumed the title of Masters of the World ; and asserted that their author- ity, by divine right, comprehended every other, both spiritual and temporal. Boniface VIII. went even farther than his pre- decessors had done. According to him, the secular power was nothing else than a mere emanation from the ecclesiastical ; and this double power of the Pope was even made an article of belief, and founded on the sacred scriptures. " God has in- trusted," said he, " to St. Peter and his successors, two swords, the one spiritual, and the other temporal. The former can be exercised by the church alone ; the other, by the secular princes, for the service of the churuh, and in submission to the will of the Pope. This latter, that is, the temporal sword, is subordi- nate to the former ; and all temporal authority necessarily de- pends on the spiritual, which judges it ; whereas God alone can judge the spiritual power. Finally," added he. " it is absolutely t $i^-J ; « , 1 m 166 CHAPTER VI. ,! )-'■ indispensable to salvation, that every human creature be subject to the Pope of Rome." This same Pope published the first Jubilee (1300,) with plenary indulgence for all who should visit the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul at Rome. An immense crowd from all parts of Christendom flocked to this capital of the Western woild, and filled its treasury with their pious contributions.' The spiritual power of the Popes, and their jurisdiction over the clergy, was moreover increased every day, by means of dispemations and appeals, which had multiplied exceedingly since the introduction of the Decretals of Gregory IX. They disposed, in the most absolute manner, of the dignities and be- nefices of the Chuich, and imposed taxes at their pleasure oa all the clergy in Christendom. Collectors or treasurers were established by them, who superintended the levying of the dues they had found means to exact, under a multitude of dif- ferent denominations. These collectors were empowered, by means of ecclesiastical censure, to proceed against those who should refuse to pay. They were supported by the authority of the legates who resided in the ecclesiastical provinces, and seized with avidity every occasion to extend the usurpation of the Pope. Moreover, in support of these legates appeared a vast number of Religious and Mendicant Orders, founded in those ages of ignorance ; besides legions of monks dispersed over all th? states of Christendom. Nothing is more remarkable than the influence of the papal authority over the temporalities of princes. We find them in- terfering in all their quarrels — addressing their commands to all without distinction — enjoining some to lay down their arms — receiving others under their protection — rescinding and annulling their acts and proceedings — summoning them to their court, and acting as arbiters in their disputes. The history of the Popes is the history of all Europe. They assumed the privilege of legitimating the sons of kings, in order to qualify them for the succession ; they forbade sovereigns to tax the clergy ; they claimed a feudal superiority over all, and exer- cised it over a very great number ; they conferred royalty on those who were ambitious of power ; they released subjects from their oath of allegiance ; dethroned sovereigns at their pleasure ; and laid kingdoms and empires under interdict, to avenge their own quarrels. We find tl m disposing of the states of excommunicated princes, as well as those of heretics and their followers ; of islands and kingdoms newly discovered j of the property of infidels or schismatics ; and even of Catholics who refused to bow before the insolent tyranny of the Popes.* PERIOD V. A. D, 1300 — 1453. 167 e be subject ed the first should vibit in immense lis capital of their pious diction over >y means of exceedingly IX. They ties and be- pleasure on surers were ying of the tude of dif- powered, by It those who le authority jvinces, and surpation of appeared a founded in ka dispersed of the papal ind them in- jmmands to down their cinding and hem to their le history of assumed the T to qualify is to tax the 11, and exer- l royalty on sed subjects gns at their interdict, to osing of the ! of heretics ' discovered; of Catholics the Popes.* Thus, it is obvious that the Court of Rome, at the time of which we speak, enjoyed a conspicuous preponderance in the political system of Europe. But in the ordinary course of human af- fairs, this power, vast and formidable as it was, began, from the fourteenth century, gradually to diminish. The mightiest em- pires have their appointed term ; and the highest stage of their elevation is often the first step of their decline. Kings, be- coming more and more enlightened as to their true interests, learned to support the rights and the majesty of their crowns, against the encroachments of the Popes. Those who were vassals and tributaries of the Holy See, gradually shook off the yoke ; even the clergy, who groaned under the weight of this spiritual despotism, joined the secular princes in repressing these abuses, and restraining within proper bounds apower which was making incessant encroachments on their just prerogatives. Among the causes which operated the downfall of the Pon- tifical power, may be ranked the excess of the power itself, and the abuses of it made by the Popes. By issuing too often their anathemas and interdicts, they rendered them useless and contemptible ; and by their haughty treatment of the greatest princes, they learned to become inflexible and boundless in their own pretensions. An instance of this may be recorded, in the famous dispute which arose between Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair, King of France. Not content with constituting him- self judge between the King and his vassal the Count of Flan- ders, that PontifT maintained, that the King could not exact subsidie.'i from the clergy without nis permission ; and that the right of Regale (or the revenues of vacant bishoprics) which the Crown enjoyed, was an abuse which shoull not be tolera- ted.' He treated as a piece of insanity the prohibition of Philip against exporting either gold or silver out of the king- dom ; and sent an order to all the prelates in France to repair in person to Rome on the 1st of November, there to advite measures for correcting the King and reforming the State. He declared, formally, that the King was subject to the Pope, as Acll in temporal as spiritual matters ; and that it was a fool- ish persuasion to suppose that the King had no superior on oarth, and was not dependent on the supreme Pontiff. Philip ordered the papal bull which contained these ex- travagant assertions to be burnt , he forbade his ecclesiastics to leave the realm ; and having twice assembled the States-Ge- neral of the kingdom (1302 — 3,) he adopted, with their advice and approbation, measures against these dangerous pretensions of the Court of Rome. The Three Estates, who appeared for the first time in these Assemblies, declared themselves strongly ). !■ M*! m M it .a^ r m les CHAPTER VT. in favour of the King, and the independence of the crown. In consequence, the excommunication which the Pope had threat- ened against the King proved ineffectual. Philip made his appeal to a future assembly, to which the three orders of the State adhered.* The Emperor Louis of Bavaria, a prince of superior merit, having incurred tha censures of the Church for defending the rights and prerogatives of his crown, could not obtai*^ absolu- tion, notwithstanding the most humiliating condescensions, and the offer which he made to resign the Imperial dignity, and surrender himself, his crown and his property, to the discretion of the Pope. He was loaded with curses and anathemas, after a series of various proceedings which had been instituted against him. The bull of Pope Clement VI., on this occasion, far surpassed all these of his predecessors. " May God (said he, in speaking of the Emperor) smite him with madness and disease; may heiiven crush him with its thunderbolts; may the wrath of Ood, and that of St. Peter and St. Paul, fall on him in this world and the next ; may the whole universe com- bine against him ; may the earth swallow him up alive; may his name perish in the first generation, and his memory disap- pear from the earth ; may all the elements conspire against him ; may his children, delivered into the hands of his enemies, be massacred before the eyes of their father." The indignity of such proceedings roused the attention of the princes and states of the Empire ; and on the representation of the Electo- ral College, they thought proper to check these boundless pre- tensions of the Popes, by a decree which was passed at the Diet of Frankfort in 1338. This decree, regarded as the fundamen- tal law of the Empire, declared, in substance, that the Imperial dignity held only of God ; that he whom the Electors had chosen emperor by a plurality of suffrages, was, in virtue of that election, a true king and emperor, and needed heither confirma- tion nor coronation from the hands of the Pope ; and that all persons who should maintain the contrary, should be treated as guilty of high treason. Among other events prejudicial to the authority of the Popes, one was, the translation of the Pontifical See from Rome to Avignon. Clement V., archbishop of Bordeaux, h- ving been advanced to the papacy (1306,) instead of repairing to Rome, had his coronation celebrated at Lyons ; and thence he trans- ferred his residence to Avignon (1309,) out of complaisance to Philip the Fair, to whom he owed his elevation. The suc- cessors of this Pope continued their court at Avignon until lfW7. when Gregory XT nsrain mmoved the. See to Rome. „ij > i« i yii^ ii i H PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453. 169 e crown. In )e had threat- lip made his orders of the periur merit, lefending the tbtai*^ absolu- censions, and dignity, and the discretion ithemas, after en instituted this occasion, ly God (said madness and ;rbolts ; may Paul, fall on iniverse com- p alive; may lemory disap- ispire against f his enemies, rhe indignity > princes and if the Elect©- loundless pre- led at the Diet he fimdamen- l the Imperial Electors had 1 virtue of that :her confirma- ; and that all [ be treated as of the Popes, rom Rome to , h- ving been ing to Rome, nee he trans- complaisance n. The suc- ^vignon until k>e to Rome. This sojourn at Avignon tended to weaken the nuthority of the Popes, and diminish the respect and veneration which till then had been paid them. The prevailing opinion beyond the Alps, admitted no other city than that of Rome for the true capital of St. Peter ; und they despised i Popes of Avignon as aliens, who, besides, were there surrcunded with powerful princes, to whose caprice they were often obliged to yield, and to make condescensions prejudicial to the authority they had usurped* This circumstance, joined to the lapse of nearly seventy years, caused the residence at Avignon to be stigmatized by the Italians^ under the name of the Babylonish Captivity. It occasioned also the diminution of the papal authority at Rome, and in the Ec clesiastical States. The Italians, no longer restrained by the presence of the sovereign pontiffs, yielded but a reluctant obe- dience to their representatives ; while the remembrance of their ancient republicanism induced them to lend a docile ear to those who preached up insurrection and revolt. The historian Rienzi informs us, that one Nicolas Qabrini, a man of great eloquence, and whose audacity w is equal to his ambition, took advantage of these republican propensities of the Romans, to constitute himself master of the city, under the popular title of Tribune (1347.) He projected the scheme of a new government, called the Good Estate, which he pretended would obtain the accepta- tion of all the princes and republics of Italy ; but the despotic power which he exercised over the citizens, whose liberator and lawgiver he affected to be, soon reduced him to his original in- significance ; and the city of Rome again assumed its ancient form of government. Meantime the Popes did not recover their former authority ; most of the cities and states of the Ecclesi- astical dominions, afler having been long a prey to faction and discord, fell under the power of the nobles, who made an easy conquest of them ; scarcely leaving to the Pope a vestige of the sovereign authority. It required all the insidious policy of Alexander VI., and the vigilant activity of Julius II., to repair the injury which the territorial influence of the Pontiffs had suf- fered from their residence at Avignon. Another circumstance that contributed to humble the papal authority, was the schisms which rent the Church, towards the end of the fourteenth, and beginning of the fifteenth century. Gregory XL, who had abandoned Avignon for Rome, being dead (1378,) the Italians elected a Pope of their own nation, who took the name of Urban VI., and fixed his residence at Rome. The French cardinals, on the other hand, declared in favour of the Cardinal Robert of Geneva, known by the name of Clement VII., who fixed his capital at Avignon. The whole of Chris- .p:* i70 CHArTBR VI. tendom was divided between these two Popes; and this grand schism continaed from 1078 till 1-117. At Rome, Urban VI. was succeeded by Boniface IX., Innocent VII., and Gregory XII. ; while Clement VII. had Benedict XIII. for his successor at Avignon. In order to terminate this schism, every expedient was tried to induce the rival Popes to give in their abdication ; but both having refused, several of the Cardinals withdrew their allegiance, and assembled a council at Pisa (1409,) where the two refractory Popes were deposed, and the pontifical dignity conferred on Alexander V., who was afterwards succeeded by John XXIII. This election of the council only tended to in- crease the schism. Instead of two Popes, there arose three ; and if his Pisan Holiness gained partisans, the Popes of Rome and Avignon contrived also to maintain each a number uf sup- porters. All these Popes, wishing to maintain their rank and dignity with that splendour and magnificence which their pre- decessors had displayed before the schism, set themselves to invent new means of oppressing the people ; hence the immense number of abuses and exactions, which subverted the discipline of the church, and roused the exasperated nations against the court of Rome. A new General Council was convoked at Constance (1414) by order of the Emperor Sigismund ; and it was there that the maxim of the unity and permanency of Councils was established, as well as of its superiority over the Pope, in all that pertains to matters of faith, to the extirpation of schism, and the refor- mation of the church both in its supreme head, and in its subor- dinate members. The grand schism was here terminated by the abdication of the Roman pontiff, and the deposition of those of Pisa and Avignon. It was this famous council that gave their decision against John Huss, the Reformer of Bohemia, and a follower of the celebrated Wickliff His doctrines were condemned, and he himself burnt at Constance; as was Jerome of Prague, one of his most zealous partisans. As to the mea- sures that were taken at Constance for effecting the reformation of the Church, they practically ended in nothing. As their main object was to reform the court of Rome, by suppressing or limiting the new prerogatives which the Popes for . - veral centuries had usurped, and which referred, among other tilings, to the subject of benefices and pecuniary exactions, all those who had an interest in maintaining these abuses, instantly set themselves to defeat the proposed amendments, and elude re- dress. The Council had formed a committee, composed of the deputies of different nations, to advise means for accomplishing this reformation, which the whole world so ardently desired. nd this grand le, Urban VI. and Gregory his successor 'ery expedient ir abdication ; withdrew their 19,) where the tifical dignity succeeded by tended to in- arose three; opes of Rome Jinbei of sup- heir rank and ich their pre- themselves to J the immense the discipline IS against the stance (1414) there that the IS established, that pertains and the refor- i in its subor- terminated by sition of those cil that gave of Bohemia, loctrines were s was Jerome Ls to the inea- le reformation )g. As their ^ suppressing es for . ' veral : other tilings, ons, all those 1, instantly set and elude re- (n posed of the iccomplishing ;ntly desired. iStji^f I H • ■\ PERIOD V. A. D. 13( —1453. 171 This committee, known by the name of the College of Seformers. had already made considerable progress in their task, when a question was started, Whether it was proper to proceed to any reformation without the consent and co-operation of the visible Head of the Church ? It was carried in the negative, through the intrigues of the cardinals ; and, before they could accomplish this salutary work of reformation, the election of a new Pope had taken place (1417.) The choice fell on Otho de Colonna, who assumed the name of Martin V., and in conformity with a previous decision of the council, he then laid before them a scheme of reform. This proceeding having been disapproved l-y the different nations of Europe, the whole matter was remitted to the next council ; and in the meanwhile, they did nothing more than pass some concordats, with the new Pope, as to what steps they should take until the decision of the ap- proaching council. This new council, which was assembled at Basle (1431) by Martin V., resumed the suspended work of reformation. The former decrees, that a General Council was superior to the Pope, and could not be dissolved or prorogued except by their own free consent, were here renewed ; and the greater part of the reserves, reversions, annats, and other exactions of the Popes, were regularly abolished. The liberty of appeals to the Court of Rome, was also circumscribed. Eugenius IV., successor to Martin V., alarmed at the destruction thus aimed at his author- ity, twice proclaimed the dissolution of the Council. The first dissolution, which occurred on the 17th of December 1431, was revoked, at the urgent application of the Emperor Sigismund, by a bull of the same Pope, issued on the 15th of December 1433. In this he acknowledged the validity of the Council, and annulled all that he had formerly done to invalidate its au- thority. The second dissolution took place on the 1st of Octo- ber 1437. Eugenius then transferred the Council to Ferrara, and from Ferrara to Florence, on pretext of his negotiatiniT a union with the Greek church. This conduct of the Pope oc- casioned a new schism. The prelates who remained at B islf;, instituted a procedure against him ; they first suspended him for contumacy, and finally deposed him. Amadeus VIII., Ex- duke of Saxony, was elected in his place, under the name ol Felix v., and recognised by all the partisans of the Council as the legitimate Pope. This latter schism lasted ten years. Fe- lix V. at length gave in his demission ; and the Council, which had withdrawn from Basle to Lausanne, terminated its sittings in 1449. * The French nation adopted several of the decrees of the f';'. 1 I' flf I .•3^ » 172 CIIAPTBR VI. Council o( Basle in the famous Pragmatic Sanction, which Charles VII. caused to be drawn up at Bourges (1438;) nnd whose stipulations served as the basis of what is called the Liberties of the Galilean Church. The example of the French was speedily followed by the Germans, who acceded to these decrees, at the Diet of Mayence in 1439. The Court of Rome at length regained a part of those honourable and lucrative rights of which the Council of Basle had deprived them, by the con- cordats which the Germans concluded (1448) with Nicholas V.. and the French (1516) with Leo X. The Councils of which we have now spoken, tended materially to limit the exorbitant power of the Roman pontiffs, by giving sanction to the princi- ple which established the superiority of General Councils over the Popes. This maxim put a check to the enterprising ambi- tion of the Court of Rome ; and kings availed themselves of it to recover by degrees the prerogatives of their crowns. The Popes, moreover, sensible of their weakness, and of the need they had for the protection of the sovereigns, learned to treat them with more attention and respect. At length the new light which began to dawn about the four- teenth century, hastened on the progress of this revolution, by gradually dissipating the darkness of superstition into which the nations of Europe were almost universally sunk. In the midst of the distractions which agitated the Empire and the Church, and during the papal schism, several learned and in- trepid men made their appearance, who, while investigating the origin and abuse of the new power of the Popes, had the courage to revive the doctrine of the ancient canons, to enlighten the minds of sovereigns as to their true rights, and to examine with care into the justs limits of the sacerdotal authority. Among the first of these reformers was John of Paris, a famous Do- minican, who undertook the defence of Philip the Fair, King of France, against Pope Boniface VIII. His example was follow- ed bv the celebrated poet Dante Alighieri, who took the part of the Emperor Louis of Bavaria against the Court of Rome. Mar- silo de Padua, John de Janduno, William Ockam, Leopold de Babenberg, &c. marched in the track of the Italian poet ; and among the crowd of writers that signalized themselves after the grand schism, three French authors particularly distinguished themselves, Peter d'Ailly, Nicholas de Clemange, and John Gerson, whose writings met with general applause. Most of these literary productions, however, were characterized by bad taste The philosophy of Aristotle, studied in Arabic transla- tions, and disfigured by scholastic subtleties, reigned in all the Bchools, imposed its fetters on the human mind, and nearly ex- -1\ PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453. irj anction, which IS (1438;) nnd at is called the I of the French ceded to thetiQ Court of Rome lucrative rightR m, by the con- th Nicholas V., incils of which t the exorbitant n to the princi- I Councils over erprising ambi- hemselves of it crowns. The id of the need earned to treat about the four- 3 revolution, by ion into which sunk. In the Bmpire and the learned and in- nvestigatingthe lad the courage ) enlighten the examine with lority. Among , a famous Do- le Fair, King of iple was follow- took the part of of Rome. Mar- im, Leopold de alian poet; and tselves after the ly distinguished mge, and John ause. Most of icterized by bad Arabic transla- igned in all the , and nearly ex- tinguished every vestige of useful knowledge. The belles lei- ires were quite neglected, nnd as yet had shed no lustre on the sciences. Soinetiinss, however, genius broke with a transient splendour through the darkness of this moral horizon ; and several extraordinary persons, despising the vain cavils of the schools, began to study truth in the volume of nature, and to copy after the beautiful models of antiquity. Such was Roger Bacon (1294,) an Englishman, and a Franciscan friar, who has become so famous by his discoveries in chemistry and mechani- cal philosophy. Dante (1321,) nurtured in the spirit of the an- cients, was the first that undertook to refine the Italian language into poetry, and gave it the polish of elegance and grace in his compositions. He was succeeded by two other celebrated authors, Petrarca nnd Boccacio (1374-5.) The period of which we speak gave birth to several new in- ventions, which proved useful auxiliaries to men of genius, and tended to accelerate the progress of knowledge, letters, and arts. Among the principal of these may be mentioned the invention of writing paper, oil-painting, printing, gunpowder, and the ma- riner's compass; to the effects of which, Europe, in a great measure, owes its civilization, and the new order of things which appeared in the fifteenth century. Before the invention of paper from linen, parchment was gen- erally used in Europe for the transcribing of books, or the draw- ing out of publi", deeds. Cotton paper, which the Arabs brought from the East, was but a poor remedy for the scarceness and dearth of parchment. It would appear, that the invention of paper from linen, and the custom of using it in Europe, is not of older date than the thirteenth century. The famous M(mt- faucon acknowledges, that, in spite of all his researches, both in France and Italy, he could never find any manuscript or char- ter, written on our ordinary paper, older than the year 1270, the time when St. Louis died. The truth is, we know neither the exact date of the invention of this sort of paper, nor the name of the inventor.^ It is certain, however, that the manufacture of paper from cotton must have introduced that of paper from linen ; and the only question is, to determine at what time the use of linen became so common in Europe, as to lead us to sup- pose they might convert its rags into paper. The cultivation of hernp and flax being originally peculiar to the northern coun- tries, it is probable that the first attempts at making paper of linen rags were made in Germany, and the countries abounding in flax and hemp, rather than in the southern provinces of Eu- rope. The most ancient manufactory of paper from linen to be met with in Germany, was established at Nuremberg (1390.) ;end.s, printed in single folios, and published also in the form of books, or rather of im- pressions from engravings on solid blocks of wood, that the art of typography took its origin.** This wonderful art, to which Europe owes its astonishing progress in the sciences, consists of two distinct inventions, — that of the tnoveahle tijprs, and that of the font. The former belongs to John Gutenberg, a gentle- man of Muyence, who made his first attempt in moveable types at Strasburg, in 1436 ; the other, which is generally attributed to Peter Schoefferof Gernsheim, look place ut Muyence in 1452. Gutenberg resided at Strasburg, from 1424 till 1445. Being a noble senator of thot city, he married a lady of rank ; and during the twenty years of his residence there, lie cultivated all sort* of occult arts, especially that of printing. It was chiefly in re- ference to this latter art that he contracted an acquaintance with several of his wealthy fellow-citizens, one of whom, named Andrew Drizehn, having died, his heirs brought an action against Gutenberg on account of some claims which they laid to his charge. The magistrate ordered an inquiry to be instituted, the original copy of which, drawn up in 1439, was discovered by Schoepflin (1745) in the archives of the city, and is still preserv- ed in the public library at Strasburg. According to this au- thentic document, it appears, that from the year 1436, there existed a printing-press at Strasburg, under the direction of Gutenburg, And in the house of Andrew Drizehn, his associate ; that this press consisted of forms, that were fastened or locked by means of screws ; and that the types, either cut or engraved, which were enclosed within these forms, were moveable." Gutenburg, after his return to Mayence, still continued his typographical labours. While there, he contracted an acquaint- ance with a new associate in the exercise of his art (1445) — the famous John Faust, a citizen of Mayence. This second alliance continued only five years ; and it is within this interval, as is generally supposed, that the invention of the font, or casting of types, should be placed ; as well as that of the die and the mould or matrix, by the help of which the art of typography was brought nearly to its present state of perfection.'" Some disputes, which had arisen between these new associates, having dissolved their partnership, Faust obtained the press of Gutenberg, with all its printing apparatus, which had fallen to him by sequestration. Gutenberg, however fitted up another press, and continued to p.*l 176 CHAPTER VI. print lill the tiiur of hi;* di-at)), in 1 168. Not one of the boolu which ixKUL-d from thi- presi of thir* celebrated man, either at Sliasbiirj^ or Mayt'iife, bears ihu nnmc of the invrntor, or the (iutti of the irnprefiMivi ; whi:'li< t it wuh tlint Uuu'nborg made a B'-'ori't of hi.s invention, r ihui iIm.' prejudices m the cast to which he beh)nf{ed prevenlt. i i . Irotn ! ou>ting of his discovery. " Faust, on the contrary, ii'i mon^r » i>»- himself master of Quten- berg's pre^8t■.x, than ho he.un) ■ rrnibi itius of notoriety, o.i ex- ample ol which lie gave by pref, iig liis name and that of I'etei Schu'lli-r lo the famous INaller, which ihoy published in 1467. The arts of which \vu liiive just spoker., in all probability, suggested the idea of engraving un cooper, of which we can discover ccniiin traces towards the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury. The hxiiijur of this invention is generally ascribed to a goldsmith of I'lorence, named Maso Finiguerra, who is supposed lo liave made this discovery about the year 1460, while engrav- ing figures on silver }: ^'^.U CIHM/ICMK Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques ** i," h'i PERIOD V. A. D. 1300 — 1463. 177 vcntion of gunpowder. 3. The application of powder to fire- works. 4. Its employment as an agent or propelling power for throwing stones, bullets, or other heavy and combustible bodies. 5. Its employment in springing mines, and destroying fortifications. All these discoveries belong to difTerent epochs. The know ledge of saltpetre or nitre, and its explosive properties, called detonation, is very ancient. Most probably it was brought to us from the East (India or China,) where saltpetre is found in a natural state of preparation. It is not less probable that the nations of the East were acquainted with the composition of gunpowder before the Europeans, and that it was the Arabs who first introduced the use of it into Europe. The celebrated Roger Bacon, an English monk or friar of the thirteenth century, was acquainted with the composition of powder, and its employment in fiife-works and public festivities ; and according to all appear- ances, he ob^xied this information from the Arabic authors, who excelledm their skill of the chemical sciences. The em- ployment of gunpowder in Europe as an agent for throwing balls and stones, is ascertained to have been about the commencement of the fourteenth century ; and it was the Arabs who first avail- ed themselves of its advantages in their wars against the Span- iards. From Spain the use of gunpowder and artillery passed to France, and thence it gradually extended over the other States of Europe. As to the application of powder to mines, and the destruction of fortified works, it does not appear to have been in practice before the end of the fifleenth cen- lury.'' The introduction of bombs and mortars seems to have been of an earlier date (1467.) The invention of these in Europe, is attributed to Sigismund Randolph Malatssta, Prince of Rimini ; but in France they were not in use till about the reign of Louis XIII. Muskets and matchlocks began to be in- troduced early in the fifteenth century. They were without spring-locks till 1517, when for the first time muskets and pis- tols with spring-locks were manufactured at Nuremberg. Several circumstances tended to check the pr(^ress of fire- arms and the improvement of artillery. Custom made most people prefer their ancient engines of war ; the construction of cannons was but imperfect ;" the manufacture of gunpowder bad ; and there was a very general aversion to the newly in- vented arms, as contrary to humanity, and calculated to extin- guish military bravery. Above all, the knights, whose science was rendered completely useless by the introduction of fire- arms, set themselves with all their might to oppose this invention. From what we hove just said it is obvious, that the common i.\' I i!|v"^'.) ^if.\i |i;t<, ' !r fi'J'^; r' r.r !^*i; !. f lii w 178 CHAPTER VL tradition which ascribes the invention of gunpowder to a certain monk, named Berthold Schwartz, merits no credit whatever. This tradition is founded on mere hearsay ; and no writers agree as to the name, the country, or the circumstances of this pretended inventor ; nor as to the time and place when he made this extraordinary discovery. Lastly, the mariner's compass, 80 essential to the art of navigation, was likewise the produc- tion of the barbarous ages to which we now refer. The ancients were aware of the property of the magnet to attract iron ; but its direction towards the pole, and the manner of communica- ting its magnetic virtues to iron and steel, were unknown even to all those nations of antiquity who were renowned for their navigation and commerce. This discovery is usually attributed to a citizen of Amalfi, named Flavio Gioia, who is said to have lived about the beginning of the fourteenth century. This tra dition, ancient though it be, cannot be admitted, because we have incontestable evidence that, before this period, the polarity of the loadstone and the magnetic needle were known in Europe ; and that, from the commencement of the thirteenth century, the Proven9al mariners made use of the compass in navigation. " It must be confessed, however, that we can neither point out the original author of this valuable discovery, nor the true time when it was made. All that can be well ascertained is, that the mariner's compass was rectified by degrees ; and that the English had no small share in these corrections. It is to this polar virtue or quality of the loadstone, and the magnetic needle, that we owe the astonishing progress of commerce and navigation in Europe, from the end of the fifteenth century. These were already very considerable at the time of which we speak, although navigation was as yet confined to the Mediter- ranean, the Baltic, and the shores of the Indian ocean. The cities of Italy, the Hanseatic towns, and those of the Low Countries, engrossed, at that time, the principal commerce of Europe. The Venetians, the Genoese, and the Florentines, were masters of the Levant. The Genoese had more espe- cially the command of the Black Sea, while the Venetians laid claim exclusively to the commerce of India and the East, which they carried on through the ports of Egypt and Syria. This rivalry in trade embroiled these two republics in frequent dis- putes, and involved them in long and sanguinary wars. The result turned in favour of the Venetians, who found means to maintain the empire of the Mediterranean against the Genoese. The manufactories of silk, after having passed from Grtece into Sicily, and from Sicily into the other parts of Italy, »t length fixed their principal residence at Venice. This city ■i ~ PEBIOD V. A. D, 1300 1463. 179 T to a certain it whatever, d no writers inces of this hen he made r's compass, I the produc- The ancients ict iron ; but communira- iknown even led for their Uy attributed said to have jr. This tra because we 1, the polarity 'n in Europe; 1 century, the navigation. " her point out the true time lined is, that and that the It is to this the magnetic ommerce and »nth century, of which we the Mediter- :ean. those of the pal commerce e Florentines, d more espe- /^enetians laid e East, which Syria. This frequent dis- y wars. The ind means to t the Genoese. from Grtece ts of Italy, at e. This city came at length to furnish the greater part of Europe with silk mercery, and the productions of Arabia and India. The Italian merchants, commonly known by the name of Lombards, ex- tended their traffic through all the different states of Europe. Favoured by the privileges and immunities which various sovereigns had granted them, they soon became masters of the commerce and the current money of every country where they established themselves ; and, in all probability, they were the first that adopted the practice of Letters or Bills of Exchange, of which we may discover traces towards the middle of the thirteenth century. The Hanseatic League, which the maritime cities on the Baltic had formed in the thirteenth century, for the protection of their commerce against pirates and brigands, gained very considerable accessions of strength in the following century, and even became a very formidable maritime power. A great number of the commercial cities of the Empire, from the Scheld and the isles of Zealand, to the confines of Livonia, entered successively into this League ; and many towns in the interior, in order to enjoy their protection, solkited the favour of being admitted under its flag. The first public act of a general con- federation among these cities, was drawn up at the assembly of their deputies, held at Cologne, in 1364. The whole of the allied towns were subdivided into quarters or circles; the most ancient of which were the Venedian quarter, containing the southern and eastern coasts of the Baltic ; the Westphalian, for the towns on the western side ; and the Saxon, compre- hending the inland and intermediate towns. A fourth circle or iuarter was afterwards added, that of the cities of Prussia and livonia. The boundaries of these different circles and their capital towns varied from time to time. The general assern- blies of the League were held regularly every three years, in the city of Lubec, which was considered as the capital of the whole League ; while each of the three or four circles had also their particular or provincial assemblies. The most flourishing epoch of this League was about the end of the fourteenth and the early part of the fifteenth cen- tury. At that time, the deputies of more than fourscore cities appeared at its assemblies ; and even some towns who had not the privilege of sending deputies were, nevertheless, regarded as allies of the League. Having the command of the whole commerce of the Baltic, their cities exercised at their pleasure the rights of peace and war, and even of forming alliances. They equipped numerous and powerful fleets, and oflfered bat- tle to the sovereigns of the North, whenever they presumed to wm h fu t' It. ^ ' 1 ^ ' hi' * 1 IK .' 190 ■■ ' CIIAITKR VI. interfere with their monopoly, or to restrict the privileges and exemptions which they had the weakness to grant them. The productions of the North, such as hemp, flax, timber, potash, tar, corn, hides, furs, and copper, with the produce of the large and small fisheries on the coast of Schonen, Norway, Lapland, and Iceland,'* formed the staple of the Hanseatic commerce. They exchanged these commodities, in the west- ern parts of Europe, for wines, fruits, drugs, and all sorts of cloths, which they carried back to the North in return. Their principal factories and warehouses, were at Bruges for Flan- ders, at London for England, at Novogorod for Russia, and at Bergen for Norway. The merchandise of Italy and the East was imported into "Flanders, in Genoese or Venetian bottoms, which, at that time, carried on most of the commerce of the Levant and the Mediterranean. Extensive as the trade of the Hanseatic cities was, it proved neither solid nor durable. As they were themselves deficient in the articles of raw materials and large manufactories, and entirely dependent on foreign traflSc, the industry of other na- tions, especially of thos<^ skilled in the arts, had a ruinous efTect on their commerce ; and, in course of time, turned the current of merchandise into other channels. Besides, the want of union among these cities, their factions and intestine divisions, and their distance from each other, prevented them from ever forming a territorial or colonial power, or obtaining possession of the Sound, which alone was able to secure them the exclu- sive commerce of the Baltic. The sovereigns of Europe, per- ceiving at length more clearly their true interests, and sensible of the'mistake they had committed in surrendering the whole commerce of their kingdom to the Hanseatic merchants, used every means to limit and abridge their privileges more arid more. This, in consequence, involved the confederate towns in several destructive wars with the Kings of the North, which exhausted their finances, and induced one city after another to abandon the League. The English and the Dutch, encouraged by the Danish Kings, took advantage of this favourable oppor- tunity to send their vessels to the Baltic ; and bv degrees they appropriated to themselves the greater pnrt of the trade that had been engros-ed by the Hanseatic Union. But what is of more importance to r'^mark, is, that this League, as well as that of Lombardy, having been formed in consequence of the state of anarchy into which the Empire had fallen in the middle ages, th: natural result was, that it should lose its credit and its influence in proportion as the feudal anarchy declined, and when the administration of the Empire had assumed a new form, and ivileges and ihem. The iber, potash, iuce of the en, Norway, e Hansealic in the west- i all sorts of urn. Their Bs for Flan- ussia, and at ind the East tian bottoms, lerce of the kras, it proved Ives deficient actories, and of other na- ruinous effect i the current the want of ine divisions. Bin from ever ig possession m the exclu- Europe, per- I and sensible ng the whole rchants, used res more and srate towns in North, which er another to h, encouraged urable oppor- degrees they the trade that ut what is of IS well as that e of the state in the middle credit and its led, and when lew form, und PBHIOD V. A. D. 1300—1463. 181 the landed nobility, emboldened by the accessions which the sovonteenth century had made to their power, had found means to compel their dependent cities to return to their allegiance, after having made repeated efforts to throw off their authority, encnurnged as they were by the protection which the League held out to them. In thia manner did the famous Hanseatic League, so formi- dable at the time of which we now speak, decline by degrees during the course of the seventeenth century, and in the early part of the eighteenth ; and during the Thirty Years War it be- came entirely extinct. The cities of Lubec, Hamburg and Bre- men, abandoned by all their confederates, entered into a new union for the interests of their commerce, and preserved the an- cient custom of treating in common with foreign powers, under the name of the Hanse Towns. The cities of Italy and the North were not the only one; merce, wan which was or 1400) by rvliet, near sea opened ccident for tpolized the ! frequented he Imperial the princes 1438, when ity. It was 'ernment of i uncertain, and settled et of Frank- ipire against at Rensd by •al Union of le Emperor Metz, fixed md the cere- !ction should seven Elec- bappen to be revent those ited factions evocably the Electorates. for this end rder of suc- same father. ly the rights I electors of nment of the the reforma- 98 of the em- [>ted several in presence I of France, Ited decrees. PERIOD V. A. D. 1300 — 1453. 183 which were not afterwards altered, we observe those which establiiih the superiority of councils above the Popes, which prohibited those appeals called omisso medio, or immediate, and enjoined the Pope to settle all appeals referred to his court, by commi:isioncr.j appointed by him upon the spot. Two concor- dats, concluded at Rome and Vienna (1447-48,) between the Papul court and the German nation, confirmed these stipulations. The latter of these concordats, however, restored to the Pope several of the reserves, of which the Pragmatic Sanction had deprived him. He was also allowed to retain the right of con- firming the prelates, and enjoying the annats and the alternate months. The ties which united the numerous states of the German empire having been relaxed by the introduction of hereditary feudalism, and the downfall of Imperial authority, the conse- quence was, that those states, which were more remote from uie seat of authority, by degrees asserted their independence, or were reduced to subjection by their more powerful neighbours, [t was in this manner that several provinces of the ancient kingdom of Burgundy, or Aries, passed in succession to the crown of France. Philip the Fair, taking advantage of the dis- putes which had arisen between the Archbishop and the citizens of Lyons, obliged the Archbishop, Peter de Savoy, to surrender to him by treaty (1312) the sovereignty of the'City and its de- pendencies. The same kingdom acquired the province of Dau- fihiny, in virtue of the grant which the last Dauphin, Humbert I., made (1349) of his estates to Charles, grandson of Philip de Valois, and first Dauphin of France. Provence was likewise added (1481) to the dominions of that crown, by the testament of Charles, last Count of Provence, of the House of Anjou. As to the city of Avignon, it was sold (1348) by Joan I., Queen of Naples, and Countess of Provence, to Pope Clement VI., who at the same time obtained letters-patent from the Emperor Charles IV., renouncing the claims of the Empire to 'he sove- reignty of that city, as well as to all lands belonging to - '■: Ohurch. A most important revolution happened about t,.<£ time in Switzerland. That country, formerly dependent upon i \e king- dom of Burgundy, had become an immediate province of the Empire (1218,) on the ex'jnction of the Dukes of Zahringen, who had governed it unuer the title of Regents. About the beginning of the fourteenth century, Switzerland was divided into a number of petty states, both secular and ecclesiastical. Among these we find the Bishop of Basle, the Abb^ of St. Gall, the Counts of Hapsburg, Toggenbur^, Savoy, Gruyeres, Neuf- chatel, Werdenberg, Bucheck, Sec. The towns of Zurich, So> ^■^ ,1 i- . \ •* i:\ iill' i.. 184 OHAPTBH VI. Icure, Basle, Berne, and others, had the rank of free and imperial cities. A part of the inhabitants of Uri, Schweitz, and Under- walden, who held immediately of the Empire, were governed by their own magistrates, under the title of Cantons. They were placed by the Emperor under the jurisdiction of governors, who exercisedf, in his name and that of the Empire, the power of the sword in all these cantons. Such was the constitution of Switzerland, when the Emperor Albert I. of Austria, son of Rodolph of Hapsburg, conceived the project of extending his dominion in that country, where he already had considerable possessions, in his capacity of Count of Hapsburg, Kyburg, Baden, and Lentzburg. Being desirous of forming Switzerland into a principality, in favour of one of his sons, he made, in course of time, several new ac 1 hs. |d imperia) (1 Under- governed They ■overnora, ^he power institution ria, son of mding his nsidcrable , Kyburg, witzerland ! made, in r, with the bach, £in- cerne, sold Schweitz, gainst the erwalden ; )€riority of mors exer- ^me of the intrepid in- r Schweitz, derwaldon, tyranny of or this pur- governors, nished the e deputies igue of ten privileges; also those al. Thus St Austria, jreignty of tes gained ! canton of . Brunnen ly oath, the dgenosten, lenceforth e not long r cantons, [iapsburg, PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1463. ISA joined the Lcu'^mic of Brunnen in 1333, Zurich in 1361, Glarin and Zug 135.'], and Berne in \365. The^se formed the ei^Ui ancient cantons. The Kuuutiiin of the confederates, however, could not fail to be very embarrnssincf, so long as the Austrians roiuined the vast possessions which they hud in the very centre of Switzerland. The proscription which the Einperor Sipismund and the Coun- cil of Constance, issued against Frederic, Duke of Austria (1415,) as an adherent and protector of John XXIII., at length fur* nished the Swiss with a favourable occasion for depriving the house of Austria of their possessions. The Bernese were the first to set the example ; they took from the Austrian Dukes, the towns of ZofHngen, Aran, and Bruck, with the counties of Hapsburg and Lentzburg, and the greater partofAargovia. Ky« burg fell into the hands of the Zurichers ; the Lucernese made themselves masters of Surs<::e ; and the free bniliA'icks, with the county of Baden, the towns of Mellingen and Bremgarten, were subdued by the combined forces of the ancient cantons, who. since then, have possessed them in common. In the kingdom of Lorraine a new power rose about this time (1363,) that of the Dukes of Burgundy. Philip the Hardy, younger son of John the Good, King of France, having been created Duke of Burgundy by the King his father, married Margaret, daughter and heiress of Louis III., last Count of Flanders. By this marriage he obtained Flanders, Artois, Franche-Comtd, Nevers, Rethel, Malines, and Antwerp, and transmitted these estates to his son John the Fearless, and his grandson Philip the Good. This latter prince increased them still more by several new acquisitions. Thi fpfi -'iirpnk Its CHAPTKR VI. Dukes and Kingfs of Bohemia became extinct with Wenceulaiw v., who wos assasuinated in 1300. The Emperor Henry VII., of the house of Luxembourg, seized this opportunity of trani- ferrin^ to his own family the iiiVT*iiiiriWT-il>Lr[iwiiiieaiiS>wia, an altio Pragmaiicis 'ith the Huh- eslaus, Kinjr Huss, and successor of heir, whom This war, lernnce and es of years, chief of the mies of cm- and it wax n, that Si- ■establishing e same time vo principal e Dukes of ered into at n of the two «n to fail of xony of the e Emperor aims of the rate (1423,) irliice, Mar- ance in the grandsons, '0 principal lectorate of ived, in the g. Albert, mitted this is descend- Dul the be- PBRIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453. 187 Enning of the fourteenth century. The Emperor Louis of nvaria then bestowed it on his eldest son Louis (1324,) to lh« exclusion of the coilatornl branches of Suxony and Anhalt. The Bavarian Princes, howeve;, did not long preserve this Electo« rate; they surrendered ii (1373) to the Emperor Charles IV., whose son Sigismund cided it to Frederic, Burgrave of Nu- remberg, of the House of Hohenzollern, who had advanced him considerable sums to defray his expeditions into Hungary. Thia Prince was solemnly invested with the electoral dignity by x\w Emperor, at the Council of Constance (1417,) and became the ancestor of all the Electors ond Margraves of Brandenburg, as well as of the Kings of Prussia. The numerous republics which had sprung up in Italy, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were torn to pieces by contend- ing factions, and a prey to mutual and incessant hostilities. What contributed to augment the trouble and confusion in thai unhappy country was, that, during a long series of years, no Emperor had repaired thither in person, or made the smallest attempt to restore the Imperial authority in those states. The feeble efforts of Henry VII., Louis of Bavaria, and Charles IV., only served to prove, that in Italy the royal prerogative was without vigour or effect. Anarchy every where prevailed ; and that spirit of liberty and republicanism which had once anima- ted the Italians gradually disappeared. Disgusted at length with privileges which had become so fatal to them, some of these republics adopted the plan of choosing new masters ; while others were subjected, against their inclinations, by the more powerful of the nobles. The Marquises of Este seized Modena and Reggio (1330.) and obtained the ducal dignity (1452) from the Emperor Frederic III. Mantua fell to the house of Gonza- ga, who possessed that sovereignty first under the title of Mar- graves, and afterwards under that of Pu^es, which was confer- red on them by the Emperor Charles /. n 1530. But the greater part of these Italian republics fell *j the share of the Visconti of Milan. The person who founded the prosperity of their house was Matthew Visconti, nephew of Otho Visconti, Archbishop of Milan. Invested with the titles of Captain and Imperial Viceroy in Lombardy, he continued to make himself acknowledged as sovereign of Milan (1315,) and conquered in succession all the principal towns and republics of Lombardy. His successors followed his example : they enlarged their terri- tories by several new conquests, till at length John Galeas, great grandson of Matthew Visconti, obtained, from the Emperor Wen- ceslaus (1395,) for a sum of a hundred thousand florins of gold which he paid him, the title of Duke of Milan for himself and ||# 1 mi ii il ill igg »' CHVIPTER VI. all his descendants. The Visconti family reigned at Milan till 1447, when they were replaced by that of Sforza. Among the republics of Italy who escaped the catastrophe of the fourteenth century, the most conspicuous were those of Florence, Genoa and Venice. The city of Florence, like all the others in Tuscany, formed itself into a republic about the end of the twelfth century. Its government underwent sequent changes, after the introduction of a democracy about the middle of the thirteenth century. The various factions which had agi- tated the republic, induced the Florentines to elect a magistrate (1292,) called Gonfdoniere de Justice, or Captain of Justice ; invested with power to assemble the inhabitants under his stand- ard, whenever the means for conciliation were insufficient to snppress faction and restore peace. These internal agitations, however, did not prevent the Florentines from enriching them- selves by means of their commerce and manufactures. They succeeded, in course of time, in subjecting the greater part of the free cities of Tuscany, and especially that of Pisa, which thev conquered in 1406. The republic of Lucca was the only one' that maintained its independence, in spite of all the eflorts which the Florentines made to subdue it. The republican form of government continued in Florence till the year 1530, when the family of the Medici usurped the sovereignty, under the protection of the Emperor Charles V. • • • The same rivalry which had set the Genoese to quarrel with the Pisans, excited their jealousy against the Venetians. The interests of these two Republics thwarted each other, both in the Levant and the Mediterranean. This gave rise to a long and disastrous series of wars, the last and most memorable ol which was that of Chioggia (1376-82.) The Genoese, after a signal victory which they obtained over the Venetians, before Pola in the Adriatic Gulf, penetrated to the very midst of the lagoons of Venice, and attacked the port of Chioggia. Peter Dona made himself master of this port; he would have even surprised Ve- nice, had he taken advantage of the first consternation of the Venetians, who were already deliberating whether they sh^ld abandon their city and take refuge in the isle of Candia. 1 he tardiness of the Genoese admiral gave them time to recover themselves. Impelled by a noble despair, they made extraordi- nary efforts to equip a new fleet, with which they attacked the Genoese near Chioggia. This place was retaken (24th June 1390.) and the severe check which the Genoese there received, may be said to have decided the command of the sea in favour of th» Venetians. But what contributed still more to the down- fall of the Genoese, was the instability of their government, and r T' ■ 'f ■ at Milan till atnstrophe of ere those of nee, like all ic about the vent frequent it the middle hich had agi- a magistrate n of Justice; der his stand- nsufficient to lal agitations, riching them- tures. They reater part of ■ Pisa, which was the only all the eflbrts publican form ir 1530, when ity, under the 3 quarrel with letians. The er, both in the to a long and •able of which after a signal >efore Pola in f the lagoons er Doria made surprised Ve- nation of the r they should Candia. The ime to recover lade extraordi- f attacked the ;n (24th June ;here received, ! sea in favour e to the down- vernment, and 1 1 PERIOD y. A. D. 1300—1453. 199 the internal commotions of the republic. Agitated by continual divisions between the nobles and the common citizens, and in- capable of managing their own affairs, they at length surrender- ed themselves to the power of strangers. Volatile and incon- stant, and equally impatient of liberty as of servitude, these fickle republicans underwent a frequent change of masters Twice (1396-1458) they put themselves under the proteciion of the Kings of France. At length they diitcarded the French, and chose for their protector either the Marquis of Montftrrat or the Duke of Milan. Finally, from the year 1464, the city of Genoa was constantly regarded as a dependency of the dutchy of Milan, until 1528, when it recovered once more its ancient state of independence. While the Republic of Genoa was gradually declining, that of Venice was every day acquiring new accessions of power. The numerous establishments which they had formed in the Adriatic Gulf and the Eastern Seas, together with the additional vigour which they derived from the introduction of the heredi- tary aristocracy, were highly advantageous to the progress of their commerce and marine. The treaty which they concluded with the Sultan of Egypt (1343,) by guaranteeing to their re- public an entire liberty of commerce in the ports of Syria and Egypt, as also the privilege of having consuls at Alexandria and Damascus, put it in their power gradually to appropriate to themselves the whole trade of India, and to maintain it against the Genoese, who had disputed with them the commerce of the East, as well as the command of the sea. These successes en- couraged the Venetians to make new acquisitions ; the turbu- lent state of Lombardy having afforded them an opportunity of enlarging their dominions on the continent of Italy, where at first they had possessed only the single dogeship of Venice, and the small province of Istria. They seized on Treviso, and the whole Trevisan March (1388,) which they took from the pow- erful house of Carrara. In 1420 they again got possession of Dalmatia, which they conquered from Sigismund, King of Hun- gary. This conquest paved the way for that of Friuli, which they took about the same time from the Patriarch of Aquileia, an ally of the King of Hungary. At length, by a succession of good fortune, they detached from the dutchy of Milan (1404) the cities and territories of Vicenza, Belluno, Verona, Padua, Brescia, Bergamo, and Cremona (1454,) and thus formed a con- siderable estate on the mainland. Naples, during the course of this period, was go rned by a descendant of Charles, of the first House of Anjou, and younger brother of St. Louis. Queen Joan I., daughter of Robert, King ' t •1(1 ili.4. »:ii:. W H J \ I f? r ttio CHAPTER VI. of Naples, having no children of her own, adoptea a younger prince of the Angevine family, Charles of Dnrazzo, whom she destined as her successor, after having given him her niece in marriage. This ungrateful prince, in his eagerness to possess the crown, took arms against the Queen his benefactress, and compelled her to solicit the aid of foreign powers. It was on this occasion that Joan, after rescinding and annulling her former deed of adoption, made another in favour of Louis I., younger brother of Charles V., King of France, and founder of the second House of Anjou. But the succours of that prince cume too late to save the Queen from the hands of her cruel enemy. Charles having made himself master of Naples and of the Queen's per- son (1382,) immediately put her to death, and maintained him- self on the throne, in spite of his adversary Louis of Anjou, who obtained nothing more of the Queen's estates than the single county of Provence, which he transmitted to his descendants, together with his claim on the kingdom of Naples. Joan IL, daughter and heiress of Charles of Durazzo, having been at- tacked by Louis HL of Anjou, who wished to enforce the rights of adoption which had descended to him from his grandfather Louis I,, she implored the protection of Alphonso V., King of Arragon, whom she adopted and declared her heir (14il ;) but afterwards, having quarrelled with that prince, she changed her resolution, and passed a new act of adoption (1423) in favour of that same Louis of Anjou who had just made war against her Ren^ of Anjou, the brother and successor of that prince, took possession of the kingdom of Naples on the death of Joan IL (14.35;) but he was expelled by the King of Arragon (1446,) who had procured from Pope Eugenius IV. the investiture of that kingdom, which he transmitted to his natural son Ferdi- nand, descended from a particular branch of the Kings of Na- ples. The rights of the second race of Angevine princes, were transferred to the Kings of France, along with the county ot Provence (1481.) Spain, which was divided into a variety of sovereignties both Christian and Mahometan, presented at this time a kind of sepa- rate or distinct continent, whose interests had almost nothing in common with the rest of Europe. The Kings of Natrarre, Cas- tille, and Arragon, disagreeing among themselves, and occupied with the internal affairs of their own kingdoms, had but little leisure to attempt or accomplish any foreign enterprise. Of all the Kings of Castille at this period, the most famous, in the wars against the Moors, was Alphonso XI. The Mahometan kings of Morocco and Grenada having united their forces, laid siege to the city of Tarifia in Andalusia, where Alphonso, as- M a younger whom she her niece in s to possess actress, and t was on this her former I., younger of the second :ume too late my. Charles Queen's per- ntained him- r Anjou, who in the single descendants, Joan ir., ing been at- ce the rights i grandfather v., King of {14il;) but changed her I in favour of against her prince, took of Joan II. igon (1446,) ivestiture of I I son Ferdi- j ^ings of Na- j »rinces, were e county of 'ignties both Eind of sepa- t nothing in airarre, Cas- nd occupied id but little ise. Of ail lous, in the Mahometan forces, laid IphoDSO, U' PERIOD V. A. V. 1300—1453. 1»1 sisted by the King of Portugal, ventured to attack them in the neighbourhood of that place. He gained a complete victory over the Moors (1340 ;) and triis was followed by the conquest of various other cities and districts ; among others, Alcala-Real. and Algesiras. While the Kings of Castille were extending their conquests in the interior of Spain, those of Arragon, hemmed in by the Cnstillians, were obliged to look for aggrandizement abroad. They possessed the country of Barcelona or Catalonia, in virtue of the marriage of Count Raymond Berenger IV. with Donna Petronilla, heiress of the kingdom of Arragon. To this they added the county of Rousillon, and the seignory or lordship of Monlpelier, both of which, as well as Catalonia, belonged to the sovereignty of France. Don James I., who conquered the king- dom of Valencia and the Balearic Isles, gave these, with Rou- sillon and Montpelier, to Don James his younger son, and from whom were descended the Kings of Majorca, the last of whom, Don James III., sold Montpelier to Fraiice (1349.) Don Pedro III., King of Arragon, and eldest son of Don James I., took Sicily, as we have already seen, from Charles I. of Anjou. Ferdinand II., a younger son of Don Pedro, formed a separate branch of the kings of Sicily, on the extinction of which (1409,) that kingdom reverted to the crown of Arnigon. Sardinia was incorporated with the kingdom of Arragon by Don James II., who had conquered it from the Pisans. Finally, Alphonso V., King of Arragon, having deprived the Angevines of the king- dom of Naples, established a distinct line of Neapolitan kings. This kingdom was at length united with the monarchy of Arra- gon by Ferdinand the Catholic. In Portugal, the legitimate line of kings, descendants of Henry of Burgtindy, hud failed in Don Ferdinand, son and suc- cessor of Don Pedro III. This prince had an only daughter named Beatrix, born in criminal intercourse with Eleanora Tellez de Meneses, whom he had taken from her lawful hus- band. Being desirous to make this princess his successor, he married her, at the age of eleven, to John I., King of Castille : securing the throne to the son who should be born of this union, and failing hirn, to the King of Castille, his son-in-law. Fer- dmand dying soon after this marriage, Don Juan, his natural brother, and grand-master of the order of Aviez, knowing the aversion of the Portuguese lor the Castillian sway, turned this to his own advantage, by seizing the regency, of which he had deprived the Queen-dowager. The King of Castille imme- diately laid siege to Lisbon ; but having miscarried in this en- terprise, the States of Portugal assembled at Coimbra, and !' ii.i'* (1|! I* it W 1,1 ■• .1 m ij :i*'i -I'M igS i '«> ; CHAFTEB VI. .!ff» ( conferred the crown on Don Juan, known in history by the nnine of John the Bastard. This prince, aided with troops from England, engaged the Cnstillians and their allies the French, at the famous battle fought on the plains of Aljulmrota {14th August 13S5.) The Portuguese remained masters of the field, and John the Bastard succeeded in maintaining himself on ihe throne of Portugal. The war, however, continued several years between the Portuguese and the Castillians, and did not terminate till 1411. By the peace which was then concluded, Henry III., son of John I., King of Castille, agreed never lo urge the claiuis of Queen Beatrix, his mother-in-law, who had no children. John the Bastard founded a new dynasty of kings, who occupied the throne of Portugal from 1386 to 1580. In France, the direct line of kings, descendants of Hugh Capet, having become extinct in the sons of Philip the Fair, the crown passed to the collateral branch of Valois (1328,) which furnished a series of thirteen kings, during a period ol two hundred and sixty-one years. The rivalry between France and England, which had sprung up during the preceding period, assumed a more hostile charac- ter on the accession of the family of Valois. Till then, the quarrels of the two nations had been limited to some particular territory, or province ; but now they disputed even the succes- sion to the throne ofFrance, which the kings of England claimed as their right. Edward III., by his mother, Isabella of Franco, was nephew to Charles IV., the last of the Capetian kings in a direct line. He claimed the succession in opposition to Philip VI., surnamed de Valois, who being cousin-german to Charles, was one degree more remote than the King of England. The claim of Edward was opposed by the Salic law, which excluded females from the succession to the throne ; but, according to the interpretation of that prince, the law admitted his right, and must be understood as refening to females personally, who were excluded on account of the weakness of their sex, and not to their male descendants. Granting that his mother, Isa- bella, could not herself aspire to the crown, he maintained that she gave him the right of proximity, which qualified him for the succession. The States of France, however, having de- cided in favour of Philip, the King of England did fealty and homage to that prince for the dutchy of Guienne ; but he laid ' no claim to the crown until 1337, when he assumed the title ! and arms of the King of France. The war which began in 1338, was renewed during several reigns, for the space of a I hundred years, and ended with the entire expulsion of the Eng : lish from France. ' i g i i ihS»* story by thf h troops from s the French, iharota (14tb •s of the field, imself on ihe nued several , and did not ;n concluded, ■eed never lo law, who had asty of kin^s, ol5S0. mts of Hugh ilip the Fair, Galois (1328.) ^ a period ol ch had sprung loslile charac- Till then, the )me particular en the succes- igland claimed ilia of Franco, tian kings in a tion to Philip an to Charles, ngland. The rhich excluded xording to the his right, and •rsonally, who their sex, and is mother, Isa- laintained that ilified him foi ;r, having de- did fealty and e ; but he laid umed the title hich began in the space of 8 ion of the Eng- rBRioD V. A. D. 1300 — 1453. 193 Nothing could be more wretched than the situation of this kingdom during the reign of Charles VI That prince having follen into a slate of insanity in the flower of his age, two par- ties, those of Burgundy and Orleans, who had disputed with each other akut the regency, divided the Court into factions, and kindled the flames of civil war in the four corners of the kingdom. John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, and uncle to the king, caused Louis, Duke of Orleans, the King's own brother, to be assassinated at Paris (1407.) He himself was assassinated in his turn (1419) on the bridge of Montereau, in the very presence of the Dauphin, who was afterwards king, under the name of Charles VII. These dissensions gave the English an opportunity for renewing the war. Henry the V. of England gained the famous battle of Agincourt, which was followed by the conquest of all Normandy. Isabella of Ba- varia then abandoned the faction of Orleans, and the party of her son the Dauphin, and joined that of Burgundy. Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and son of John the Fearless, being determined to revenge the death of his father, which he laid to the charge of the Dauphin, entered into a negotiation with England, into which he contrived to draw Queen Isabella, and the imbecile Charles the VI. By the treaty of peace con- cluded at Troves in Champagne (1420,) it was acreed that Catharine of France, daughter of Charles VI. and Isabella of Bavaria, should espouse Henry V., and that, on the death of the King, the crown should pass to Henry, and the children of his marriage with the Princess of France ; to the exclusion of the Dauphin, who, as an accomplice in the murder of the Duke of Burgundy, was declared to have lost his rights to the crown, and was banished from the kingdom. Henry V. died in the flower of his age, and his death was followed soon after by that of Charles VI. Henry VI., son of Henry V. and Catharine of France, being then proclaimed King of England and France, fixed his residence at Paris, and had for his regente his two uncles, the Dukes of Bedford and Gloucester. Such was the preponderance of the English and Burgundian party in Fiance at this period, that Charles VII., commonly called the Dauphin, more than once saw himself upon the point of being expelled the kingdom. He owed his safety en- tirely to the appearance of the famous Joan of Arc, called the Maid of Orleans. This extraordinary woman revived the drooping courage of the French. She compelled the English to raise the siege of Orleans, and brought the King to be crowned at Rheims (1429.) But what contributed still more to retrieve the party of Charles VII., was the reconciliation of that *^ ' 13 ilf^ ■ ■' f t 'h^ M. ill ] ii't^ 194 CHAPTER VI. prince with the Duke of Burgundy, which took place at the peace of Arras (1435.) The Duke having then united hi« forces with those of the King, the Enghsh were in their tuni expelled from France (1453.) the single city of Calais being all that remained to them of their former conquests. An important revolution happened in the government ol France under the reign of Charles VII. The royal authority gained fresh vigour by the expulsion of the English, and the reconciliation of various parties that took place ,n consequence. The feudal system, which till then had prevailed in 1* ranee, fell bv degrees into disuse. Charles was ifie first king who estab- lished a permanent militia, and taught his successors to abandon the feudal mode of warfare. This prince also instituted Com- panmof ordomnce (1446 ;) and, to defray the expense of their maintenance, he ordered, of his own authority, a certain impost to be levied, called the Tax of the Gens-d'armes. This stand- ing army, which at first amounted only to six thousand men, was augmented in course of time, while the roya finances increased in proportion. By means of these establishments, the kings obtained such an ascendancy over their vassals that they soon found themselves in a condition to prescribe laws to them, and thus gradually to abolish the feudal system. The most powerful of the nobles could make little resistance against a sovereign who was always armed ; while the kings, imposing taxes at their pleasure, by degrees dispensed with the necessity of assembling the states-general. The same prince secured the liberties of the Galilean church against the encroachments ol the Court of Rome, by solemnly adopting several of the decrees of the Council of Basle, which he caused to be passed in the National Council held at Bourges, and published under the title of ihe Pragmatic Sanction {1^^.) . r.i. t>i „ In England, two branches of the reignmg family of the Plan- tagenets, those of Lancaster and York, contested for a long ti^e the right to the crown. Henry IV., the first king of the House of Lancaster, was the son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and grandson of Edward III. King of England He usurped the crown from Richard II., whom he deposed by act of Parliament (1399.) But instead of enforcing the rights which he inherited from his father and grandfather, he rested his claims entirely upon those which he alleged had devolved to him in right of his mother, Blanch of Lancaster, great grand- daughter of Edward, surnamed Hunchback, Eari of Lancaster. This prince, according to a popular tradition, was the eldest son of Henry III., who, it was said, had been excluded from the throne by hi. younger brother Edward I., on account of his de ft ll L F 11 a A tl •ll. [I'HnifW'iiiiliiU'ii'i lace at thp united hi« their tum lis bein^ nil ernment of 1 authority ish, and the onsequence. France, fell who estab- s to abandon tituted Com- ;nse of their rtain impost This stand- )usand men, yal finances ablishments, vassals that :ribe laws to (Tstem. The lance against igs, imposing the necessity e secured the )achments of if the decrees lassed in the inder the title f of the Plan- d for a long I king of the unt, Duke of Ingland. He eposed by act g the rights ler, he rested had devolved ■, great grand- of Lancaster, the eldest son ded from the unt of his de PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453. IM formlty. This tradition proved useful to Henry IV. in excluding the rights of the House of Clarence, who preceded him in the order of succession. This latter fiimily was descended from Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and elder brother of John of Gaunt. Philippine, daughter of Lionel, was married to Edward Morti- mer, by whom she had a son, Roger, whom the Parliament, by an act passed in 1386, declared presumptive heir to the crown. Ann Mortimer, the daughter of Roger, married Richard, Duke of York, son of Edward Langley, who was the younger brother of John of Gaunt, and thus transferred the right of Lionel to the Royal House of York. The Princes of the House of Lancaster are known in Eng- lish history by the name of the Red Rose, while those of York were designated by that of the White Rose. The former of these Houses occupied the throne for a period of sixty-three years, during the reigns of Henry IV., V., VI. It was under the feeble reign of Henry VI. that the House of York began to advance their right to the crown, and that the civil war broke out between the two Roses. Richard, Duke of York, and heir to the claims of Lionel and Mortimer, was the first to raise the standard in this war of competition (1452,) which continued more than thirty years, and was one of the most cruel and san- guinary recorded in history. Twelve pitched battles were fought between the two Roses, eighty princes of the blood pe- rished in the contest, and England, during the whole time, pre- sented a tragical spectacle of horror and carnage. Edward IV., son of Richard, Duke of York, and grandson of Ann Mortimer, ascended the throne (1461,) which he had stained with the blood of Henry IV., and of several other Princes of the House of Lancaster. In Scotland, the male line of the ancient kings having become extinct in Alexander III., a crowd of claimants appeared on the field, who disputed with each other the succession of the throne. The chief of these competitors were the two Scottish families of Baliol and Bruce, both descended by the mother's side from the Royal Family. Four princes of these contending families reigned in Scotland until the year 1371, when the crown passed from the House of Bruce to that of Stuart. Robert II., son ot Walter Stuart and Marjory Bruce, succeeded his uncle David II., and in his family the throne remained until the Union, when Scotland was united to England about the beginning of the seventeenth century. Under the government of the Ftuarts, the royal authority acquired fresh energy after being long re- strained and circumscribed by a turbulent nobility. Towards the middle of the fifteenth century, James 1., a very accomplished : '4f I! 1 I <»■ i 4 1 ! T 196 CtlAPTRR VI. ; prince, pave the first blow to the feudal system and the exorb*- , lanl power of the grandees. He deprived them of several of j the crown-lands which they had usurped, and confiscated the ] properly of some of the ino^t audacious whom he had con- j dcmnecl to execution. James II. followed the example of his father. Ho strengthened the royal authority, by humbling the powerful family of Douglas, as well as by the wise laws which he prevailed with his Parliament to adopt. The three kingdmns of the North, after having been long agitated by internal dissensions, 'vere at length united >nio a single monarchy by Margaret, called the Semiramis of the North. This princess was daughter of Valdemar HI., the last Kinc of Denmark of the ancient reigning family, and widow of Haco VII., King of Norway. Sh^ was first elected Queen of Den- mark, and then of Norway, after the death of her son, Olaus v., whom she had by her marriage with Haco, and who died without leaving any posterity (1387.) The Swedes, discon- tented with their King, Albert of Mecklenburg, likewise be- stowed their crown upon this princess. Albert was vanquished and made prisoner at the battle of Fahlekoeping (1389.) The whole of Sweden, from that time, acknowledged the authority of Queen Margaret. Being desirous of uniting the three king- doms into one single body-politic, she assembled their respective Estates at Calmar (1397,) and there caused her grand-nephew Eric, son of Wratislaus, Duke of Pomerania, and Mary of Mecklenburg, daughter of Ingeburg, her own sister, to be re- ceived and crowned as her successor. The act which ratified the perpetual and irrevocable union of the three kingdoms, was approved in that assembly. It provided, that the united states should, in future, have but one and the same king, who should be chosen with the common consent of the Senators and Depu- ties of the three kingdoms ; that they should always give the preference to the descendants of Eric, if there were any ; that the three kingdoms should assist each other with their combined forces against all foreign enemies; that each kingdom should preserve its own constitution, its senate, and national legisla- ture, and be governed conformably to its own laws. i This union, how formidable soever it might appear at first ' sight, was by no means firmly consolidated. A federal system I of three monarchies, divided by mutual jealousies, and by dis- I similarity in their laws, manners, and institutions, could present nothm,] either Iblid or durable. The predilection, besides, which the kings of the union who succeeded Margaret showed for the Danes ; the preference which they gave them m the distribution of favours and places of trust, and the tone of su - « ) i M"w«'j| ii MwM i iMi i » jiMWjIiiM i Ma'i Wat le the exorb'* several 0/ iscntcd the had coii- inple of his iimhiing the aws which gf been long nited into a of the North. ast King of ow of Haco een of Den- ' son, Olaus nd who died edes, discon- likewise be- s vanquished 1389.) The he authority e three king- eir respective ;rand-nephew and Mary of Iter, to be re- rhich ratified in£rdoms, was united states , who should rs and Depu- ays give the re any ; that leir combined g^dom should onal legisla- )pear at first deral system I, and by dis- ;ould present ion, besides, raret showed them in the e tone of su iiHrtMwitivw-iiiiii '-m I-EHIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453. 197 periority which they afTecled towards their iillies, tended natu- rally to foster animosity and haired, nnd, above all, to exasperate •he Swedes nijainst the union. Eric, after a very turbulent reign, was deposed, and his nephew, Christopher the Bavarian. was elected King of the union in his place. This latter prince having died without issue, the Swedes took this opportunity 01 breaking the union, and choosing a king of their own, Charles Canutson Bonde, known by the title of Charles VIII. It was he who induced the Danes to venture likewise on a new elec- tion ; and this same year they transferred their crown to Chris- tian, son of Thierry, nnd Count of Oldenburg, descended by the female side from the race of their ancient kings. This prince had the good fortime to renew the union with Norway (1450;) he likewise governed Sweden from the year 1437, when Charles VIII. was expelled by his subjects, till 1464. when he was recalled. But what deserves more particularly to be remarked, is the acquisition which Christian made of the provinces of Sleswick and Holslein, to which he succeeded (1459,) by a disposition of the States of these provinces, after the death of Duke Adolphus, the maternal uncle of the new King of Denmark, and last male heir of the Counts of Hol- slein, of the ancient House of Schauenburg. Christian I. was the progenitor of all the Kings who have since reigned in Den- mark and Norway. His grandson lost Sweden ; but, in the last century, the thrones both of Russia and Sweden were occupied by princes of his family. Russia, during the whole of this period, groaned under the degrading yoke of the Moguls and the Tartars. The Grand Dukes, as well as the other Russian princes, were obliged to solicit the confirmation of their dignity from the Khan of Kip- zack, who granted or refused it at his pleasure. The dissen- sions which arose among these northern princes, were in like manner submitted to his decision. When summoned to appear at his horde, they were obliged to repair thither without delay, and often sufTered the punishment of ignominy and death.'' The contributions which the Khans at first exacted from the Rus- sians in the shape of gratuitous donations, were converted, in course of time, into regular tribute. Bereke Khan, the suc- cessor of Baton, was the first who levied this tribute by officers of his own nation. His successors increased still more the load of these taxes ; they even subjected the Russian princes to the performance of military service. The Grand Ducal dignity, which for a long time belonged exclusively to the chiefs of the principalities of Vladimir and Kiaso, became common, about the end of the fourteenth cen =JJ •■I .! H- IW CIUrTEH TI. tury, to several of the other principalities, who shared among '.hem the dominion of Russia. The princes of Rezan, Twer, Smolensko, and several others, took the title of Grand Dukes, to distinguish themselves from the petty princes who were es- tablished within their principalities. These divisions, together with the internal broils to which they gave rise, emboldened the Lithuanians and Poles to carry their victorious arms into Russia ; and by degrees they dismembered the whole western part of the ancient empire. The Lithuanians,'* who are supposed to have been of the same race with the ancient Prussians, Lethonians, Livonians, and Esthonians, inhabited originally the banks of the rivers Niemen and Wilia ; an inconsiderable stale, comprehending Samogitia and a part of the ancient Palatinates of Troki and Wilna. After having been tributaries to the Russians for a long time, the princes of Lithuania shook off their yoke, and began to aggrandize themselves at the expense of the Grand Dukes, their former masters. Towards the middle of the eleventh century, they passed the Wiiia, founded the town of Kier- now, and took from the Russians Braclaw, Novgorodek, Grodno, Borzesc, Bielsk, Pinsk, Mozyr, Polotsk, Minsk, Witepsk, Orza, and Mscislaw, with their extensive dependencies. Ringold was the first of these princes that assumed the dignity of Grand Duke, about the middle of the thirteenth century. His succes- sor Mendog or Mindow, harassed by the Teutonic Knights, em- braced Christianity about the year 1252, and was declared King of Lithuania by the Pope ; though he afterwards returned to Paganism, and became one of the most cruel enemies of the Christian name. Gedimin, who ascended the throne of the Grand Duke (1315,) rendered himself famous by his new con- quests. After a series of victories which he gained over the Russian Princes, who were supported by the Tartars, he took possession of the city and Principality of Kiow (1320.) The whole of the Grand Dutchy of Kiow, and its dependent princi- palities on this side the Dnieper, were conquered in succession. The Grand Dukes of Lithuonia, who had become formidable to all their neighbours, weakened their power by partitioning tneir estates among their sons ; reserving to one, under the title of Grand Duke, the right of superiority over the rest. The civil dissensions which resulted from these divisions, gave the Poles an opportunity of seizing the principalities of Leopold, Przemysl, and Haliisch (1340,) and of taking from the Lithuanians and their Grand Duke Olgerd, the whole of Volhynia and Podolia, of which they had deprived the Russians (1349.) Nothing more then remained of the ancient'Russian Empire '^- ^f i frtw w i i mu'itf/iji iHjaijMi-MiifiwswwtW' PBBIOD V. A. D. 1300—1403. 19» lared amonp iezaii, Twer, [rand Dukes, Ivho were es« Ions, together I, emboldened jus arms into hole western been of the I Livonians, of the rivers mprehending )f Troki and iiKsians for a [?ir yoke, and )f the Grand iddle of the townofKier- )iiek, Grodno, '^itepsk, Otza, es. Ringold nily of Grand His succes- Knights, em- leclared King I returned to emies of the hrone of the his new con- ned over the tars, he took 1320.) The ndent princi- 1 succession, formidable to itioning tneir r the title of :. The civil ve the Poles d, Przemysl, uanians and md Podolia, sian Empire except the Grand Dutchy of Wolodimir, so called from the town of that numc on the river Kliazma, where the Grand Dukes of Eastern and Northern Russia had their residence, before they had fixed their capital at Moscow ; which happened about the end of the thirteenth or the beginning of the fourteenth century. This Grand Dutchy, which had several dependent and subor- dinate principalities, was conferred by the Khan of Kipzoch (1320) on Iwan or John Danilovitsh, Prince of Moscow, who transmitted it to his descendants. Demetrius Iwanovitsh, grand- son of Iwan, took advantage of the turbulencu which distracted the grand horde, and turned his arms against the Tartars. As- sisted by several of the Russian princes his vassals, he gained a signal victory near the Don (1380,) over the Khan Temnic- Mamai, the first which gained the Russians any celebrity, and which procured Demetrius the proud epithet of Danski, or con- queror of the Don. This prince, however, gained little advan- tage by his victory ; and for a long time after, the Tartars gave law to the Russians and made them their tributaries. Toktamibh Khan, after having vanquished and humbled Mamai, penetrated as far as Moscow, sacked the city, and massacred a great num- ber of the inhabitants. Demetrius was forced to implore the mercy of the conqueror, and to send his son a hostage to the horde in security for his allegiance. The chief residence of the Teutonic Order, which had for- merly been at Verden, was fixed at Marienburg, » city newly 'juilt, which from that time became the capital of all Prussia. The Teutonic Knights did not limit their conquests to Prussia; they took from the Poles Dantzic or Eastern romerania (1311,) itituated between the Netze, the Vistula, and the Baltic Sea, and koown since by the name of Pomerelia. This province was definitively ceded to them, with the territory of Culm, and Michelau, by a treaty of peace which was signed at Kalitz f 1343.) The city of Dantzic, which was their capital, increased considerably under the dominion of the Order, and became one of the principal entrepots for the commerce of the Baltic. Oi all the exploits of these Knights, the most enterprising was that which had for its object the conquest of Lithuania. Religion, and a pretended gift of the Emperor Louis of Bavaria, served them as a pretext for attacking the Lithuanians, who were Pa- gans, in a murderous war, which continued almost without in- terruption for the space of a century. The Grand Dukes of Lithuania, always more formidable after their defeat, defended their liberties and independence with a courage and perseverance almost miraculous ; and it was only by taking advantage of the dissensions which had arisen in the family of the Grand Duke, IK' 1 m $ » ;■ !(,, 900 CMAPTIII VI. that they succeeded in obtaining poRSPSflion of Samogitio. by the irenty of peace which was concluded nt Racinnx (1404.) The Knights of Livonia, united to the Teutonic Order under the authority of one and the same Qrund Master, added tu their former conquests the province of Esthonia, which was sold to them by Valdemar Iv., King of Denmark. '" The Teutonic Knif hts were at the zenith of their greatness, about the begin* ning of the fifteenth century. At that time they were become a formidable power in the North, having under their dominion the whole of Prussia, comprehending Pomerania and the New March, as also Samogitia, Courland, Livonia and Esthonia. ** A population proportioned to the extent of their dominions, u well regulated treasury, and a flourishing commerce, seemed to guarantee them a solid and durable empire. Nevertheless, the Jealousy of their neighbours, the union of Lithuania with Po« and, and the conversion of the Lithuaniatis to Chr'stianity, which deprived the Knights of the assistance of the Crusaders, soon became fatal to their Order, and accelerated their down* fall. The Lithuanians again obtained possession of Samogitia, which, with Sudavia, was ceded to them by the various treaties which they concluded with that Order, between 1411-1436. The oppressive government of the Teutonic Knights — their own private dissensions, and the intolerable burden of taxation — the fatal consequence of incessant war — induced the nobles and cities of Prussia and Pomerania to form a confederacy against the Order, and to solicit the protection of the Kings of Poland. This was granted to them, on their signing a deed of submission to that kingdom (1454.) The result was a long and bloody war with Poland, which did not terminate till the pence of Thorn (1466.) Poland then obtained the cession of Culm, Michelau and Dantzic ; that is to say, all the countries now comprehended under the name of Polish Prussia. The rest of Prussia was retained by the Teutonic Order, who promised, by means of their Grand Master, to do fealty and homage for it to the Kings of Poland. The chief residence of the Order was then trans- ferred to Koningsberg, where it continued until the time when the Knights were deprived of Prussia by the House of Brandenburg. At length, however, Poland recovered from this state of weak- ness into which the unfortunate divisions of Boleslaus III. and his descendants had plunged it. Uladislaus IV. surnamed the Dwarf, having combined several of these principalities, was crowned King of Poland at Cracow (1320.) From that time the Royal dignity became permanent in Poland, and was trans- mitted to all the successors of Uladislaus. -' The immediate successor of that Prince was his son Casimir the Great, who ■ npiwtW m-i moffitia. by (1404.) )rdpr under dv(J to their was .sold to Teutonic the begin* 'ore become ir dominion id the New Esthonia. ** ominions, u , seemed to rthelesB, the ia with Po- 'hr.'stianity, Crusaders, their down- Samogitia, ous treaties 1-1436. ghts — their taxation — ! nobles and •acy against of Poland, submission and bloody ce of Thorn 1, Michelau nprchended 'russia was ' means of > the Kings then trans- le when the andenburg. te of weak- US III. and named the ilities, was 1 that time was trans- immediate Grreat, who H nnion v. a, n. iyOO_i453. 901 renounced hi- ricrliin of stiypr'-iffnty ovi-r Silesia in favour of the Kinp of Bohfiui I ■>n(l aflttwutd-- <'om|n?ri!«Fiif(| this loss by the acquisition of sever f' of ih^ provirrri's of nncit'tit Kussia. He likewise took possession of Red Hiisxia (1^40,) ns also of the provinces of Volhynin, l'o(l(/lui. Cholni iind Bel/, which he con- Siuered from the Grand Diik<-. of Lithuania (1349,) who had orinerly dismt'inlwred them from the Russian Empire. Under Casimir the Orent, another revoliilion happened in the government of Poland. That Prince, having no > bil-'ren of his own, and wishing to bequeath the crown to his nephew Louis, his sister'.s son, by Charlo:* Robeit Kinq of Hunirary, convoked a general asNC'mbly of the nation at Cracow (1339.) and there got the succession of the Hungarian Prince ratified, in opposi- tion to the legitimate rights of the Piast Dynasty, who reigned in Masovin and Silesia. This subversion of the hereditary right of the different branches of the Piosts, gave the Polish Nobles n pretext for interfering in the election of their Kings, until at last the throne became completely elective. It also afforded them an opportunity for limiting the power of their Kings, and laying the foundation of a republican and aristocratic government. Deputies were sent into Hungary (1355,) even during the life of Cnsimir, who obliged King Louis, his intended successor, to subscribe an act which provided that, on his ac- cession to the crown, he should bind himself, and his successors, to disburden the Polish nobility of all taxes and contributions ; that he should never, under any pretext, exact subsidies from them ; and that, in travelling, he should claim nothing for the support of his court, in any place during his journey. The an- cient race of the Piast sovereigns of Poland ended with Casimir (1370,) after having occupied the throne of that kingdom for several centuries. His successor in Poland and Hungary was Louis, surnamed the Great. In a Diet assembled in 1382, he obtained the con- currence of the Poles, in the choice which he had made of Sigis- mund of Luxembourg, as his son-in-law and successor in both kingdoms. But on the death of Louis, which happened imme- diately after, the Poles broke their engagement, and confeired their crown on Hedwiga, a younger daughter of that Prince. It was stipulated, that she should marry Jagcllon, Grand Duke of Lithuania, who agreed to incorporate Lithuania with Poland, to renounce Paganism, and embrace Christianity, himself and all his suHects. Jagellon was baptized, when he received the name of Uladislaus, and was crowned King of Poland at Cracow (1386.)''^ It was on the accession of Jagellon,that Poland and Lithuania, long opposed in their interests, and implacable enemies (i f, i^h iA 202 CHAPTER VI. I! of each other, were united into one body politic under the au- thority of one and the same King. Nevertheless, for nearly two centuries, Lithuania still preserved its own Grand Dukes, who acknowledged the sovereignty of Pciand ; and it was not, properly speaking, till the reign of Sigismund Augustus, that the union of the two states was finally accomplished (1569.) This important union rendered Po'and the preponderating power of the North. It became fatal to the influence of the Teutonic Order, who soon yielded to the united efforts of the Poles and Lithuanians. Uladislaus Jagellon did not obtain the assent of the Polish nobility to the succession of his son, except by adding new pri- vile^- *) to those which they had obtained from his predecessor. He was the first of the Polish kings who, for the purpose of im- posing an extraordinary taxation, called in the Nuncios or De- puties of the Nobility to the General Diet (1404,) and established the use of Dietines or provincial diets. His descendants enjoyed the crown until they became extinct, in the sixteenth century. The succession, however, was mixed ; and although the princes of the House of Jagellon might regard themselves us hereditary possessors of the kingdom, nevertheless, on every change of reign, it was necessary that the crown should be conferred by the choice and consent of the nobility. In Hungary, the male race of the ancient kings, descendants of Duke Arpad, had become extinct in Andrew III. (1301.) The Crown was then contested by several competitors, and at length fell into the hands of the House of Anjou, the reigning family of Naples. Charles Robert, grandson of Charles II. King of Naples, by Mary of Hungary, outstripped his rivals, and trans- mitted the Crown to his son Louis, surnamed the Great (1308.) This Prmce, characterized by his eminent qualities, made a dis- tinguished figure among the Kings of Hungary. He conquered from the Venetians the whole of Dalmatia, from the frontiers of Istria, as far as Durazzo ; he reduced the Princes of Moldavia, Walachia, Bosnia and Bulgaria, to a state of dependence ; and dt length mounted the throne of Poland on the detith of his uncle Casiinir the Great. ^ Mary, his eldest daughter, succeeded him in the kingdom of Hungary (1382.) This Princess mar- ried Sigismund of Luxembourg, who thus united the monarchy of Hungary to the Imperial crown. The reign of Sigismund in Hungary was most unfortunate, and a prey to continual disturbances. He had to sustain the first war against the Ottoman Turks ; and with the Emperor of Constantinople, as his ally, he assembled a formidable army, with which he undertook the &iege of Nicdpolis in Bulgaria. under the a*^- less, for nearly jGrand Dukes, ind it was not, ugustus, that ):ished (1569.) [derating power f the Teutonic the Poles and of the Polish dding new pri- is predecessor. purpose of im- Nuncios or De- and established ndants enjoyed teenlh century, ugh the princes s us hereditary ivery change of be conferred by gs, descendants II. (1301.) The rs, and at length reigning family rles II. King of vals, and trans- le Great (1308.) ies, made a dis- He conquered I the frontiers of !s of Moldavia, pendence ; and dthof his uncle hter, succeeded Princess mar- d the monarchy >st unfortunate, to sustain the the Emperor of rmidable army, lis in Bulgaria. PBRIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453. 203 Here he sustained a complete defeat by the Turks. In his ro- treat he was compelled to embark on the Danube, and directed his flight towards Constantinople. This disaster was followed by new misfortunes. The malcontents of Hungary offered their Crown to Ladislaus, cdled the Magnanimous, King of Naples, who took possession of Dalmatia, which he afterwards surren- dered to the Venetians. Desirous to provide for the defence and security of his kingdom, Sigismund acquired, by treaty with the Prince of Servia, the fortress of Belgrade (1425,) which, by Its situation at the confluence of the Danube and the Save, seetned to him a proper bulwark to protect Hungary against the Turks. He transmitted the crown of Hungary to his son-in-law, Albert of Austria, who reigned only two years. The war with the Turks was renewed under Uladislaus of Poland, son of Jagellon,andsuccessur to Albert. That Prince fought a bloody battle with them near Varna in Bulgaria (1444.) The Hungari- ans again sustained a total defeat, and the King himself lost his life in the action. ^ The safety of Hungary then depended en- tirely on the bravery of the celebrated John Hunniades, governor of the kingdom, during the minority of Ladislaus, the posthu- mous son of Albert of Austria. That general signalized himselt in various actions against the Turks, and obliged Mahomet II. to raise the siege of Belgrade (1456,) where he lost above twenty- five thousand men, and was himself severely wounded. The Greek Empire was gradually approaching its downfall, under the feeble administration of the House of Paleologus, who had occupied the throne of Constantinople since the year 1261. The same vices of which we have already spoken, the great power of the patriarchs and the monks, the rancour of theological disputes, the fury of sectaries and schismatics, and the internal dissension to which they gave rise, aggravated the misfortunes and disorders of the state, and were instrumental in hastening on its final destruction. John I. and his successors, the last Emperors of Constantinople, being reduced to the sad necessity of paying tribute to the Turks, and marching on military expe- ditions, at the command of the Sultans, owed the preservation of their shattered and declining Empire, for some time, entirely to the reverses of fortune which hud befallen the Ottpmans ; and to the difiiculties which the siege of their capital presented to a barbarous nation unacquainted with the arts of blockade. The power of the Ottoman Turks took its rise about the end of the thirteenth century. A Turkish Emir, called Ottoman, or Osman, was its original founder in Asia Minor. He was one of the number of those Einirs, who, after the subversion of the Seljukians of Roum or Iconium, by the Moguls, shared '■i ! ;ii \i- S04 CHAPTRR VI. among them the spoils of their ancient masters. A part of ' Bithynin, and the whole country lying round Mount Olympus, fell 10 the share of Ottoman, who afterwards formed an alliano* with the other Emirs, and invaded the possessions of the Greek Empire, under the feeble reign of the Emperor Andronicus 11. Prusa, or Bursa, the principal city of Bithynia, was conquered by Ottoman (1327.) He and his successors made it the capital of their new state, which, in course of time, gained the ascen- dency over all the other Turkish sovereignties, formed, like thai of Ottoman, from the ruins of Iconium and the Greek Empire. Orchan, the son and successor of Ottoman, instituted the famous Order of the Janissaries, to which in a great neasure the Turks owed their success. He took from the Greeks thfi cities of Nice and Nicomedia in Bithynia ; and, after having subdued most of the Turkish Emirs in Asia Minor, he took the title of Sultan or King, as well as that of Pacha, which is cqui- ralent to the title of Emperor. His son Soliman crossed the Hel- lespont, by his orders, near the ruins of ancient Troy, and took the city of Gallipoli, in the Thracian Chersonesus (1358.) The conquest of this place opened a passage for the Turks into Eu- rope, when Thrace and the whole of Greece was soon inundated by these new invaders. Amuralh I., the son and successor of Orchan, made himself master of Adrianoplc and the whole of Thrace (1360;) he next attacked Macedonia, Servia and Bulgaria, and appointed the first Beglerbeg, or Governor-general of Romelia. Several Turkish princes of Asia Minor were obliged to acknowledge his authority ; he made himself master of Kiutaja, the metropolis of Phrygia, which afterwards became the capital of Anatolia, and the residence of the governor of that province (1389.) Amurath was slain at the battle of Cassova which he fought with the Despot of Servia, assisted by his nume- rous allies. In this bloody battle the Despot himself was slain, and both sides equally claimed the victory. Bajuzel I., the suc- cessor of Amurath, put an end to all the Turkish sovereignties which still subsisted in Asia Minor. He completed the reduc- tion of Bulgaria, and maintained the possession of it by the signal victory which he gained at Nicopolis (1396) over Sigis- mund. King of Hungary. The Greek Empire would have yield- ed to the persevering efforts of that prince, who had maintained, for ten years, the siege of Constantinople-, had he not been at- tacked, m the midst of these enterprises, by the famous Timour. the new conqueror of Asia. Timour. commonly called Tamerlane, was one of those Mogul Emirs who had divided amongst them the sovereignty of Trans- oxiana, after the extinction of the Mogul dynasty of Zagatai. i A pan of nt Olympu6, an alliance of the Greek droiiicus II. ■s conquered it the capital d the ascen- ned, like that ek Empire, istituted the reat neasure ! Greeks \hfi after havinj^ ', he took the hich is equi- ssed the HeU roy, and took [1358.) The trks into £u- on inundated successor of id the whole , Servia and ernor-general Minor were imself master vards became k^ernor of that ! of Cassova by his nume- elf was slain, et I., the sue- sovereignties ed the reduc- of it by the 1) over Sigis- d have yield- I maintained, not been at- lous Timour. those Mogul »ty of Tran»> r of Zagatai. 1-": PERIOD V. A. D. 1300—1453. 205 Trnnsoxiann was the theatre ot his first exploits ; there he usurped the whole power of the Khan$, or Eiiiperor.« of Zagatai, and fixed the capital of his new dominions nt the city of Samarcand (1369.) Persia, the whole of Upper Asia, Kipzach, and Hindostan, were vanquished by him in succession ; where- ver he marched, he renewed the same .«cenes of horror, blood- shed, and carnajje, which had marked the footsteps of the first Mogul conqueror.''" Timour at length attacked the do- minions of Bajnzet in Anatolia (1400.) He fought a bloody and decisive buttle near Angora, in the ancient Gallogrecia, which proved fatal to the Ottoman Empire. Bnjazct sustained an entire defeat, and fell himself into the hands of the con- queror. All Anatolia was then conquered and pillaged by the Moguls, and there Timour fixed his winter quarters. Meantime he treated his captive Bajazet with kindness and generosity ; and the anecdote of the iron cage, in which he is said to have confined his prisoner, merits no credit. Slierefeddin Ali, who accompanied Timour in his expedition against Bajuzet, makes no mention of it ; on the contrary, he avers that Timour consented to leave him the Empire, and that he grunted the investiture oi it to him and two of his sons. Bajazei did rmt long survive his misfortune ; he died of an attack of apoplexy (1403,) with which he was struck in the camp of Timour in Caramania. Timour, a short time after, formed the project of an expedi- tion into China; but he died on the route in 1405, at the age of sixty-nine. His vast dominions were dismembered after his death. One of his descendants, named Babour, founded a pow- erful Empire in India, the remains of which are still preserved under the name of the Empire of the Great Mogul. The inva- sion of Timour retarded for some time the progress of the Turk- ish Empire. The fatal dissensions, which arose among the sons of Bajazet, set them at open war with each other. At length Amurnth II., the son of Mahomet I., and grandson of Bajazet, succeeded in putting a stop to these divisions, and restored the Empire to its primitive splendour. He deprived the Greeks of all the places which still remained in their hands on the Black Sea, along the coast of Thrace, in Macedonia and Thessaly. He even took, by assault, the wall and forts which they had constructed at the entrance of the isthmus of Corinth, and car- ried his ravages to the very centre of the Peloponnesus. The two heroes of the Christians, John Hunniades and Scan- derbeg, arrested the progress of the Ottoman Sultan. The former, who was General of the Hungarians, boldly repulsed the Sultan of Servia, whom he was ambitious to conquer. The other, a Greek Prince, who possessed one of the petty states of m ii|j <» -til, " 4- ' 4 n 1 " !j t^ r ■ n ^iiiig w i j i nW^T * iii ii i iH ii^A»» i i» W i W int n p^« » W t 2(16 CRAMER VI. ; Albania of which Croja was the capital, resisted with success the repeated attacks of the Turks. Supported by n small hut well disciplined army, and favoured by the mountains with which his territory was surrounded, he twice compelled Amurath to raise the siege of Croja. At length appeared Mahomet II., the son and successor of Amurath, (1451.) This Prince, who was raised to the Ottoman throne in the twentieth year of his age, conceived the design of achieving the conquest of the Greek Empire, by the taking of Constantinople. He succeeded in overcoming all the difficulties which obstructed this enterprise, in which several of his predecessors had failed. At the head of an army of three hundred thousand combatants, supported by a fleet of 300 sail, he appeared before that capital, and com- menced the siege on the 6th April 1463. The besieged having only from SOOO to 10,000 men to oppose the superior force of the enemy, yielded to the powerful and redoubled eflbrts of the Turks, after a vigorous defence of fifty-three days. The city was carried by assault, 29th May, and delivered up to the un- restrained pillage of the soldiers. Constantine, surnamed Dragases, the last of the Greek Emperors, perished in the first onset ; and all the inhabitants of that great and opulent city were carried into slavery.** Mahomet, on entering the very day of the sack, saw nothing but one vast and dismal solitude. Wishing afterwards to attract new inhabitants to this city, which he proposed to make the seat of his Empire, he guaranteed an entire liberty of conscience to the Greeks who might come to settle there ; and authorized them to proceed to the elec- tion of a new patriarch, whose dignity he enhanced by the honours and privileges which he attached to it. He restored also the fortifications of the city, and, by way of precaution against the armaments of the Venetians and other western nations, which he had some reason to dread, he constructed the famous castle of the Dardanelles, at the entrance of the Hellespont. This conquest was followed by that of Servia, Bosnia, Alba- nia, Greece, and the whole Peloponnesus or Morea, as well as most of the islands of the Archipelago. The Greek Empire of Trebizond, on the ciast of Asia Minor, submitted in like tnan- ner to the law of the conqueror (1466.) David Commenus, the last Emperor, fell by the swords of the Mahometans, and with him perished many of his children and relations. Such a rapid succession of conquests created an alarm among the powers of Christendom. In an assembly, which Pope Pius II. held at Mantua (1459,) he proposed a general associaVon among the powers of the West against the Turks. A crusade was pub- PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453--1648. 207 ith success n smnJl hut wilh whirh lAmurath to met II., the e, who was of his ago, r the Greek ucceeded in enterprise, At the head s, supported EtI, and com* eged having ior force of ffbrts of the The city p to the un> I surnamed i in the first opulent city ng the very lal solitude. 5 city, which laranteed an night come to the elec- iced by the He restored ' precaution ler western constructed ince of the ssnin, Alba* I as well as c Empire of 1 like nian- imenus, the s, and with uch a rapid rowers of , held at among the I was pub* lished by his orders, and he was on the point of setting out in person at the head ol this expeJiiion, when lie was suddenly cut off by dealn iu Ancona (1464,) where he had appointee! the general rendezvous of the conlederate tioops. This event, add- ed to the terror which the arms of Mahomet had created among the nations o( the West, disconcerted the plans of the Crusa- ders, and was the means of dissolving their confederacy. The Turkish Empire thus became firmly established in Europe, and the Tartars of the Crimea put themselves at the same time under the protection of the Porte. CHAPTER VII. PERIOD VI. From the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, to the Peace of Wettp}uUia.—K. d. 1453—1648. The revolution which happened in the fifteenth century en- tirely changed the face of Europe, and introduced a new system of politics. This revolution was not achieved by any combina- tions of profound policy, nor by the operation of that physical force which generally subverts thrunes and governments. It was the result of those progressive changes which had been produced in the ideas and understandings of the nations of Eu- rope, by the improvements and institutions of preceding times; OS well as by the invention of paper and printing, of gunpowder, and the mariner's compass. By means of these, the empire of letters and arts was greatly extended, and various salutary im- provements made in the religion, manners, and governments of Europe. The people by degrees shook off the yoke of barba- rism, superstition, and fanaticism, which the revolution of the fiflh century had imposed on tham , and from that time the principal States of Europe began to acquire the strength, and gradually to assume the form, which they have since maintained. Several extraordinary events, however, conspired to accelerate these happy changes. The Belles Lettres and the Fine Arts shone out wi'h new splendour, after the downfall of the Greek Empire. The celebrated Petrarch, and his disciples Boccacio and John of Ravenna, were the first that made the Italians ac- quainted with ancient literature, as the true source and standard of good taste. They prepared the way for a vast number of the Grecian literati, who, to escape the barbarity of the Turks, had fled into Italy, where they opened schools, and brought the study m^ \ »;f>r *'■ \i tT" 208 CHAPTER vn. of Creek literature into considerable repute. The moit celebrated of these Greek refugees were, Manuel Chrysoloras, Cardinal Bessarion, Theodore Gaza, George of Trebizond, John Argyro- philus, and Demetrius Chalcondylea. Protected by the family of the Medicis at Florence, they assisted in forming those fine geniuses which arose in Italy during the fifteenth c«jntury, such as Leonard Aretin, the two Guarini, Poggio of Florence, Ange- lo Politian, and many others. Academies, or Free Societies, were founded at Rome Naples, Venice, Milan, Ferrara and Florence, for the encouragement of ancient literature. From Italy the study of the ancient arts passed to the other stales of Europe. They soon diffused their influence over every department of literature and science, which by degrees assumed an aspect totally new. The scholastic system, which till then had been in vogue in the pulpits and universities, lost its credit, and gave place to a more refined philosophy. Men learned to discriminate the vices of the feudal system, and sought out the means of correcting them. The sources of disorder and anarchy were gradually dried up, and gave place to better organized governments. Painting, sculpture, and the arts in general, cleared from the Gothic rust which they had contracted during the barbarous ages, and finished after the models of the ancients, shone forth with renewed lustre. Navigation, under the direc- tion of the compass, reached a degree of perfection which at- tracted universal attention ; and while the ancients merely coasted along their own shores in the pursuit of commerce or maritime exploits, we find the modern Europeans extending their naviga- tion over the whole globe, and bringing both hemispheres under their dominion. America, unknown to the ancients, was discovered during this period ; as well as the route to India and the East, round the Continent of Africa. The notion of a fourth quarter of the world had long been prevalent among the ancients. We aU recollect the Atlantis of Plato, which, according to the assertion of that philosopher, was larger than Asia and Africa; and we know that .Elian the historian, who lived in the reigii of Adrian, affirmed in like manner the existence of a fourth continent of immense extent. This opinion had got so much into fashion, during the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era, that Lactantius and St. Augustine thought themselves bound in duty to combat it in their writings ; inveighing against the antipodes by reasons and arguments, the frivolousness of which is now very generally admitted ; but, whatever were the notions which the ancients might have entertained as to a fourth quarter of the globe, it is very certain that they knew it only" from conjecture and that their navigation never extende** io 1«ii ■i-5 ■ .\\- fi if: I I Death o( Joan of Arc. 1'. I'M. The English inhumanly burned this Heroine as a Sorceress. hZ': ■ y ,,. 1' ^^ " : ^ if ^ ji _i c- ' sum .jsnTi Death of Constantine XV. in Delending Constantinople. IV wo. iiili inhumanly ess. onstantinople, PBsioo VI. 1463—1648. 209 The honour of this important discover) belongs to modem navigators, more especially to Christopher Columous, a native of Genoa. From the knowledge which this i-elebrated man had ncquired in the sciences of Navigation, Ast.onomy, and Geo- jjraphy, he was persuaded that there must be aj lother hemispher^^ lying to the westward, and unknown to Europeans, but neces* sary to the equilibrium of the globe. These conjectures he communicated to several of the courts of Europe, who all re- garded him as a visionary ; and it was not till after many soli- citations, that Isabella, Queen of Castile, granted him three vessels, with which he set sail in quest of the new continent, 3d August 1492. AAer a perilous navigation of some months, he reached the l!vn at present by the name of Cumana. The track of the Genoese navigator was followed by a Flo- rentine merchant, named Amerigo Vesputio. Under the con- duct of a Spanish captain, called Alphonso de Ojeda, he made several voyages to the New World after the year 1497. Difle- rent coasts of the continent of South America were visited by him ; and in the maps of his discoveries which he drew up, hie usurped a glory which did not belong to him, by applying his own name to the new continent ; which it has since retained. The Spaniards conquered the islands and a great part of the continent of America ; extending their victories along with their discoveries. Stimulated by the thirst of gold, which the New World oflered to them in abundance, they committed crimes and barbarities which make humanity shudder. Millions of the unfortunate natives were either massacred or buried in the sea, in spite of the eflbrts which the Spanish Bishop, Bartholomew de Las Casas, vainly made to arrest the fuiy of his country- men. ' In the year af\er the first discovery of Columbus, Fer- dinand the Catholic, King of Spain, obtained a bull from Pope Alexander VI., by which that Pontiff made him a gift of all the countries discovered, or to be discovered, towards the west and the south ; drawing an imaginary line from one pole to the other, at the distance of a hundred leagues westwaid of Cape Verd and the Azores. This decision having given oflence to the King of Portugal, who deemed it prejudicial to his discoveries in ths East, an accommodation was contrived between the two courta, 14 m a ^) 810 CHAFTRR VII. in virtue of which the same Pope, by another Bull (1404,) re- moved the line in question farther xvest, to the distance of four hundred and seventy leagues ; so that all the countries lying to the westward of this line should belong to the King of Spain, while those which might be discovered to the eastward, should fall to the possession of the King of Portugal. * It was on thiH pretended title that the Spaniards founded their right to demand >iie submission of the American nations to the Spanish Crown. Their principal conquests in the New World commence from the reign of the Emperor Charles V. It was in his name that Ferdinand Cortes, with a mere handful of troops, overthrew the vast Empire of Mexico (1521;) the last Emperors of which, Montezuma and Qatimozin, were slain, and a prodigious num- ber of the Mexicans put to the sword. The conqueror of Peru was Francis Pizarro (1533.) He entered the country, at the head of 300 men, at the very time when Atnbalipa or Atahualpa was commencing his reign as Incas, or Sovc'.>;ign of Peru. That prince was slain, and the whole of Peru sub«i>icc bv the Spaniards. [The Spaniards founded various colonies and. establishments in that part of America which they had subjected to their do- minion. The character of these colonies difl'ercd from that of the establishments which the Portuguese had founded in India, and the Dutch, the English, and the French, in diflbrent parts of the world. As the Spaniards were by no means a commer- cial nation, the precious metals alone were the object of their cupidity. They applied themselves, in consequence, to the working of mines; they t tinrted negroes to labour in them, and made slaves of the natives. In process of time, when the number of Europeans had increased m these countries, and the precious metals became less abundant, the Spanish colonists were obliged to employ themselves in agriculture, and in raising what is commonly called colonial produce. What we have now said, accounts for the limitations and restrictions which were imposed on the trade of these colonies by the Spanish govern- ment ; they wished to reserve to themselves exclusively the pro- fits of the mines. Commerce, which at iir.st had been confined to the single entrepot of Seville, fell into the hands of a small number of merchants, to the entire exclusion of foreigners. As for the Spanish possessions in America, they were planted with Episcopal and Metropolitan Sees, Missions, Convents, and Uni- versities. The Inquisition was also introduced ; but the hierar- chy which was founded there, insteod of augmenting the power of the Popes, remained in a state of complete dependence upon the Sovereigns.] The discovery of Brazil belongs to the Portuguese. Alvares II (1404.) re. tance of four |tric8 lying to ig of Spain, |ward, should was on this Jht to (ienianH inish Crown, imcnce from lis name that )verthrew the an of which, digious num* ueror of Peru untry, at the or Atahualpa fPeru. That he Spaniards, stablishments d to their do- I from that of idcd in India, difTcrent parts ns a commer- bject of their uence, to the )our in them, me, when the ttries, and the dish colonists md in raising we have now 5 which were inish govern- ively the pro- )eon confined ds of a small eigners. As ! pUnted with nts, and Uni- ut the hierar- ng the power mdence upon me. Alrares I PERIOD VI. A. D. 1463—1648. 211 Cnbral, the cnmnmnder of their fleet, while on his route to India- was driven, by contrary wind^, on the coast of Brazil (1500,) and took possosMion of the country in name of the King of 1'or* tugal. This colony, in the course of time, became highly im- portant, from the rich mines of diamonds and gold which werr discovered there. The Spaniards and Portuguese were at first the only mastpn of America ; but in a short time, establishments were formed there by some of the other maritime nations of Europe. The first English colony was that of Virginia, which was conducted to North America by Sir Walter Raleigh (1584,) but it did not gain a permanent settlement till the reign of James I. This was afterwards followed by several other colonies which had settled in that part of the American continent, on account of the perse- cution carried on by the Stuart Kings against the non-conform- ists. The first settlements of the English in the Antilles, were those which they formed in the Islands of Barbadoes and St. Christopher (1639 ;) to these they added the Island of Jamaica, which they took from the Spaniards (1656.) The date of the French establishments in Canada, is as old as the reigns of Francis I. and Henry IV., in the years 15,34 and 1604. The city of Quebec was founded in 1608. It was at a later period when the French established themselves in the Antilles. The origin of their colonies in Martinique and Gaudaloupe, is gene- rally referred to the year 1635. They gained a footing in St. Domingo as early as 1630, but the flourishing state of that re- markable colony did not beginM)roperly speaking, till 1722. Alj the establishments which the ffnglish and French had formed in America, were purely agricultural ; and in this respect they were distinguished from the Spanish colonics. The discovery of a passage by sea to the East Indies round Africa, belongs also to the Portuguese. It forms one of those great events which often take their first impulse from very slen- der causes. John I. surnamed the Bastard, the new founder of the kingdom of Portugal, being desirous of aflbrding tu his sons an opportunity of signalizing themselves, and earning the honour of knighthood, planned an expedition against the Moois in Africa; he equipped a fleet, with which he landed in the neighbourhood of Ceuta (1415,) of which he soon made himself master, and created his sons knights in the grand mosque of that city. AAer this event, the Portuguese began to have a taste for navigation and maritime discoveries. In this they were encouraged by the Infant Don Henry, Duke of Viseu, aiiH one oi the sons of King John, who had particularly distinguished himself in the expedi- iion of which we have just spoken. That prince, who was well ii m: ■^M 819 CHAPTXR VIl. iikillpd in mnthematicn and the nrt nf iinvi^ntion, established hit r»>Nidcnce iit Ciipc St. Vincent, on the woxtern extremity of AU Kurra. There he ordered vossiels to f>e constructed iit his own expense, and sent them to reconnoitre the coasts of Africa. From ihat time the Portujjuesc discovered, in succession, tlie Islands nf Madeira (1420,) the Canaries (1424.) the Azores (1431,) and Cape Verd (1460.) There they found3d colonies; and, ud- vancinf^ by degrees along the southern shores nf Africa, they extended their navigation as far as the coasts of (iuineaand Ni« gritia. The islands which they had newly discovered, were confirmed to the Kings of Portugal by several of the Popes. The Canaries, however, having been claimed by the Spaniards, a treaty was negotiated between the two kingdoms, in virtue of which these islands wore abandoned to Spain (1481.) It was under the reign of John II. that the Portuguese ex- tended their navigation as far as the most nouthcrly point of Africa. Bartholomew Diaz, their admiral, was the first who doubled the Cape, which he culled the Storrqiy Cape ; a name which King John changed into that of Good Hope. At length, after twelve years of toils, Vasco di Gama, another Portuguese admiral, had the glory of carrying his national flag as far as India. He landed at the Port of Calicut (1498,) on the Ma- labar coast, in the third year of the reign of Emmanuel. Several other celebrated Portuguese navigators, such as Almeida, Albu* querque, Acunga, Silveira, and de Castro, following the tract of Vasco di Gama, laid the foundation of the power of the Portu- guese in India. Francis Almeida defeated the fleet of the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt, in conjunction with that of the Kings of India (1509.) Alfonzo Albuquerque conquered Goa (1511,) and made it the capital of all the Portuguese settlements in that part of the world. About the s«me time, the Portuguese established themselves in the Molucca Islands, with some oppo- sition on the part of the Spaniards. Anthony Silveira signalized himself by his able defence of Din (1535.) He repulsed the Turks, and ruined the fleet which Soliman the Great had sent to the siege of that place (1547.) The King of Cambay having resumed the siege, he experienced likewise a total defeat from John dc Castro, who then conquered the whole kingdom of Diu. The Portuguese found powerful kingdoms in India, and nations rich and civilized. Th^re, nature and the industry of the natives, produced or fabricated those articles of commerce and merchandise which have since become an object of luxury to Europeans ; at least until the activity of the Venetians had furnished the inhabitants of this part of the world with them in such abundance, as to make them regarded as articles of abso- iBRinnvi. A. D. 1455—1648. »18 tnblished hit |<'rnity of Al« I lit hilt own fiicn. From |lio Islands of 1431,) and Is ; and, ud< Africa, Ihcy inea and Ni- )vored, were Popes. The Spaniards, a in virtue of 1.) rlugut'se ex» eriy point of he first who ipe ; a name At leng'ih, r Portugtiese flajT as far as ) on the Ma- luel. Several Imeida, Albu- ig the tract of of the Porta- fleet of the I that of the nquered Goa e settlements e Portuguese h somcoppo- ira signalized repulsed the real had sent mbay having I defeat from jdom of Diu. India, and 3 industry of )f commerce ict of luxury inetians had vith them in lies of abso- lute necessity. This circumstance was the reason why the Per- mgiiese never formed any other than mercantile cstablishmentn w, India, which they erected on the coasts, without extending th- rn into the interior. The working of the mines, and the cares of agriculture, were abandoned entirely to the natives. This era produced a total change in the commerce of the East. Formerly the Venetians were the people that carried on the principal traffic to India. The Jewish or Mahometan merchants purchased at Gon, Calicut, and Cofhin, those spiceries and other productions of the Ea.st, which they imported into Syria by the Persian Gulf, and into Egypt by the Red Sea. They were then conveyed by a laborious and expensive land-carriage, either to the port of Alexandria, or that of Bairout in Syria. Thither the Venetians repaired in quest of the luxuries of India; they fixed their price, and distributed them over all Europe. This commerce proved a source of vast wealth to these republicans: it furnished them with the means of maintaining a formida- ble marine, iind of very often dictating the law to the other European powers ; hut after the discovery of the new passage round the Cape, and the conquests of the Portuguese in India, the Venetians saw themselves compelled to abandon a traffic in which they could not compete with the Portuguese. This was a terrible blow to that republic, and the principal cause of its downfall. The Portuguese, however, did not profit by this ex- clusive commerce as they might have done. They did not, like other nations, constitute Companies, with exclusive commercial privileges ; they carried it on by means of fleets, which the go- vernment regularly despatched at fixed periods. In this manner, the commodities of the East were imported to Lisbon ; but the indolence of the native merchants left to other nations the care of distributing thefn through the markets of Europe. The Dutch were the people that profited most by this branch of industry ; they cultivated it with so much success, and under such favour- able circumstances, that they at length succeeded in excluding the Portuguese themselves from this lucrative traf&c, by dis- possessing them of their colonies in the East. If the events which we have now briefly detailed proved fatal to the Venetians, and afl!licting to humanity, by the wars and misfortunes which they occasioned, it is nevertheless certain, that commerce and navigation gained prodigiously by these new discoveries. The Portuguese, after having maintained for some time the exclusive possession of the navigation and trade of the East, found afterwards powerful competitors in the Spaniards, the butch, English, French, and Danes, who all established mercantile connexions both in India and America. Hence in- '^:-)l H ■i\ li, ■; i |.i:< 15 1*1. t s 214 CHAPTER VII. numerable sources of wealth were opened to the industry of the Europeans ; and their commerce, formerly limited to the Medi- terranean, the Baltic, and the Northern Seas, and confined to a few cities in Italy, Flanders, and Germany, was now, by means of their colonies in Africa, and the East and West Indies, ex- tended to all parts of the globe. * The intercourse of the Por- tuguese with China was as early as the year 1517, and with Japan it began in 1542. Ferdinand Magellan undertook the first voyage round the world (1519,) and his example found afterwards a number of imitators. ' By degrees the maritime power of Europe assumed a formidable aspect ; arts and manu- factures were multiplied ; and states, formerly poor, became rich and flourishing. Kingdoms at length found in their commerce, resources for augmenting their strength and their influence, and carrying into execution their projects of aggrandizement and conquest. [Among the causes of this revolution which took place in commerce, it is necessary to take into account a discovery ap- parently of trivial imDortance, but which exercised a most ex- traordinary influence over the civilization of Europe, viz. that of horse-posts for the conveyance of letters. Before the sixteenth century, the communications between distant countries were few and difBcult. Messengers, travelling on short journeys, on foot or on horseback, were their only couriers. About the be- ginning of the seventeenth century, and during the reign of Maximilian I., an Italian gentleman of the name of Francis de la Tour et Taxis, established the first posts in the Low Coun- tries. Their object at first was merely for the conveyance of letters by posts or post, for which he provided regular relays. By and by, for the sake of despatch, the use of horses was in- troduced, placed at certain distances. From the Low Countries this system found its way into Germany, where its profits were secured to the family of Taxis by imperial grants ; and from thence it spread over every civilized country in the world.] A revolution not less important, is that which took place in re- ligion about the beginning of the sixteenth century. The abuses which disgraced the court of Rome, the excess of the power, and the depravity of the morals of the clergy, had excited a very ge- neral discontent. A reformation had for a long time been deemed necessary, but there was a difference of opinion as to the me- thod of eflfecting it. The common notion was, that this task r,ould be legally accomplished only by General Councils, con- voked under the authority of the ropes. It was easy, however, to perceive the inefficacy of any remedy left t\t the disposal of those very persons from whom the evil proceeded ; and the un- ^*VKt- dustiy of the to the Medi- confined to a |ow, by means t Indies, ex- e of the Por- 17, and with ndertook the [ample found the maritime ts and manu- ', became rich eir commerce, influence, and dizement and took place in discovery ap- ed a most ex- ope, viz. that ; the sixteenth 9untries were t journeys, on ^bout the be- the reign of of Francis de e Low Coun- onveyance of ?gular relays, orses was m- *ow Countries re its profits I grants ; and in the world.] sk place in re- The abuses le power, and ed a very ge- been deemed IS to the me- hat this task 'ouncils, con- asy, however, le disposal of ; and the un- PKRIOD VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648. 816 successful results of the Councils of Constance an'l Basle, hod taught the people, that, in order to obtain redress for the abuses of which they complained, it was necessary to have recours*? to some other scheme than that of General Councils. This scheme was attempted by the Reformers of the sixteenth century, who were persuaded, that, in order to restrain the exorbitant power of the clerg:y, they ought to reject the infallibility of the Pope, as well as that of General Councils ; admitting no other autho- rity in ecclesiastical matters, than that of the sacred scriptures, interpreted by the lights of reason and sound criticism. The immediate and incidental cause of this change in reli- gion, was tile enormous abuse of indulgences. Pope Leo X., who was of the family of the Medicis, and well known for his extensive patronage of literature and the fine arts, having ex- hausted the treasury of the church by his luxury and bis mu- nificence, had recourse to the expedient of indulgences, which several of his predecessors had already adopted as a means of recruiting their finances. The ostensible reason was, the ba- silica of St. Peter's at Rome, the completion of which wa.« equally interesting to the whole of Christendom. Offices for the sale of indulgences were established in all the different states of Europe. The purchasers of these indulgences ob- tained absolution of their sins, and exemption from the pains of purgatory after death. The excesses committed by the emis- saries who had the charge of those indulgences, and the scan- dalous means which they practised to extort money, brought on the schism to which we are about to advert. Two theologians, Martin Luther, and Ulric Zuingle, opposed these indulgences, and inveighed agtiinst them in their sermons and their writings ; the former at Wittemberg in Saxony ; the other, first at Einsiedeln, and afterwards at Zurich, in Switzer- land. Leo X. at first held these adversaries in contempt. He did not attempt to allay the storm, until the minds of men, ex- asperated by the heat of dispute, were no longer disposed to listen to the voice of calmness and conciliation. The means which he subsequently tried to induce Luther to retract having proved abortive, he issued a thundering Bull against him (1520,) which, so far from abating the courage of the Reformer, tended, on the contrary, to embolden him still more. He publicly burnt the Pope's Bull, together with tlie Canon Law, at Wittemberg (10th December,) in presence of a vast concourse of doctors and students from diflferent nations whom he had assembled for the purpose. From that moment Luther and Zuingle never ceased to preach against the abuses of the indulgences. They completely undermined this system of abomination, and even 4\ ii^ I & i^ 216 CHAPTER VII. attacked various other dogmas and institutions of the Romish church, such as monastic vows, the celibacy of the priests, the supremacy of the Pope and the ecclesiastical hierarchy. These two celebrated men, who agreed in the greater part of their opinions, soon attracied a number of followers. The people, long ago prepared to shake off a yoke which uad been so op- pressive, applauded the zeal of the Reformers ; and the new opinions, promptly and easily diffused by means of the press, were received with enthusiasm throughout a great part of Europe. John Calvin, another Reformer, trod nearly in the footsteps of Zuingle. He was a native of Noyon in Picardy, and began to distinguish himself at Paris in 1532. Being compelled to leave that city on account of his opinions, he withdrew to Switzerland (1538;) thence he passed to Strasbourg, where he was nomi- nated to the office of French preacher. His erudition and his pulpit talents gained him disciples, and gave the name of Cal- vinists to those who had at first been called Zuinglians. The Lutherans, as well as the Zuinglians or Calvinists in Germany, were comprehended under the common appellation of Protest- ants, on account of the Protest which they took against the decrees of the Diet of Spire (1529,) which forbade them to make any innovations in religion, or to abolish the mass, until the meeting of a General Council. The name of Lutherans was applied more particularly to those who adhered to the Confession of Augsburg, that is, the Confession of F-^ith which they presented to the Emperor Charles V., at the famous Diet of Augsburg, held in 1530. In this manner a great part of Europe revolted from the Pope and the Romish Church, and embraced either the doc- trines of Luther, or those of Zuingle and Calvin. The half ol Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Prussia, and Livonia, adopted the Confession of Augsburg ; while England, Scotland, the United Provinces, and the principal part of Switzerland, declared themselves in favour of the opinions of Zuingle and Calvin. The new doctrines made likewiso great progress in France, Hungary, Transylvania, Bohemia, Silesia, and Poland. This revolution did not convulse merely the Church ; it in- fluenced the politics, and changed the form of government, in many of the States of Europe. The same men who believed themselves authorized to correct abuses and imperfections in re- ligion, undertook to reform political abuses with the same free- dom. New States sprung up ; and p.inces took advantage of these commotions to augment their own power, and authority. Constituting themselves heads of the Church and of the religion he Romish priests, thp y. These art of their he people, been so op- nd the new f the press, eat part of he footsteps nd began to led to leave Switzerland B was nomi- ion and his ime of Cal- lians. The n Germany, of Protest- against the ide them to mass, until f Lutherans lered to the F^ith which famous Diet d from the lier the doc- Thehalfol nd Livonia, d, Scotland, Switzerland, ^uingle and proCTess in ind Poland, urch ; it in- ernment, in ho believed ;tions in re- sarne free- Ivan lage of ! authority, the religion PERIOD VI. A. n. 1453 — 1648. 217 of their country, they shook oflTthe fetters of priostly influence: while the clergy ceased to form a countnrncting or controllinjf power in the State. The freedom of opinion which characterized the Protestant faith, awoke the human mind from its intellectual lethargy, infused new energy into it, and thus contributed to the progress of civilization and science in Europe. Even the systems of public instruction underwent a considerable change. The schools were reformed, and rendered more perfect. A multitude of new seminaries of education, academies, and universities were founded in all the Protestant States. This revolution, however, was not accomplished without great and various calami* ties. A hierarchy, such as that of the Church of Rome, sup- ported by all that was dignified and venerable, could not be attacked, or shaken to its foundation, without involving Europe in the convulsion. Hence we find that wars and factions arose in Germany, France, the Low Countries, Switzerland, Hungary, and Poland. The march of reformation was every where stain- ed with blood. The means that were employed to bring the quarrels of the Church to an amicable conclusion, tended rather to exasperate than allay the mischief; and if the conferences among the clergy of different persuasions failed, it was not to be expected that a better agreement, or a union of parties, could Iw founded on the basis of a General Council. The Protestants demanded an un- controlled liberty for the Council. They wi.shed it to be assem- bled by order of the Emperor, in one of the cities of the Empire ; and that their divines should have a voice and a seat in its meet- ings. The P « was to submit to its authority, and all matters should there be decided according to the rule of the sacred Scrip- tures. These terms were by no means agreeable to the Catho- lics. Paul III. summoned a Council at Mantua (1537,) and another at Vicenza (1538 ;) but both of these convocations were ineffectual, as was also the proposed reform in the Court of Rome, made by the same Pontiff*. It was resolved at last, at the instance of the Catholic princes (1542,) to convoke the Council of Trent, though the opening of it was deferred till 1545. This famous Council met with two interruptions; the first took place in 1547, when the Pope, who had become alarmed at the success of the Imperial arms, transferred the Council to Bo- logna, on pretence that an epidemic distemper had broken out at Trent. All the prelates of the Emperor's party remained at Trent, in obedience to the command of their master, who pro- tested loudly against the assembly at Bologna, which neverthe- less held its ninth and tenth Sessions at that city. This latter Council having been dissolved by Paul III. f 1^48,) its aflkin f:.i Wl* If CHAPTER VII. 318 continued in a languid state for the next two years, wnen Vope , Julius III., the successor of Paul, revived it, and transferred it . once more to Trent (1551.) Another interruption took place at ■ the time when Maurice, Elector of Saxony, had made hiniselt master of Augsburg, and was marching against the Emperor j towards Inspruck. It was then agreed to prorogue the Council, now in its sixteenth Session, for two years ; and to assemble again at the end of that period, if peace should happen in the mean time to be established. At length, in 1560, Pius IV., summoned the Council, for the third and last time, to meet at Trent. The session, however, did not commence till 1662 ; and next year its sittings were finally terminated. In this Council, matters were not treated in the same way as they had been at Constance and Basle, where each nation delibe- rated separately, and then gave their suffrage in common, so that the general decision was taken according to the votes of the dif- ferent nations. This form of deliberation was not at all palatable to the Court of Rome, who, in order to gain a preponderance in the assembly, thought proper to decide, by a majority of the votes of every individual member of the Council. The Protestam princes rejected entirely the authority of this Council ; which, far from terminating the dispute, made the schism wider than ever. Its decisions were even condemned by several of the Ca- tholic sovereigns. In France, more especially, it was never formally published, and they expressly excluded such of its acts of discipline as they considered contrary to the laws of the king- dom, to the authority of the sovereign, and the maxims of the Galilean Church. . It is nevertheless certain that this Council was instrumental in restoring the tottering power of the Roman pontiffs ; v/hich receiv- ed at the same time a new support by the institution of the Order of the Jesuits. The founder of this order was Ignatius Loyola, who was bom at the Castle of Loyola in Guipuscoa. He made the declaration of his vows in the church of Montmartre at Pans (1534,) and obtained from Paul III. the confirmation of his new Society. This order was bound, by a particular vow of obedi- ence, more intimately to the Court of Rome ; and became one of the main instruments of its enormous power. From Spain the Society was speedily propagated in all the other Catholic States ; they filled cities and courts with their emissaries; undertook i mission^ to China, Japan, and the Indies ; and under the special ' protection of the See of Rome, they soon surpassed m credit and wealth every other religious order. _ In the midst of these changes which took. place in civil and ecclesiastical matters, we find a new system arising in the poll- wnen Pope transferred it took place at made himself le Emperor the Council, to assemble lappen in the 60, Pius IV., le, to meet at illl562; and same way as nation delibe- mmon, so that )tes of the dif- It all palatable ponderance in !ty of the votes 'he Protestam uncil; which, sm wider than sral of the Ga- it was never iuch of its acts vs of the king- maxims of the nstrumental in ; v/hich receiv- n of tlie Order natius Loyola, }a. He made nartre at Paris ion of his new vow of obedi- became one of rom Spain the itholic States ; ;s; undertook der the special ssed in credit :e in civil and ig in the poli- PESioD. VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648. 219 tical government of Europe ; the conse({wence of those new ties and relations which had been established amongst the different powers since the close of the fifteenth century. Prior to this date, most of the Europpan S»ntps were feeble, because insulated and detached. Occupied with their own particular interests and quarrels, the nations were little acquainted with each other, and seldom had any influence on their mutual destinies. The faults and imperfections inherent in the feudal system hud pervaded all Europe, and crippled the power and the energies of government. The sovereigns, continually at war with their factious and power- ful vassals, could neither form plans of foreign conquest, nor carry them into execution ; and their military operations were in ge- neral without unity or effect. [Hence it happened, that in the middle ages, changes were produced in the different States, which so little alarmed their neighbours, that it may be said they were scarcely conscious of their existence. Such were the conquests of the English in France, which might certainly have compromised the independence of Europe.] A combination of causes and circumstances, both physical and moral, produced a revolution in the manners and govern- ments of most of the Continental States. The disorders of feudal anarchy gradually disappeared ; constitutions better or- ganized were mtroduced ; the temporary levies of vassals were succeeded by regular and permanent armies ; which contributed to humble the exorbitant power of the nobles and feudal barons. The consequence was, that States formerly weak and exhausted, acquired strength ; while their sovereigns, freed from the tur- bulence and intimidation of their vassals, began to extend their political views, and to form projects of aggrandizement and conquest. From this period the reciprocal influence of the European States on each other began to be manifest. Those who were afraid for their independence, would naturally conceive the idea of a balance of power capable of protecting them against the in roads of ambitious and warlike princes. Hence those frequent embassies and negotiations ; those treaties of alliance, subsidies, and guarantees ; those wars carried on by a gene °al combina- tion of powers, who deemed themselves obliged to bear a part in the common cause ; and hence too those projects for establish- ing checks and barriers on each other, which occupied the dif- ferent courts of Europe. [The system of equilibrium or the balance of power, originated in Italy. That peninsula, separated from the rest of the continent by the sea and the Alps, had outstripped the other countries in the career of civilization. There a multitude of indepnndeut 880 CHAPTER VII. States had been formed, unequal in point of power and extent ; but none of them had sufficient strength to resist the united power of the rest, or usurp dominion over them ; while at the same time, none of them were so contemptible in point of weakness, as not to be of some weight in the scale. Hence that rivalry and jealousy among them, which was incessantly watching over the progress of their neighbours ; and hence, too, a series of wars and confederacies, whose object was to maintain some degree ol equality among them ; or at least a relative proportion, which might inspire the weaker with courage and confidence. Ihe Popes who were exceedingly active in these transactions, em- ployed all their policy to prevent any foreign po\yer from inter- fering, or establishing itself in Italy. The doctrine of political equilibrium passed the Alps about the end of the fifteenth cen- tury The House of Austria, which had suddenly risen to a high pitch of grandeur, was the first against which its efforts were directed.] . . , n j i l r u This House, which derived its origin from Rodolph of Haps- burg, who was elected Emperor of Germany towards the end of the thirteenth century, owed its greatness and elevation chiefly to the Imperial dignity, and the different family alliances which this same dignity procured it. Maximilian of Austria, son of the Emperor Frederic III., married Mary of Burgiindy (1477,) daughter and heiress of Charles the Rash, last Duke of Bur- gundy. This alliance secured to Austria the whole of the Low Countries, including Franche-Comte, Flanders, and Artois. Philip the Fair, the son of this marriage, espoused the Infanta of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castiile. 1 hey had two sons, Charles and Ferdinand, the former of whom, known in history by the name of Charles V., inherited the Low Countries in right of his father Philip (1506.) On the death of Ferdinand, his maternal grandfather (1616,) he became heir to the whole Spanish succession, which comprehended the king- doms of Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, together with Spanish America. To these vast possessions were added his partimonial dominions in Austria, which were transmitted to him by his paternal grandfather the Emperor Maximilian 1. About the same time (1619,) the Imperial dignity was conferred on this prince by the electors ; so that Europe had not seen, since the time of Charlemagne, a monarchy so powerful as that ** This Emperor concluded a treaty with his brother Ferdinand, by which he ceded to him all his hereditary possessions inGer- many. The two brothers thus became the ftiunders of the two principal branches of the House of Austria, viz. that of Sjpain, ^m r and extent ; St the united le at the same of weakness, at rivalry and hing over the eries of wars ome degree of •onion, which fidence. The isactions, em- ^er from inter- ne of political fifteenth cen- nly risen to a licli its efforts lolph of Haps- irds the end of evation chiefly illiances which Vustria, son of 'piindy (1477,) Duke of Bur- lole of the Low i, and Artois. ;ed the Infanta Castille. They mcr of whom, erited the Low )n the death of lecame heir to ided the king- together with ere added his transmitted to Maximilian I. was conferred had not seen, iwerful as that ler Ferdinand, !ssions in Ger* ers of the two that of Spain, PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453 — IB48. 221 (vhieh began with Charles V., (called Charles I. of Spain,) and ended with Charles II. ( 1700 ;) and that of Germany, of which Ferdinand I. was the ancestor, and which became extinct in the 'nnle line in the Emperor Charles VI. (1740.) These two brunches, closely allied to each other, acted in concert for the advancement of their reciprocal interests ; moreover ihey gained each their own separate advantages by the marriage connexions which they formed. Ferdinand I. of the German line, married Anne (1521,) sister of Louis Kin"; of Hungary and Bohemia, who having been .slain by the 1 urks at the battle of Mohacs (1526,) these two kingdoms devolved to Ferdinand of the House of Austria. Finally, the marriage which Charles V. contracted with the Infant Isabella, daughter of Emmanuel, King of Por- tugal, procured Philip II. of Spain, the son of that marriage, the whole Portuguese monarchy, to which he succeeded on the death of Henry, called the Cardinal (1580.) So vast an ag grandi/ement of power alarmed the sovereigns of Europe, who began to suspect that the Austrian Princes, of the Spanish and (xerman line, aimed at universal monarchy. The unbounded ambition of Charles V., and his son Philip II., as well as that of Ferdinand II., grandson of Ferdinand I., tended to confirm these suspicions ; and all felt the necessity of uniting to oppose a barrier to this overwhelming power. For a long time the whole policy of Europe, its wars and alliances, had no other object than to humble the ambition of one nation, whose pre- ponderance seemed to threaten the liberty and independence of the rest. [The system of political equilibrium, which from this period became the leading object of every European cabinet, until it was undermined by unjust and arbitrary interferences, and threatened to bury the independence of Europe in its ruins, did not aim at maintaining among the different states an equality of power or territorial possession. This would have been chi- merical. The object of this system was to maintain a perfect equality of rights, in virtue of which the weakei might enjoy in security all that they held by a just claim. It was purely a defensive and preservative system ; nor did it affect to put an end to all wars ; it was directed solely against the ambition and usurpation of conquerors. Its fundamental principle was to prevent any one slate from acquiring sufHcient power to resist the united efforts of the others.] France was the leading power that undertook the task of re- gulating the balance against the House of Austria. Francis I. and Henry II. used every effort to excite combinations against Charleo V. Francis was the first sovereign in Eiiroiw that • ♦u -dJ It I < H^ S2S2 ClIAFfER Vll. entered into treaties of nllinnce with the Turks against Austria ; and in this way the Porte was, to a certain extent, amalgamateil with the political system of Europe. So long as their object was to subvert the feudal aristocracy, and the Protestant reli- gion in France, Francis and Henry were strenuous defenders of the Germanic system, and extended their protection to Uw sovereigns of the Protestant States of the Empire, under the persuasion that all Europe would bend to the Austriari yoke, if the Emperors of that House should succeed in rendering theii Eower absolute and hereditary in the Empire. Henry IV. ,ouis XIII., and the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, adopted the same line of lolicy." They joined in league with the Protestant Princes, antl armed W turns the greater part of Eu- rope against Austria, and the Emperor Ferdinand II., whose ambitious designs threatened to subvert the constitution of the Empire. This was the grand motive for the famous Thirty Years' War. which was put an end to by the treaties of West- phalia (1648,) and of the Pyrenees (1659.) France succeeded, not however without prodigious eflbrts, in supporting the ba- lance against Austria; while the federative system of the Empire, consolidated by the former of these treaties, and gua- ranteed by France and Sweden, became a sort of artificial bar- rier, ior preserving the equilibrium and the general tranquillity of Europe. , . , • r- It was during this period that almost every kingdom in Eu- rope changed their condition, and assumed, by degrees, the form which they have still retained. The German Empire continued to experience those calamities to which every government is exposed, when its internal springs have lost their vigour and activity. Private wars and feuds, which the laws authorized, were then regarded as the chief bulwark of the national liberty ; the noblesse and the petty states in general, knew no other jus- tice than what the sword dispensed. Oppression, rapine and violence, were become universal ; commerce languished ; and the different provinces of the Empire presented one melan- choly scene of ruin and desolation. The expedients that were tried to remedy these disorders, the tmces, the treaties (called the Peace of God,) and the different confederacies of the Im- perial states, served only to palliate, but not to cure the evil. The efforts which some of the Emperors made to establish the public tranquillitv on some solid basis, proved equally abortive. It was not until near the end of the fifteenth century that the states of the Empire, impressed with juster notions of govern- •nent and civil subordination, consented to thp total and enUn iiboliDon o>' feuds and intestine wars Thi', was accomplished inst Austria; amalgamated Is their object [rotestant reli* lus defenden itection to tlin re, under the strian yoke, if mdering theii Henry IV. tzarin, adopted gue witii the er part of Eu- nd II., whose litution of the (imous Thirty ities of West- nee succeeded, rarting the ba- lysteni of the itics, and gua* ' artificial bar- ral tranquillity igdom in Eu« gtees, the form pirc continued government is !ir vigour and vs authorized, itional liberty ; V no other jus* n, rapine and iguished ; and d one mclan* jnts that were reaties (called ies of the Im» cure the evil. ) establish the iially abortive, ntury that the )ns of govern* tai and entire accomplishud PLRioD VI A. t . 1443 — 1648L S2» under the reign of Mnxiniilian I., by the Perpetual PiMir. Prece, drawn up at the Diet of Worms in 1495. All violent means of redress among the members of the Germanic Body were rigorously interdicted ; and all who had any ^omplai^l^ to malce against each other, were enjoined to apply to the reguln- courts of justice. This ordinance of the Public Peace, which wos afterwards renewed and enlarged in several diets, has l>pen regarded, smce that time, as one of the principal and funda- mental laws of the Empire. The establishment of the Public Peace rendered a reforma- tion necessary in the administration of justice, which had long been in a languid and di.sordercd state. For this purpose, the Imperial Chamber, which sat at first at Spire, and was after- wards transferred to Wetzlar, was instituted at the Diet of Worms (1495.) Its object was to judge of auy diflerences that might arise among the immediate members of the Germanic body ; as also to receive any appeals that might be referred to them from the subordinate trimmals. It was composed of a chief or head, called the Judge of the Chamber, and of a cer- tain number of assessors chosen from among the jurists and independent nobility. The institution of the Aulic Council, anotner sovereign court of the Empire, followed soon after that of the Imperial Chamber. Its origin is generally referred to the Diet of Cologne (1512.) Of the same date also is the plan which they adopted of dividing the Empire into ten Circles, as a proper expedient for maintaining the public peace, and faci- litating the execution of the sentences of the two Imperial Courts. Over each of these circles were placed princes, direc- tors, and colonels, whose duty it was to superintend and com- mand the troops of their respective districts. The custom of Imperial Capitulations was introduced at the time of the accession of Charles V. to the Imperial throne (1519.^ The Electors, apprehensive of the formidable power of that prince, thought proper to limit it by a capitulation, which they made him sign and solemnly swear to observe. This compact between the new Emperor and the Electors, renewed under every subsequent reign, has been always considered as the grand char- ter of the liberties of the Germanic body. The dissensions on the score of religion that happened about the beginning of the sixteenth century, gave rise to a long series of troubles and civil wars, which proved of advantage to the House of Austria, by the confirmaiiou of their power in the Em- pire. The first of these is known by the name of the war of Smalcalden, of which the following is a brief sketch. The Ep- peror Charles V.. in the first diet which he held at Worms (527,) •li 1]^ 834 CHAPTER VII. had issued an edict of nioscription ngain!<* Luther and his adhr* rents, ordaining that tliey sliould be treated as enemies of thi* Empire, and prosecuted to the utmost rigour of the law. The execution of this edict was incessantly urged by the Emperor nnd the Pope's legates, until the whole Empire was in a stale nf combustion. The Catholic princes, at the mitigation of Cardi- nal Campeggio, as^ecn united to the German Empire smce the tenth century. The principal of these had been acquired by the Dukes of Burgtmdy, who made them over, with other estates, to the House of Austria (1477.) Charles V. added the provinces of Friesland, Groningen, and Gueldres, to the states to which he and succeeded in Burgundy. He united the seventeen pro- vinces of the Low Countries mto one and the same government ; and ordered, by the Pragmatic decree which he published ( 1549,) th it they should never henceforth be disunited. This same prince, at th» diet of Augsbarg (1548,) entered into a negotia- tion with the Germanic Body, in virtue of which he consented to put these provinces under their protection ; under condition of their observing the public peace, and paying into the exche- quer of the Empire double the contribution of an Electorate. He guaranteed to the princes of the Low Countries a vote and a seat at the Diet, as chiefs of the circle of Burgundy. These provinces, moreover, were to be considered as free and indepen- deth sovereignties, without being subject to the jurisdiction either of the Empire or of the Imperial Chamber, who were not au- thorized to proceed against them, except when they were found in nt rears with the payment of their contingent, or when they infringed the law of the public peace. Charles V. having transferred these countries to his son, Philip IL of Spain, they were then incorporated with the Span- ish monarchy ; and it was under the reign of this latter prince that those troubles began which gave rise to the Republic of the United Provinces of the Low Countries. The true origin of these troubles is to be found in the despotism of Philip IL, and in his extravagant and fanatical zeal for the Catholic religion. This prince, the declared enemy of the rights and liberties of the Belgic Provinces, was mortified to witness the religious pri- vileges which they enjoyed ; under favour of which the doc- trines of the Reformation were daily making new progress. Being resolved to extirpate this new faith, together with the political liberties which served to protect it, he introduced the tribunal of the Inquisition ( 1559,) as the most sure and infalli- ble support of despotism. With the consent and authority of Pope Paul IV., he suppressed, for this purpose, the metropolitan and diocesan rights which the archbishops and bishops of the Empire and of France had exercised in the Low Countries ; he instituted three new bishoprics at Utrecht, Cambray, and Mech- lin ; and under their jurisdiction he put thirteen new bishoprics which he had erected, besides those of Arras and Tournay. Having in this way augmented the number of his satellites m the assembly of the States-Genera), he suppressed a great mul- voL. I. 20 1.1 hi4dMl^J>^M*«MM«fak. m S30 CHAPTER VU. litude of abbeys and monasteries, the revenues of which ho ap- plied to the endowment of his newly made bishoprics. These innovations, added to the publication of the decree? oi the Council of Trent, according to his orders, excited a very general discontent. The repeated remonstrances on the pan o< the States, having produced no effect on the inflexible mind of Philip, the nobility took the resolution of formmg a confe- deracy at Breda, known by the name of the Compromise. The confederates drew up a request, which was addressed to Mar- garet of Austria, the natural daughter of Charles V., and Re- gent of the Low Countries, under the King of Spain. Four hundred gentlemen, headed by Henry de Brederode, a descen- dant of the ancient Counts olf Holland, and Louis of Nassau, brother to the Prince of Orange, repaired to Brussels (1566,) and th-?re presented this request, which may be considered as the commencement of the troubles in the Low Countries. It was on this account that the name of Gueux or Beggars was given to the Confederates, which has become so famous in the history of these wars. About this same time, the populace collected in mobs in seve- ral towns of the Low Countries, and fell upon the churches and monasteries ; and having broken down their altars and images, they introduced the exercise of the Protestant religion by force. The storm, however, was calmed ; the Catholic worship was re-established every where ; and the confederacy of the nobles dissolved, several of whom, distrustful of this apparent tran- Juillity, retired to foreign countries. William Prince of Orange, ,ouis of Nassau, the Counts de Culemburg and Berg, and the Count de Brederode, were in the number of these ernigrants. Philip IL, instead of adopting measures of moderation and clemency, according to the advice of the Regent, was deter- mined to avenge, in the most signal manner, this outrage against his religion and the majesty of his throne. He sent the famous Duke of Alba or Alva into the Low Countries, at the head of an army of 20,000 men (1567.) The Regent then gave in her re- signation. A general terror overspread the country. Vast numbers of manufacturers and merchants took refuge in Eng- land, carrying along with them their arts and thei? industry. Hence the commerce and manufactures of the Low Countries, which had formerly been the most flourishing in Europe, fell entirely into decay. The Duke of Alva, immediately on his arrival, established a tribunal or court, for investigating the excesses that had been committed during these commotions. This council, which ihe Flemings called the " Council of Blood," informed against all rERioD VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648. 381 [which ho ap. Vies, lie decreep oi xcited a verv on the pan [flexible mind ling a confe- romise. The ssed to Mar- V., and Re- Spain. Four [de, a descen- is of Nassau, ussels (1566,) onsidered as [Countries. It Beggars waa famous in the mobs in seve- churches and s and images, gion by force. c worship was of the nobles ipparent tran- ice of Orange, Berg, and the ise emigrants. >deration and nt, was deter* itrage against !nt the famous he head of an fave in her re- Lintry. Vast ffuge in Eng- leii industry. )w Countries, I Europe, fell established s lat had been il, which ihe d against all those who had been in any way concerned with the Gueux or Bfgf,ars, who had frequented their preachings, contributed to the support of their ministers or the building of their churches t or harboured and protected these heretics, either directly, or in- directly. Before this council, whose only judges were the Duke of Alva and his confidant John de Vargas, were cited high and low, without distinction ; and all those whose wealth excited their cupidity. There they instituted proceedings against the absent and the present, the dead and the living, and con- fiscated their goods. Eighteen thousand persons perished by the hands of the executioner, and more than 30,000 others were entirely ruined. Among the number of those illustrious vic- tims of Alva's cruelty, were the Counts Egmont and Horn, who were both beheaded. Their e.xecution excited a general in- dignation, and was the signal of revolt and civil war throughout the Low Countries. The Beggars, who seem<>d almost forgotten, began to revive ; and were afterwards distinguished into three kinds. All the malcontents, as well as the adherents of Luther and Calvin, were called simply by this name. Those were called Beggars of the Woods, who concealed themselves in the forests and marshes ; never sallying forth but in the night, to commit all sorts of excesses. Lastly, the Maritime or Marine Beggars, were those who employed themselves in piracy ; infesting the coasts, and making descenis on the country. It was in this situation of affairs that the Prince of Orange, one of the richest proprietors in the Low Countries, assisted by his brother the Counts of Nassau, assembled different bodies of troops in the Empire, with which he attacked the Low Coun- tries in several places at once (1668.) Failing in these first attempts, he soon changed his plan ; and associating the Marine Beggars in tho cause, he ventured to attack the Spaniards by sea. The Beggars, encouraged by that Prince, and William Count de la Mark, surnamed the Boar of Ardennes, took the city of Brille by surprise (1572,) situated in the Isle of Voom, and regarded as the stronghold of the new republic of the Bel- gic Provinces. The capture of the port of Brille caused a re- volution in Zealand. All the cities of that province, except Middleburg, opened their gates to the Beggars ; and their ex- ample was followed by most of the towns in Holland. An as- sembly of the States of this latter province met this same year at Dort, where they laid the foundation of their new republic. The Prince of Orange was there declared Stadtholder or Go- vernor of the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, and Utrecht ; and they agreed never to treat with the Spaniards, ex- il i\ ^ T» i 232 CBAFTEB Vll. cent by common consent. The public exercise of the reformed rengion was introduced, according to the form of Geneva. This rising republic became more firmly established in con- sequence of several advantages which the Confederates had gamed over the Spaniards, whose troops being badly paid, at length mutinied ; and breaking out into the greatest disorders, they pillaged several cities, among others Antwerp, and laid waste the whole of the Low Countries. The States-General, then assembled at Brussels, implored the assistance of the Prince of Orange and thitj Confederates. A negotiation was then opened at Ghent (1576,) between the States of Brussels, and those of Holland and Zealand ; where a general union, known by the name of the Pacification of Ghent, was signed. They engaged mutually to assist each other, with the view of expelling the Spanish troops, and never more permitting them to enter the Low Countries. The Confederates, who were in alliance with Queen Elizabeth of England, pursued the Spaniards every where, who soon saw themselves reduced to the single provinces of Luxemburg, Limburg, and Namur. They were on the point of being expelled from these also, when the government of the Low Countries was intrusted to Alexander Farnes^, Prince of Parma. Equally distinguished as a politician and a warrior, this Prince revived the Spanish inte- rests. Taking advantage of the dissensions which had arisen among the Confederates from the diversity of their religious opinions, he again reduced the provinces of Flanders, Artois, and Hainault, under the Spanish dominion. He took the city of Maestricht by assault, and entered into a negotiation with the States-General of the Low Countries at Cologne, under the mediation of the Emperor Rodolph U., the Pope, and some of the princes of the Empire. This negotiation proved unsuccess* ful ; but the Prince of Orange, foreseeing that Ihe general con- federacy could not last, conceived the plan of a more intimate union among the Provinces ; which he regarded as the most fit to make head against the Spaniards. He fixed on the maritime provinces, such as Holland, Zealand, and Friesland ; and above all, on those whom the same religious creed, viz. the Calvinistic, had attached to the same interests. The commerce of Hol- land, and Zealand, and Friesland, began to make new progress daily. Amsterdam was rising on the ruins of Antwerp. The flourishing state of their marine rendered these provinces for- midable by sea ; and gave them the means not only of repelling the eflTorts of the Spaniards, but even of protecting the neigh- bouring provinces which might join this Union. ^ Such were the motives which induced the Prince of Orange to form the special n he reformed "eneva. |hed in con- lerates had Idly paid, at Bt disorders, Jrp, and laid tes>6eneral, if the Prince was then russels, and lion, known ned. They of expelling to enter the lltance with liards every Vie provinces these also, intrusted to linguished as Spanish inte- t had arisen eir religious ders, Artois, ook the city tiation with e, under the ind some of I unsuccess- ^eneral con- 9re intimate the most fit le maritime ; and above Calvinistic, ■ce of Hol- !w progress i^erp. The »vinces for- af repelling the neigh- :h were the the S])ecial J! PBBIOD. Vi. A. D. 1453 — 1648. iiKl i!onfederacy of the Seven Provinces, the basis of which he laid i)y the famous treaty of Union concluded at Utrecht (1579.) That Union was there declared perpetual and indissoluble ; and it was agreed that the Seven Provinces, viz. those of Gueldres. Holland, Zealand. Utrecht, Ovoryssel, Friesland, and Groningen, should henceforth be considered as one and the same Province Each of these, nevertheless, was guaranteed in the possession of their rights and privileges — that is, their absolute superiority m every thing regarding their own internal administration. [We may remark, however, that these insurrectionary pro- vinces had not originally the design of forming a republic. Their intention, at first, was only to maintain their political pri- vileges ; and they did not absolutely shake off the Spanish authority until they despaired of reconciliation. Moreover, they repeatedly offered the sovereignty of their States to different foreign princes ; and it was not till the Union of Utrecht that the Seven Provinces became a federal republic. Consequently every thing remained on its ancient footing ; and some of the Erovinces even retained their Stadtholders or governors, at the ead of their administration. Hence that mixture of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, which prevailed in these countries; and hence, too, the feeble tie which united them with each other, and which would probably have speedily broken, if Holland had not, by its riches and its power, obtained an influence and pre- ponderance which maintained the Union.] The declaration of the independence of the United Provinces did not take place till 1591 ; when the Prince of Orange induced the States-General to make a formal proclamation of it, out of revenge for the furious edicts of proscription which the Court of Spain had issued against him. The Prince, however, was assas- sinated at Delft in 1584 ;' and the Spaniards took advantage of the consternation which this event had spread among the Con- federates, to reconquer most of the provinces of the Low Coun- tries. The general Confederacy languished away by degrees ; and the Union of Utrecht was the only one maintained among the Seven Provinces. This new republic, which was in strict alliance with England, not only made head against the Spaniards, but gained a considerable increase of strength by the vast num- bers of refugees from the different Belgic provinces, who took shelter there ; as well as from France, where the persecution still raged violently against the Protestants. It is calculated that after the taking of Antwerp by the Prince of Parma in 1585, above a hundred thousand of these fugitives transported themselves to Holland and Amsterdam, carrying with them their wealth and their industry. 20* « 1 I ^1 f*r, ^ite Ii SU4 CHAPTER 1. r From ihiH dnlc the commerce of the Confederate Stutet in- creased every day ; and in 1595 they extended it as far a«< India and the Eastern Seas. The Dutch India Company wiis estab- lished in 1602. Besides the exchisiye commerce of India, which was guaranteed to them by their charter, they became hkewise a political body, under the" sovereignty of the States-General of the United Provinces. Sunported by a formidable marine, they accjuired vast influence in the East by their conquests over the Portuguese, whom they dispossessed by degrees of all their principal establishments in India. The Spaniards, finding their efforts to reduce the Confederates by force of arms ineffectual, set on foot a negotiation at Antwerp (1609,) under the media- tion of Franco and England ; in consequence of which, a truce of twelve years was concluded between Spain and the United Provinces. It was chiefly during this time that the Confede- rates extended their commerce over all parts of the globe, while their marine daily increased in strength and importance ; which soon raised them "to llie rank of being the second maritime power, and gave them a decisive influence over the political affairs of Europe. At the expiration of this truce, hostilities were renewed with Spain. The Dutch carried on the war for twenty-five years with great glory, under the auspices of their Stodtholders, Maurice and Henry Frederic, Princes of Orange, who discovered great military talents. One event, which proved favourable for the Republicans, was the war that broke out between France and Spain, and which was followed by a strict alliance between France and the States-General. The partition of the Span'sh Netherlands was settled by this treaty ; and the allied powers entered into an engagement never to make peace or truce with Spain, except by common consent. This latter clause, however, did not prevent the States-Generol from concluding at Munster a separate peace with Spain, to the exclusion of France (1648.) By this peace the King of Spain acknowledged the United Pro- vinces as free and independent States ; he gave up to them all the places which they had seized in Brabant, Flanders and Lim- fiurg, viz. Bois-le-Duc, Bergen-op-Zoom, Breda, and Maestricht •. as also their possessions in the East and West Indies, in Asia Africa, and America. The closing of the Scheld, which was granted in favour of the United Provinces, entirely ruined the city of Antwerp, and shut out the Spanish Netherlands from all maritime commerce. The feudal system of the Swiss, which had originated in the fourteenth century, acquired a new importance towards the end of the fifteenth, by reason of the success of the confederates in ite States in- as far a« India ny WI18 ostab- if Indin, which icame likewise tes-General of e marine, they uests over the s of all iheir s, findin{;r their ns iiit'flectual, cr the media- which, a truce rid the United the Confede- »e globe, while irtance ; which aritimepower, itical anairs of renewed with nly-five years Stadtholders, who discovered favourable for itween France lifince between •f the Spanish allied powers ! or truce with ! juse, however, ng at Munster France (1648.) e United Pro- up to them all ders and Lim- d Maestricht : dies, in Asia d, which was ly ruined the lands from dl pnated in the varda the end 'n federates in PBRtos VI. A. D. 1453—1648. their war with Charles Duke of Burgundy. This prince, who wiis of a liot and turbulent spirit, was constantly occupied with projects of conquest. Taking advantago (if the ruinous state of the finances of the Archduke Sigismund of Austria, he induced him to sell him the territories of Brisgau and Alsiice, with the riffhl ol iipurchase (1409.) Peter dc Hagenhuch, u gentleman 01 Alsace, who hud been appointed governor of these countries by the Duke, had oppressed the Austrian subjects, and harassed the whole neighbouring states ; especially the Swiss. The complaints which were made on this score to the Duke, ly^ving only rendered Hagenbach still more insolent, the Swiss, with the concurrence of several states of the Empire, paid down, at Basle, the sums stipulated in the contract for repurchasing the two provinces ; and, by force of arms, they re-established the Austrian prince in the possession of Alsace and Bri.sgau. They even went so far as to institute legal proceedings against Hagen- bach, who was in consequence beheaded at Brisach in 1474. The Duke, determined to avenge this insult, assembled an army of a hundred thousand men, with which he penetrated through Franche-Comte into Switzerland. He was defeated in the first action, which took place at Granson (1476;) after which he reinforced his troops, and laid siege to Morat. Here he was again attacked by the Swiss, who killed eighteen thou- sand of his men, and seized the whole of his camp and baggage. The Duke of Lorraine, an ally of the Swiss, was then restored to those states of which the Duke of Burgundy had deprived him. This latter prince, in a great fury, came and laid siege to Nancy. The Swiss marched to the relief of this place, where they fought a third and last battle with the Duke, who was here defeated and slain (1477.) These victories of the Swiss over the Duke of Burgundvi one of the most powerful princes of his time, raised the fame of their arms ; and made their friendship and alliance courted by the first sovereigns in Europe, especially by France. Their con- federacy, which had formerly been composed of only eight can- tons, was augmented by the accession of two new states, Friburg and Soleure, which were enrolled in the number of cantons. From this time the Swiss were no longer afraid to break the ties that bound them to the Germanic Body, as members of the ancient kingdom of Aries. The Diet of Worms, in 1496, having granted the Emperor Maximilian succours against the French and the Turks, the Swiss alleged their immunities, and their alliance with France, as a pretext for refusing their contingent of supplies. This demand, however, was renewed at the Diet of Lindau, in 1496, which required them to renounce their alii- '*n !l!l if ^ CHAPTKB VII- ance with Frnncc, and accpdc to tho Lenpiie of Swabia ; as also to submit themselves to the Imperial Chnmher, and the law of the public pence ; and to furnish their quota for the support of thai Chnm()er, and tho other contributions of the Empire. All these demands were resisted by the Helvetic Body, who regard- ed them as contrary to their rights and privileges. Meantime the Grisons had allied themselves with the Swiss, in order »o obtain their protection under the existing differences between them and the Tyrolese. The Emperor Maximilian seized this pretext for making war against the Cantons. Being desirous of vindicating the dignity of the Empire, which had l)een outraged by the Swiss, and of avenging the insults offered to his own family, he stirred up the League of Swabia to oppose them ; and attacked them in diffe- rent points at once. Eight battles were fought in succession, in course of that campaign ; all of which, with one solitary excep- tion, were in favour of the Swiss, while the Imnerialists lost more than twenty thoiisand men. Maximilian and liis allies, the Swa- bian League, then came to the resolution of making their peace with the Cantons, which was concluded at Basle (1499.) Both parties made a mutual restitution of what they had wrested from each other ; and it was agreed, that the differences between the Emperor, as Count of Tyrol, and the Grisons, should be brought to an amicable termination. This peace forms a memorable era in the history of the Helvetic Confederacy, whose independence, with regard to the German Emperor, was from that time con- sidered as decided ; although no mention of this was made in the treaty, and although the Swiss still continue", for some time to request from the Emperors the confirmation of their immunities. Two immediate cities of the Empire, those of Basle and Schaufjf- hausen, took occasion, from the&e latter events, to solicit their admission into the Confederacy. They were received as allies, under the title of Cantons (1601 ;) and the territory of Appenzel, which was admitted in like manner (1613,) formed the thirteenth and last Canton. The alliance which the Swiss had kept up with France, since the reigns of Charles VII. and Louis XI., tended greatly to se- cure the independence of the Helvetic Body.^ This alliance, which Louis XI. had made an instrument for humbling the power of the Duke of Burgundy, was never but once broken, in the reign of Louis XII., on account of the Holy League, into which the Swiss were drawn by the intrigues of the Bishop of Sion (1512.) The French were then expelled from the Milan- ese territory by the Swiss, who placed there the Duke Maximi- lian Sforza. It was in gratitude for this service, that the duke IJi. PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453— 164S. 237 fabia ; aa also id the low of [»e support of "empire. All I, who regard- Mean»iinn IS, in order to ices between ' making war g the dignity Swiss, and of stirred up the them in difTe- succession, in olitary excep- ists lost more lies, the Swa- ip their peace 1499.) Both wrested from s between the lid be brought nemornble era independence, hat time con- is made in the some time to r immunities, and Schauff- solicit their ived as allies, of Appenzel, :he thirteenth France, since greatly to se- rhis alliance, umbling the ce broken, in League, into le Bishop of 1 the Milan- ike Maximi- lat the duke reded to the Swiss, by it treaty which was concluded at Bnsle, the four bailiwicks of Lugano, Locarno, iMeiidrisio, and Vul< Maggio, whii'h he disincinbered from tiie Milaiiois. Though con(,uer )r« nt llie battle of Novura, »he SwisM experienced n san- guinary defeat at Marignano; when they judged it for their in- terest to renew, their alliance with France (1>313.) A treaty o( perpetual pcuce was .signed at Friburg between these two States (1(316,) which was soon after followed by a new treaty of alli- ance, concluded with Francis I. at Lucerne (1621.) and regularly renewed under the s»ibse(iuent reigns. The change which took place in religion, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, extended its influence to Switzerland, where it kin Jled the flame of civil discord. Four cantons, those of Zurich, Berne, Schaufrhausen.nnd Basle, renouncing entirely the Romish faith, had embraced the doctrines of Zuingle and Calvin ; while two others, viz. Claris and Appenzel, were divi- ded between the old and the new opinions. The Reformation having likewise found its way into the common bailiwicks, the Catholic Cantons rose in opposition to it (1531 ;) denying liber- ty of conscience to the inhabitants. Hence, a war arose be- tween the Cantons of the two religions ; which, however, was terminated the same year by a treaty of peace, guaranteeing to such parishes within the bailiwicks as had embraced the new doctrines, the liberty of still adhering to them. The same revo- lution extended to Geneva, whose inhabitants had declared so- lemnl}' in favour of the reformed worship, and erected themselves into a free and independent republic (1534.) The church of Geneva, under the direction of Calvin, became the centre and citadel of the Reformation ; while the academy founded in that city, produced a vast number of theologians and celebrated scho lurs. It was at this time that the duke of Savoy planned the blockade of Geneva, to enforce certain ancient rights which he claimed over that city ; but the Bernese espoused the cause of the Genevans, in virtue of the treaties of common citizenship which subsisted between them. This Canton having entered into alliance with Francis I., declared war against the duke of Savoy (1536 ;) and in less than three months took from him the Pays de Vaud. Being desirous of interesting their neighbours the Friburgcrs in their cause, they invited them to take posses- sion of all those places that might suit their convenience ; and it was on this occasion that the city of Friburg acquired the prin- cipal part of its territory. These acquisitions were confirmed to the two Cantons, by the treaty which the Bernese concluded at Ijausanne with the duke of Savoy (1564.) The German Empire from time to time renewed its preton- i I In ill. CIUPTKII VII. '-I ■ionri on Switzerland, and thr Impcrinl Chamber usurped hu occnsionni jiiriiHdictioii over one or other of the Cnmons. Nc- gotintioim for n ^'encrnl peace haviiijj commenced in Munster and Osnahiirg, the thirteen Cantons sent their minister or envoy to wntch over tlie interests of the Helvetic Body at that congress ; and they obtained, through the intervention of France and Swe- den, that in one of the articles of the treaty it shouhl be decla- red, that the city of Basle, and the other Swiss Cantons, were in possession of full liberty, and independent of the Empire, and in no respect subject to its tribunals. In Italy, the authority of the Emperor of Germany, which had silently declined during: ibe preceding centuries, langiiished more and more under the long and feeble reign of Frederic III. At length it was reduced to the mere ceremony of coronation, and the simple exercise of some honorary and feudal rights, such as the investitures which the Imperial Court continued to grant to the vassals of Lombardy. Although the Imperial dignity im« plied the royalty of Italy, which was considered as indissolubly united to it, nevertheless it was the custom that the Kings of Germany should have themselves crowned separately. Kings of Italy at Milan, and Emperors at Rome. Frederic III., having had certain reasons for avoiding his coronation at Milan, received from the hands of Pope Nicholas V., in his own capital, the two crowns of Italy and Kome. Maximilian I., being prevented by the Venetians from repairing to Italy for his coronation (1608,) WHis content to take the title of Emperor Elect, which his succes- sors in the Empire have retained till the present time. Charles V. was the last Emperor to whom the Pope, Clement VII., ad- ministered that double coronation of King of Italy and Emperor, at Bologna, in 1530. The Popes, the Kings of Naples, the Dukes of Milan, and the Republics of Venice and Florence, were the principal powers that shared among them the dominion of Italy towards tne end of the fifteenth century. The continual wars which these states waged with each other, added to the weakness of the German Emperors, encouraged foreign powers to form plans of aggran- dizement and conquest over these countries. The Kings of France, Charles VUl.. Louis XII., and Francis I., led away by a mania for conquest, undertook several expeditions into Italy, for enforcing their claims either on the kingdom of Naples, or the dutchy of Milan. They were thwarted in their schemes by the Kings of Spain, who, being already masters of Sicily and Sardinia, thought it behoved them also to extend their views to the Continent of Italy. Ferdinand the Catholic deprived the French of the kingdom of Naples (1600.) His successor, Charles usurped ru Anions. Ne- ll I Munster 'ter or envoy Imi congre»8 ; icp nnd Swp. Ji\A be dccla« tons, were in Empire, and y, which had , languished Frederic III. )f coronation, rights, such lucd to grant «l dignity im. I indi.sjiolubly the Kings of ely, Kings of ' ni., having ilan, received ipital, the two prevented by intion (1508,) -h his succes* ne. Charles ent VII., ad- M Emperor, ilan, and the cipal powers ards the end I these states the German s of aggran- ^>e Kings of led away by IS into Italy. r Naples, or schemes by f Sicily and eir views to eprived the Bor, Charles rKRinp VI. A. D. 1453—1048. 23(^ v.. expelled them from the Milniiois, mid obliged rriuu'ix \., by the treaties of Madrid (l.^iH,) Cmnbray (1529,) and Cr^pj (1644,) to f!;ivo up his pretensions on the kingdom of Naples, and the dulrhy of Milan From this time the Spaniard? werr the predoniinaling power in Iluly for more ilmn a hundred yoart. In the midst of tliese revolutions there arose three new prin- cipalities within that kingdom ; those of Florence, Purina, and Malta. The Repiibiii' of Florence held a distinguished rank in Italy during the fifteenth century, both on account of the flour- ishing state of its commerce, and the Inrgf! exlrnt of its territory, which comprehended the greater pari of Tuscany, and gave to this Republic the means of holding the balance between the other powers of Italy. The- opulent family of the Medici here exercised a hisjh degree of influence ; they ruled not by force but by their munificence, and ttic judicious use which they madi' of their great riches. The credit and popularity of the Medici, excited envy and persecution against them, an(f caused them to be several tunes banished from Florence. They were expelled from this latter place at the same time that Pope Clement VII., who was of this family, was besieged by the Imperialists in Rome (1<527.) That Pontifl", in makint; his peace with Charles V., ob- tained his consent that the Medici should be re-established at Florence, in the state in which they were before their last ban- ishment. The Emperor even promised the Pope to give Alex- der de Medici his natural daughter in marriage, with a consid- erable dowry. The Florentines, however, having shown some reluctance to receive the Medici, their city was besieged by the Imperial army, and compelled to surrender by capitulation (1530.) The Emperor, by a charter dated at Augsburg on the 28th of August following, preserved to the city of Florence its ancient republican forms. Alexander de Medici was declared governor- in-chief of the state ; but this dignity was vested in himself and his male descendants, who could only enjoy it according to the order of primogeniture. He was authorized, moreover, to con- struct a citadel at Florence, by means of which he afterwards exercised an absolute power over his fellow-citizens. As for the ducal dignity with which the new Prince of Florence was vested, it properly belonged to the dutchy of Painja, in the king- dom of Naples, which the Emperor haa conferred on him. Alexander de Medici did not long enjoy his new honours. He was universally abhorred for his cruelties, and assassinated by Lorenzo de Medici, one of his own near relations (1637.) His successor in the dutchy was Cosmo de Medici, who annexed to the territory of Florence that of the ancient republic of Sienna, which the Emperor Charles V. had conquered, and fi *'l, Slit m »trkt^imUmtitM>m 340 UUAPTER VU. conferred on his son Philip II. in name of the Empire (1664.) This latter prince being desirous of seducing Cosmo from his alliance with the Pope and the King of France, with whom the Spaniards were at war, granted him the investiture of the ter- ritory of Sienna, as a mesne-tenure holding of the crown of Spam, by way of equivalent for the considerable sums which he had advanced to Charles V, while he was carrying on the siege of Sienna. In transferring the Siennois to the Duke, Philip reserved for himself the ports of Tuscany, such as Porto Ercole, Orbitello, Telcmone, Monte-Argentaro, St. Ste- fano, Longone, Piombino, and the whole island of Elba, with the exception of Porto Ferrajo. By the same treaty, Cosmo engaged to furnish supplies to the Spaniards, for th« defence of Milan and the kingdom of Naples. At length the Medici obtained the dignity of Grand Dukes, on occasion of the difference that had risen between them and the Dukes of Ferrara, on the subject of precedency. The Pope terminated this dispute, by granting to Cosmo the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany, with the royal honours (1569.) The Em- peror, however, took it amiss that the Pope should undertake to confer secular dignities in Italy ; thus encroaching on a right which he alleged belonged only to himself, in virtue of his being King of Italy. The quarrels which this affair had oc- casioned between the Court of Rome and the Empire, were adjusted in 1576, when the Emperor Maximilian II. granted to Francis de Medici, the brother and successor of Cosmo, the dig- nity of Grand Duke, on condition that he should acknowledge it as a tenure of the Empire, and not of the Pope. Among the number of those republics which the Visconti of Milan had subdued and overthrown in the fourteenth century, were those of Parma and Placentia. They had formed a de- pendency of the dutchy of Milan until 1512, when Louis XII.. having been expelled from the Milanois by the Allies of the Holy League, these cities were surrendered by the Swiss to Pope Julius II., who laid some claim to them, as making part of the dowry of the famous Countess Matilda. The Emperor Maximilian ceded them to the Pope by the treaty of peace which he made with him in 1512. Francis I. took these cities again from the court of Rome, when he reconquered the dutchy of Milan (1515 ;) but this prince having also been expelled from the Milanois (1521,) the Pope again got possession of Parma and Placentia, in virtue of the treaty which he had concluded with Charles V., for the re-establishment of Francis Sforza in the dutchy of Milan. These cities continued to form part of the Eccleisiastical States until 1645. when th^y were dismem- tznioD VI. A. D. 1453—1648. 241 mpire (1564.) smo from his ith whom the ire of the ter- the crown of sums which rrying on the to the Duke, any, such as taro, St. Ste- of Elba, with reaty, Cosmo thp! defence of Grand Dukes, 2en them and y. The Pope title of Grand I.) The Em- i undertake to ing on a right virtue of his affair had oc- Empire, were II. granted to !osmo, the dig- [ acknowledge he Visconti of eenth century, . formed a de- en Louis XII., Allies of the the Swiss to s making part The Emperor of peace which >se cities again the dutchy of expelled from sion of Parma had concluded mcis Sforza in o form part of weie dismem* bered from it by Paul III., who erected them into dutchies, and conferred them on his son Peter Louis Farnese, and his heirs- male in the order of primogeniture ; to be held under the title of fiefs of the Holy See, and on condition of paying an annual tribute of nine thousand ducats. This elevation of a man whose very birth seemed a disgrace to the pontiff, gave universal offence. The new Duka of Parma soon rendered himself so odious by his dissolute life, his crimes and scandalous excesses, that a conspiracjr was formed against him ; and he was assassinated in the citadel of Placentia in 1547. Ferdinand Gonzaga, who was implicated, as is alleged in this assassination, then took possession of Placentia in name of the Emperor ; and it was not till 1557 that Philip II. of Spain re- stored that city, with its dependencies, to Octavius Farnese, son and successor of the murdered prince. The house of Farnese held the dutchy of Parma as a fief of the Ecclesiastical States, until the extinction of the male line in 1731. The Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, after their expulsion from the Holy Land, had retired to the Isle of Cyprus, and from thence to Rhodes, in 1310, of which they had dispossessed the Greeks. They did not maintain possession of this place longer than 1523, when Soliman the Great undertook the siege of Rhodes, with an army of two hundred thousand men, and a fleet of four hundred sail. The Knight? boldly repulsed the different attacks of the Turks ; but being entirely dependent on their own forces, and receiving no succour from the powers of Christendom, they were compelled to capitulate, after an ob- stinate defence of six months. Leaving Rhodes, these Knights took shelter in Viterbo, belonging to the States of the Church, where they were cordially received by Pope Clement VII. There they remained until the Emperor Charles V. granted them the Isle of Malta, which became their principal residence (1^0.) That prince ceded to them the islands of Malta and Gozzo, with the city of Tripoli in Africa, on condition of hold- ing them from him and his successors in the kingdom of Sicily, as noble fiefs, frank and free, without any other oWigation thra the annual gift of a falcon, in acknowledgment of their hold- ing under the crown, and presenting to the King of Sicily three of their sul^ects, of whom he was to choose one, on each va- cancy of the bishopric of Malta. Charles V. added another clause, that if ever the Order should leave Malta and fix their residence elsewhere, that island should revert to the King of Sicily. The Knights of St. John continued in the sovereignty of Malta and Gozzo till 1798; but they lost Tripoli, in 1561, which was taken from them bv the Turks, i 16 t'% 849 CHAPTER vn. i: A memorable revolution happened at Genoa, about the beffiP- . r,i,wSe sixteenth century. That republic, after having or a "onf time formed part of the dutchy "J M. an recovered its a - dent independence about the time when the French and Spa. - Srds disputed the sovereignty of ta y. and the conquest of th Milanois. Expelled by the Imperialists from the city of Geno^ in 1522, the F .-ench had found means to repossess it (1527,) witJ. he ai^tance of the celebrated Andrew Do"«^J. "gj^enoe^ who had been in the service of Francis I. This distm^ished admiral, supplanted by favourites, and maltrea ed by the court, abandoned ^he cause of France in the following year, and es noused that of the Emperor Charles V. „„ , , . , ^ The French then laid siege to the city of Nap es, which was , reduced to the lust extremity, and on the point of s""ender,ng, , when Doria, having hoisted the Imperial fl.g, set sail for Naples with the gt^lleys under his command, and threw abundance o provisions^nto the besieged city. The French army, now cut Eff fiom all communication by sea, soon began to experience those calamities from which the Imperialists had just been de- Uvered Their whole troops being destroyed by famine and con- agYousdisease,the expedition to Naples feU to the grovmd,andth^^ affairs of the French in Italy were totally nuned. It is alleged £ Charles V., to recompense Doria for this important service, offered him the sovereignty of Genoa; and that, ^-^eadof ac- i cepting this honour, that great man stipulated for the liberty ot his Sntry, whenever it should be delivered from the yoke of I Franr ^Courting the glory of being the iberator of his native city, he sailed directly for Genoa, of which he made himself ' master, in a single night, without shedding one drop of blood SSai The French garrison retired to the citadel, and were oblieed to capitulate for want of provisions. ^ _ , ... E expe\lition procured Doria the title of Father «f his Country, which was conferred on him by a decree of the Senate It was> his advice that a committee of twelve persons was chosen to organize a new scheme of government for the republ^. A recrister was drawn up of all those families who were to com- pose the Grand Council, which was destined to exercise the sunreme power. The Doge was to continue in office ten years , anS great care was taken to remove those causes which had pre- viously excited factions and intestine disorders. Hence the establishment of the Genoese aristocracy, whose forms have since been preserved, with some few modifications which were imrodS after^vards, in consequence of certain dissensions which had arisen between the ancient and the new nobility. Venice, the eldest of the European republics, had reached lh« R4S. vrr^rrrvrV^.^' ut the begip- having for a vered its aii- ch and Span* inquest of the ity of Genoa (1527,) witli oble Genoese, distinguished by the court, year, and es es, which was surrendering, ail for Naples, abundance of army, now cut to experience just been de- kmine and con- ground, and the . It is alleged portant service, , instead of ac- »r the liberty of m the yoke of or of his native made himself drop of blood tadel, and were Father of his e of the Senate, ve persons was for the republic. were to com- to exercise the )ffice ten years , 1 which had pre- s. Hence the me forms have )ns which were ain dissensions iw nobility, had reached the PERIOD VI. A. D. 14^3 — 1648. 243 zenith of its greatness about the end of th^ fifteenth century. The vast extent of its commerce, si n^orted by a powerful ma- rine, the multiplied sources of its industry, and the monopoly of the trade in the East, had made it one of the richest and most formidable States in Europe. Besides several ports on the Adriatic, and numerous settlements which they had in the Archipelago, and the trading towns on the Levant, they gained ground more and more on the continent of Italy, where they formed a considerable territory. Guided by an artful and en- terprising policy, this Republic seized with marvellous avidity every circumstance which favoured its views of aggrandizement. On the occasion of their quarrels with the Duke of Ferrara, they obtained possession of the province of Polesino de Rovigo, by a treaty which they concluded with that prince in 1484. Afterwards, having joined the League which the powers of Italy had opposed to Charles VIII. and his projects of conquest they refused to grant supplies to the King of Naples for the re- covery of his kingdom, except by his consenting to yield up the cities of Trani, Otranto, Brindisi, and Gallipoli. Louis XIL, being res'^lved to enforce his claims on the dutchy of Milan, and wishing to gain over this Republic to his interest, gave up to them, by the treaty of Blois (1499,) the town of Cremona, and the whole country lying between the Oglio, the Adda, and the Po. On the death of Pope Alexander VI. (1503,) they took that favourable opportunity of wresting from the Ecclesiastical States several towns of Romagna ; among others, Rimini and Faenza. Of all the acquisitions which the Venetans made, the most important was that of Cyprus. That island, one of the most considerable in the Mediterranean, had been conquered from the Greeks by Richard Coeur de Lion, King of England, who sur- rendered it to Guy of Lusignan (1192,) the last king of Jeru- salem, in compensation for the loss of hi"? kingdom. From Guy of Lusignan descended a long line of Cypiioi kings ; the last of whom, John III., left an only daughter, named Charlotte, who succeeded him in that kingdom, and caused her husband, Louis of Savoy, to be also crowned king. There still remained a Das- tard son of John III., called James, who was protected by the Sultan of Egyp», to whom the kings of Cyprus were tributaries, and who succeeded in expelling Charlotte and her husband, the Prince of Savoy, from the throne (1460.) James, who was de- sirous of putting himself under the protection of the Venetians, married Catherine Cornaro, dnughier of Marco Corneille, a pa- trician of Venice. The Sen>ite, in honour of this marriage, iidopted Catherine, and declared her daughter of St. Mark or -1 *tl:, i,S, «W ^-■■J}ij^''ii'-'' JWSi " III > 244 CHAPTKB VII. the Republic. James died in 1473. leaving a P^'J^Jj^^"' ~J thus drying up the principal source «» ^t^eir , activity 01 ine ronuguc ^^ whpre in course of time obtained a firm settlement in the East, where in co Eastern commerce. , ^^^^^'^f/ ,1"%!°"^^^^ had inspired them attended the undertakings of %« 7"^'^'^;,^,7 opportunity of with a passion [- -J-J^Lir ne gCi "^^^^^^ making encroachments on "^^'r "^'S" ; ^ „ „ them- nu irkties of peace mth h» ''Sf^'^ZiC ^^»«l<''««> °' PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648. MA Isthumous son, [The Republic own inherit- )f James, and jtire to Venice, le Senate, who , in Trevisano, the investiture d by a reverse 1 to accelerate received a ter- to India round ;e of the East ; ilth, as well as id they put in commercial en- ainst them, first kish Emperors, supplies. The abstacles. They 1 course of time ion, in place of ns of India ; and m in this field of e which so long 1 inspired them y opportunity of d sometimes for- iwn upon them- il States of Italy. s League, which XII., Ferdinand ncluded at Cam- rritoryon Terra ver the republi- uch a rapid suc- (vere struck with ;n infallibly lost, he Pope and the e of the French concluded sepa- ivas the Emperor n consequence of ;ed with a total overthrow, lost only, in course of the war, the territory of Cre- mona and Ghiera d'Adda, with the cities and ports of Romagna and Apulia. But this loss was far surpassed by that which they experienced in their finances, their commerce and manufactures, on account of the expensive efTorts which they were obliged to make in resisting their numerous enemies. The ruin of this Republic was at length completed by the prodigious increase of the power of the Ottomans, who took from them, by degrees, their best possessions in the Archipelago and the Mediterranean. Dragged as it were in spite of themselves, into the war of Charles V. against the Turks, they lost four- teen islands in the Archipelago ; among others Chios, Patmos, ^gina, Nio, Stampalia, and Paros ; and were obliged, by the peace of Constantinople (1540,) to surrender to the Turks Mai- vasia and Napoli di Romagna, the only two places which re- mained to them in the Morea. The Turks also took from them the isle of Cyprus, the finest of their possessions in the Mediterranean. The Sultan Selim II., being determined to conquer that place, attacked it with a superior force (1570,) although the Venetians had given him no ground for hostilities. He made himself master of the cities of Nicosia and Famagusta ; and completed the conquest of the whole island, before the succours which the King of Spain and the Pope had granted to the Venetians, could join their fleet. On the approach of the Christian army, the Turkish fleet re- tired within the Gulf of Lepanto, where they were attacked by the allies under the command of Don John of Austria, a natural son of Charles V. The Christians gained a complete victory (1571.) The whole Turkish fleet was destroyed, and the Con- federates took immense booty. The news of this defeat struck terror into the city of Constantinople, and made the Grand Sig- nior transfer his court to Adrianople. The Christians, however, reaped no advantage from their victory. A misunderstanding arose among the Confederates, and their fleets dispersed without accomplishing any thing. The Venetians did not return to the isle of Cyprus ; and knowing well that they could not reckon on any efTectual aid on the part of their allies, they determined to make peace with the Turks (1573.) By this treaty they left the Porte in possession of Cyprus, and consented to pay it a sum of 300,000 ducats, to obtain the restitution of their ancient boundaries in Dalmatia. From this epoch, the republic of Venice dates its entire decay. It was evident, that it must thenceforth resign its pretensions as a leading power, and adopt a system of neutrality which might put it in condition to main- tain peace with its neighbours. fn M«vr,yi..j»it>ta;;i^iim«|Bri ni 'fif \n S46 1 1 •I ii CHAPTER VU. England, as we have mentioned above, had been the nval of France, while the latter now became the rival of ^ust"a- This rivalry commenced with the marriage of Maximilian of Austria, to Mary, daughter anu heiress of Charles, last Duke of Burgi*- dy ; by which the house of Austria succeeded to the whole do- minions of that Prince. The Low Countries, which at that time were the principal emporium for the manufactures and com- merce of Europe, formed a part of that opulent succession. Louis XL, King of France, was unuble to prevent the marriage of the Austrian Prince with the heiress of Burgundy ; but he took advantage of that event to detach from the territories of that princess whatever he found convenient. He seized on the dutchy of Burgundy as a vacant fief of his crown, as well as the seigniories of Auxerrois, Maconnois, Bar-sur-Seine, and the towns on the Somme ; and these different countries were pre- served to France by the treaties of peace concluded at Arras (1482) and Senlis (1493.) Such was the origin of the rivalry and bloody wars between France and Austria. The theatre of hostilities, which, under Louis XL had been in the Low Coun- tries, was transferred to Italy, under Charles Vlll., Louis All., and Francis L From thence it was changed to Germany, in the reign of Henry IL In Italy, besides this rivalry between the two powers, there was another motive, or pretext, for war, viz. the claims of France on the kingdom of Naples and the dutchy of Mikn. The claim of Louis XI. on the kingdom of Naples, had devolved to him with the county of Provence, which he inherited m virtue of the will of Charles, Count of Provence, and the last male descen- dant of the house of Anjou (1481.) Charles VIII., the son and succe.sor of Louis XI.,'urgea on by youthful ambition, was de- termined to enforce this claim. He undertook an expedition into Italy (1494,) and took possession of the kingdom of INaples without striking a blow. But being opposed by a foririidable confederacy of the Italian princes, with Maximilian at their head, he was obliged to abandon his conquests with the same tacility he had made them ; and he was fortunate in being able to eflect his retreat, by the famous victory which he gained over the al- lies near Foronuovo, in the dutchy of Parma. The claim to the dutchy of Milan, was founded on the con- tract of marriage between Louis, Duke of Orleans, the grandfa- ther of Louis XII., and Valentine of Milan That contract pro- vided, that failing heirs-male of John Galeas, Duke of Milan, the dutchy should fall to Valentine, and the children of her marriage with the Duke of Orleans. Louis XII. claimed the righu of Valentine, his grandmother, in opposition to the princes vi.-*.*,- .'.. T;A-*t'.'v«*«*«-.*>s*^' PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453—1648, 247 en the nval of Lustria. This an of Austria, ke of Burgift- the whole do- which at thai lures and com- nt succession. t the marriagfi pindy ; but he e territories of i seized on the , as well as the Seine, and the :ries were pre- luded at Arras I of the rivalry The theatre of he Low Coun- [I., Louis XII., Germany, in » powers, there aims of France m. The claim evolved to him in virtue of the 3t male descen- II., the son and ibition, was de- f an expedition jdom of Naples )y a formidable m at their head, le same facility ig able to effect [led over the ai- led on the con- ns, the grandfa- lat contract pro- Duke of Milan, children of her Al. claimed the m to the princes ol the family of Sforza, who had taken possession of he dutchv of Milan, on the extinction of the male-he.rs ol the , Vi conti wh ch happened in 1447. The different expedmons , which e undertook into Italy, both for the conquest of M.Ian Td the kingdom of Naples, met with no better success than | ibut of his predecessor had done; in consequence of a new j League, called the Holy League, which Pope Juhus II. raised 1 a2st hWn, and into which he drew the Emperor Max.m.Uaiu the K ng Arragon and England, with the Venetians and he Swit Louis XII. lost all the advantages o h.s conquests The kiuffdom of Naples fell under the power of Ferdinand the iathol^ and the family of Sforza were reinstated in the dutchy '^TheTe' Italian wars, which were renewed at different times under the reign of Francis I., co.t France much blood and im- mense sums. In this struggle she was forced to succumb, and Sis Ibound himself, by the treaty of Crepy, to abandon his claims on Italy in favour of Charles V. The kingdom of Na- oles and the dutchy of Milan remained incorporated w. h the Cn'sh monarchies. Francis I., nevertheless had the glory of arSnVthe progress of his rival, and effectually counterbalan- S' a ;ower whk, at that time, made all Europe tremble. Henrv II., the son and successor of Francis I., adopted a new lin" of policy. He attacked the House of Austria, in Cxermany ; h^Jin. en teLd into a league with Maurice, EleCor of Saxony, und the Protestant princes of the Empire, to oppt>%Charles V Tha league, which was ratified at Chambord (1552,) procured for Sy I . possession of the bishoprics of Metz, foul, and Verdun ; Ld he even succeeded in forcing the Emperor to raise the sie-; of Metz, which that prince had undertaken about the end of the year 1552. A truce of five years was agreed on be- tween hese two sovereigns at Vaucelles ; but, m the course of a few months, the war was renewed, and Philip II., who had succeeded hi father, Charles V., induced his queen, Mary of ■ EnXd, to join in it. Among the events of this war, the most remarkable are the victory of St. Quentin, gained by the Span- X(1557,) and the conquest of the <^ity«f Calais, by Francis Duke of Guise ; the last possession of the English in France nsw ^ The death of Queen Mary prepared the way for a ieaS'lhrch was signed at Chateau-Jambresis (1559,) between France England, and Spain. The Duke of Savoy obtained fhere L Stution of his estates, of which Francs I. had de- nrived him in 1536. Calais remained annexed to France. ^Tserie™ if wars, both civil and religious, broke out underthc feeble reigns of the three sons and successors of Henry 11. 1 he ! ■; ■ f@iMI?= H48 CHAPTER Vn. great influence of the Guises, and the factions which distracted •he court and the state, were the true source of hostihties, though religion was made the pretext. Francis II. having espoused Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland, the whole power and authority .>f the government passed into the hands of Francis, Duke of Uuise, and the Cardinal de Lorraine, his brother, who were the queen's maternal uncles. The power which these noblemen en- joyed excited the jealousy of Anthony, King of Navarre, and his brother Louis, Prince of Conde, who imagined that the pre- cedency in this respect was due to them as princes of the blood, in preference to the Lorraine family, who might be considered as strangers in France. The former being Calvinists, and having enlisted all the leaders of that party in their cause, it was not difficult for the Lorraine princes to secure the interest of aU the most zealous Catholics. The first spark that kindled these civil wars, was the conspi- racy of Amboise. The intention of the conspirators was to seize the Guises, to bring them to trial, and throw the mantle- ment of affairs into the hands of the princes of the blood. Ihe conspiracy having been discovered, the prince of Cond6, who was suspected of being at its head, was arrested ; and he would have been executed, had not the premature death of Francis 11. happened in the meantime. The queen-mother, Catherine de Medici, who was intrusted with the regency during the minority of Charles IX., and desirous of holding the balance between the two parties, set Conde at liberty, and granted the Calvinists the free exercise of their religion, in the suburbs and parts lying out of the towns. This famous edict (January 1562) occasion- ed the first civil war, the signal of which was the massacre of Vassy in Champagne. j • u Of these wars, there have been commonly reckoned eight under the family of Valois, viz. four in the reign of Charles IX., and four in that of Henry III. The fourth, under Charles lA., began with the famous massacre of St. Bartholomew, authorized and directed by the King (1572.) It is of some importance to notice here the Edict of Factjwa- tian of Henry III., of the month of May 1676. The new pri- vileges which this edict granted to the Calvinists, encouraged the Guises to form a league this same year, ostensibly for the maintenance of the Catholic religion, but whose real object was the dethronement of the reigning dynasty, and the elevation of the Guises. The Duke of Alen5on, only brother of Henry Ui., being dead, and the King of Navarre, who professed the Gai- vinistic faith, having become presumptive heir to the crown, the chiefs of the Catholic League no longer made a secret of thetr li=: icil distracted lities, though ing espoused and authority icis, Duke of who were the noblemen en- Navarre, and I that the pre* J of the blood, be considered alvinists, and r cause, it was interest of all as the conspi- rators was to 7 the manM[e- e blood. The f Cond^, who and he would of Francis II. Catherine de g the minority ce between the Calvinists the nd parts lying 562) occasion- le massacre of eckoned eight Df Charles IX., sr Charles IX., ew, authorized let of Pacifiea' The new pri- sts, encouraged ensibly for the real object was ;he elevation of r of Henry III., "essed the Cal- I the crown, the . secret of their PERIOD VI. A. D. 146^—1648. measures. They concluded a formal alliance (IS-S-l) with Philip n of Spain, for excluding the Bourbous from the throne of Fmnce. Henry III. was obliged, by the Leaguers, 'o recom- mence the war against the Calvinists; but perce.vmg that the Duke of Guise, and the Cardinal his ^'^o'^er, took every occ^ sion to render his government od.ous, he caused th^'" ^"'^ to ^ assassinated at Blois (1688,) and threw h'^^^lf on the rotec tion of the King of Navarre. In conjunction wuh that I -mce, he undertook the siege of Paris, during which he wa-s lumself assassinated at St. Cloud, by a Jacobm of the name of James ^'SyiS of Valois ended with Henry III., after having occupied the throne for two hundred and sixty-one y.^/"- ^ jj" this dynasty the royal authority had gamed cons derably, both by the^annexation of the great fiefs to the "ovvn-lands, and by the introduction of regular armies, which put an end to the feu- dal power. Louis xf. was chiefly instrumental m bringmg the 'IE under subjection, and putting an end to the cruelt.es and oppressions of anarchjr. If these changes, however, contr,- CJ\o public order, it fs nevertheless true that the national Sberty suSered by them ; that the royal authority da>ly received new augmentations ; and that, so early as the reign of Lou s XII., it was considered as high treason to speak of the "e'^e^s.ty of assembhng the States-General. The practice of these assemblies, Crve "was renewed under the successors of that P"nce; they even beckme frequent under the last kings of the house of Va bis, who convoked them chiefly with the view of demanding supp les. Francis I augmented his influence over the clergy by the con- SXt whicKe concluded with Leo X. (1516,) in virtue of which he obtained the nomination to all vacant prelatures ; leav- ing to the Pope the confirmation of the prelates, and the libeity °^ S^rac?of VaSs was succeeded by that of the Bourbons, who were descended from Robert Count of Clermont, younger son of St Louis. Henry IV., the first king of this dynasty, was related in the twenty-first degree to Henry III., his m.mediate predeces- sor That prince, who was a Calvinist, the more easily reduced the party of the League, by publicly abjuring nis religion at St. DeX He concluded a peace with the Spaniards, who were alUes of the League, at V^rvins; and completely t/anquilized Se kingdom by the famous edict of Nantes, whicUe published in favour of th ^reformed religion. By that edict he ^arameed o the Protestants perfect liberty of conscience, and the public exercise of their worship, with the privilege of filling all offices of trust : but he rendered them, at the same time, a piece of dis- ll in »► m fc ,.i. service, by L'mnling ihciu lorfcMieil pliu-es, under the nnrne of places of .sfiurity. By thus fosU-rin^ a .xpiril of party uiul inttctii.e fnrtio.i, h.- furni.lKMl a plausil.!.- prt-fxl to thi-ir advt;r«.irie8 for gradually uiideriiiinir.^,' tin- edict, ami (iually proscnbn.g the .-x- er{i>e of the ri-formed rfli),Mori in France. That "reat princ<;, after having established iho iranquilhty ot his liiii.'dom at lion.e and il.road, encouraged arts and manufac- ture- ami put the administration of his finances into admirable order, was assassinated hy Hnvaillac (1610,) at the very moinent when he was employed in exiruling the grand scheme which ho had projected for the pacilicalion of Kurope. Cardinal Kichelicu, when he assumed the reins of government under Louis Alll., had nothing so niflch at heart as the expulsion of the talvinisls from their strongholds. This he a.-complis!ied hy means of the three wars which he waged against them, and by the famous siege of liochcUe, which he reduced in 1()28. That great states- man next employed his policy against the house of Austria, whose preponderance gave umbrage to all Euroi-e. He took the op- nort'ii'itv of the vacant succession of Mant.ia to espouse the cause of the Ouke of Nevers against the Courts oT Vienna and Mad- rid, who supported the Duke of Guasialla; and maintained his protege in the dutchy of Mantua, by il>e treaties ol peace which were concluded at Katisbon and Querasque (1631.) Having afterwards joined Sweden, he made war against the tvyo branches of Austria, and on this occasion got possession of the places which • he Swedes had seized in Alsace. Louis XIV. was only four years and s.wen months old when he succeeded his father (1643.) The queen-mother, Anne of Austria, assumed the regency. She appointed Cardinal Ma- zarin her prime minister, whose administration, during the minority of the King, was a scene of turbulence and distrac- tion. The same external policy which had directed the minis- try of Richelieu, was followed by his successor. He prose- !-uted the war against Austria with vigour, in conjunction wuh Sweden, and their confederates in Germany. By the peace which was concluded with the Emperor at Munster, besides the three bishoprics of Lorraine, France obtained the Land- graviate of Lower and Upper Alsace, SungaA , and the pre- fecture of the ten Imperial cities of Alsace. Spcin was ex- cluded from this treaty ; and the war continued betw-een that kingdom and France until the peace of the Pyrenees, by which the counties of Roussillon and Conflans were ceded to France, as well as several cities in Flanders, Hainault, and Luxembourg. Spain, which had long been divided into several States, and a stranger as it were to the rest of Europe, became all of a sud L- =JJ '■•-VjSJ tiE,'?ft?is: s-tta^ Inntiieofplaces uiui intestine lidvtTsmries for :ril>ing tlie ex* tranquillity of and nianufac- into admirable (' very nionicnt lenie wliich ho inai Kichelicu, r Louis XIII., ° the Calvinists V means of the ny the foJiious nt great states- A\ijitria, whose le took the op- pouse the cause LMinu and Mud- maintained his of peace which 1631.) Having lie two branches he places which onths old when other, Anne of J Cardinal Ma- on, during the ce and distrac- ictcd the minis- or. He prose- onjunction wich By the peace [unster, besides ned the Land- , and the pre- Spain was ex- ;d between that mees, by which 3ded to France, d Luxembourg. etal States, and me all of a sud TBRIOD VI. A. D. 1453—1648. Ill den a formidable power, turning the political Imlance in her own favour. This elevation was the work of Ferdinand the Catholic, a prince born lor grtnit exploits ; of a profound and fertile geniuK . but tarni. - ii>hi "|, i a^ l T.-;p M ' i ' * « i * »« tr»l «« OnAPTKI VII. ^i. Dim by the diacovpry of Amcrira. Ho wait heir, by the father'^ Hide, to the kiriffdomn of Arrn^^on, Sicily, and Sardinia. Hr !rnt possefinion of Castillo by liin mnrriu(re, and of Uronadu by brcc of arriiM ; so thai nothing was wanting except Novarre to unite all Spain under his dominion. The Holy League, which Poiw Julius II. had organized ai^ainst Louis All. (1611,) fur- nished him with n pretext for seizing that kingdom. Entering into an alliance with the Pojm?, he concerted with the King of England to invade Guiennu, on which the English had Home ancient claims. They demanded of the King of Navarre that he should make common cause with the allies of the Holy League against Louis XII. That princi', however, wishing to C reserve neutrality, they prcscribi^d conditions so severe, that he ad no other alternative left than to seek protection in France. Ferdinand then obtained possession of all that part of Navarre which lay beyond the Pyrenees. Twelve years before that time Ferdinand had, by the treaty of Grenada, planned with Loui? XII. the conquest of the kingdom of Noples. Frederic of Ar- ragon was then deprived of that kingdom, ond his States were divided between the two allied kings ; but Ferdinand having soon quarrelled with Louis XII. as to their respective boundaries, this was made a pretext for expelling the French from Naples, which was agoin united to the Spanish monarchy, in the years 1503 and 1505. Charles I. of Austria, grandson of Ferdinand, and his succes- sor in the Spanish monarchy, added to that crown the Low Countries and Franche-Comte, which he inherited in right of his father Philip of Austria, and his grandmother Mary of Bur- gundy. He added likewise the kingdoms of Mexico and Peru on the continent of America, and the dutchy of Milan in Italy, in which he invested his son Philip, after ha\ ing repeatedly ex- pelled the French in the years 1522 and 1525. These were all the advantages he derived from his wars against Francis I., which occupied the greater part of his reign. Blinded by his animosity against that Prince, and by his ruling passion for war, he only exhausted his kingdom, and im- paired his true greatness. Charles resigned the Spanish mo- narchy to his son Philip II., which then comprehended the Low Countries, the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, the dutchyof Milan, and the Spanish possessions in America. The peace of Chateau Cambresis, which Philip II. signed in 1559, after a long war against France, may be regarded as the era of Spanish greatness. To the states which were left him by his father, Philip added the kingdom of Portugal, with the Portu- gUAse possessions in Africa, Asia, and America ; but this was the tJie father'n nrdiriia. Hr Oronadii by it Navnrre lo [eogue, which (1511,) fur- Entering the King of ah had some Navnrre that of the Holy T, wishing to icvere, that he on in Fronce. irt of Navarre fore that time d with Louif rt'deric of Ar» is States were linand having ve boundarieft, ^ from Naples, r, in the years ind his succeS' own the Low ed in right of Mary of Bur- xico and Peru Vlilan in Italy, repeatedly ex- rom his wars r part of his ice, and by his Ifdom, and im- i Spanish mo* inded the Low Sardinia, the imerica. The gned in 1569, I as the era of iA him W his ith the F'ortu* It this was the the ('(nircilcnitfn of iln' Low (,'fMiiilrii'K, I' r(|ui|ipfil II rRRion vt. A, f). 14/13—1648. M tcrinlnatioti of his prosperity. IIi-< riisxn nCtir tli.il wtxi^ only ■ «ut'ii'N>ion (if iiiinrorinncN. Hifi ri'voliin;,' (|f.«ii(itifin excited thu Beii^iikiiN III inMirrei'tioti, iind ^fnvti liirtli to ilic n |iiililii' of the Uniti'd i'riivinci'i!. I'jlizaln;tli of Kiij,'land linvlrii,' joined with "liilip, out of revenge, .iiinie ef llie Inrinci* ble Armada, v,\\w\\ was composed of l.'JO veHvels of ctiorinous size, niuiined will. iiO.OOO sofdierN, exclusive of Miilois, and arin» ed with 1360 pieces ofcuiinon. On euterinj,' tiie ('liiiniicl they were defeated by the English (yist of July l.lsH,) and the grcatef part of them destroyed by a storia. From this calamity may be dated the decline of the Spanish monarchy, which wum exhausted by its expensive wars. Philips At his death, left an enormous debt, and the whole glory of the Spanish nation perished with him. The reigns of his feeble successors are only remarkable for their disasters. Philip IIL did irreparable injury to his crown by the expulsion of the Moors or ftloreocoes (1610,) which lost Spain nearly a million of her industrious subjects. Nothing can eciunl the misfortunes which •he experienced under the reign of Philip IV. During the war which he had to support against France, the Catalans revolted, and put themselves under the protection of that Crown (164(\) Encouraged by their example, the Portuguese likewise shook off the yoke, and replaced the House of Braganza on their throne. Lastly, the Neapolitans, harassed by the Duke d'Oli- varez, prime minister of Philip IV. revolted, and attempted to form themselves into a republic (1647.) These reverses on the part of Spain added to the number of her enemies. The famous Cromwell having entered into an alliance with France (1655,) dispossessed the Spaniards of Jamaica, one of their richest set* dements in America. Towards the end of the fifteenth century, Portugal had reach- ed a high pitch of elevation, which she owed to the astonishing progress of her navigation and her commerce. John II., whose fleets first doubled the Cape of Good Hope, augmented the royal authority, by humbling the exorbitant and tyrannical power of the grandees. In the diet which was asseniolcd at Evora, he retracted the concessions which his predecessors had made to the nobles, to the prejudice of the Crown. He abolished the power of life and death, which the lords exercised over their vassals, and subjected their towns and their territories to the jurisdiction of officers appointed by the King. The nobles, who were displeased at these innovations, having combined in de- fence of their privileges, and chosen the Duke of Braganza for their leader, John, without being disconcerted by this opposition, T ' iU-- ^■^-- 4 . u^,mi^^.ajUi;ia;aia'..:j" .- ' j;." a -xv^i v. • : 984 CHAPTER vn. liad ihe Duke brouglit to a trial, and his liead cut off, while his brother was hanjied in effigy. This example of severity intiroi- dated the grandees, and made them submit to his authority. The most brilliant era of Portugal was that of Emmanuel and John III., who reigned between the years 1495 and 1567. It was under these two Princes that the Portuguese formed their powerful empire in India, of which nothing now remains but the ruins. . r vi The glory of Portugal suffered an eclipse under the feeble reign of Sebastian, grandson and immediate successor of John. That Prince, who came to the throne at the age of three years, had been brought up by the Jesuits, who instead of instructing him in the important arts of governmeuv, had given hini the education of a monk. They had inspirec him with a dislike for matrimony, but with a decided attachment for the crusades. Muley Mahomet, King of Morocco, having lequested his assist- ance against his uncle Moluc, who had dethroned him, Sebas- tian undertook an expedition into Africa in person, carrying with him the flower of his nobility. A bloody battle was fought near Alcavar, in tha kingdom of Fez (1578,) where the Portuguese sustained a complete defeat. Sebastian was slain ; and, what is sufficiently remarkable, his enemy Moluc died a natural death during the action, while Muley Mahomet was dvowned in the flight. [During the reign of this king, every thing had fallen mto decay ; even the character of the nation had begun to degenerate. The spirit of chivalry which had distinguished them, was ex- changed for mercantile adventures, which even infected the higher classes ; while avarice, luxury, and effeminacy, brought on a universal corruption. The governors of their colonies in- dulged in all sorts of violence and injustice. They seized the more lucrative branches of commerce. The military force, which Emmanuel and John III. had kept up in India, was neglected. The clergj' usurped the whole wealth of the colo- nies, and exercised an absolute power by means of the Inquisition, which was no where more terrible than at Goa.] As Sebastian had never been married, the throne passed at his death to Henry the Cardinal, his grand uncle by the father's side, who was already far advanced in life. Perceiving his end approach, and that his death would involve the kingdom in con- fusion, he summoned an assembly of the States at Lisbon (1579,) in order to fix the succession. ' The States appointed eleven cwmntissioners, who were to investigate the claims of the diffe- rent candidates for the crown. Philip 11. of Spain, who \yas one of this number, did not pay the least regard to the decision of I: P ■y ,i?^,^' vi'ff^pmTZ'>-'^~'> off, while his irerity intiroi- is authority, imunuel and id 1567. It formed their remains hut er the feehle ssor of John. ■ three years, )f instructing ven him the vith a dislike the crusades, ted his assist- [ him, Sebas- carrying with IS fought near e Portuguese ; and, what is natural death owned in the ad fallen into to degenerate, hem, was ex- infected the nacy, brought ir colonies in- ey seized the nilitary force, n India, was h of the colo- \ie Inquisition, one passed at by the father's ?iving his end iigdom in con« jishon (1579.) lointed eleven IS of the diffe* I, who was one he decision of PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453—1648. 255 I ,h. <;.-tPs No sooner had he learned the death of Henry ( 1580,) t ?!!;«! the Duke of Alva, at the head of an army, to take '^''" ^irofXiTal Thfe Duke defeated the troops of his possession ol mtugai. ^"« . ^ da mants, who then^all commerce with Po^t^S^^'-. , . , • evnectalion. The TKo» PrJnnp however, was deceived m nis expetiauuu. That f rince, '^•'r^7'V.V,;« Inrritive branch of their industry, attempted to form »!«™™'Viw „uh them; »eat Banlatn, XZ'XIT^Z- SttJ™£h f„;^ i" favour oC the '^fj^'^i by this 6,st success, the D«o=h unde.took to de- ™ilTe"&s. of their ^'P^^^^ZT^ZltS. ^he --qu«»' ** thejj m. e^ ,^^ .^^, SS^^Sre they /mSth. city of Bata,ia, ?kf,!-»™ independence. It was w"" "" revenues dissipated, their marine were disoriranized, their crown re venues u v rH^^BfWc?^,?x.:5^pi»Fiv=- ymigL^!i-i!iimmMi?!. ' k,ASM^v^'i^ H"j mmm. IP- 266 CHAPTER Tir. nobility precltidea irom the management of afTairs, and the ni*- tion exhausted by exorbitant assessments. The revolt of the Catalans, which happened in 1640, at length determined the Portuguese to shake off the Spanish yoke. A conspiracy was entered into by some of the grandees, in concert with the Duke of Braganza, which broke out on the 1st Decem- ber that same year. On that day, at eight o'clock in the morn- ing, the conspirators, to the number of about four hundred, re- paired by different routes to the palace of Lisbon, where the vice-queen, Margaret of Savoy, and dowager of Mantua, resided, with Vasconcellos the Secretary of State, who exercised the functions of Prime Minister of the kingdom. Part of them dis- armed the guard of the palace, while others seized Vasconcel- los, who was the only victim that fell a sacrifice to the public vengeance. They secured the person of the vice-queen, and took measures to protect her from insult or violence. The con- spirators then proclaimed the Duke of Braganza King, under the title of John IV. That prince arrived at Lisbon on the 6th of December, and his inauguration took place on the 15th. It is not a little surprising that this revolution became general m eight days time, and that it was not confined merely to Portugal, but extended even to India and Africa. Every where the Por- tuguese expelled the Spaniards, and proclaimed the Duke of Braganza. The city of Ceuta in Africa, was the only town of which the Spaniard:^ found means to retain possession. John IV. was descended in a direct line from Alphonso, I'a- tural son of John the Bastard, who was created Duke of Bra- ganza. The first care of this new King of Portugal, on his ac- cession to the throne, was to convene an assembly of the States at Lisbon, in order to make them acknowledge his right to the crown. The States, conformably to the fundamental laws of the kingdom, declared that Catherine, daughter of the infant Don Edward, and grandmother of King John, having become the true and legitimate heiress to the throne on the death of Henry 'he Cardinal, her grandson John IV. was entitled to the repos- session of those rights of which that princess had been unjustly deprived by the Spaniards. The better to establish himself on the throne, John concluded treaties of peace with France, the United Provinces, the Netherlands, and Sweden ; but confining his whole ambition to maintaining the ancient limi*s of the king- dom, he remained completely inactive with regard to Snain, which, being overpowered by numerous enemies, was quiie in- capable of carrying on the war with vigour against Portugal The truce and alliance which that Prince had entered into with the Dutch, did not prevent these republicans froro contmuing |i and the nu- •40, at length |ish yoke. A ies, in concert le 1st Decem- in the morn- hundred, re- on, where the ntua, resided, exercised the t of them dis- id Vasconcel- to the public ;e-queen, and ce. The con- King, under •on on the 6th the 15th. It Tie general m Y to Portugal, 'here the Por- the Duke of ! only town of jsion. Alphonso, )'a- Duke of Bra- :al, on his ac- | of the States I is right to the j al laws of the le infant Don ; become the lath of Henry to tile repos- )een unjustly ih himself on France, the l)'U confiniiig ' of the king- rd to Snnin, ras q-me in- st ronugal ed into with I continuing PERIOD VI. A. D. i453— 1618. 897 their conquests in India ; yrhere, in process of time, ihey strip ped the Portuguese of their finest settlements. England, long before this time, had emerged from the state of turbulence and desolation into which she had been plunged by the destructive wars of the two Rr les. A new family, that of the Tudors, had mounted the throne; Henry VII., who was its founder, claimed the crown in right of his mother Margaret Beaufort, alleged heiress of the house of Lancaster, or the Red Rose ; and raised an insurrection against Richard III., the last King of the House of York. This prince being defeated and slain at the battle of Bosworth (1485,) Henry, who was then proclaimed King of England, united the titles or claims of the two Roses, by his marriage with Elizabeth, dau^ter of Edward IV., and heiress of York, or the White Rose. The country be- ing thus restored to tranquillity after thirty years of civil war, every thing assumed a more prosperous appearance. Agricul- ture and commerce began to flourish anew. Henry applied himself to the restoration of order and industry. He humbled the factious nobles, and raised the royal autnority almost to a state of absolute despotism. The reformatiom of religion in England began in the reign of his son Henry VIII. That Prince, who was of a very capricious character, vacillating continually between virtue and vice, ap- peared at first as the champion of Popery, and published a treatise against Luther, which procured him, from the Court of Rome, the title of Defender of the Faith. But a violent passion, which he had conceived for Anne Boleyn, having induced him to attempt a divorce from Catherine of Arragon, daughter of Ferdinand the Catholic, he addressed himself for this purpose to Pope Clement VII., alleging certain scruples of conscience which he felt on ac- count of his marriage with Catherine, who was within the de- grees of affinity, prohibited in the sacred Scriptures. The Pope being afraid to dirjplease the Emperor Charles V., who was the nephew of Catherine, thought proper to defer judgment in this matter ; but the King, impatient of delay, caused his divorce to be pronounced by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury {\SdQ,) and immediately married Anne Boleyn. The sentence of the Archbishop was annulled by the Pope, who published a threatening bull against Henry. This incensed the King, who caused the Papal authority in England to be abro- gated by the Parliament, and installed himself in the capacity of supreme head of the English Church (1534 ;) a title which was couVrred on him by the clergy, and confirmed by the Parliament. He also introduced the oath of supremacy, in virtue of which all who were employed in offices of trust, were obliged to acknow- 17 1 . 253 CHAPTKE Til. ledge nim as head oFthe Church. A court of High Commission was established, to judge ecclesiastical causes in name of the king, and from whose sentence there was no appeal. The con- vents or monasteries were suppressed, and their revenues confis- cated to the crown (1536-1539.) Henry even became a dogma- tist in theology' ; and discarding the principles of Luther, as well as those of Calvin and Rome, he framed a religion according to his own fancy. Rejecting the worship of images, relics, purga- tory, monastic vows, and the supremacy of the Pope, he gave his sanction, by the law of the Six Articles, to the doctrine of the real presence, the communion in one kind, the vow i;,' chastity, the celibacy of the priests, the mass, and auricular confession ; inflicting very severe penalties on all who should deny or disobey one or other of these articles. This monarch, who was the first of the English kings that took the title of King of Ireland (1542,) was involved in the dis- putes which then embroiled the Continental powers ; but instead of holding the balance between France and Austria, he adhered in general to his friend and ally Charles V. against France. This conduct was regulated less by politics than by passion, and the personal interest of his minister Cardinal Wolsey, whom the Emperor had attached to his cause, by the hope of the papal tiara. The religion which Henry had planted in England, did not continue after hia death. Edward VI., his son and immediate successor, introduced pure Calvinism or Presbyterianism. Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., by Catherine of Arragon, on her accession to the throne, restored the Catholic religion (1553,) and likewise received the new legate of the Pope into England. She inflicted great cruelties on the Protestants, many of whom were burnt at the stake ; among others, Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Bishops of London and Worcester. With the view of more firmly establishing the Catholic religion m her dominions, she espoused Philip, presumptive heir to the Spanish monarchy ( 1554.) The restrictions with which the Eng- lish Parliament fettered his contract of marriage with the Queen, 80 displeased that prince, that, finding himself without poorer or authority, he speedily withdrew from England. Mary's reign lasted only five years : she was succeeded by her sister Eliza- beth (1558,) daughter of Kenry VIII., by Anne Bo'cyri. This princess once more >ibrogated the authority of the Pope, and claimed to herself the supriime administration, both spiritual and temporal, within her kingdom. Though .she adopted the Calvinistic principles in every thing regarding the doctrines of the Church, she retained many of the Romish ceremonies, and the ffovemment of Bishops. It was this that gave rise to the 1 Commission name of the il. The con- [venues confis- ime a dogma- lUther, as well according to , relics, purga- )e, he gave hiN loctrine of the w i^f chastity, ar confession ; ny or disobey ish kings that red in the dis- rs ; but instead ia, he adhered "fainst France. )y passion, and sey, whom the [the papal tiara, gland, did not ind immediate ■esbyterianism. f Arragon, on eligion (1553,) into England, lany of whom r, Archbishop id Worcester, tholic religion ive heir to the ^hich the Eng- ith the Queen, houtponrer or Mary's reign sister Eliza- ^'cyn. This 10 Pope, and iwth spiritual adopted the ! doctrines of emonies, and I'e rise to the PEPioD VI. K. D. 1453 — 1648. distinction between the English or High Church, and the Cal' vanistic or PreshyteriaJi. About the time when the High Church par'y rose in England, a change of religion took place in Scotland, protected by Queen Elizabeth. The regency of that kingdom was then vested in the Queen -dowager, Mary of Lorraine, the widow of James V., and mother of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland and France. That princess, who was guided solely by the councils of her brothers of Lorraine, had introduced a body of French troops to repress the follow rs of the new doctrines, who had formed a new league, under the name of the Congregation. These, re- inforced by the Catholic malecontents, who were apprehensive of falling under a foreign yoke, took the resolution of applying for assistance to the English Queen, which it was by no means difficult to obtain. Elizabeth readily foresaw, that so soon as Francis became master of Scotland, he would attempt to enforce Mary's claims to the throne of England, grounded partly on the assumption of her being illegitimate. A considerable number of English troops were then marched to Scotland, and having formed a junction with the Scottish malecontents, they liesieged tiie French in the town of Leith, near Edinburgh. The latter were soon obliged to capitulate. By the Tticles signed at Leith (1560,) the French and English troops were to evacuate Scot- land ; Francis IL King of France, and his wife Mary Stuart, were to renounce the titles and arms "f the sovereigns of Eng- land, which they had assumed ; while a Parliament was to be assembled at Edinburgh for the pacification of the kingdom. The parliament which met soon after, ratified the Confession of Faith, drawn t.p and presented by the Presbyterian ministers. The Presbyterian worship was introduced into Scotland; and ihe parliament even went so far as to prohibit :he exercise of the Catholic religion. Mary Stuart, on her return to Scot- land (1561,) after the death of her husband Francis, was obliged to acquiesce in all these changes ; and it was with difficulty she was allowed the liberty of having a Catholic chapel attached to her court. This unfortunate princess was afterwards accused of having caused the assassination of Henry Darnley, her se- cond husband ; and being obliged to fly the country, she took shelter in Englnnd (1568,) where she was arrested and impri- soned by order of Queen Elizabeth. After a captivity of nine- teen years ?'. was sentenced to death, and beheaded (18th Feb. 1587,) as an accomplice in the different plots which had been formed against the life of her royal relative. The troubles which the reformation of religion had excited in Scotland, extended also to Ireland. A kind of corrupt feudal 260 CHAPTEn VII. •^'sicm had prevailed originally in that island, which Henry II. had not been able to extirpate. The English proprietors, who wore vassals of tho crown, and governed by the laws of Eng- 'and, possessed nearly one-third of the whole country; while iho rest of the island was in the hands of the Irish proprietors, who, nltho\igh they acknowledged the sovereignty of the Eng- lish kings, preserved nevertheless the language and manners of iheir native land ; and were inclined to seize every opportunity af shaking off the English yoke, which they detested. Hence a continued series of wars and feuds, both among the Irish themselves, and against the English, who on their part had no other object than to extend their possessions at the expeii'-e of the natives. The kings of England, guided by an injudicious policy, for several centuries exhausted their resources in perpetual wars, sometimes against France, sometimes against Scotland, and sometimes against their own subjects, without paying the least attention to Ireland, of which they appear to have known neither the importance nor the effectual advantages which they might have reaped from it by means of a wise administration. The progress of agriculture and industry became thus completely impracticable; a deep-rooted hatred was established between the islanders and the Englifility to have all ^ PERIOD VI. A. n. 1163 — 1648. 26fi |den recover* i»a put liim- become the Regent, and the Swedes [the excesses ferred their uncle to that out the Low remained in nark having he Swediuh escutcheon, two nations ; t the Danes had 80 long kingdom un* rose on the ed wholly of le election of awers of the ! 1536 ; they 'as curtailed f the nobility prescribed to iformation of jderic I., the an eloquent disciples of is kingdom. I public pro- nstrances of h, liberty of the priests 1 in another ^ing ratified testant min- r at the diet 34, brought during the progress of ;ating their to have all the bishops in thn kinpdotn ariosted ; iiiul hiivinj^ then assem- bled n meciinjj of the States iit ('opcnhiii^cn, lie abolished Epis- copacy, and suppressed the public oxon'iso of the Ciillinlic reli- gion. The cnstles, fortresses, and vast donuiins of the prelates were annexed to the crown ; and the oilier benefices niul reve- nues of the clerify were appropriated to the support of the minis- tors of religion, public schools, and the poor. The inonk.s and nuns wore left at liberty, either to quit their convents, or remain there during,' their lives. The bishops were roplnccd by super- intendents, the nomination of whom was vested in the King; while each congregation retained the privilege of choosing its own pastors. From Denmark this revolution passed to Norway, which at that time, on account of having joined the party of Christian II., who was deposed by the Danes, lost its indepen- dence, and was declared a province of the kingdom of Denmark. The House of Oldenburg, which had occupied the throne of Denmark since 1448, was separated in the reign of Christian HI. into two powerful branches, viz. the Royal, descended from that prince ; and the family of Holstein-Gottorp, descended from his brother the Duke Adolphus. This latter branch was after- wards divided into three others, viz. those of Russia, Sweden and Holslcin-Oldenburg. As the law of primogeniture was not establishLd in the dutchies of Sleswirk and Holstein, which had fallen into the succession of the House of Oldenburg, the Kings of Denmark soon found themselves under the necessity of divi- ding these dutchies among the younger princes of their family. The treaty of partition, which was entered into (1644) between Christian III. and his brother, had been preceded by a treaty of perpetual union, annexing these dutcnies to the kingdom, and mtended to preserve the throne, which was elective, in the House of Oldenburg ; as well as to prevent any portion of these two dutchies from falling into the possession of strangers. The union was to endure as long as the descendants of Frederic I. reigned in Denmark. They promised to settle, by arbitration, whatever difTerences might arise between the states of the union , to afTord each other mutual succour against every external ene- my ; and to undertake no war but by common consent. The treaty of 1644 which regulated this partition, made seve- ral exceptions of matters that were to be managed and adminis- tered in common ; such as, the customs, jurisdiction over the nobles, the bishops, and certain cities. This gave rise to a sort of copartnership of power, common to all the princes of the union. Every thing regarding either the general safety as stipulated in the treaty, or the exercise of these privileges included in the ex c«ptioDS, was to be discn i-d and settled by unanimous consent ; I 1 ; \:i:TK**:-mtr^ ■ M immimnmn u SM6 CHAPTEH VII. and for litis {lurpoHc ii council of roffency, an exchequeri and coniinun coiirtrt wuru L>! mark, at length acquired such a preponderance over her as to threaten, more than once, the entire subversion of the throne. This preponderance was the achievement of two great men, who rose in the period we now speak of, viz. Gustavus Vasa, and his grandson Gustavus Adolphus. Gustavus Vasa was not merely the liberator, but the restorer of his country. Elevated to the throne by the free choice of the nation, he gave Sweden a power and an influence which it never had before. Every thing under him assumed a new aspect, the government, the religion, the finances, the commerce, the agriculture, the sciences and the morals of the Swedes. Instead of the assemblies of the nobles, formerly in use, and destructive of the national liberty, he sub- stituted Diets composed of the different orders of the State, the Jj chequer. aiiiJ (1 cummunity , by lonif find id thi! Dukes of the North distinguished the indefali- department of )anes extend- le first D;inish ncnt in Tan- ceded to them of silk stufTs, )wns built UH" ere also much versity of Co- I Zealand, be- fill in his wars to the norrow alic spini and lenniark. He [1 access to the of Lapland, by i,) of that part and Icy Seas, c disputes con- treaty, in such ihem, without m to the Swe- B against Den^ over her as to of the throne, jreat men, who 9 Vasa, and his vas not merely llevated to the weden a power Every thing It, the religion, ciences and the s of the nobles, liberty, he sub- f the State, the ^> ^%> IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 7 ^ // A 'O, <;. ^y c 1.0 I.I ■- |2£ |2.5 1^ 1^ 12.2 L^ lifi — 6" 2.0 :: I4S i£ 1.8 1.25 III 1.4 IIIIII.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 rfjiariMs^yg sp gi n ss^ ^ ^BSjwesa; ) (/. ^ CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques Bg,'^g!g?«Bgg' W 4t ii» ) M)k ' Jl4t ' 4b^Mb-N»JH ' J.»^*^^-,^^ ^ Pt PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648. 267 nobility, the clergy, the citizens, and the peasantry. By this means hp acquired a new influence, of which he took advantage to humble the power of the church and the nobles, which had lon^ been a source of oppression to Sweden. The reformation of religion, which then occupied every mind, appeared to Gustavus a very proper expedient to second his views, and introduce a better order of things. On his accession to the throne, he authorized the two brothers Olaus and Lau- rentius Petri, to preach publicly at Stockholm the doctrines of Luther, and did every thing in his power to accelerate the pro- gress of the Reformation in his kingdom. The bishops, who were apprehensive for their benefices and their authority, having drawn the greater part of the nobility over to their interest, the king, in the presence of a Diet of the four orders assembled at Westeras, took the determination of formally abdicating the crown. This step threw the Diet into a state of consternation, and encouraged the two lower orders, the citizens and peasants, to declare themselves loudly for the King. The bishops and nobles were obliged to comply ; and the King, resuming the reins of government, succeeded in overruling the deliberations of the Diet. By the authority of a decree, he annexed the strong castles of the bishops to the demesnes of the crown, and retrench- ed from their vast possessions whatever he judged convenient. The prelates at the same time were excluded from the senate ; the ties that bound them to the Court of Rome were broken ; and they were enjoined henceforth to demand confirmation from the King, and not from the Pope. The revenues of the clergy in general, and those of the convents, were left at the free dis- posal of the king, and the nobles were permitted to bring forward whatever claims they could adduce over lands granted to these convents by their ancestors. There was nothing now to retard the march of reformation. The Lutheran religion was introdu- ced universally into Sweden, and that event contributed not a little to exalt the royal authority. Gustavus secured the hereditary succession of the crown in favour of his male descendants. The States, anxious to obvi- ate the troubles and disorders which the demise of their kings had oi\en produced, regulated the succession by an act known by the name of the Hereditary Union. It was passed at Ore- bro (1540,) and ratified anew by the States assembled at Wes- teras. The Union Act was renewed at the Diet of Nordkoping, in the reign of Charles IX. (1604,) when the succession was extended to females. The reign of Gustavus Adolphus, the son of Charles IX., raised the glory of Sweden to its height. The virtues and 1 1 li ha " .1 MB I, I ■,'1 26S CHAPTER VII. energies of that prince, the sagacity of his views, the admirablt order which he introduced into every branch of the administra- tion, endeared him to his subjects ; while his mihtary exploits, and his superiority in the art of war, fixed upon him the admi- ration of all Europe. ...,,. Gustavus brought the wars, which he had to sustain against the different powers of the North, to a most triumphant coi^lu- sion. By the peace which he concluded at Stolboya with Rus- sia (1617,) he obtained possession of all Ingria, Kexholm, and Russian Carelia ; and even cut that Empire off from all com- munication with Europe by the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea His success was not less brilliant in his campaigns against Sigismund III., King of Poland, who persisted m contesting with him his right to the crown of Sweden. He took from the Poles the whole of Livonia, with a part of Prussia ; and kept possession of these conquests by the six years truce which he concluded with the latter at Altmark (1629.) It was about this time that Sweden began to occupy a distin- imished place among the powers of Europe ; and that she was called on to take the lead in the League which was to protect the Princess and States of the Empire against the ambition of Austria. Gustavus, who was in alliance with France, under- took a task as difficult as it was glorious. In the short space of two years and a half, he overran two-thirds of Germany with his victorious arms. He vanquished Tilly at the famous battle of Leipsic (1631,) and extended his conquests from the shores of the Baltic to the Rhine and the Danube. Every thing yield- ed before him, and every place opened its gates to him. ihis ereat prince, who had made war a new art, and accustomed his army to order, and a system of tactics never before known, per- ished at the memorable battle of Lutzen (1632 ) which the Swedes gained after his death, in consequence of the skillul dis- positions he had formed. This war was continued under the minority of Queen Lhns- tina, his daughter and heir. It was still carried on, although the Swedes had undertaken a new war against Denmark, with the view of disengaging themselves from the mediation which Christian IV. had undertaken between the Emperor and Swe- den, al the congress which was to meet at Munster and Usna- burg. The result of that war was completely to the advamage of Sweden, which gained by the peace of Bromsbro (1646) the freedom of the Sound, as also the possession of the provinces and islands of Jamptland, Heriedalen, Gothland, Oesel, and Hal- land. Lastly, the peace of Westphalia secured to Sweden con- siderable possessions on the southern coast of ahe Baltic &ea. such as Wismar, Bremen and Verden. and part of Pomerania. T^V e admirable administra- iry exploits, the admi- tain against lant conclu- a with Rus- ixholm, and om all com- d the Baltic igns against 1 contesting ok from the and kept :e which he ipy a distin- hat she was IS to protect ambition of ance, under- lort space of jrmany with imous battle n the shores thing yield- him. This :ustomed his known, per- ) which the e skilful dis- (ueen Chris- on, although nmark, with ation which r and Swe- '.T and Osna- e advantage (1645) the he provinces sel, and HaU Sweden con- Baltic Sea. Pomerania. PERIOD VI. A. D. 1453—1648. SM9 The power of the Teutonic Knights, which hud been greatly reduced during the preceding period, by the defection of a part of Prussia, was completely annihilated in the North, in conse- (j'lence of the changes introduced by the reformation of religion. Albert of Brandenburg, grandson of the Elector Albert Achilles on his elevation to the dignity of Grand Master of the Order, tliought himself obliged to withdraw from Poland that fealty and homage to which the Knights had bound themselves by the treaty of Thorn in 1466. This refusal furnished matter for a war between them ; which began in 1519, and ended in 1521, by a truce of four years ; at the expiration of which the Grand Master, who saw the doctrines of Luther disseminated in Prus* sia, and who had himself imbibed these principles in Germany, found means to settle all differences with the King of Poland, by a treaty which he concluded with him at Cracow (1521.) He there engaged to do homage and fealty to the cro^vn of Po- land, which he had refused ; and Sigismund I., who was his maternal uncle, granted him Teutonic Prussia, with the title of Dutchy. as a hereditary fief, both for himself and his male-heirs, and for his brothers of the House of BrandenburgandFranconia, and their feudal heirs ; reserving the right of reversion in favour of Poland, failing the male-descendants of these princes. The Teutonic Knights thus lost Prussia, after having possess- ed it for nearly three hundred years. Retiring to their pos- sessions in Germany, they established their principal residence at Mergentheim in Franconia, where they proceeded to the elec- tion of a new Grand Master, in the person of Walter de Cron- berg. The Poles, in getting rid of the Teutonic Knights, whom they had regarded with jealousy, and substituting the House of Brandenburg in their place, never dreamed of adopting an enemy still more dangerous, who would one day concert the ruin and annihilation of their country. Immediately after the treaty of Cracow, the new Duke of Prussia made a public profession of the Lutheran religion, and married a daughter of the King of Denmark. This princess dying without male issue, he married for his second wife a prin- cess of the Brunswick family, by whom he had a son, Albert Frederic, who succeeded him in the dutchy of Prussia. The race of these new dukes of Prussia (1568,) as well as that of Franconia, which should have succeeded them, appearing to be nearly extinct, Joachim II., Elector of Brandenburg, obtained from the King of Poland the investiture of Prussia, in fief, con- junctly with the reigning dukes. This investiture, which was renewed in favour of several of his successors, secured the suc- cession of that dutchy in the electoral family of Brandenburg; to :t^ i-mmM-i 'Sv !! 1 *. 1 ' ' J; ; 1 1 i *> 1 *^^„ 270 CHAPTER Vn. whom it devolved on the death of Albert Frederic (1618,) who left no male descendants. He was succeeded by the Elector John Sigismund, who had been coinvested with him in the dutchy. That prince, who iiad married Anne, eldest daughter of Albert Frederic, obtained likewise, in right of that princess, part of the succession of Juliers, viz. the dutchy of Cleves, the counties of Marck and Ravensberg, which had been adjudged to the house of Brandenburg, by the provisional act of partition concluded at Santern (1614,) and converted into a definitive treaty at Cleves. The grandson of John Sigismund, the Elector Frederic William, was a prince of superior genius, and the true founder of the greatness of his family. Illustrious in war as in peace, and respected by all Europe, he acquired by the treaty of Westphalia, a part of Pomerania, the archbishopric of Magde- burg under the title of a dutchy, with the bishoprics of Halber- stadt, Minden, and Camin, und,cr the title of principalities. His son Frederic was the first King of Prussia. [The Teutonic Knights had nearly lost Livonia at the begin- ning of the sixteenth century ; but that province was saved by the courage and talents of the Provincial Master, Walter de Plattenberg. The Grand Duke Iwan, or John III., having threatened Livonia with an invasion, Plattenberg concluded a defensive alliance at Walik (1501,) with Alexander II., Grand Duke of Lithuania, and the bishops of that country. After havmg assembled troops to the number of 14,000 men, he defeated the Russian army, which was 40,000 strong, at Maholm ; a second victory, which he gained with the same number of troops over 100,000 Russians at Pleskow (1502,) is one of the most famous exploits in the history of the North. Next year he concluded a truce of six years with the Livonian Order, which was afterwards renewed for fifty years. It is commonly said that Walter, the Provincial Master, taking advantage of the distresses of the Teutonic Knights, and urging the repeated succours which he had furnished them against the Poles, purchased from them his own independence, and that of his Order ; but a recent author (Le Comte de Bray) has shown that this was not exactly the case. By a first agreement signed at Koningsberg (1520,) Albert of Brandenburg, who was then only Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, confirmed to the Knights of Livonia the free right of electing a chief of their ovvn number, promising to sustain the individual whom they should nominate. He secured them the possession of the whole sove- reignty of Reval and Narva ; the countries of Altentirken, Jer- vfn, and Wierland ; as also the town and castle of Wesenberg, with their dependencies. This agreement was revived and rnlified by * second, siarned at Grobin (1625.) when it was for- ■^t" - ^----1-,- ^Mm ik iitAf^i timtt^mamieaM h* ic (1618,) who by the Elector Ln him in the Idest daughter ' that princess, of Cieves, the been adjudged ict of partition lo a definitive nd, the Elector IS, and the true IS in war as in by the treaty of iric of Magde- rics of Halber- cipalities. His la at the begin- 5 was saved by ler, Walter de n III., having rg concluded a ider II., Grand {. After having he defeated the lolm ; a second of troops over le most famous he concluded a was afterwards Master, taking ^hts, and urging lem against the nee, and that of ray) has shown Teement signed who was then )nfirmed to the lief of their own om they should the whole sove- lltentirken, Jer- ! of Wesenberg, IS revived and vhen it was for- PBRion VI. A. D. 1453 — 1648. 2/1 mally stipulated, that the relations between the Knights of Li- vonia and the Teutonic Order should be maintained as they w«»re. and that the Livonians should continue to regard the Grand Master as their true head, and render him homage ami obe- dience. They were forbidden to solicit from the Emperor ot the Pope any privilege inconsistent with their allegiance, it ap- pears, consequently, that Walter de Plattenberg did not purcha.-e the independence of his Order, but that he regarded those ties which existed between it and the Teutonic Order as broken, when Albert of Brandenburg was declared Duke of Prussia. He next renewed those connexions with the German Empire, which had existed since the thirteenth century ; and was declared bj Charles V. (1527) a prince of the Empire, having a vote and a seat in the Diet. It was during the mastership of Plattenberg that the Lutheran Joctiines penetrated into Livonia, where they made rapid pro- gress, especially in the cities. Waller dexterously turned the disturbances caused by the opposition of the clergy to the new tenets, into an occasion for establishing his authority over all Livonia and Esthonia, which the Order had formerly shared with the bishops. The citizens of Kiga acknowledged him as their only sovereign, and expelled the archbishop. The bur- gesses of Revel followed their example. The clergy were so frightened at these movements, that the archbishop of Riga, and the bishops of Dorpat, Oesel, Courland and Revel, formally sub- mitted to the Order. The clergy themsel ves soon after embraced the reformed religion.] The dominion of the Knights Sword-bearers, had continued in Livonia until the time of the famous invasion of that country by the Czar, John Basilovitz IV. That prince, who had laid open the Caspian Sea by his conquest of the Tartar kingdoms of Casan and Astrachan, meditated also that of Livonia, to obtain a communication with Europe by the Baltic. Gotthard Kettler, who was then Grand Master, finding himself unable to cope with an enemy so powerful, implored first the assistance of the Germanic Body, of which he was a member ; but having got nothing but vague promises, he next addressed himself to Sigis- inund Augustus, King of Poland, and, m concert with the arch- bishop of Riga, he concluded with that prince a treaty of sub- mission at Wilna (1561;) in virtue of which, the whole of Livonia, with Esthonia, Courland and Semigallia, comprising not only what was still in the possession of the Order, but those parts which had boon seized by the enemy, were ceded to the crown of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, on condi- tion that the use of the Confession of Augsburg should be pre- erved on the same footing as it then was, and that all orders of h ,n fc ife'iiii 1 *.f , ' ■' '\ ,;, 1 If Sr^ ■kf^ -1.' j ■ i rfTfiriii i i iii t iyiiiMiBaMWii^ I !l 272 ciiArTER f II. the Smte should be maintained in iheir goods, properties, rights, nrivilejres and immunities. . „ . „• j ^ By this same treaty, Courland and Sem.galha were reserved :., G^.tthard K.nlcr, the last Grand ^Ia«V"\°f ,V';'°7\i^ ....joyed by himself a.ul his heirs-male with the title of dulchy. a.id as a Hef of the king and crown of Poland. The new Duke, •m taking the oath of f.delitv to the King of Poland, solemnly lu.d aside all the badges of his former dignity. He mamed Anne, daughter to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schewerin a,,d Uans^itted the dutchy of Courland to his male-descendants who did not become extinct until the eighteenth century. Ihe Order of Livonia was entirely suppressed, as were also the archbishoprics of Riga, and the bishoprics under its jurisdiction. The revolution in Livonia caused a violent commotion among the nowers of the North, who were all eager to share m the plunder. While the Grand Master of the Order was m treatv Skh Poland, the city of Revel, and the nobles of Esthonia, left V hout aid, nnd oppressed bv the Russians, put themselves undei he protect on of feric XlV., King of Sweden, who obtaineo possession of that province. The Isle of Oese , on the co„ r 7. and the district of Wyck in Esthonia, were sold to Frederic 11. King of Denmark, by the last bishop of the island, who also cedc?l to him the bisLpric and district of P.lten m Courland Poland at first held the balance, and maintained Livonia against fhe Russ ans,by the peace which she concluded with that power at Kievorova-Horca (1582.) A struggle afterwards ensued be- Uveen Poland and Sweden for the same object, which was not finally terminated until the peace of Oliva (1660.) rIS during the period of which we now treat, assumed an aspect entirdy nevv. She succeeded '".throwing ofT Ae yoke li the Moguls, and began to act a conspicuous part on he Iheatre of Europe. The Horde of Kipzach, called also the S, the Gdden Horde, had been greatlv exhausted by its territor al losses, and the intestine wars whicf followed ; wmle the Grand Dukes of Moscow gained powerful accessions by Uie union of several of these petty principa hties, which had for a "onetime divided among them the sovereignty of Northern Bus- i.^John Basilovitz IIL. who filled the grand ducal throne about the end of the fifteenth century, knew well how to profit Jy these circumstances to strengthen his authority at Jome, and make it respected abroad. In course of severed expeditions he Suedthe%owerful republic of Novogorod. an ancient aJlv of the Hanseatic towns, and which had for a long time afTected an entireTndependence. He was also the first sovere.^i of Russia that dared ?o refuse a humiliating cerempn^r, accordmg to which Somnd Dukes were obliged to walk on l^ot before &e envoys Hi III '■■ifa-'igiitiiTiiiilfiir 11 -■ 1 1 r li 0rttmm"»fiii^i' m^ lWiiWW***'*iW*''**'W"' properties, rights. Ilia were reserved of Livonia, to be lie title uf dutchy. The new Duke. Poland, solemnly ity. He married •g-Schewerin, and male-descendants, ith century. The as were also the ler its jurisdiction. commotion among er to share in the >rder was in treaty !s of Esthonia, left It themselves undei den, who obtaineo iel, on the contrary, iold to Frederic II. e island, who also 'ilten in Courland. ned Livonia against ded with that power erwards ensued be- ject, which was not 1660.) now treat, assumed n throwing off the ipicuous part on the ich, called also the tly exhausted by its ch followed ; while ul accessions by the ;s, which had for a ty of Northern Ru»- grand ducal throne 7 well how to profit thority at home, and end expeditions, he 1, an ancient ally of )ng time affected an soverei^i of Russia , occording to which ot before ue envt^s ;:, it FKRIOD VI. A. D. 1453 1648. 273 that came from the Khan of Kipznch. He even suppressed the resideiico of Tartar envoys ut his court ; and at length siiook off their yoke entirely, refusing to pay the tribute whicli the Griind Dukes had owed to the Khans for several centuries. Achrnet, Khan of Kipzach, having despatched certain deputies willi an order, under the great seal, to dcmiind payment, of this tribute, the Grand Duke trampled the order under his feet, spit upon it, and then put all the deputies to death except one, whom he sent back to his master. The Khan, with the view of revenging that insult, invaded Russia several times, \m\ the Grand Duke vigorously repul^^ed .ill his attacks; and while he was arresting the progress of his arms on the borders of the Ugra, he despatched a body of troops to the centre of Uie Grand Horde, who laid every thing desolate (1481.) The Nogai Tartars joined the Russians to finish the destruction of the Grand Horde, whose different settlements on the Wolga they laid completely in ruins ; so that nothing more remained of the powerful en , ire of Kipzach than a few de- tached hordes, such as those of Casan, Astracan, Siberia, and the Crimea. Iwan rendered himself formidable to the Tartars ; he subdued the Khans of Casan, and several times disposed of their throne. The entire reduction of that Tartar state was ac- complished by his grandson, John Basilovitz IV., who twice undertook the siege of Casan, and seized and made prisoner of the last Khan (1552.) The fall of Casan was followed by that of Astracan. But John was by no means so fortunate in his en- terprises against Livonia, which, as we have already said, he was obliged to abandon to Poland by the peace of Kievorova-Horca. John IV. was inspired with noble views of policy. Being anxious to civilize his subjects, he sent for workmen and artists from England. He requested Charles V. to send him men of talents, well versed in the different trades and manufactures. He introduced the art of printing at Moscow, and established the first permanent army in the country, that of the Strelitzes, which he employed in keeping the noblei^ i i check. The dis- covery of Siberia is one of the events th i/-. long to his reign. A certain chief of the Don Cossacks, name'' -Termak, who em- Eloyed himself inrobberiea on the borders of ihe Wolga and the laspian Sea, being pursued by a detachment of Russian troops, retired to the confines of Siberia. He soon entered these re- gions at the heiid of seven thousand Cossacks, and having gained several victories over the Tartars of Siberia, and their Khan Kutschemi, he got possession of the city of Sibir, which was their principal fortress (1581.) Jermak. in order to obtain his pardon of the Czar, made him an offer of oil he had conquered ; which was agreed to bv that Prince, and the troops of the RusisiaBS Lo * 274 CHAFTBIl Vn. »p <:;Vu.rin (1683 ^ The total reduction ol come the capital of Siberia. , ^ ^^ ■ Fedor Iwanovitz, a prince ;;v ^'^ J^ 1^. ^^ Qo/unow, ' entirely under the ^ounselsof his b other in^a who, with the view of opemng a uay f«' h— ^^^ ^^ „,,,,. ^!^""V^ASr'Thir:S'|ive° i e ^atng series of trou- sitiated (15910 This crime e^^^^ With him, as ' de„ who .-umeJ |W n.™ »f ^ °«S. presem^d .Vk- by the Poles. During nueeny^u * . i^n^th, as a remedy i„^, spectacle of -" "J^ -iXtTbe8t^^ling'the' crown on 'a for these disasters, ^^ey thouRht oi b ^ j,^^„f (j^g. foreign prince. Some chose Ch^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ f„, Uladislaus, the tavus Adok.h«s "/Sweden and othe^ ^^^^j^, . ^^^ ^^^^ j sonofSigismundIV.,Kingotroiana^ The Swedes took ad- 1 onlytoincrensethedisordersoflhestate.^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ 1 vantage of them to seize ^"g^g^^Ji^X^^^^ its dependencies, the Poles took possession of S^f ^^^.y, „„ ^4 edge of a The R'^^^'an^'X XHf electing a neJczar of their own precipice, adopted the plan ol «>?"'"- pedrovitz, who became Ltion. Their choice «»1 «"Xt of Snow (1613.) under the founder of the new ^y^J^J^^^^J^ J^^/,"^^^^^^ That whom Russia attained to ^*»«^^"'*yy,isVther, Fedor Roma- prince, guided by 'h-age councils oh^JaUier,^ ^.^^^^^^^ ^^ now, Archbishop of Rf^^^'I'^f^J^s.vedes, by surrendering ►.he state; he purchased P^ace ot tne owe ^J which he to them Ingria and Russian Carelm- ^ he sacn ^^^^ ^^. -de to P«\- -rdVe"; aS f^"^^^^^^^^^ ^o fhemThelartirtrils'oFsmolensko, Tschernigou, and Novo- corod, with their dependencies. aristocracy, which ^ Poland, at this time, P-^f.^^'l^Xe anarchy- The nobles had insensibly degenerated into on^pleean^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ . were the only persons that «" °f ^j^^^^/the nuncios or de- , -_Mfe*^«s<-«»M«WiiMKM»4lMSn«^(l^>«Ai^ ,-.4« aifea »«iito w ^»n*fciaM» ■N^r idc il634,) ht lolt'iifko ; and kftTi! ohliged to ' II new attack '^iasnia, he ob- 1 era was the arcely sixleen, of the nation iiiudes, he wa6 le took Bosnia loldavia, Sola- in spite of the lese provinces, satia ; he even [ud came to fix •ity that he ter- ^-seven(1490.) ove for elegant ers, he showed lie loss of Mat- of Casiniir IV. is, who held at k and indolent I ravaged with king advantage vhich Hungary igdom. He at- I himself master could march to 3 return to the Drave without ungarians near it them the life ty-two thousand the whole king- 1 now proceeded the conquest of himself with the fire and sword ; rs into slavery. ( left no progerjy, y and Bohemia. Louis, claimed >s signod in the PKRIOD VI. A. D. 14fi3— 1648. 977 years 1463, 1468, 1491, and 1515, between the Austrian princes and the last kings of Hungary. But though the Bohemiai) Slates were disposed to listen to the pretensions of Ferdinand, it was not so with those of Hungary, who transferred the crown to John de Zapolya, Count of Zips, and Palatine of Transylvania. That prince Iwing hardly pressed by Ferdinand, at length de- termined to throw himself under the protection of the Turks. Soliman marched in person to his assistance, and laid siege to the city of Vienna (1529.) In this enterprise, however, he failed, after sacrificing the lives of nearly eighty thousand men. In 153S, a treaty was agreed on between the two competitors, in virtue of which the whole kingdom of Hungary, on the death of John Zapolya, was to devolve on Ferdinand. This treaty was never carried into execution. John at liis death having left a son named John Sigismuiid, then an infant in his cradle, Bishop George Martinuzzi, prime minister of the deceased king, proclaimed the young prince, and secured for him the protec- tion of the Turks. Soliman undertook a new expedition into Hungary in his favour (1541 ;) but by a piece of signal perfidy, he took this occasion to seize the city of Buda, the capital of the kingdom, and several other pla.'es ; and banished the prince with his mother the queen-dowager, to Transylvania, which he gave up to him, with several other districts in Hungary. The city of Buda with the greater part of Hungary and Sclavonia remained in the power of the Turks ; and Ferdinand was obliged to pay an annual tribute for the protection of that kingdom, the Cossession of which was guaranteed to him by the truce which e concluded with them in 1562. In the midst of these unfortunate events, the Austrian princeb had again the imprudence to alienate the affections of the Hun- garians, by the intolerant spirif they displayed, and the efforts which they incessantly made to extirpiite the Protestant religion from that kingdom. The opinions of Luther and Calvin had already been propagated in Hungary during the reign of Louis, the predecessor of Ferdinand. They had even made j.reat pro- gress ; especially in Transylvania, where the German language and literature were generally cultivated. The oppressions which the partisans of the new doctrines experienced, added to the at- tempts which the Austrian princes made, from time to time, to subvert the ancient constitution of the kingdcm, excited fresh troubles, and favoured the designs of the discontented and am- bitious, who were watching their opportunity to agitate the state, and make encroachments on the government. Stephen Boischkai, Bethlem Gabor, and George Ragoczi, princes of Transylvania, were successively the chiefs or leaders of these li *-ilii 4: 1 < ! 11: h- 378 CHAPTBB TU. malecontents, in tho reigns of Rodolph II., Ferdinand JI-. and Ferdinand III., Emperors of Germany. Accordmg to the Paci- fication of Vienna (1606,) and that of Lintz (1645,) as well as by the decrees of the Diet of Odenburg (1622.) and of Presburg (1647,) these princes were compelled to tolerate the public exer- cise of the reformed religion ; and to redress the political com- plaints of the Hungarian malecontents. , . . . , J The same troubles on the score of religion, which infested Hungary, extended likewise to Bohemia, where the new doc- trines met with a much better reception, as they were in unison with the religious system of the Hussites, who had already nu- merous partisans in that kingdom. It was chiefly under the reign of the mild and tolerant Maximilian II. that Protestantism made its way in Bohemia. All those who were formerly called Utraquists, from their professing the Communion in both kinds, joined the followers either of Luther or Calvin. Rodolph II., the son and successor of Maximilian, was obliged, at the Diet of Prague (1609,) to grant them the free exercise of their worship, without distinction of place ; and even to extend this indulgence to the Protestants of Silesia and Lusatia by letters-patent, known by the name of Letters of Majesty ; copies of which were made at Prague on the 11th of July and 20th of August 1609. These letters were confirmed by King Matthias, on his accession to the throne ol Bohemia ; as also by Ferdinand III., when he was acknowledged by the Bohemian States, as the adopted son and successor of Matthias. The different interpretations which were put on these letters occasioned ihe war, known in history by the name of the Thirty Years' War. The Emperor Matthias happening to die in the midst of these disturbances, the Bohemian States, regarding their crown as elective, annulled the election of Ferdinand II. (1619,) and conferred the crown on Frederic, the Elector Pala- tine. Being in strict alliance with the States of Silesia, Mora- via, and Lusatia, they declared war against Ferdinand, who was supported, on the other hand, by Spain, the Catholic princes of the Empire, and the Elector of Saxony. ,„,,.-., The famous battle of Prague (1620.) and the fall of the Elec- tor Palatine, brought about a revolution in Bohemia. The ring- leaders of the insurrection were executed at Prague, and their goods confiscated. Ferdinand, who treated that kingdom as a conquered country, declared that the States had forfeited their rights and privileges ; and, in the new constitution which he gave them, he consented to restore these, only on condition of expressly excepting the rights which they had claimed m the election of their kings, a." well as the Letters of Majesty which $ - ffv^ n Tv m mi t ^*m iir iJ Wr it ■ m'HliiiMlMlW'l''' tnd n., and to the Paci- ,) as well as of Presburg public exer- olitical com- lich infested he new doc- ere in unison I already nu- iy under the i'rotestantism rmerly called n both kinds, Rodolph II., at the Diet of :heir worship, indulgence to )atent, known ;h were made 1609. These ^cession to the when he was opted son and n these letters ! of the Thirty S[ to die in the Les, regarding Ferdinand IL Elector Pala- Silesia, Mora- nand, who was olio princes of ill of the Elec' ia. The ring- igue, and their , kingdom as a forfeited their tion which he on condition of claimed in the Majesty which PBRioD VI. A. D. 14d3 — 1648. 279 S -anted to the Protestants the free exercise of their worship ut this prince did not stop with the suppression of their reli- gious liberties, he deprived them also of their rights of citizen- ship. Laws the most atrocious were published against them, and he even went so far as to deny them the liberty of making testaments, or contracting legal marriages. All their ministers, without exception, were banished the kingdom ; and the most iniquitous means were employed to bring back the Protestants to the pale of the Catholic Church. At length it was enjoined, by an edict in 1627, that all Protestants who persisted in their opinions should quit the kingdom within six months. Thirty thousand of the best families in the kingdom, of whom a hun- dred and eighty-five were nobility, abandoned Bohemia, trans- porting their talents and their mdustry to the neighbouring States, such as Saxony, Brandenburg, Prussia, &c. Ferdinand judged it for his interest to detach the Elector of Saxony from the alliance with Sweden, which he had joined. He concluded a special peace with him at Prague, in virtue ol which he made over to him the two Lusatias, which he had dis- membered from the kingdom of Bohemia, to reimburse the Elec- tor for those sums which he claimed, as having been the ally of Austria against the Elector Palatine, then King of Bohemia. That province was ceded to the Elector John George, for him- self and his successors, as a fief of the Bohemian crown, under the express condition, that failing the male line of the Electoral branch, it should pass to the female heirs ; but that it should then be at the option of the King of Bohemia to use the right of redemption, by repaying to the female heirs the sum for which Lusatia had been mortgaged to Saxony. This sum amounted to seventy-two tons of gold, valued at seven millions two hundred thousand dorins. The Turkish empire received new accessions of territory, both in Asia and Europe, under the successors of Mahomet IL, who had fixed their capital at Constantinople. The conquest of Bes- sarabia belongs to the reign of Bajazet IL, about the year 1484 That prince had a brothftr named Jem or Zizim, who had been his competitor for the throne ; and having fled to Home, he was imprisoned by order of Pope Alexander VI., at the instance of Bajazet, who had engaged to pay the Pope a large pension for him. Charles VIII. of France, when he made his expedition into Italy for the conquest of Naples, compelled the Pope to sur- render up the unfortunate Zizim, whom he designed to employ in the expedition which he meditated ag ust the Turks, but which never took place. Selim I. the son and successor of Ba- jazet, taking advantage of a revolution which happened in Persia, and of the victory which he gained near Taurus over the Scbaw ■i 280 CHAPTER VII. Ismail Sophi I. (1514,) conquered the provinces of DiarbekiT and Algezira, beyond the Euphrates. , i. m The same prince overturned the powerful Empire ot the Ma- melukes, who reigned over Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and part of Arabia. He defeated the last Sultans, Cansoul-Algour^ and Toumanbey (1516,) and totally annihilated that dynasty. Cairo, the capital of the Empire of Egypt, was taken by assault (1517,) and the whole of the Mameluke States incorporated with the Ottoman Empire. The Scheriff of Mecca likewise submitted to the Porte, with several tribes of the Arabs. Soliman the Great, who succeeded his father Selim, raised the Turkish Empire to the highest pitch of glory. Besides the island of Rhodes, which he took from the Knights of bt. John, and the greater part of Hungary, he reduced the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia to a state of dependence, and made their princes vassals and tributaries of his Empire. He likewise conquered Bagdad and Irak-Arabia, which happened, according to the Turkish authors, about the year 1534. That prince distinguished his reign, by the efforts vvhich he made to increase the maritime strength of the Empire, which his predecessors had neglected. He took into his service the famous pirate Barbarossa, King of Algiers, whom he created Capitan Pacha, or Grand Admiral. Barbarossa equipped a fleet of more than a hundred sail, with which he chased the Imperi- alists from the Archipelago ; and infested the coasts of Spam, Italy and Sicily (1565.) Soliman miscarried, however, in his enterprise against Malta. The courageous defence made by the Knights, together with the arrival of the fleet from Sicily, obliged the Ottomans to retreat. . , , . u » The decline of the Ottoman Empire began with the death of Soliman the Great (1566.) The sultans, his successors, sur- rendering themselves to luxury and effeminacy, and shut up in their seraglios and harems, left to their Grand Viziers the gov- ernment of the Empire, and the management of the army. The sons of these Sultans, educated by women and eunuchs, and se- cluded from all civil and military affairs, contracted from their earliest infancy all the vices of their fathers, and no longer brought to the throne that vigorous and enterprising snirit, which had been the soul of the Ottoman government, and the basis of all their institutions. Selim II., the son of Soliman, was the first who set this fatal example to his successors. In his time, the Turks took the Isle of Cyprus from the Venetians (1570,) which they maintained in spite of the terrible defeat which they received at Lepanto (1571,) and vvhich was followed by the ruin of their marine. ;,iuimaiim't»'-f»itniir.>!dt«nw'n^ of DiaTbekir re of the Ma- e, and part of Algouri, and nasty. Cairo, ssault (1517.) ated with the ise submitted Selim, raised Besides the s of St. John, e provinces of ce, and made He likewise led, according forts which he Umpire, which bis service the m he created quipped a fleet ed the Imperi- ists of Spain, owever, in his :e made by the Sicily, obliged th the death of iuccessors, sur- and shut up in 'iziers the gov- he army. The muchs, and se- cted from their and no longer rprising spirit, nment, ana the m of Soliman, successors. In 1 the Venetians terrible defeat ;h was followed ■rur^anrr.v*" --11 CHAPTER VIII. PERIOD VII. From the Peace of Westphalia, to that of Utrecht. — a. d. 164&— 1713. The political system of Europe underwent a great cnange at the commencement of this period. France, after having long struggled for her own independence against Austria, at length turned the balance, and became so formidable as to combine against herself the whole policy and military power of Europe. The origin of this extraordinary influence of France, belongs to the reigns of Charles VII., and Louis XI. Several important accessions which she made at this epoch, together with the change which happened in her government, gave her a power and energy, which might have secured her a decided preponde- rance among the Continental States, had not her influence been overbalanced by Austria, which, by a concurrence of fortunate events, and several wealthy marriages, had s\jddenly risen to a degree of power that excited the jealousy of all Europe. Hence, for nearly two hundred years, it required all the political re- sources of France to make head against her rival ; and what added to her misfortunes was, that, though freed from the dis- traction of the Italian war, she was still agitated by civil wars, which employed her whole military force. It was not till near the middle of the seventeenth century that she extricated herself from this long struggle ; and that, disen- gaged from the shackles of her own factions and internal dis- sensions, her power assumed a new vigour. The well regulated condition of her finances, the prosperity of her commerce and manufactures, and the respectable state of her marine, all con- curred to diffuse wealth and abundance over the kingdom. The abasement of the House of Austria, eflfected at once by the treaties of Westphalia and the Pyrenees, together with the consolidation of the Germanic body, and the federal system of the Provinces in the Netherlands, put the last climax on her glory, and secured to her the preponderance in the political scale of Europe. This change in her political system was achieved i ' i I. I ■f! M ' i 282 OUAPTBK VIU. principally by the two great statesmen, Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, who, by drying up the fountains of civil dissensions, and concentrating the reins of authority in the hands of the go- vernment, raised that monarchy to the rank which its position, its population, and its internal resources, had assigned it among the powers of the Continent. , Mazarin left the kingdom in a flourishing state to Louis Al V., who, aided by the counsels and assistance of the fanious Col- bert, became the patron of letters and the fine arts, and finished the work which was begun by his prime minister. Nothing could equal the ardour which inspired that prince for military fame. France would have been prosperous under his reign, and respected even by all Europe, had he kept nothmg else in Tiew than the true interests and happiness of his people ; but he was ambitious of that sort of glory which is the scourge of mankind, the glory of heroes and conquerors. Hence there re- sulted a long series of wars, which exhausted the strength and resources of the state, and introduced a new change in its po- litical system. The same States which had formerly made common cause with France against Austria, now combined against the former, to humble that gigantic power whwh seemed to threaten their liberty and independence. , ., , , [In these alliances the maritime powers voluntarily took part ; and, having less fear than the others of falling under the yoke of a universal monarchy, they joined the Confederates merely for the protection of their commerce— the true source of their influence p.nd their wealth. They undertook the defence of the equilibrium system, because they perceived, that a State which could command the greater part cf the continental coasts, might in many ways embarrass their commerce, and perhaps become dangerous to their marine. They soon acquired a very great influence in the affairs of this system, by the subsidies with which fron. time to time they furnished the States ot the l.on- tinent. From this period the principal aim of European policy was their finances and their commercial interests, m place ot religion, which had been the grand motive or pretext for the preceding wars. With this new system began those abuses oi commercial privileges and monopolies, prohib.tions, imposts, and many other regulations, which acted as restraints oniiatural liberty, and became the scourge of future generations. It was then that treaties of commerce first appeared, by whwh every trading nation endeavoured to procure idvantages to itselt, at the expense of its rivals; and it was then that the belligerent powers began to lay restraints and interdicts on the commerce of neutral States. I :Simi>-wit^^»i=*iii Richelieu and iril dissensions, ands of the go- ich its position, igned it among to Louis XIV., 16 famous Col- ts, and finished ister. Nothing ce for military nder his reign, nothing else in lis people ; but the scourge of Hence there re- le strength and ange in its po- formerly made now combined r which seemed tarily took part ; under the yoke ederates merely source of their le defence of the it a State which ital coasts, might perhaps become red a very great ! subsidies with ates of the Con- European policy 3sts, in place ol • pretext for the those abuses oi x'tions, imposts, Taints on natural rations. It was by which every iges to itself, at t the belligerent n the commerce riRioD vn. A. 0. 1648—1713. 283 But the political system of Europe experienced other changes at this period. Standing armies were introduced, and augment- ed to a degree that proved ruinous both to the agriculture of the inhabitants, and the finances of the government, which, by this means, was rendered more and more dependent on those States, whose principal object was commerce. The frequent commu- nication between foreign courts, which the policy of Richelieu had rendered necessary, gave occasion for envoys and resident ministers ; whereas formerly scarcely any other intercourse was known, except by extraordinary embassies.] The first war that roused the European powers, was thai which Louis XIV. undertook against Spain, to enforce the claims which he advanced, in name of his Queen Maria The- resa, over several provinces of the Spanish Netherlands, espe- cially the dutchies of Brabant and Limburg, the seigniories of Mechlin, the marquisate of Antwerp, Upper Gueldres, the counties of Namur, Hainault and Artois, Cambray and Cam- bresis, which he alleged belonged to him, in virtue of the jus devolutionis, according to the usage of that country. According to that right, the property of goods passed to the children of the first marriage, when their parents contracted another. Maria Theresa, Queen of France, was the daughter, by the first mar- riage of Philip IV. King of Spain; whereas Charles II., his successor in that monarchy, was descended of the second mar- riage. Louis XIV. contended, that from the moment of Philip's second marriage, the property of all the countries, which were affected by the right of devolution, belonged to his Queen ; and that, after the death of her father, that Princess should enjoy the succession. In opposition to these claims of France, the Spaniards alleged, that the right of aevolution, being founded merely on custom, and applicable only to particular successions, could not be opposed to the fundamental laws of Spain, which maintained the indivisibility of that monarchy, and transferred the whole succession to Charles II. without any partition whatever. In course of the campaign of 1667, the French made them- selves masters of several cities in the Low Countries, such as Bruges, Fumes, Armentieres, Charleroi, Binch, Ath, Toumay, Douay, Courtray, Oudenarde, and Lille ; and in course of the following winter, they got possession of Franche-Comte. The Pope and several princes having volunteered their good offices for the restoration of peace, they proposed a congress at Aix-la- Chapelle ; but the principal scene of the negotiation was at the Hague, where Louis sent the Count d'Estrades, to treat sepa- rately with the States-General. This negotiation was greatly accelerated by the famous Triple Alliance, concluded at the '■iB '».' i i I ^ • ^' , ^1 '^ t i II n . »- 284 CHAPTER VIII. Hnmie 1668. between Great Britain, Sweden, and the States- General. By the terms of this treaty, the Alhed Powers re- quired Louis to ofler Spain the option, either to eave h.m in jrcssion of the places which he had conquered dur.ng the carnpaiffn of 1667, or to cede to him either the dutchy of Lux- eXg or Franche-Comte with the cities of Cambray, Douay Aire, St. Omer, and Fumes, with their dependencies. The Spaniards having accepted the former of these alternatives, the draught of a treaty of peace was agreed on, and signed by the Siislers of France, England, and the States-General ; and this Seme served as the basis of the ^roatV, which ys concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, between France and Spam (May 2d 166^ In consideration of the restitutions which she had "^ade 'o S™.n, France retained, in terms of this treaty, the towns of Charleroi, Bnch Ath, Douay, Tournay, Oudenarde, L.l e, Armentieres. £'4 Bergues! and Furnes, with their bailiwicks and de- ^'iTs' peace was soon followed by a new war, which Louis XIV undertook against the Republic of the Seven United Pro- ^nces Wishing^o be avenged on the Dutch, whom he knew The the principal authors of the Triple Alliance, and consuls inff only his own propensity for war, he alleged, as a pretext, S insulting medals which had been struck in Holland, on Jhe p "a e of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the Triple Alliance.' In vain d d fhe States-General offer him every satisfaction ; he persist- ed in his purpose of declaring war ; and the better to succeed m his design, he endeavoured first to dissolve the Trip^ Alliance. Colbe't de Croissy, whom he sent to England found means o detach Charles II!^ from the alliance, ana to draw h.m over to sfde wi^h Louis against the Republic. The «ame success at- tended the negotiation which he set on foot with the Court of Itockholm. following the example.of Eng and, the Swedes renounced the Triple Alliance, and joined with France. Seve- arpr"nces of the fempire, such as the Electo, of Cologne and he Bishop of Munster, adopted the same line of conduct. The war b oke out in 1672; and so rapid were the conquests o Louis that he subdued in one single campaign the provinces of Guerdres, Utrecht, Overyssel, and part of Holland. He would have carried the city of Amsterdam, it the Dutch had not cut their dikes and inundated the country. Alarmed at these extraordinary successes, and apprehending the entU^e subversion of the Republic, the Emperor "Leopold 1. the King of Spain, the Elector of Brandenburg and the Impe- rial Stafes leagued in their favour, and marched to their relief, fhe Pari aS of England obliged ChaMes II. to make peace '•5*.s««l(ta#»ft*ste«««««»*-«*i*rt'a^-. aJC ^**'""--" " w ii i i i i iaiiKi ^ 1 ;i nd the States* ied Powers re- leave him in red, during the utchy of Lux- anibrajr, Douay sndencies. The alternatives, the d signed by the eneral ; and this 1 was concluded (May 2d 1668.) d made to Spain, ras of Charleroi, le, Armentieres, liliwicks and de- ar, which Louis sven United Pro- , whom he knew ice, and consult- jed, as a pretext, :k in Holland, on liance.' In vain ction ; he persist- jtter to succeed in i Triple Alliance. , found means to Iraw him over to same success at- vith the Court of land, the Swedes 11 France. Seve- I of Cologne and of conduct. The the conquests of n the provinces of Hand. He would lutch had not cut md apprehendins iperor Leopold 1. rg, and the Impe- lled to their relief. II. to make peace PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 285 •*ith the Republic, by refusing to grant him supplies (1674.) The Elector of Cologne and the Bishop of Miinster did the same thing. Louis XIV. then thought proper to abandon his roriquests in Holland ; and direaed his principal .strength against Spam and the Germanic Stages. He subdued Franche-Com'e in the spring of 1674; and in course of the same year, the Prince of Conde gained the battle of Senef. In the following winter Turcnne attacked the quarters of the Imperialists in Alsace, and chased them from that province, in spite of their superior numbers. That great general was slain at Saspach in Ortenau when he was on the point of lighting the famous battle with Montecuculi (11th Aug. 1674.) Next year Admiral do Que3ne gained two naval victories, near the islands of Lipari and Messina, over De Ruyter, who died of the wounds he had received. The Swedes, according to the secret articles of their alliance with France, had penetrated, in the month of December 1674, into the Electorate of Brandenburg, to cause a diversion against the Elector Frederic William, who commanded the Imperial army on the Rhine ; but the Elector surprised them by forced marches at Rathenow, and completely routed their army near Fehrbellin (1675.) The Emperor then declared war against Sweden ; and the Elector, in concert with the princes of Bruns- wick, the Bishop of Munster, and the King of Denmark, strip- ped the Swedes of the greater part of their possessions in the Empire. At length, in the years 1678-79, a peace was concluded at Mimeguen, under the mediation of England. Louis XIV. con- trived to divide the allies, and to make a separate treaty with the Dutch, by which he restored to them the city of Maestricht, which he had. again seized. The example of the Dutch was fol- lowed by the Spaniards, who in like manner signed a special treaty with France ; in virtue of which, they gave up to her Franche-Comt^, wkh several cities in Flanders and Hainault, such as Valenciennes, Bouchain, Conde, Cambray, Aire, St. Omer, Ypres, Warwick, Warneton, Poperingen, Bailleul, Cas- sel, Bavay, and Maubeuge, with their dependencies. The peace of Munster (1648) was renewed by that which was concluded at Nimeguen, between France, the Empire, and the Emperor. France, on renouncing her right to a ^rrison in Philipsburg, got possession of the city of Friburg in Brisgaw, but refused to restore what .sue had wrested from the Duke of Lorraine, except on conditions so burdensome, that the Duke would not accept them and preferred to abandon the repossession of his dutchy. As tc the peace which France and Sweden had negotiated with 1 'I i ! r .^^ r;:: 286 durrBR VIII. Denmark and her allies the Princes of the Empire, it was «. npwed by different special treaties, concluded in course of the vear 1679. i . . v l " No sooner was the peace of Nimeguen concluded, than there aprunff 10 new troubles, known by the name of the Troubles oj the Rpunmis. Louis XIV., whose ambition was without bounds, had instituted a Chamber of Reunion, in the parliament of Metz, for the purpose of examining the nature and extent of the tern- tones ceded to him by the treaties of Westphalia, the Pyrenees, Aix-ia-Chapelle, and Nimeguen. This Chamber, as well as the Parliament of Besan9on, and the Sovereign Council of Alsace, adjudged to the King, by their decree, several towns and seigmo- ries, as being fiefs or dependencies of Alsace ; as also the three bishoprics, Franche-Comte, and the territories which had been ceded to him in the Netherlands. , . , u The King's views were principally directed to Alsace. He had already°tendered his claims on this province, shortly after the peace of the Pyrenees, when the matter had been referred to the decision of arbiters chosen by the Emperor himself. The work of arbitration was not far advanced, when it was inter- rupted bv the Dutch war, in which the Emperor and the Em- Dire were both implicated. The peace of Nimeguen haying confirmed the treaty of Munster, he preferred the method of re- union to that of arbitration, for reclaiming his alleged rights. Taking advantage of the general terms in which the cession of Alsace was announced in the seventy-third and seventy-fourth articles of the said treaty, he claimed the absolute sovereignty of the whole province, and obliged the immediate states, inclu- ded in it, to acknowledge his sovereignty, and to do him fealty and homage, notwithstanding the reservations which the eighty- seventh article of the same treaty had stipulated in favour of these very States. M. de Louvois appeared before Strasburg at the head of the French army, and summoned that city to sub- mit to the King. Accordingly, it surrendered by capitulation on the 30th September 1681. These reunions extended also to the Netherlands, where the French seized, among others, the cities of Courtray, Dixmude and Luxemburg. Louis XIV., in thus taking upon himself alone the interpre- tation of these trea'ies of peace, could not but offend the powers interested in maintaining them. A new general league was projected against France, and at the Diet of Ratisbon they de- liberated on the means of setting on foot an Imperial army ; but the want of unanimity among the members of the Germanic bo- dy the troubles in Hungary, which were immediately succeed- ed by a war with the Porte, and the march of a Turkish army ■■ s^i»*^««Bafejw«*) tBiu»*iW>iii''a.it'i!sagaMjB^ai^g^S^i^W^w'^ re, it was re- course of the ed, than there le Troubles of ithout bounds, ment of Meti, nt of the terri- the Pyrenees, as well as the icil of Alsace, 18 and seigniO' also the three hich had been 3 Alsace. He I, shortly after I been referred ■ himself. The n it was inter- and the Em- leguen having ! method of re- alleged rights. 1 the cession of seventy-fourth jte sovereignty te states, inclu- do him fealty [lich the eighty- 2d in favour of ;fore Strasburg that city to sub- by capitulation extended also to ong others, the ne the interpre- fend the powers Tal league was atisbon they de- erial army ; but le Germanic bo- dialely succeed- a Turkish army rsRioD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. S87 oil Vienna, threw them into a state of consternation, and pre- vented the Imperial Diet from adopting any vigorous resolution. Spain, exhausted by protracted wars, and abandoned by Eng- land and Holland, was quite incapacitated from taking arms. Nothing else, therefore, remained for the parties concerned, than to have recourse to negotiation. Conferences were opened nt Frankfort, which, after having languished for fifteen months in that city, were transferred to Raiisbon, where a truce of twenty years was signed (15th August 1684) between France and Spain; as also between France, the Emperor and the Empire. By the former of these treaties, Louis retained Luxemburg, Bovines, and Chimay, with their dependencies ; restoring all the places which he had occupied in the Netherlands prior to the 20th Au- gust 1683. As to the treaty between France and the Emperor, the former retained, during the truce, the city of Strasburg, and the fort of Kehl, besides all the places and seigniories which they had taken possession of, since the commencement of the troubles till the 1st of August 1681. In all the places that were surrendered to him, Louis preserved the exercise of his sover- eign rights, leaving to the proprietors or seigniors the entire en- joyment of the fruits and revenues belonging to their territorial rights. It was nearly about this same time that Louis XIV. under- took to extirpate Calvinism from France. Incensed against the Protestants by the old chancellor Letellier, and his minister Lou- vois, the chancellor's son, he circumscribed, by repeated declara- tions, the privileges which they enjoyed in virtue of former edicts. The holding of general synods was forbidden ; the two Chambers were suppressed ; and they were all, without excep- tion, debarred from exercising any public function. At last, Louis went so far as to send, immediately after the truce of Ra- tisbon (1684,) dragoons over all France, to endeavour, as was said, to convert the Protestants by gentle compulsion. This measure was next followed by the famous Edict of 1685, which revoked that of Nantes, published in 1598, and that of Nismes in 1629. All exercise of their religion — all assemblies for wor- ship, even in the house, were forbidden to the Protestants, under pain of imprisonment and confiscation of goods. Their churches were ordered to be demolished. Parents were enjoined to have their children baptized by the Catholic clergy, and to bring them up in the religion of the state. The ministers were banished, and the other Protestants were forbidden to depart the country, under pain of the galleys for men, and imprisonment and confis- cation for women. The rigour of these prohibitions, however, did not prevent a vast multitude of the French Protestants from 1 i '» m I'K. f . I m; 288 OUAFTKR Vm. «m»Ting 1» foreign couMric-., and l'«"»fe"i"8 *• •»' »' *•" eJ ihe prerogative of hegale acstr\ts lu uc ^ j havinir ,„ ,1.. King in favnur o .(.e t;*"^;- JJ"' "„ «hth, toide. allow himself to be <='7Ty^:,tu JburHn iSsoXtweeri the he cited the treaty «^°"5l"J;f/\h^;'|tS.Ge, eVa? Sweden, the i maintenance of the t-«"- ,f "£f .^Si fhe Dutchess of : wished moreover to enforce the .^^f'T succession of the Pala- 1 Orleans, his sister-in-law, alleged « 'J'e «"^yf J^^^ gi^^tor if^^^M-'' ■^-' J^t I the seat of their not hinder Louis \vn against the the dinercnt dis> Int which regard- Jticuliirly reniarit- and 1675, having bishoprics within 8, who pretended ng hi.s protection. lich he addressed nduced Louis to in which, besides draw up the four le basis of the li* sitions were, (1.) ings spiritual, and That the authority to a general coun- ons, the customs, can Church. (4.) is not infallible. ;cnly years at Ra- 'hich Louis again brination, that the ision of the peace he thence inferred, te his enemy, than ' of this assertion, 16S6, between the leral, Sweden, the he Empire, for the I France. Louis 1 the Dutchess of ession of the Pala- es, the last Elector ed in 1685. She I succcs:4ur in the 1 comprehended a the new Elector, laintained thai, ac< the entire succes- rhatever. set forth in a long vim ' ' ' '. " >i"'i"iiiii>iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniii!iiiiiiiniiili Execution of Charles I. KU'J. P. 203. ill 4 «■ ■ t :'fcj;^-^ Cromwell dissolviiij; the Loii!' Piiliaiiiciii.. P. ":i«'j. 1 T' s 4 rl' 1 1 " i I 1 ■1. i " "^ lfc< ',1 !i I -,'• » ( Itil ptaioD VII. A. D. 164S— 1719. 289 manifestn, thef* wm another W'hich he kept concealed, the ob- ject (1^ which wnn, to prevent th* <'xpedition which tlio Prince of Oratiif Stadihoider of (he United Provinces, was preparing to siMid lo liri/land, against Jaidi s II. his brotht'r-iri-uiw, who had become odioii? U) ilie whole English nufi"n. It was of great importance for Fran< e to maintain, on the llirone of Great Bri- tain, a prince whom she protected, and who would alwiiys e.^- pouse ner intere.sts ; while it was easy to foresee, that if the Prince of Orange, the declared enemy of Loa .s, and the author of the league of Augsburg, should succeed in uniting the crown of England to the stadtholdership, he would not fail to employ this new influence, and turn the combined force of both states against France. The only method of preventing an event so prejudicial to the true interests of that kingdom would have been doubtless, to equip an expedition, and pitch his camp on the frontiers of Holland. The Court of France knew this well, and yet they contented themselves with sending an army to the Rhine, which took possession of Philipsburg, Mayence, and the whole Palatinate, as well as a part of the Electorate of Treve* (Sept. and Oct. 1688.) Louvois, the French minister who di- rected these operations, had flattered himself that the Dutch, when they beheld the war breaking out in their vicinity, would not dare to take any part in the troubles of England. In this opinion he was deceived ; the Prince of Orange, supported by the Dutch fleet, effected a landing in England (16th November 1688.) The revolution there was soon completed, by the dethronement of James II. ; and Louis XIV., enaing where he should hare begun, then declared war against the States-General. This mistaken policy of the French minister became the true source of all the subsequent reverses that eclipsed the reign of Louis XIV. A powerful league was now formed against France, which was joined successively by the Emperor, the Empire, England, Holland, Spain and Savoy (1689.) Louis XIV., in order to make head against these formidable enemies, recalled his troops from those places which they occupied in the Palatinate, and on the banks of the Rhine ; but in withdrawing them, he ordered a great number of the towns to be burnt to ashes, and laid waste the whole country. By this barbarity, which circumstances by no means called for, he only aggravated the hatred and increased the ardour of his enemies. War was commenced by sea and land ; in Italy, Spain, Ireland, the Low Countries, and on the Rhine. Louis supported it nobly against a great part of Europe, now combined against him. His armies were victorious every where. Marshal Luxembourg signalized himself in tht cam- paigns of Flanders, by the victories which he gained over the 1 290 CHAPTER Vlll. allies at Fleunis (1st July 1690,) Steinkirk(3d Aug. 1692,) and Landen or Nerwinden (2^th July 1693.) In Italy. M<^«hdC". linal gained the battle of Stafarda (18lh Aug. 1690,) and Mar- snfflia (4th Oct. 1693) over the Duke of Savoy. The naval gKof France was well supported bv the Count de Tourvdle at th^e battles of Beachy-head (10th July 1690,) and La Hogue ^^HoSr «Lt the s .ccess of her arms might be the pro- , digious efforts which the war required could not but exhaust France, and make her anxious for the '«;»'>} «fP!?.^«/^f"^i Louis XIV. foresaw the approachmg death of Charles 11. of Spain ; and it was of importance for him to break the grand Xnce as soon as possible; as one of its articles secured tfie Ju cession of the Spanish monarchy to the Emperor and h s descendants, to the exclusion of the King of France- . I"*'; case he wished, for his own interest, to give every facili y tor Se esloration ^f peace ; and by the treaty which he concluded separately with the Duke of Savoy he granted that P""*^^' ^; Bides theWess of Pignerol, and the marriage of his daughter wih the Duke of Burgundy, the privilege o -yal honour^ for his ambassadors. This treaty, concluded at Turin (29th Aug. 1696,) was a preliminary to the general P^^e, signed at Kys- wick, between France, Spain, England, and Holland (20th Sept. 1697 ) Fv.h of the contracting parties consented to make mutual restitutions. France even restored to Spain all the tmjms and territories which she had occupied in the Low Countries, rmeans of the reunions; with the exception of erghty-two Ices, mentioned in a particular list, as l>«'"f /^^Pf "<>«"'='«,^ "i SLlemont, Maubeuge. and other places ceded by the preceding treaties. Peace between France, the Emperor, and the Empire was also signed at Ryswick. The treaties of Westphalia and N^mefTuen were there renewed ; and the decrees of the Cham- ber of Reunion at Metz, and of the Sovereign Courts at Besan- con and Brisach, were rescinded and annulled. Louis XIV. engaged to restore to the Empire all that he had appropriated to 2sdf, by means of the reunions, either before or during he war ; that^s to say, all places situated or acquired beyond the bounds of Alsace.' The city of Strasburg was ceded to France bv a particular article of the treaty ; but the fortress of Kjhl, the cfties of Friburg, Brisach, and Philipsburg, were surrendered to She Emperor. Leopold, Duke of Lorraine, and son of Charles v.! waVreinslated in his dutchy, without any other reservauon Ihan that of Saar-Louis, and the city and prefecture of Lon&wy As to the claims of the Dutchess of Orleans on the Palatinate they were submitted to the arbiuation of tl>e Emperor and the m iiji ip . i! i,ifi MW ' f'ifeJ ' UM'^-4i^»^4gi*Si^f ' ^^'''' ' ug. 1693,) and Marshal Cn- i90,) and Mar- The naval nt de Tourville and La Hogue ght be, the pro- ot but exhaust peace. Besides, Charles II. of »reak the grand les secured the mperor and his •"ranee. In this svery facility for ch he concluded that Prince, be- of his daughter oval honours for urin (29lh Aug. signed at Rys- Hand (20th Sept. isented to make )ain all the towns Low Countries, in of eighty-two dependencies ol by the preceding , and the Empire Westphalia and ses of the Cham- Courts at Besan- ;d. Louis XIV. id appropriated to ore or during the uired beyond the ceded to France, rtressof Kehl, the ■re surrendered to id son of Charles other reservation scture of Longwy on the Palatinate Emperor aad thi! _ji PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. S91 King of France ; to be referred to the decision of the Pope, should these two Sovereigns happen to differ in opinion. The peace of Ryswick was followed by the war of the Spanish •Succession, which embroiled Europe afresh, and occasioned considerable changes in its political state. Charles II. King of Spain, son of Philip IV., and last male descendant of the Spanish branch of the House of Austria, having neither son, nor daughter, nor brother, the Spanish monarchy, according to r. fundamental law of the kingdom, which fixed the succession in the cognate line, appeared to belong to Maria Theresa, Queen of France eldest sister of Charles, and to the children of her marriage with Louis XIV. To this title of Maria Theresa, was opposed her express renunciation, inserted in her marriage-contract, and con- firmed by the peace of the Pyrenees ; but the French maintained, that that renunciation was null, and that it could not prejudice the children of the Queen, who held their right, not from their mother, but by the fundamental law of Spain. Admitting the validity of the Queen's renunciation, the lineal order fixed the Spanish succession on her younger sister, Mar- garet Theresa, who had married the Emperor Leopold I., and left an only daughter, Maria Antoinette, spouse to the Elector of Bavaria, and mother of Joseph Ferdinand, the Electoral Prince of Bavaria. The Emperor, who wished to preserve the Spanish monarchy in his own family, availed himself of the renunciation which he had exacted from his daughter, the Archdutchess Maria Antoi- nette, when she married Maximilian, the Elector of Bavaria, to appear as a candidate himself, and advance the claims of his mother, Maria Anne, daughter of Philip HI. King of Spain, and aunt of Charles II. He alleged, that the Spanish succession had been secured to this latter Princess, both by her marriage- contract, and by the testaments of the Kings of Spain ; and as he had two sons, the Archdukes Joseph and Charles, by his marriage with the Princess Palatine of Neuburg, he destined the elder for the Imperial throne and the States of Austria, and the younger for the Spanish monarchy. These different claims having excited apprehensions of a ge- neral war, England and Holland, from a desire to prevent it, drew up a treaty of partition, in concert with Louis XIV. (11th Oct. 1698,) in virtue of which the Spanish monarchy was se- cured to Joseph Ferdinand, in case of the death of Charles II. ; while the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with the ports of Tusca- ny, the marquisatc of Finale, and the province o.* Guipuscoa, were reserved to the Dauphin of France. The Archduke Charles, son to the Emperor, was to have the dutchv of Milan tt: »ii:i tm r. fii II ^ ' \ *' i 1 ■ if^ * 292 CHAPTER Vnl. Although the King of Spain disapproved of the treaty, so far n^ it admitted a partition, nevertheless, in his will, he recognised the Prince of Bavaria as his successor in the Spanish monarchy. A premature death having frustrated all the high expectations of that prince, the powers who had concluded the first treaty ol partition drew up a second, which was signed at London (March 13 1700.) According to this, the Archduke Charles, youngest son of the Emperor Leopold, was destined the Presumptive heir to the Spanish monarchy. They awarded to the Dauphin the dutchy of Lorraine, with the kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the province of Guipuscoa; assigning to the Duke of Lorraine the iutchy of Milan in exchange. Louis XIV "«ed every effort to have this new treaty of partition approved by the Lour ot Vienna. He sent thither the Marquis Villars, who, after having been long amused with vague promises, failed entirely in his negotiation; and the Emperor, whose mam object was to con- Se he Court of Madrid, lost the only favourable moment wh?ch might have fixed the succession of the Spanish monarchy This &, with the consent of Louis XIV. and the principal ^ AfMldridX's affair took a turn diametrically opposite to the views and interests of the Court of Vienna Charles II . following the counsels of his prime minister. Cardinal Forto- carrero, and after having taken the advice of the Pope, and of he mo^t eminent theologians and la™s "^is kingdom de- termined to make a second will, m which J|e 're'iognised the rights of Maria Theresa, his eldest sister ; and declared, hat as denunciation of that princess had been made solely to pre- vent the union of Spain with the kingdom of France, that mo- dve ceased on transferring the Spanish monarchy to one of^he younger sons of the Dauphin. Accordingly, he nominated Phi- Cof Aniou, the Daupliin's second son, Wir to his whole do- nSnions ; in case of his death, the Duke of Bern, his younger Mother ; next, the Archduke Charles ; and lastly, the feuke of Savov exnressly forbidding all partition of the monarchy. ^ ^Thlriefll hiding died L th'e 1st of November Wlo^^^^^^ the Junta, or Council of Regency, whurh he had appointed by his will, sent to Louis XIV., praying him to "^^^d^ °jhe »t^ i tlement of their late King, and jnve up his ?™ndson to^he i wishes of the Spanish nation. 1 'f T' 'r nJ Jnd md^S I pass on to Vienna, in case of a refusal on his P^", and make i The same offer to the Archduke. .TheCourt of France then ' assembled a Grand Council, in which '^^y held a deliberation i as to what step it was best to adopt.m ^n affair jhu^^^^^^^^ I concerned the general repose of Europe. The result ot tnw ll|l!ilLI|MUIJl|itllll,i|lllJtr ■it^- PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 293 treaty, so far nv 1, he recognised inish monarchy. igh expectations le first treaty ol London (March harles, youngest presumptive heir the Dauphin the "wo Sicilies, and )uke of Lorraine used every effort by the Court of vho, after having d entirely in his bject was to con- vourable moment panish monarchy and the principal ically opposite to na. Charles IL, ■, Cardinal Porto- the Pope, and of his kingdom, de- le recognised the 1 declared, that as lade solely to pre- France, that mo- rchy to one of the e nominated Phi- r to his whole do- Jerri, his younger istly, the Duke of le monarchy, trember following, had appointed by accede to the set- I grandson to the irier had orders to is part, and make rt of France then leld a deliberation .ir which so nearly Che result of this I'ouncil was, that they ought to accede to the will of Charles II.. and renounce the advantages which the second treaty of partition held out to France. It was alleged, as the reason of this resolution, that by refusing to accept the will, Louis must either abandon altogether his pretensions to the Spanish mo- oarchy, or undertake an expensive war to obtain by conquest I what the treaty of partition assigned him ; without being able, in this latter case, to reckon on the effectual co-operation of the two maritime courts. Louis XIV. having therefore resolved to accede to the will, Philip of Anjou was proclaimed King by the Spaniards, and made his solemn entry into Madrid on the 14th of April 1701. Most of the European powers, such as the States of Italy, Swe- den, England, Holland, and the kingdoms of the North, ac- knowledged Philip V. ; the King of Portugal, and the Duke of Savoy even concluded treaties of alliance with him. JMore- over, the situation of political affairs in Germany, Hungary, and the North was such, that it would have been easy for Loui? XIV., with prudent management, to preserve the Spanish crown on the head of his grandson ; but he seemed, as if on purpose, to do every thing to raise all Europe against him. It was al- leged, that he aimed at the chimerical project of universal mo- narchy, and the union of France with Spain. Instead of trying to do away this supposition, he gave it additional force, by issuing letters-patent in favour of Philip, at the moment when he was departing for Spain, to the effect of preserving his rights to the throne of France. The Dutch dreaded nothing so much as to see the French making encroachments on the Spanish Netherlands, which they regarded as their natural barrier a- gainst France ; the preservation of which appeared to be equally interesting to England. It would have be«ti prudent in Louis XIV. to give these ma- ritime powers some security on this point, who, since the eleva- tion of William Prince of Orange to the crown of Great Britain, held as it were in their hands the balance of Europe. Without being swayed by this consideration, he obtained authority from the Council of Madrid, to introduce a French army into the Spa- nish Netherlands ; and on this occasion the Dutch troops, who were quartered in various places of the Netherlands, according ;o a stipulation with the late King of Spain, were disarmed. This circumstance became a powerful motive for King William to rouse the States-General against France. He found some diffi- culty, however, in drawing over the British Parliament to his views, as a great majority in that House were averse to mingle m the quarrels of the Continent ; but the death of James II. lU ■i I 1 Hi! 1! t I ^1; i. 294 CHAPTBE Vin. I ; I i tered the minds and inclinations of the Eng.ish. Louis XIV. having formerly acknowledged the son of that prince as Kmg of Great Britain, the English Parliament had no longer anjr hesi- tation in joining the Dutch, and the other enemies of France. A new and powerful league was formed agamst Louis. The Emperor, England, the United Provinces, the Empire, the Kings of Portugal and Prussia, and the Duke of Savoy, all joined it in succession. The allies engaged to restore to Aus- tria, the Spanish Netherlands, the dutchy of Milan, the king- dom of the Two Sicilies, with the ports of Tuscany ; and nevei to permit the union of France with Spain. At the commencement of the war, Louis for some time main- tained the glory and superiority of his arms, notwithstanding the vast number of adversaries he had to oppose. It was not until the campaign of 1704 that fortune abandoned hm; when one reverse was only succeeded by another. The Duke ot Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated Marshal de Tallard at Hochstett or Blenheim, (Aug. 13,) where he lost thirty thousand men, and was himself carried prisoner to England. 1 his disas- ter was followed by the loss of Bavaria, and all the French pos- sessions beyond t"he Rhine. The battle which Marlborough gained (May 23, 1706) at Ramillies in Brabant was not less dis- astrous; it secured to the allies the conquest of the greater part of the Netherlands ; and to increase these misfortunes, Marshal de Marsin lost the famous battle of Turin against Prince Eugene (Sept. 7,) which obliged the French troops to evacuate Italy. The battle which was fought at Oudenarde m Flanders (July 11, 1708) was not so decisive. Both sides fought with equal advantage; hv' the duke of Burgundy, who was commander-in-chief of the French army, having quitted the field of battle during the night, contrary to the advice ot Vendome, Marlborough made this an occasion for claiming tne I ""T^ength the dreadful winter of 1709, and the battle of Malplaquet, which Marlborough gained over Villars (bept. U.) reduced France to the greatest distress, and brought Louis un- der the necessity of suing for peace, and even descending to the most humiliating conditions. M. de Torcy, his minister for foreign affairs, was despatched to the Hague ; and, amorg a number of preliminary articles, he agreed to make restitution of all the conquests which the French had made since the peace of Munster. He consented to surrender the city of Strasburg, and henceforth to possess Alsace according to the literal terms of the treaty of Munster; the throne of Spain was reserved lor the archduke ; and Louis consented to abandon the interests ol y ij; »lr Louis XIV. ince as King of onger any hesi- [lies of France. Louis. The Empire, the of Savoy, all restore to Aus- ilan, the king- :any ; and nevei ome time main- notwithstanding so. It was not ned him ; when The Duke of kial de Tallard at t thirty thousand nd. This disas- the French pos- ch Marlborough was not less dis- t of the greater ese misfortunes, if Turin against ?rench troops to at Oudenarde in ve. Both sides Burgundy, who , having quitted to the advice of for claiming the nd the battle of illars (Sept. 11,) ought Louis un- n descending to , his minister for ; and, amorg a ake restitution of ince the peace of )f Strasburg, and literal terms of vas reserved for n the interests of PBRIOD VII. k. D. 1648 — 1713. 295 Philip. But the allies, rendered haughty by their success, de- manded of the King that he should oblige his grandson volun- tarily to surrender his crown, otherwise they would compel him by force of arms, and that within the short space of two months. The conferences, which had been transferred from the Hague to Gertruydenberg, were consequently broken ofT, and the war continued. In this critical state of things, two unexpected events happened, which changed the face of aflairs; and Louis XIV., far from being constrained to submit to the articles of the preliminaries at Gertruydenberg, saw himself even courted by England, and in a condition to dictate the law to several of the powers that were leagued against him. The Emperor Joseph I. died (April 11th 1711) without leaving any male offspring. His brother the Archduke Charles, who took the title of King of Spain, now obtained the Imperial dignity, and became heir of all the States belonging to the German branch of the House of Austria. It appeared, therefore, that the system of equilibrium could not possibly admit the same prince to engross likewise the whole Spanish monarchy. This event was coupled with another, rela- tive to the change which had taken place in the ministry and Parliament of Great Britain. The Whigs, who had been the ruling party since the Revolution of 1889, were suddenly sup- planted by the Tories. This overthrow brought the Duke of ularlborough into disgrace, who had long stood at the head of affairs in England, as chief of the Whig faction. Queen Anne, who stood in awe of him, found no other expedient for depriving him of his influence, than to make peace with France. L'AbbMS Gualtier, who resided at London in quality of almoner to the ambassador of Charles of Austria, was despatched by her Ma- jesty to France, to make the first overtures of peace to Louis. A secret negotiation was set on foot between the two Courts, the result of which was a preliminary treaty signed at London (October 8th 1711.) A congress was opened at Utrecht, with the view of a general pacification. The conferences which took place there, after the month of February 1712, met with long interruptions ; both on account of the dismclination of several of the allied powers for peace, and because of the matters to be separately treated be- twecin France and England, which retarded the progress of the general negotiation. The battle of Denain, whicn Marshal Vil- lars gained over the Earl of Albemarle (July 24,) helped to ren- der the allies more tractable. Peace was signed at Utrecht m the month of April 1713, between France and the chief bellige- rent powers. The Emperor alone refused to take part in it, as i. 5'* f % ;. Hi r i ! ' ■ 1 ■1 :| ..fill t '^'\ 29G CHAPTER TIU. he could not resolve to abandon his claims to the Spanish monarchy. The grand aim of England in that transaction, was to hnnl the overwhelming power of France ; for this purpose she took ':are, in that treaty, to establish as a fundamental and mviolable law, the clause which ordained that the kingdoms of France and Spain never should be united. To effect this, it was necessary that Philip of Anjou should formally renounce his right to the crown of France ; while his brother the Duke de Bern, as well as the Duke of Orleans, should do the same in regard to the claims which they might advance to the Spanish monarchy. The deeds of these renunciations, drawn up and signed in France and in Spain, in presence of the English ambassadors, were inserted, in the treaty of Utrecht ; as were also the letters- patent which revoked and annulled those that Louis had given, for preserving the right of the Duke of Anjou to the succession of the French crown. Louis XIV. promised for himself, his heirs and successors, never to attempt either to prevent or elude the effect of these renunciations ; and failing the descendants of Philip, the Spanish succession was secured to the Duke of Savoy, his male descendants, and the other princes of his family, to the exclusion of the French princes. , , , , Another fundamental clause of the treaty of Utrecht declared, that no province, city, fortress or place, in the Spanish Nether- lands, should ever be ceded, transferred, or granted to the crown of France ; nor to any prince or princess of French extraction, under any title whatever. These provinces, designed to serve as a barrier for the Low Countries against France, were ad- judged to the Emperor and the House of Austria, together with the kingdom of Naples, the ports of Tuscany, and the dutchy of Milan ; and as the Emperor was not a party to the treaty, it WM agreed that the Spanish Netherlands should remain as a deposit in the hands of the States-General, until that prince should ar- range with them respecting the barrier-towns. The same stipu- lation was made in regard to that part of the French Nether- lands which Louis had ceded in favour of the Emperor ; such as Menin, Tournay, Fumes, and Furnes-Ambacht, the fortress of Kenock, Ypres, and their dependencies. England, in particular, obtained by this treaty various and considerable advantages. Louis XIV. withdrew his protection from the Pretender, and engaged never to give him harbour in France. The succession to the throne of Great Britain, was guaranteed to the House of Hanover. They agreed to raze the fortifications of the port of Dunkirk, which had so much excited the jealousy of England : while France likewise ceded to hei l!: MiMN 1 1^-t PERIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 297 9 the Spanish 1, was to limit rpose she took and inviolable of France and was necessary his right to the ! Berri, as well 1 regard to the lish monarchy. and signed in 1 ambassadors, also the letters- ouis had given, the succession for himself, his »revent or elude he descendants d to the Duke r princes of his trecht declared, Spanish Nether- icd to the crown ench extraction, isigned to serve 'ranee, were ad- a, together with id the dutchy of he treaty, it was lain as a deposit rince should ar' The same stipu> French Nether- Emperor; such icht, the fortress laty various and iw his protection him harbour in eat Britain, was preed to raze the so much excited ise ceded to hei Hudson's Bay, and Straits, the Island of St. Christopher, Nova Srotia, and Newfoundland in America. Spain gave up Gib- raltar and Minorca, both of which had been conquered by the English during the war; they secured to her, besides, for thirty years, the privilege of furnishmg negroes for the Spanish Ameri- jan colonies. The King of Prussia obtained the Spanish part of Gueldres, with the city of that name, an4 the district of Kessel, in lieu of the principality of Orange, which was given to France ; though he had claims to it as the heir of William III. King of England. The kingdom of Sicily was adjudged to the Duke of Savoy, to be possessed by him and his male descendants ; and they con- firmed to him the grants which the Emperor had made him, of that part of the dutchy of Milan which had belonged to the Duke of Mantua, as also Alexandria, Valencia, the Lumelline, and the Valley of Sessia. Finally, Sardinia was reserved for the Elec- tor of Bavaria, the ally of France in that war. As the Emperor had not acceded to the treaty of Utrecht, the war was continued between him and France. Marshal Villars took Landau and Friburg in Brisgaw ; afterwards a conference took place between him and Prince Eugene at Rastadt. New preliminaries were there drawn up ; and a congress was opened at Baden in Switzerland, where a definitive peace was signed (Sept. 7th 1714.) The former treaties, since the poace of West- phalia, were there renewed. The Electors of Cologne and Ba- varia, who had been put to the ban of the Empire, and deprived of their estates, were there fully re-established. Sardinia, which had been assigned to the Elector of Bavaria, by the treaty of Utrecht, remained in possession of the Emperor, who likewise recovered Brisach and Friburg in Brisgaw, instead of Landau which had been ceded to France. Louis XIV. did not long survive this latter treaty. Never did any sovereign patronize literature and the fine arts like him. Many celebrated academies for the promotion of the arts and sciences owe their origin to his auspices, such as the Academy of Inscriptions, Belles-Lettres, Sciences, Painting, and Archi* tecture. His reign was illustrious for eminent men, and talents of every description, which were honoured and encouraged by him. He even extended his favour to the philosophers and lit- erati of foreign countries. This prince has been reproached for his two great partiality to the Jesuits, his confessors, and for the high importance which he attached to the dispute between the Jansenists and the Molinists, which gave rise to the famous Bull UnigenitiiSy * approved by the clergy, and published by the King as a law of the state over all France. This illustrious i< I ',, 1 % ii\ ■•"■(I ■1 298 CHAPTER VIII. Pnnce ended his days after ii reipn of seventy-two years, fertile in great nventa ; he transmitted the crown to his great grand- son, Louis XV., who WHS only five years of age when he mount- ed the throne (Sept. 1, 1714.) In the course of this period, several memorable events hap* Eened in Gorinnny. The Emperor, Leopold I., having assem- led a Diet at Rntisbon, to demand subsidies against the Turks, and to settle certain matters which the preceding Diet had left undecided, the sittings of that assembly were continued to the present time, without ever having been declared permanent by any formal law of the Empire. The peace of Westphalia, had instituted an eighth Electorate for the Palatine branch of Wit- tle.sbach ; the Emperor, Leopold L, erected a ninth, in favour of the younger branch of the House of Brunswick. The first Elec- tor of this family, known by the name of Brunswick-Luneburg. or Hanover, was the Duke Ernest Augustus, whom the Em- peror invested in his new dignity, to descend to his heirs-male, on account of his engaging to furnish Austria with supplies in money and troops, for carrying on the war against the Turks. This innov.ition met with decided opposition in the Empire. Several of the Electors were hostile to it ; and the whole body of Princes declared, that the new Electorate was prejudicial to their dignity, and tended to introduct; an Electoral Oligarchy. The Duke of Brunswick-WolfTenbultcl especially protested against the preference which was given to the younger branch of his House over the elder, in spite of family compacts, and the right of primogeniture established in the House of Brunswick. A confederacy was thus formed against the ninth Electorate. The allied Princes resolved, in an assembly held at Nuremberg, to raise an army, and apply to the powers that had guaranteed the treaty of Westphalia. France espoused the quarrel of these Princes ; she concluded with the King of Denmark, a treaty of alliance and subsidy against the ninth Electorate, and declared, before the Diet of the Empire, that she regarded this innovation as a blow aimed at the treaty of Westphalia. In cour«e cf time, however, these animosities were allayed. The Princes recog- nised the ninth Electorate, and the introduction of the new Elector took place in 1708. A decree was passed at the Diet, which annexed a clause to his admission, that the Catholic Elec- tors should have the privilege of a casting vote, in cases where iho number of Protestant Electors should happen to equal that of the Catholics. By the same decree, the King of Bohemia, who had formerly never been admitted but at the election of the Emperors, obtained a voice in all the deliberations of the Empire and the Electoral College, on condition of his paying, in time Roming. an Electoral quota for the kingdom of Bohemia. years, fertile great grand- leii he mount- e events hap« mving assein- inst the Turks, g Diet had lef\ ntinued to the permanent by i^i'stphalia, had jrunch of Wit- th, in favour of The first Elec- vick-Luneburg. whom the Em* lis heirs-male, t'ith supplies in insl the Turks. in the Empire. he whole body Is prejudicial to (oral Oligarchy. I'ially protested younger branch >m pacts, and the of Brunswick. inth Electorate. I at Nuremberg, had guaranteed quarrel of these lark, a treaty of e, and declared, this innovation a cour«e cf time, ! Princes recog* ion of the new sed at the Diett e Catholic Elec- in cases where en to equal that ng of Bohemia, e election of the IS of the Empire aying, in time ohemia. PKRIOD VII. A. D. 1848 — 1713. 299 The Imperial capitulations assunied a form entirely new, about the beginning of the eighteenth L-eutury. A diflbrence had for- merly existed among the members of the Germanic body on thii important article of public law. They regarded it as a thing illegal, that the Electors alone should claim the right of drawing up the capitulations ; and they maintained, with much reaxon, that before these compacts should have the force of a fundamen- tal law of the Empire, it was necessary that they should have the deliberation and consent of the whole Diet. The Princes, therefore, demanded, that there should be laid before the Diet a scheme of perpetual capitulation, to serve as a rule for the Elec- tors on every new election. That question had already been debated iit the Congress of Westphalia, and sent back by it for the decision of the Diet. There it became the subject of lone discussion ; and it was not till the interregnum, which followed the death of the Emperor Joseph I., that the principal points of the perpetual capitulation were finally settled. The plan then agreed to was adopted as the basis of the capitulation, which they prescribed to Charles VI. and his successors. Among other articles, a clause was inserted regarding the election of a king of the Romans. This, it was agreed, should never take place during the Emperor's life, except in a case of urgent necessity ; ind that thi proscription of an elector, prince, or state of tne Gmpire, should never take place, without the consent of the Diet, and observing the formalities enjoined by the new capi- tulation. Three Electoral families of the Empire were raised to the royal dignity ; viz. those of Saxony, Brandenburg, and Bruns- wick-Luneburg. Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, after hav- ing made a profession of the Catholic religion, was elected to the throne of Poland ; a dignity which was afterwards conferred, also by election, on his son Augustus III. That change of re- ligion did not prevent the Electors of Saxony from remaining at the head of the Protestant interest in the Diet of the Em- pire, as they had given them assurance that they would make no innovations in the religion of their country, and that they would appoint a council entirely composed of Protestant mem- bers, for administering the affairs of the Empire. These prin- ces, however, lost part of their influence ; and so far was the crown of Poland, which was purely elective, from augmenting the greatness and real power of their house, that, on the con- trary, it served to exhaust and enfeeble Saxony, by involving it in ruinous wars, which ended in the desolation of that fine country, the alienation of the Electoral domains, and the increase af the debts and burdens of the state. I r^ ri 'I' 4 ( -i, , 300 CHArTBR Vlll. If the royal dignity of Poland was nreiudicial to the House of Lxony/it waf b/no .nea,.s ., witk tl^at of Pr--^-h.c^ the House of BranduiiburK a^iuired soon after. Ihe blector, John Sipis.nund, on succeeding to the dulchy of Prussia, had IknowSed himself a vassal and tributary of the crown of Poland Hi. grandson. Frederic William, took advantage of he turbulen Ituation in which Poland was ploced at the tune o the invasion of Charles X. of Sweden, to oblam a grant of thesovedgnly of Prussia, by a treaty which he cone uded with that RepX at Welau {mi September 1657.). Poland, m re- nounSg the territorial rights wUch she exercsed over Ducal Prussia, stipulated for the reversion of these same rights, on the ex ncU^n of the male line of the Electoral House of Brandenburg Frederic I., the son and successor of Frederic W.ll.am, hay.no become sovereign of Ducal Prussia, thought himself authorizeB S assume the royal dignity. The elevation "^ .^is cous.n-ge - man. the Prince of Orange, to the throne of Britain, and of his next neighbour, the Elector of Sar.ony. to the sovereignty ot PoCd. fempted his ambition, and induced h.m to enter mto a negotiation Sn the subject with the Court of Vienna^ The Em- peror Leopold promised to acknowledge him as King of Prussia, Sn ttccounl of a supply of ten thousand men which Frederic pro- mised to furnish him^ in the war of the Spanish Succession wS wa then commencing. To remove all apprehensions on Aeparrof Poland, who mi'ght perhaps offer some opposition, the fleeter signed a compact, bearing, that the royal dignity o Pruss a hould in no way prejudice the rights and possession ot The Kng and State, of Aland over Polish Prussia ; tha neither he no his successors should attempt to found claims on that part of Prussia and that the clause in the treaty of Welau which 8ec™he reversion of the territorial right of Ducal Prussia on the extinction of the heirs-male of Frederic William, should ?emarn?nfuU force and vigour, never to be infringed by the new Ee or any of his successors. After these different conventions, Se iSrepaired to Koningsberg. where he was proclaimed KUig of Prussia (18th January 1701.) It is worthy of remark, Sat on the ceremony of his coronation, he put the crown on ha **'*AlHhJ*European powers acknowledged the new King, with the ex option of France and Spain, with whom he soon engaged tZ The Teutonic Knighu. bearing in mmd thm ancient ckims over Prussia, deemed it their duty to support thein by a nrotTst Ind fheir example was followed by the fcourt of Rome. Copinion which the 'author of the M^^j^^fBraMurg delivers on this event is very remarkable. Frederic, says ne I — —J n to the Houw ra^sia, which The Elector, Prussia, had the crown of advantage of d at the time tain a grant of oiirluded with Poland, in re- icd over Ducal rights, on the f Brandenburg. \''illiain, havinc self authorized his cousin-ger- lain, and of his sovereignty oi to enter into a ma. The Em- {ing of Prussia, :h Frederic pro- lish Succession, pprehensions on ome opposition, royal dignity of nd possession ot sia; that neither lims on that part f Welau, which Ducal Prussia, William, should nged by the new ■ent conventions, was proclaimed )rthy of remark, the crown on his new King, with he soon engas«d nd their ancient pport them by a Court of Rome, j/ Brandenburg ■edenc," says he PBKioD vn. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 3U1 " was flattered with nothing so mu^h, as the externals of royalty, the potnp of ostentation, and a certain whinisiial self-conceit, which was pleased with making others feel their inferiority. What at first was the mere offspring of vanity, turned out in the end to be a masterpiece of policy. The royal dignity lilieratcd the House of Brandenburg from that yoke of servitude under which Austria had, till then, held all the Princes of Germany It was a kind of bait which Frederic held out to all his posterity, and by which he seemed to say, I have acquired for you a title, render yourselves worthy of it; I have laid the foundation o( your greatnes.s, yours is the task of completing the structure." In fact Austria, by promoting the House of Brandenburg, seemed to have injured her own greatness. In the very bosom of the Empire, she raised up a new power, which afterwards became her rival, and seized every opportunity of aggrandizement at her expense. As for the Electoral House of Brunswick-Luneburg, it suc- ceeded, as we have observed, to the throne of Great Britain, in virtue of a fundamental law of that monarchy, which admitted females to the succession of the crown. Ernest Augustus, the first Elector of the Hanoverian line, had married Sophia, daughter of the Elector Palatine Frederic V., by the Princess Elizabeth of England, daughter of James I., King of Great Britain. An act of the British Parliament in 1701, extended the succession to that Princess, then Electress-Dowager of Han- over, and to her descendants, as being nearest heirs to the throne, according to tiie order established by former acts of Parliament, limiting the succession to Princes and Princesses of the Protes- tant line only. The Electrcss Sophia, by that act, was called to the succession, in case William III., and Anne, the youngest daughter of Jamea II., left no issue ; an event which took place in 1714, on the death of Anne, who had succeeded William in the kingdom of Great Britain. The Electress Sophia was not alive at that time, having died two months before that princess. George, Elector of Hanover, and son of Sophia by Ernest Au- gustus, then ascended the British throne (Aug. 12, 1714,) to the exclusion of all the other descendants of Elizabeth, who, though they had the right of precedence, were excluded by being Catho- lics, in virtue of the Acts of Parliament 1689, 1701, 1705. The war of the Spanish Succession had occasioned great changes in Italy. Spain, after having been long the leading power in that country, gave place to Austria, to whom the trea- ties of Utrecht and Baden had adjudged the dutchy of Milan, the kingdoms of Naples and Sardinia, and the ports of Tuscany. To these she added the dutchy of Mantua, of which the Empc* ill V il • \ I !,}'• I ■i &' ' 30'J CHAPTEF VIII. ror Joseph I. hn.l ai.po.sosscd Duke Charles IV. of the Honnc of GonAir". f'T ^'RviI.^' osnouscd iho cause of France m the Wur of the Succcsion 'l*he Duk. of Mira.ulola met w, h n similar fate, as the ally of the French in that war H.s dutd^^^ was contiscated by the femperor, and sold to the Duke of Modena. This new ae^frandizoment of Auxlr.a m Italy exe.ted the jea- lousv of EnKlaud, lest the princes of that house should take oc- Siou to revive their obsolete dai.ns to the royalty of Italy an, the Imperial diRnity ; and t was ''" V'^' n 'b nJ tvov in of London to favour the elevatmn of the Dukes of Savoy, m order to counterbalance the power of Austria m Italy. The origin of the House of Savoy is as old as the be^g'""'"?? of the eleventh century, when we fmd a person named Berthold ?n possession of Savoy, at that time a province of the kingdom of Burgundy or Aries. The grandson of Ber;hold married Adelafde de^Sv.za, daughter and hcires^ .1 ^^l-''"['°;- Mffq"'* of Italy and Lord of Suza. This r.arnage brought the Ho.se of Savoy considerable possessions ,r, Ita y.snch as the Marqui- ^ite of Suza, the Dutchy of Turiiu Piedmont, and Val d;Aoste Humb(.rt H. Count of Savoy, con.i icred the province of laren- l,im. Thomas, one of his successors, acquired ^y marnoge the barony of Faucigny. Amadeus V. was invested by the Empe- ror Henry VII. in the city and coui f o^ A,t.. Amadeus Vll. received the voluntary submission of the mlabitants of Nice, which he had dismembered from Provence, together with the counties of Tenda and Boglio ; having taken advantage of the intest ne dissensions in that country, and the conflict between he factions of Duras and Anpu. who disputed the successKm of Naples and the county of Provence. Amadeus VIII. pur- chasei frcm Otho de Villars the county ol Geneva, and was created, by the Emperor Sigismund, first Duke of Savoy (Feb. ^ VhVJivalry which had subsisted between France and Austria since the end of the fifteenth century, placed the House oi Savoy Ta sUuaUon extremely difficult. Involved in the wars wh.cf. had arisen between these two powers in Italy, it became of ne- .ossity more than once the vlctirn of H'Vi^* f 'r™ V v„; Duke^Charl^s III. having allied himseff with Charles V., was deprived of his estates by France ; and his son Philibert, noted for his exploits in the campaigns of FManders, did not obtain re- «titution of them until the peace of Chateau Cambresis The Dukes Charles Emanuel 11, and Victor Amadeus II., experi- enced si^"" indignities, in the wars which agitated Fran« and Spain during the seventeeth century, and which were teP minated by the treaties of the Pyrenees and Turin in the years ■**..«**jfleR*i.'*i?'crjv"'.-_;: - "^^ i^ tM lAmMmmi^ , of the Hotme France in the ] ula met with a { His dutchy ! like of Modena. 'xcilcd the jea- should tnkc or- lly of holy nnd luied the Court js of Savoy, in Italy. iR the beginning named Bertholtl of the kingdom crihold married ainfroi. Marquis night the House 1 as the Morqui- and Val d'Aoste ovince of Taren- by marriage the }d by the Empe- Amadeus Vll. ubitants of Nice, ogether with the advantage of the conflict between ;d the succession ladeus VIII. pur- Geneva, and was e of Savoy (Feb. ance and Austria c House of Savoy 1 the wars which , it became of ne- al circumstances. 1 Charles V., was n Philibert, noted did not obtain re- Cambresis. The mdeus II., experi- 1 agitated France d which were ter- rurin in the years •r~r\ rcRion vit. A. D. 1648—1713. 303 IfiflO, 1696. In the war (tf the Spani.sh Succession, Victor Amadous II. declared at first for his sou-lti-law, Philip King of Spain, ev(>ii taking upon hiinsolf tlx; rhicf coiiiiiiaiul of the Fri'uch army in Italy ; but aftfrwiinls, perceiving the danger of his situation, and seduced by the advantageous otrers which the Emperor made him, ho thought proper to alter his i)lan, and joined the grand alliance against Fraruie. Savoy and rieiiinonl again became the theatre of the war In'twec^n France and Italy. The French having ur'ilcrt.iken the siege of Turin, the Duke and Prince Eugene foned their army in its entrenchments be- fore the place, and obliged them to abandon Italy. The Empe- ror granted the Duke the investiture of the different estates which he hud secured to him, on his accession to the gnu d alliance ; stich as Montferrat, the provinces of Alexandria und Valencia, the country between the fanaro and the Po, the Lu- melline, Val Sessia, and the Vigovanesco ; to be possessed by him and his male descendants, as fiefs holding of the Emperor and the Empire. The peace of Utrecht confirmed these possessions to the Duke ; and England, the bettor to secure the equilibrium of Italy and Europe, granted him, by that treaty, the royal dignity, with the island of Sicily, which she had taken from Spain. That island was ceded to him under the express clause, that, on the extinc- tion of the male line of Savoy, that kingdom should revert to Spain. By the same treaty they secured to the male descen- dants of that house, the right of succession to the Spanish mon- archy ; and that clause was confirmed by a solemn law passed in the Cortes of Spain, and by subsequent treaties concluded be- tween these powers and Europe. The duke was crowned King of Sicily at Palermo (Dec. 21, 1713,) by the archbishop of that city ; and the only persons who refusecl to acknowledge him in that new capacity were the Emperor and the Pope. In proportion as France increased, Spain had declined in power, in consequence of the vices of her government, the fee- bleness of her princes, and the want of qualifications in their ministers and favourites. At length, under the reign of Charles II., the weakness of that monarchy was such, that France de- spoiled her with impunity, as appears by those cessions she was obliged to make by the treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nimeguen, and Ryswick. Charles II. was the last prince of the Spanish line of'^the house of Austria. At his death (Nov. 1700,) a long and bloody war ensued about the succession, as we have already related. Two competitors appeared for the crown. Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., had on his side the will of Charles II., the efTorts of his grandfather, and the wishes of the I \\i pol raised against France. i . o • j Philip, who had been placed on the throne by the Spaniards, had already resided at Madrid for several years, when the Aus- trian prince, his rival, assisted by the aUied fleet, took possession of Barcelona (Oct. 9, 1705,) where he established his capital. The incessant defeats which France experienced at this period, obliged Philip twice to abandon his capital, and seek his satetj in St. He owed his restoration for the first time to Marsha' Ber^k, and the victory which that f,"^'-.^ „f "?!j„7'^^«, allies near Almanza, in New CastiUe (April 25, 1707.) The .xhduke having afterwards advanced as far «« Madrid he Uuke de Vendome undertook to repulse him. That General, ," conjunction with Philip V., defeated the allies, who were commanded by General Stahremberg, near Jf^J^Sih^ 10 1710 ) These two victories contributed to estabhsh f hilip on his throne. The death of Joseph I., which happened soon Xr and the'elevation of his brother, the Archduke Charles, to Se Imperial throne and the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia accelerated the conclusion of the peace of UtrecKt, by which the Spadh monarchy ^vas preserved to Philip V. and his descen- dants. They deprived him, however, in virtue of that treaty, ot the Netherlands and the Spanish possessions in Italy, such as the Milanois, the ports of Tuscany, and the kingdoms of Naples, 'I'^rcldSwhich England had exacted at tbe treaty^" Utrecht to render eflectual the renunciation of Philip V. to he crown of France, as well as that of the French princes to he monarchy of Spain, having made ft necessary to assemble the Sortes or^Statef-General, Philip t03k advantage o that circum- stance to change the orderof succession which till then had s^ isted in Spain, and which was known W fe narne of the C^' tUian Sticcession. A law was ..assed at the Cortes (1713,) by which it was ordained that females should "^^'^e admitted to ' the crown except in default of the male line of Philip ; that the male E should succeed according to the order of pnm«gen|. i mre that, failing the male line of that prince, the crown shoula falTto the edest daughter of the last reigning king, and her de- fall to tne eiaesi u g ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^j^^^^^ ^^ i jretSgTalwa^^^^^^^^^^ fo-e the right of primogeniture. and the preference of the male heirs in the order of succession. ' FraLe by the sixtieth article of the treaty of the Pyrenees, having renounced the protection of Portugal, the war Uweon -.xe.ijg^i'jsasjaT^E'^g ^ ^#^M I H WIWII II HI n of the Enipe- league, which ler powers had the Spaniards, when the Aus- took possession bed his capital, i at this period, seek his safety time to Marsha' rained over the 15, 1707.) The as Madrid, the That General, lilies, who were a Viciosa (Dec. establish Philip happened soon duke Charles, to y and Bohemia, ht, by which the and his descen- of that treaty, ot in Italy, such as rdoms of Naples, \ at the treaty or ' Philip V. to the ;h princes to the ' to assemble the ^e of that circum- till then had sub- name of the Cos- Cortes (1713,) by er be admitted to f Philip; that the der of primogeni- the crown shoula king, and her de- nearest relation ot of primogeniture, der of succession, r of the Pyrenees, the war between ' '4 N I i * • tr n " i* ii ■;. -,^^^ Death of Charle. the XII. of Sweden. P. 319. Eivampment of n Roaiment nf Imperial nwly-Guards. 1\ :-.') mMm>Mm^iUj.<^ M ^fUi-M^iH^ I. p. 319. nixlv-Gunrds. nuii i i mni w Mwii pBnioD vu. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 305 Spain and this latter power was resumed with new vigour. Alphonso VI., King of Portugal, finding himself abandoned bv his allies, resolved to throw himself on the favour of England. The English granted him supplies, in virtue of a treaty which he concluded with them (June 23d 1661,) and bv which ho ceded to them thn city of Tangiers in Africa, and the isle of Bombay in India. France, who well knew that it was her inte- rest not to abandon Portugal entirely, rendered her likewise all the secret assistance in her power. The Count Schomberg passed over to that kingdom with a good number of officers, and several companies of French troops. The Portuguese, under the command of that General, gained two victories over the Spaniards ai Almexial, near Estremos (1663,) and at Montcs Claros, or Villa Viciosa (1665,) which re-established their affairs, and contributed to secure the independence of Portugal Wlien the war took plnre about the Richt of Devolution, the Coui t of Lisbon formea a new alliance witn France. Spain then leai ned that it would be more for her interest to abandon her projects of conquering Portugal, and accept the proposals of accommodation tendered to her by the mediation of England. It happened, in the meantime, that Alphonso VI., a prince of vicious habits, and of a ferocious and brutal temper, was de- throned (Nov. 23d 1667,) and the Infant Don Pedro, his brother, was declared Regent of the kingdom. The Queen of Alphonso, Mary of Savoy, who had managed the whole intrigue, obtained, from the Court of Rome, a dissolution of her marriage with Al- phonso, and espoused the Regent, her brother-in-law (April 2d 1668.) That prince would willingly have fulfilled the engage- ments which his predecessor had contracted with France, but th . English Ambassador having drawn over the Cortes of Por tugal to his interests, the Regent was obliged to make peace with Spain, which was signed at Lisbon, February 13th 1668. The Spaniards there treated with the Portuguese as a sovereign and independent nation. They agreed to make mutual restitution of all they had taken possession of during the war, with the exception of tlte city of Ceuta in Africa, which remained in the power of Spain. The subjects of both states obtained the resto- ration of lill property alienated or confiscated during the war. That peace was followed by another, which Portugal concluded at the Hague, with the United Provinces of the Netherlands (July 31st 1669,) who were permitted to retain the conquests they had made from the Portuguese in the East Indies. The Court of Lisbon was soon after involved in the war of the Spanish Succession which divided all Europe. Don Pedro II. had at first acknowledged Philip V., and even contracted an 20 1,1 411 f i I ' , *— — ^'^^- ■• 306 CHAPTBB Vin. allinnce With him; but yielding afterwards to the «nfl»«P" »[ the British minister, as well as of the Court of Vienna, he jo ned the Grand Alliance against France.' The Portuguese made a distinguished figure in that war, chiefly during the campaign of 1706 when, wifh the assistance of the W»«h, thev penetrated as far as Madrid, end there proclaimed Charles of Austria. The Portuguese, by one of the articles of their treaty o accession to the gran„,.„™1 A similar dispute had arisen between France and Portugal relative to the northern bank of the Amazons river, and the terri- ories about Cape North, in America, which t^e French mam- tained belonged to them, as making part of French Guiana. The Portuguese naving constructed there the fort of Macapa, it iJs taken by the French gove-^rr of Cayenne. By the reaty of Utrecht, it was agreed between France and Portugal that both banks of the river Amazons should belong entirely to Por- i tugal ; and that France should renounce all right and pieten- ! Ss whatever to the territories of Cape North, b'lng.betv^en I the rivers Amazons and Japoc, or Vincent Pmson, in South 1 ^fn England, an interregnum of eleven years followed the death of Charles I. Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the Independent 1 party, pissed two Acts of Parliament one of which abulished fhe House of Lords, and the other the royal dignity. The i kinRlv office was suppressed, as useless to the nation, oppressn^ ' and dangerous to the interests and liberties of the people ; and it •Ls decided, that whoever should spoak of the restoration of the : Stuarts, should be regarded as a traitor to his country. The king- t dom being thus changed into a republic, Cromwell took on hum e!f the chief direction of affairs. This ambitiou. man was n^^^^^^^ I in monopolizing the sovereign authority (1663.) He abolishfirt II i! 1'f*lr [he influence of lenna, he joined [ugucse made a the campaign of Jthey penetrated |of Austria, their treaty of to expect, that ira and Gallicia That engage- ;e, concluded at id Portugal, had made during the n renewed, and restitution of all ey yielded to the »ny of St. Sacra- ineiro had estab- a Plata, in South e sixth article of er former claims ce and Portugal ver, and the terri- le French main- French fruiana. brt of Macapa, it ;. By the treaty id Portugal that J entirely to Por- ight ana pieten- h, lying between 'inson, in South allowed the death the Independent which abolished I dignity. The lation, oppressive le people ; and it restoration of the mtry. The king- II took on himself nan was not long .) He abolislmd :.{ PERion VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 307 the Parliament called the Rump, which had conferred on him his power and military commission. He next assembled a new Parliament of the three kingdoms, to the number of one hun- dred and forty-four members ; and he took care to have it com- posed of individuals whom he knew to be devoted to his inte- rests. Accordingly, they resigned the whole authority into his hands. An act, called the Act of Government, conferred on him the supreme authority, under the title of Protector of the three kingdoms ; with the privilege of making war and peace, and assembling every three years a Parliament, which should exercise the legislative power conjunctly with himself. Cromwell governed England with a more uncontrolled power than that of her kings had been. In 1651, he passed the fa- mous Navigation Act, which contributed to increase the com- merce of Great Britain, and gave her marine a preponderance over that of all other nations. That extraordinary man raised England in the estimation of foreigners, and made his Protec- torate respected by all Europe. After a war which he had car- ried on against the Dutch, he obliged them, by the treaty of Westminster (1654,) to lower their flag to British vessels, and to abandon the cause of the Stuarts. Entering into alliance with France against Spain, he took from the latter the island of Jamaica (1655) and the port of Dunkirk (1658.) After his death, the Generals of the army combined to restore the old Parliament, called the Rump. Richard Cromwell, who succeeded his father, soon resigned the Protectorate (April 22, 1659.) Dissensions having arisen between the Parliament and the Generals, Monk, who was governor of Scotland, marched to the assistance of the Parliament ; and after having defeated the Independent Generals, he proceeded to assemble a new Par- liament composed of both Houses. No sooner was this Par- liament assembled, than they decided for the restoration of the Stuarts, in the person of Charles II. (18th May 1660.) That Princp made his public entry into London, May 29, 1660. His first care was to take vengeance on those who had been chiefly instrumental in the death of his father. He re- scinded all Acts of Parliament passed since the year 1633; and re-established Episcopacy both in Englan ' and Scotland. In- stigated by his propensity for absolute power, and following the maxims which he had imbibed from his predecessors, he adopt- ed measures which were opposed by the Parliament ; and even went so far as more than once to pronounce their dissolution. His reign, in consequence, was a scene of faction and agitation, which proved the forerunners of a new revolution.* The ap- pellation of Whigs and Tories, so famous in English history Wki ir 308 CHAPTER Vin. took its rise in his reign. Wc could almost, however, pardon trils for his faults Ld irregularities, in cor..derat^ of^he beMevolence and amiableness of his character. IJut it was mhervvse with James 11., who succeeded his hrother on he Brit sh Throne (16th Feb. 1685.) That Prince alienated the m nds of his subjects by his haughty demeanour, and his extra- vagant zeal for the church of Rome, and the Jesuits h.s confes- lors Scarcely was he raised to the throne, when he undertook change thrreliirion of his country, and to govern s. 11 more despotSlythL his brother had done. Encouraged by Louis XlT who offered him money and troops, he was the first Kmg of England That had kept on foot an army in time of peace and caused tie legislature to decide, that the King can dispense wl tr law. ivailing himself of ^^^^^^o^J'Z^ with the several statutes issued against the Catholics , ne peT mUVed them the public exercise of their religion Withm the "hree k ngdoms, aid gradually gave them a Pje<^r«"<=«;" j" plSes of frust. At length, he even solicited the Pje /o « jd fpectlng CatLiics, were treated as guilty of sedition, and .m , nrisoned by his order in the Tower. r-Mt a „„ ^«n : ^ D«ri..g these transactions the Q-7'T^''^"6^? known Fn I nened to be delivered of a Prince 20th June, 1688,) kno;^" '" Cry b7 the name of the Pretender. As her Majesty had i teo ch\ldL for more than six years it was "Ot difficult to gain credit to a report, that the young Prince %yas a supposit^ Ks child James IL, by his first marriage with Anne Hyde. i Sghter of the Earl of ClLndon. had two ^-ghte., both ^ro- ' testants ; and regarded, till then, as heirs to the crown. Mary, i he elde;t, was m'arried to William, Prince of Orange and Anne Sf D=r' ^^^sJZ^:^^ LTtSttSve5 IfaTtlt^gsa^d misfortunes would^ death of James II. and the accession of the P""'^^f ^.°^y,™X TL throne. Being disappointed in these ^^F^/^f/^^^^^^ birth of the Prince of Wales, their only P'^V^JJ^^^'^^Sg .v,„ If intr The Tories even ioined with the W higs m oneniig t f-S 1, .t PrEof Oringe. William m-.^f^'g^ i i5=!9BKK owever, pnrdon |si deration of the r. Rut it was s brother on the ce alienated the ur, and his extra- csiiits his confes- hen he undertook govern still more oiiraged by Louis vas the first King in time of peace, (ing can dispense iion, he dispensed atholics ; he per- igion within the preference in all the Pope to send arrival of Ferdi- fided this mission, Windsor (1687.) ihe declaration re- sedition, and im •y of Modena, hap- •, 1688,) known m her Majesty had ras not difficult to e was a suppositi- with Anne Hyde. lughters, both Pro- the crown. Mary, Orange, and Anne, •"rederic III., King [altered themselves terminate with the Princess of Orange expectations by the n was to dethrone Whigs in offering 1 III., supported by and landed fifteen [688,) without ex- rt of James, who, ook the resolution PERIOD Vll. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 309 of withdrawmg to France, where he had already sent his Queen and his son, the young Prince of Wales. He afterwards re- turned to Ireland, where he had a strong party ; but being con- quered by William at the battle of the Boyne (11th July 1690,) he was obliged to return to France, where he ended his days. Immediately after the flight of James, the Parliament of Eng- land declared, by an act, that as he had violated the funda- mental law of the constitution, and abandoned the kingdom, the throne was become vacant. They, therefore, unanimously con- ferred the crown on William III., Prince of Orange, and Mary his spouse (Feb. 22, 16S9 ;) intrusting the administration of af- fairs to the Prince alone. In redressing the grievances of the nation, they set new limits to the royal authority. By an Act, called the Declaration of Rights, they decreecf, that the King could neither suspend, nor dispense with the laws ; that he could institute no new courts, nor levy money under any pre- tence whatever, nor maintain an army in time of peace, without the consent of Parliament. Episcopacy was abolished in Scot- land (1694,) and the liberty of the press sanctioned. The suc- cession of the crown was regulated by different Acts of Parlia- ment, one of which fixed it in the Protestant line, to the exclu- sion of Catholics. Next after William and Mary and their descendants, was the Princess Anne and her descendants. A subsequent Act conferred the succession on the House of Hanover (1701,) under the following conditions: — That the King or Queen of that family, on their accession to the throne, should be obliged to conform to the High Church, and the laws of 1689 ; that without the consent of Parliament, they should never engage the nation in any war for the defence of their he- reditary dominions, nor go out of the kingdom ; and that they should never appoint foreigners to offices of trust. The rivalry between France and England assumed a higher tone under the reign of William III. ; and was increased by the powerful efTorts which France was making to improve her ma- rine, and extend her navigation and her commerce. The colo- nies which she founded in America and the Indies, by bringing the two nations more into contact, tended to foment their jea- lousies, and multiply sulyects of discord and division between them. From that time England eagerly seized every occasion for occupying France on the Continent of Europe ; and the whole policy of William, as we have seen, had no other aim than to thwart the ambitious views of Louis XIV. If this rivalry excited and prolonged wars which inflicted many cala- mities on the world, it became likewise a powerful stimulus for the contending nations to develope their whole faculties ; to I h I tm m If:; #■ 11 ; rijdlJ "ar fT 310 CHAPTKR Vni. make the liighest nllninir.enls in the sciences, of which they were susceptible ; and to carry arts and civilization to the remotes*, countries in the world. ,,„n«v i. • ^- William HI. was succeeded by Anne (1702.) It was in ncr reicn that the grand union IxHwccn England and Scotland was accompli«hed, which incorporated then, into one kingdom, by means of the same order of succession, and only one Parliament. That Princess had the honour of maintaining the balance ol Europe against France, by the clauses which she got inserted into the treaty of Utrecht. At her death (1st August 1714,) the throne of Great Britain passed to George I., the Elector o( Hanover, whose mother, Sophia, derived her right to the British throne from James I., her maternal grandfather. The power and political influence of the United Provinces of the Netlierlands had increased every day, '""•^^ Spain ncknow- ledged their independence by the treaty of Munster (1648.) Their extensive commerce to all parts of the globe, nnd their flourishing marine, attracted the admiration of al Europe- Sovereigns courted their alliance ; and the Hague, the capital of the States-General, became, in course of time, the centre ol European politics. That Republic was the nvnl of England in all her coinmercial relations ; and she ventured also to dispute with her the empire of the sea, by refusing to lower her flag to British vessels. These disputes gave rise to bloody wars be- tween the two States, in which the famous Dutch Admirals, Troinp and De Ruyter, distinguished themselves by- their mari- time exploits. De Ruyter entered the Thames with the Dutch fleet (1667,) advanced to Chatham, burnt the vessels m the roads there, and threw the city of London into great consternation. Nevertheless, by the treaties of Breda (1667) and Westminster (1664 ) they agreed that their vessels and fleets should lower their flag when they met either one or more ships carrying the British flag, and that over all the sea, from Cape ?'"'«»«"«"> Gallicia, to the centre of Statt in Norway ; but the Slates-Gen- eral preserved Surinam, which they had conquered during the war ; and at the treaty of commerce which was signed at Breda, the navigation act was modified in their favour, m so far that the produce and merchandise of Germany were to be considered as productions of the soil of the Republic. ft was during these wars that a change took place with regard to the Stadlholdership of the United Provinces. William 11.. Prince of Orange, had alienated the hearts of his subjects by his ! attempts against their liberties; and having, at His death, left his wife, the daughter of Charles 1. of England, pregnant of a ' son (1650,) the Slates-General took the opportunilv of leaving i. Ivhich they were to the remotest It was in ner ul Scotland was [nc kingdom, by J one Parliament, the balance ol 8he got inserted It August 1714,) the Elector of 'lit to the British trd Provinces of s Spain acknow- Munster (1648.) globe, and their of all Europe. ague, the capital me, the centre of ra\ of England in kl itlso to dispute lower her flag to bloody wars be- Dutch Admirals, es by their mari- s with the Dutch 'sscls in the roads ;at consternation. and Westminster ■ets should lower hips carrying the ipe Finisterre in [ the States-Gen* uered during the signed at Breda, lur, in so far that ! to be considered }]ace with regard !s. William IL, is subjects by his at his death, left d, pregnant of a unity of leaving fKRIOD VII. A. D. 164S — 17/). 311 that ofPce vacant, and taking upon themselves the direction of affairs. The suspicions which the House of Orniigo had excited in Cromwell by their alliance with the Stuarts, and the resent- ment of John de Witt, Pensionary of Holland, against the Stadt* holder, caused a secret article to be added to the treaty of West- minster, by which the States of Holland and West Friesland engaged never to elect William, the posthumous son of William II., to be St.tdthnlder ; and never to allow that the office of Captain-General of the Republic should be conferred on him. John (le Witt likewise framed a regulation known by the name of the Perpetual Edict, which separated the Stadtholdership from the office of Captain and Admiral-General, and which enacted, that these functions should never be discharged by the same individual. Having failed, however, in his efforts to make the States-General adopt this regulation, which they considered as contrary to the union, John de Witt contented himself with obtaining the approbation of the States of Holland, who even went so fur as to sanction the entire suppression of the Stadt- holdership. Matters continued in this situation until the time when Louis XIV. invaded Holland. His alarming progress caused a revo- lution in favour of the Prince of Orange. The ruling faction, at the head of which was John de Witt, then lost the good opinion of the people. He was accused of having neg'.ectcd military affairs, and left the State without defence, and a prey to the en- emy. The first signal of 'evolution was given by the small town of Veere in Zealand. William was there proclaimed Stadtholder (June 1672,) and the example of Vecre was soon followed by all the cities of Holland and Zealand. Every where the people compelled the magistrates to confer the Stadtholder- ship on the young Prince. The Perpetual Edict was abolished, and the Stadtholdership confirmed to William III. by the As- sembly of States. They' even rendered this dignity, as well as the office of Captain-General, hereditary to all the male and legitimate descendants of the Prince. It was on this occasion that the two brothers, John and Cornelius de Witt, were massa- cred by the people assembled at the Hague. After William was raised to the throne of Great Britain, he still retained the Stadtholdership, with the offices of Captain and Admiral-General of the Republic. England and Holland, united under the jurisdiction of the same prince, acted thence* forth in concert to thwart the ambitious designs of Louis XIV.; and he felt the effects of their power chiefly in the war of the Spanish Succession, when England and the States-General made extraordinary efforts to maintain the balance of th ; Continent i i i / M : i Hf,< mi ii wiLji wpi 312 ■*:-:,: OBArTBR Vlll. which they thought in danger. It was m consideration of these efforts that they guaranteed to the Dutch, by the tretty ol the Grand Alliance, as well as by that of Utrecht, a barrier against Franco, which was more amply defined by ^heHarrter Treaty, sijrned at Antwerp (15th November 1715,) under the mediation and guaranty of Great Britain The provinces and towns of the Netherlands, both those that had been possessed by Charles II , and those that France had surrendered by the treaty of Utrecht, were transferred to the Emperor and the House of Austria, on condition that they should never bo ceded under any title whatever ; neither to France, nor to any other prince except the heirs and successors of the House of Austria in Germony. It was agreed that there should always be kept in the Low Countries a body of Austrian troops, from |:h'rty to thirty-five thousand men,of which the Emperor was to furnish Jree-fif hs, and the States-General the remainder. Finally, 'Jf Si"*"- General were allowed a garrison, entirely composed of their own troops, in the cities anS castles of N^mur, rTournay Menm, Fumes, Warneton, and the fortress of Kenock ! while the Em- peror engaged to contribute a certain ?um annually for the main- tenance of these troops. , .^ i-. . j :„j. Switzerland, since the confirmation of her liberty and indej nendence by the peace of Westphalia, had constantly adhered to the system of neutrality which she had adopted ; and taken no part in the broils of her neighbours, except by furnishing troops to those powers with whom she was in alliance. The fortunate inability which was the natural consequence of her union, pointed out this line of conduct, and even induced the European States to respect the Helvetic neutrality. This profound peace, which Switzerland enjoyed by means of that neutrality, was never interrunted, except by occasional do- me tkquarrei; which arose from tW difference of their re igiou, ODinions. Certain families, from the canton of Schwe.iz, had fled to Zurich on account of their religious tenets, and had been nrotected by that republic. This stirred up a war (1656) be- fween the (Jalholic cLtons and the Zurichers, with their all^s the Bernese ; but it was soon terminated by the peace of baden, which renewed the clauses of the treaty of 1631, relative to these very subjects of dispute. Some attempts having afterwards been made against liberty of conscience, in the county of Toggenburg, by the Sbbe of St!^Gall, a new war broke out (1712,) between five of the Catholic cantons, and the two Protestant cantons of Zurich and Berne. These latter expelled the Abbe of St. Gall from'his estates, and dispossessed the Catholics of the county of Baden, with a considerable part of the free bailiwicks which 14. tmtm leration of thew e tre«ty of (he barrier agninnt )iarrier Treaty, r the mediation s nnd towns of ssed by Charles ly the treaty of I the House of cded under any or prince except ia in Germany. ept in the Low TXy to thirty-five ■nish three-fifths, lly, the States- )sed of their own 'ournay, Menin, ; while the Em- tlly for the main- iberty and inde- nstantly adhered |ited ; and taken 'pt by furnishing n alliance. The sequence of her vcn induced the lity. yed by means of )y occnsioRal do- of their religious )f Schweitz, had ts, and had been L war (1656) be- with their allies peace of Baden, , relative to these afterwards been r ofToggenburg, (1712,) between (stant cantons of Abb.' of St. Gall of the county of ailiwicks which : : PKBioo m. A. D. 1648—1713. 318 V(ft9 flTanted to ther.i by the troaty coiicludod at .\raw. The Abbe then saw him.«(elf abandonod by the Ciiiliolic i'antoiiSm'ilSli'i'mSt ^M> 4 318 CHAPTER Vin. Lewcnhaupt, nnd joined him at Desna, two miles from Pro- poisk, in the Palatinate of Mscislaw. The battle which he fougl)t with that general (October 9, 1709,) was most obstinate, and, by the confession of the Czar, the first victory which the Eussians had gained over regular troons. The remains of Lcwenhaupt's army, having joined the King in the Ukraine, Charles undertook the siege of Pultowa, situated on the banks of the Vorskhiw, at the extremity of that province. It was near this place, that the famous "battle was fought {8lh July, 1709,) which blasted all the laurels of the King of Sweden. The Czar gained tii«;e a complete victory. Nine thousand Swedes were left on liie field of battle ; and fourteen thousand, who had retired with General Lewenhaupt, towards Perevo- latsi'hna, between the Vorsklaw and the Nieper, were made pri- soners of war, three days after the action. Charles, accompanied bv his ally Mazeppa, saved himself with difliculty at Bender in Turkey. This disastrous route revived the courage of the enemies of Sweden. The alliance was renewed between the Czar, Au- gustus II., and FredcricIV.,King of Dennmrk. Stanislaus was abandoned. All Poland again atknowledeed Augustus II. The Danes made a descent on Schonen ; and the Czar achieved the conque^t of Ingria, Livonia, and Carelia. The Slates that were leagued against France in the war of the Spanish Suc- cession, wishing to prevent Germany from becoming the theatre of hostilities, concluded a treaty at the Hague (31st March 1710,) by which they undertook, under certain conditions, to guarantee the neutrality of the Swedish provinces in Germany, as well as that of Sleswick and Jutland ; but the King of Swe- den having constantly declined acceding to this neutrality, the possessions of the Swedes in Germany were also seized arid conquered in succession. The Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, .he nephew of Charles XII., was involved in his disgrace, and stripped of his estates by the king of Denmark (1714.) In the midst of these disasters, the inflexible King of Swe- den persisted in prolongin"' his sojourn at Bender, making re- peated efforts to rouse the Turks against the Russians. He did not return from Turkey till 1714, when his aflfairs were already totally ruined. The attemfits which he then made, either to renew the war in Poland, or invade the provinces of the Em- pire, excited the jealousy of the neighbouring powers. A for- midable league was raised against him ; besides the Czar, the Kings of Poland, Denmark, Prussia, and England, joined it. Stralsund and Wismar, the only places which Sweden still re- tained in Germany, fell into the hands of the allies ; while the it Ju es es from Pro- 1' tie which he ' ; lost obstinate, \ ' ry which the j remains of \'\ the Ukraine, i : on the hanks mce. It was ;ht (8th July, ? of Sweden. line thousand cen thousand, I'ards Perevo* rcTC made pri- , accompanied f at Bender in he enemies of he Czar, Au- i^tani.slaus was Augustus II. Czar aciiieved he Slates that Spanish Sue- ing the theatre ! (31st March conditions, to s in Germany, King of Swe- neutrnlity, the !so seized arid n-Gottorp, .he disgrace, and 1714.) King of Swe- r, making re- iians. He did ! were already ade, either to s of the Em- wers. A fer- tile Czar, the ind, joined it. reden still re- while the PERIOU VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. .319 Cw added to these losses the conquest of Finland and Savolax, In a situation so desperate, Charles, 'oy the advice of his minis- ter. Baron GortE, set on foot a special and secret negotiation with the Czar, which took place in the isle of Aland, in course of the year 1718. There it was proposed to reinstate Stanis- laus on the throne of Poland ; to restore to Sweden her pos- sessions in the Empire ; and even to assist her in conquering Norway ; by way of compensation for the loss of Ingria, Ca- relia, Livonia, and Esthonia, which she was to cede to the Czar. That negotiation was on the point of being finally closed, when it was broken off by the unexpected death of Charles XII. That unfortunate prince was slain (December 11th, 1718,) at the siege of Fredericshall in Norway, while visiting the trenches ; being only thirty-seven year-! of ago, and leaving the affairs of his kingdom in a most deplorable state. The new regency of Sweden, instead of remaining in friend- ship with the Czar, changed their policy entirely. Baron de Gortz, the friend of the late King, fell a sacrifice to the public displeasure, and a negotiation was opened with the Court of G.Britain. A treaty of peace and alliance was concluded at Stockholm (Nov. 20, 1719,) between Great Britain and Swe- den. George I., on obtaining the cession of the dutchies of Bremen and Verden, as Elector of Hanover, engaged to send a strong squadron to the Baltic, to prevent any further invasion from the Czar, and procure for Sweden more equitable terms of peace on the part of that Prince. The example of Great Bri- tain was soon followed by the other allied powers, who were anxious to accommodate matters with Sweden. By the treaty concluded at Stockholm (21st January, 1720,) the King of Prussia got the town of Stettin, and that part of Pomerania, v;hich lies between the Oder and the Peenc. The King of Denmark consented to restore to Sweden the towns of Stral- sund and Wismar, with the isle of Rugen, and the part of Po- merania, which extends from the sea to the river Peene. Swe- den, on ner side, renounced in favour of Denmark, her exemp- tion from the duties of the Sound and the two Belts, which had been guaranteed to her by former treaties. The Czar was the only person who, far from being intimidated by the menaces of England, persisted in his resolution of not making peace with Sweden, except on the conditions which he had dictated to her. The war was, therefore, continued between Kussia and Sweden, during the two campaigns of 1720 and 1721. Different parts of the Swedish coast were laid desolate by the Czar, who put all to fire and sword, To stop the progress of these devasta lions, the Swedes at length consented to accept the peace which % JM M t i ij- ■ ; i' V <> r?ii»«- 1\r i 320 CHAPTER VIU* tho Czar offered them, which was finally signed at Nystadt I <13iii Scpteinbor 1721.) Finland was surrendered to bweJen on condition of her formally ceding to the C/ar the provinces of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and Carelia; their limits to be deter- mined according to the regulations of the treaty. The ascendency which Sweden had gained in the ISorth since the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, had become so fatal to Den- mark, that she was on the point of being utterly subverted, and ediiced from the number of European powers. JNor did she extricate hersiclf from the disas^trous wars which she had to sup- port against Charles X., until she had sacrificed some of her best provinces ; such as Schoncn, Bieckingen, Halland, and the government of Bohus, which Frederic III. ceded to Sweden by the treaties of Roschild and Copenhagen. It was at tiie close of thi« war thata revolution happened in the governmcntof Denmark. U..tU that time, it had been completely under the aristocracy of the nobles ; the throne was elective ; and all power was concentrated in the hands of the senate, and the principal rnembers of the nobility. The royal prerogative was limited to the command ot the army, and the presidency in the' Senate. The King was even obliged, by a special capitulation, in all affairs which did not require the 'concurrence of the Senate, to take the advice of four o-reat officers of the crown, viz. the Orand Master, the Chancellor, the Marshal, and the Admiral ; who were considered as so many channels or vehicles of the royai authority. The state of exhaustion to wiiich Denmark was reduced at the time she made peace with Sweden, obliged Frederic 111. to convoke an assembly of the States-General of the kingdom. These which were composed of three orders, viz. tlie nobility, the clergy, and the burgesses, had never been summoned to- gether in that form since the year 153G. At their meeting at Copenhagen, the two inferior orders reproached the nobles with having been the cause of all the miseries and disorders of the ' State, by the exorbitant and tyrannical power which they had I usurped ; and what tended still more to increase their animosity against them, was the obstinacy with which they maintained 1 their privileges and exemptions from the pubhc burdens, to the prejudice of the lower orders. One subject of discussion was, to find a tax, the proceeds of which should be applied to the most ' pressing wants of the State. The nobles proposed a duty on articles of consumption; but under restrictions with regard to I themselves, that could not but exasperate the lower orders. 1 he \ ; latter proposed, in testimony of their discontent, to .3t out to the I ' hiffhest bidder the fiefs of the crown, which the nobles held at i rents extremely moderate. This proposal was highly resented tmmm 1 d at Nystadt red to Sweden le provinces of its to be deter- le North since fatal to Den- subvcrted, and Nor did she die had to sup- i some of her alland, and the to Sweden by i at tile close of int of Denmark, ristocracy of the as concentrated nembers of the Lhe command of The King was [fairs which did ic the advice of nd Maf^ter, the were considered ithority. was reduced at Frederic III. to f the kingdom, iz. the nobility, 1 summoned to- heir meeting at the nobles with disorders of the which they had : their animosity they maintained : burdens, to the discussion was, plied to the most posed a duty on 1 with regard to irer orders. The to !3t out to the e nobles held at highly resented I n PERIOD VII. A. D, 1648 — 1713. 321 by the nobility, who regarded it as a blow aimed at tneir rights and properties ; and they persisted in urging a tax on articles of consumption, such as they had proposed. Certain unguarded expressions which escaped some of the members of the nobility, gave rise to a tumult of indignation, and suggested to the two leaders of the clergy and the burgesses, viz. the bishop of Zea- land and the burgomaster of Copenhagen, the idea of framing a declaration for the purpose of rendering the crown hereditary, both in the male and female descendants of Frederic III. It \vas not difficult for them to recommend this project to their respective orders, who flattered themselves that, under a heredi- tary monarchy, they would enjoy that equality which was denied them under an aristocracy of the nobles. The act of this de- claration having been approved and signed by the two orders, was presented in their name to the Senate, who rejected it, on the ground that the States-General then assembled, had no right to deliberate on that proposition ; but the clergy and the burges- ses, without being disconcerted, went in a body to the King, carrying with them the Act which ofTered to make the crown hereditary in his family. The nobles having made a pretence of wisshing to quit the city in order to break up the Diet, care was taken to shut the doors. The members of the Senate and the nobility had then no other alternative left than to agree to the resolution of the two inferior orders ; and the offer of the crown was made to the King by the three orders conjunctly ( 13th Oct iber 1660.) They then tendered him the capitulation, which was annulled ; and at the same time they liberated him from the oath which he had taken on the day of his coronation. A sort of dictatorship was then conferred on him, to regulate the new con- stitutional charter, according to his good pleasure. All the orders of the State then took a new oath of fealty and homage to him, while the King himself was subjected to no oath whaterer. Finally, the three orders separately remitted an Act to the Kin?, declaring the crown hereditary in all the descendants of Frederic III., both male and female ; conferring on htm and his succes- sors an unlimited power; and granting him the privilege of regulating the order both of the regency and the succession to the throne. Thus terminated that important revolution, without any dis- order, and without shcddmg a single drop of blood. It was in virtue of those powers which the States nad conferred on him, that the King published what is called the Royal Law, regarded as the only fundamental law of Denmark. The King was there declared absolute sovereign, above all human laws, acknowledg- ing no superior but God, and uniting in his own person all tb

t.;vas >« the power of the reigning monarch to regulate, by his will, the tutor- 1 age and the regency during such minority. This constitutional law gave the Danish government a vigour which it never had before ; the effects of which were manifested in the war which Christian V. undertook against Sweden (1675,) in consequence of his alliance with Frederic William, Elector of Brandenburg. The Danes had the advantage of the Swedes both by sea and land. Their fleet, under the command of Niels Juel, gained two naval victories over the_m, the one rear the Isle of Oeland, and the other in the bay of Kioge, on the coast of Zealand (1677.) That war was terminated by the peace of Lunden (Oct. 6th 1679,) which restored matters be- tween the two nations, to the same footing on which they had been before the war. The severe check which Sweden re- ceived bv the defeat of Charles XII., before Pultowa, tended to extricate Denmark from the painful situation in which she had been placed with respect to that power. The freedom of the Sound, which Sweden had maintained during her prosperity, was taken from her by the treaty of Stockholm, and by the ex- planatory articles of Fredericsburg, concluded between Sweden Snd Denmark, (14th June 1720.) That kingdom likewise re- tained, in terms of the treaty, the possession of the whole dutchy of Sleswirk, with a claim to the part belonging to the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, whom S-weden was obliged to remove from under her protection. . j „„ Poland, at the commencement of this period, presented an afflictine spectacle, under the u:..'3rtunate reign of John tasimir, i S brother and successor of Uladislaus VII. (1648.) Distracted I at once by foreign wars and intestine factions, she seemed every i moment on th.^ brink of destruction ; and w^iilc the neighbour- insr states were augmenting their forces, and strengthening the hands of their governments, Poland grew gradually weaker and ■ weaker, and at length degenerated into absolute anarchy. 1 bf ion whatever s own author and he could ich had been y partition of jr chonge the That suc- ngnniture and the male issue ;re to succeed, The terra of it was in the will, the tutor- iment a vigour ere manifested gainst Sweden Icric William, Ivantage of the r the command them, the one of Kioge, on (minated by the ed matters be- ivhich they had :h Sweden re- towa, tended to which she had freedom of the her prosperity, and by the ex- 'tween Sweden )m likewise re- le whole dutchy ; to the duke ol .0 remove from ], presented an if John Casimir, 148.) Distracted le seemed every • ilie neighbour- rcngthening the ally weaker and ! anarchv. The I PRRIOD VII. A. D. 1648 — 1713. 323 orig^in of the Libenim Veto of the Poles, which allowed the op- position of a single member to frustrate the deliberations of the whole Diet, belongs to the reign of John Casimir. The first that suspended the Diet, by the interposition of his veto, wa& Schinski, member for Upita in Lithuania ; his example, though at first disapproved, found imitators ; and this foolish practice, which allowed one to usurp the prerogative of a majority, soon passed into a law, and a maxim of state. Towards the end of the reign of Uladislaus VII. a murderous war had arisen in Poland, that of the Cossacs. This warlike people, of Russian origin, as their language and their religion prove, inhabited both banks of the Borysthenes, beyond Kiow ; where they were subdivided into regiments, under the command of a general, called Hetman; and served as a military frontier for Poland against the Tartars and Turks. Some infringements that had been made on their privileges, added to the eflTorts which the Poles had made to induce their clergy to separate from the Greek Church, and acknowledge the supremacy of the Pope, ex- asperated the Cossacs, and engendered among them a spirit of revolt (1647.) Assisted by the Turks of the Crimea, they in- vaded Poland, and committed terrible devastations. The Poles succeeded from time to time in pacifying them, and even con- cluded a treaty with them ; but the minds of both parties being exasperated, hostilities always recommenced with every new offence. At length, their Hetman, Chmielniski, being hardly pressed by the Poles, took the resolution of soliciting the protec- tion of liussia, and concluded a treaty with the Czar Alexis Michaelovitz (Jan. 16, 1654,) in virtue of which, Kiow and the other towns of the Ukraine, under the power of the Cossacs, were planted with Russian garrisons. It was on this occasion that the Czar retook the city of Smolensk© from the Poles, as well as most of the districts that had been ceded to Poland, by the treaties of Dwilina and Viasma. That prince made also several other conquests from the Poles ; he took possession of Wilna, and several places in Lithuania, at the very time when Charles X. was invading Poland, and threatening that country with entire destruction. The Czar, however, instead of fol ow- ing up his conquests, judged it more for his interest to conclude a truce with the Poles ^1636,) that fie might turn his arms against Sweden. The peace of Oliva put an end to the war between Poland and Sweden ; but hostilities were renewed between the Russians and the Poles, which did not terminate till the treaty of Andnis- .sov (Jan. 1667.) The Czar restored to the Poles a part of his conquests ; but he retained Smolensko, Novogorod-Sieverskoe. .';* ill .i '1 1* :'!"'" '<»%'" I lifj-i-"^ ^ r 824 ciiArniR viu. TcherniRov. Kiow, and all il.e cmintry of the Cossacs, beyond the Boryslhcnc8 or Dnieper. The Cossacs on this side the rivr were annexed lo Poland, and as for those who dwelt n^ar the" mouth of the Dnieper, called lavorogs^ U was agreeu that thev should remain under the common juri^dicliori ol the two states ; ready to serve against the Turks whenever circumstances mighi require it. The wars of which we have just spoke.^ were attended with troubles and dissensions, which reduced Poland to the most deplorable condition during the reign of John Lasi- mir. Thra prince at length, disgusted with a crown which he had found to be composed of thorns, resolved to abdicate the throne (16th Sept. 1668 ;) and retiring to France, he there ended ' MiTael Wiesnouiski, who succeeded John Casimir. after a stormy interregnum of seven months, had no ot^her "'erit l^ian that of being descended in a direct line from Conbut, the brother of JagellonT King of Poland. His reign was a scene of great agitatbn, and of unbridled anarchy. Four diets were interrupted in less than four years ; the war with the Cossacs was renewed ; the Turks and the Tartars, the allies of the C.ossacs, seized he city of Kaminiec (1672.) the only bulwark of Poland against the Ottomans. Michael, being thrown into a state of alarm, con- cluded a disgraceful peace with the Turks; he gave up to them Kaminiec and Podofia, with their ancient limits ; and even agreed to pay them an annual tribute of twenty-two thousand ducats. The Ukraine, on this side the Borysthenes, was aban- doned to the Cossacs, who were to be placed under the protection of the Turks. This treaty was not ratified by ihe^ KetHiblic ot Poland, who preferred to continue the war. John bobieski, Grand General of the Crown, gained a briliant victory over the Turks near Choczim (Nov. 11th, 1673.) It took place the next day after the death of Michael, and determined the Poles to con- fer their crown on the victorious General. , . , „ Sobieski did ample justice to the choice of his fellow-citizens. Bv the peace which he concluded at Zarowno with the lurks (S«th Oct. 1676,) he relieved Poland from the tribute lately pro mised, and recovered some parts of the Ukraine ; but the city 3« I Kaminiec was left in the power of the Ottomans, with a consid- \ erable portion of the Ukraine and Podolia. Poland then entered . into an alliance with the House of Austria, against the Forte ' Sobieski became the deliverer of Vienna ; he signalized himsell in the campaigns of 1683 and 1684 ; and if he did not gain any I important advantages over the Turks if he had nof even the ' satisfaction of recovering Kaminiec and Podolia. it must be as- cribed to the incompetence of his means, and .to the disunion and ■sacs, beyond this side thp ho dwelt n^ar IS agreed that in of the two circumstances I spoken, were duced Poland of John Casi- jwn which he ) abdicate the he there ended asimir, after a her merit than but, the brother scene of great ! ere interrupted | 1 was renewed ; | sacs, seized the i and against the • of alarm, con- i rave up to ihera its ; and even y-two thousand Enes, was aban- ■r the protection the Republic of John Sobieski, victory over the k place the next he Poles to con- 3 fellow-citizens, with the Turks ibute lately pro J ; but the city 3« s, with a consid- and then entered ainst the Porte gnalized himself did not gain any bad not' even the ia, it must be as- the disunion and PERIOD VII. A. p. 1648 — 1713. 325 indifTercnce of the Poles, who refused to make a single saeriticc in the lauso. Sohiexki was even forced to have recourse to the |in)U'cii()ii of the Russians against the Turks; and saw himself leduccd to the painful necessity of setting his hand to the defi- nitive peace which was concluded with Russia at Moscow (May liili, 1()SG,) by which Poland, in order to obtain the alliance of that power against the Ottomans, consented to give up Smolen- ^ko, Belaia, Dorogobiiz, Tchernigov, Slarodub, and Novogorod- Sicverskoe, with their dej)endencies ; as also the whole territory known by the name of Little Russia, situated on the left bank of the Borysthcnes, between that river and the frontier of Putivli, as far as Perevoloczna. The city of Kiow, with its territory as determined by the treaty, was also included in that cession. Finally, the Cjssaes, called Zaporogs and Kndak, who, accord- ing to the treaty of Andrussov, ought to have been dependencies of these two states, were reserved exclusively to Russia. Sobie- ski shed tears when he was obliged to sign that treaty at Leopold ^or Lemborg,) in presence of the Russian ambassadors. The war with the Turks did not terminate until the reign of Augustus IL the successor of John Sobieski. The peace of Carlowitz, which that prince concluded with the Porte (1699,) procured for Poland the restitution of Kaminiec, as well as that part of the Ukraine, which the peace of Zarowno had ceded to ihe Turks. Russia became every day more prosperous under the princes of the House of Romanow. She gained a decided superiority over Poland, who had formerly dictated the law to her. Alexis Michaelovitz not only recovered from the Poles what they had conquered from Russia during the disturbances occasioned by the two pretenders of the name of Demetrius ; we have already observed, that he dispossessed them ot Kiow, and all that part of the Ukraine, or Little Russia, which lies on the left bank of the Borysthenes. Theodore Alexievitz, the son and successor of Alexis Mi- chaelovitz, rendered his reign illustrious by the wisdom of his administration. Guided by the advice of his enlightened mi- nister. Prince Galitzin, he conceived the bold project of abolish- ing the hereditary orders of the nobility, and the prerogatives that were attached to them. These orders were destructive of all subordination in civil as well as in military affairs, and gave rise to a multitude of disputes and litigations, of which a court, named Rozrad, took cognizance. The Czar, in a grand assem- bly which he convoked at Moscow (1682,) abolished the here- ditary rank of the nobles. He burnt the deeds and registers by which they were attested, and obliged every noble family to i ^ ! - \ I ! 1 t'i i ; '■'.! - i li /(: 1 11% CHAPTER Vlll. produce the extrncls of these registern. which thcv had in their SossPssion. that they might be comnuttea to the flames. That Ele uiv ng no children, of his own, had destmed h,« younger iVer Pc tef Alexievitz to be his successor, to the exclusion of , John, hireWer brcther, on account of his .ncapacty. But, on , tl^ death of Theodore, both princes were procla.med at once by t military, and the government was '""-ted to thc^ P^^^^^^^^^^ ; Soohia, their elder sister, who assumed the title oi Autocratix , anfsovere gn of all the Russias. Peter, who was the son of he secoS^narriage of the C.ar, was «;^;.»;^"; ^-«/;; ^J^^^ years of age. It was during the admm.stration of the Pnr^ss Sia that the peace of Moscow was concluded (May 6 1686 ,) Tne'clause of wfich contained an alliance ofTensive and defen- sive between Russia and Poland agamst the I'ortt. Peter had no sooner attained the age of siwenteen than he seized the rei"s of government, and dep.»«ed h.s s.ster Soph.a, Sm ie seS to a c'onvent. Endowed -1^^^. -^-^j-^JS genius, this Prince became the reformer ol hm En.p.re. wh. h^ under his reign, assumed an aspect totally new. By the advice of Le For , a^mtive of Geneva, who U entered the Russian service and whom he had received into his fr.endslnp and con- fidence he turned his attention to every branch of the publ.c adminl tration. The military system was changed, and mo- 3eUed af e that of the civiliml nations of Europe. He found- ed the aritime power of Russia, i.nprovcd her finances, en- cou aged commerce and manufactures, introduced letters and anstnto his dominions, and applied himself to reform the laws. in nolish and refine the manners of '^^c people. leter Sg in alliance with Polaud engaged m the wa aea^^st the Porte, and laid open the Black Sea by h.s conques Tthe citv and port of Azoflf; and it was on this occasior. thn^ he equ pped Krst fleet at Woronitz. Azoff remamed m h» nosses" ion bv an article of the peace which was concluded with time Peter abolished the patriarchal dignity, which ranked the S of the Russian Church next to the Czar, and gave h.m a • Sangerous influence in the affairs of government He trans f»rr«^ thP nuihoritv of the patriarch to a college of hlteen per '""S; dLtuf ffting .nd ex.mini„f in pern. 0.. m. had in their anies. That his younger excliinion of ty. But, on ed nt once by the Princess f Autocrutix as the son of .\me only ten if the Princess Vliiy 6, 1686 ;) ve und defen- te. iteen than he sister Sopiiia, extraordinary mpire, which, By the advice d the Russian dship and con- I of the public nged, and mo- jie. He found- :r finances, en- ced letters and aform the lav/8, red in the war by his conquest s occasion that remained in his concluded with About the same lich ranked the nd gave him a Bnt. He trans- ; of fifteen per- y it was to take tl, of all matters matriarch. The ihe oath at the him on the pre- person the man- PBRIOD VII. A. D 164S— 1713. 327 ncrs and customs of other nations, he undertook two difTcrunt vryages into foreign (countries, divested of that pomp which ia tht- usual aoconipariiinent of princes. During these travels, he culliviilcil the arts iiiid sciences, especially thoMf connected with cuMinuTce and navigation ; he engaged men nl talents in his siri vices, such as naval officers, engineers, surgeons, artists, and mechanics of all kinds, whom he disjwrsed over his vast do- miniuns, to instruct and improve the Russians. During his first voyage to Holland and England, the Strelitzes, the only per- manent troops known in Russia before his time, revolted ; tney were first instituted by the Czar, John Basilovitz IV. They f(»ught lifter the manner of the .Funissaries, and enjoyed nearly the sam(! privileges. Peter, with the intention of disbanding these seditious and undisciplined troops, had stationed them on the frontiers of Lithuania ; he had also removed them from being his own body-guard, a service which he entrusted to the regiments raised by himself. This sort of degradation incensed the Stre- litzes, who look the opportunity of the Czar's absence to revolt. Tliey directed their march to the city of Moscow, with the design of deposing the Czar, and replacing Sophia on the throne ; but they were defeated by the Generals Schein and Gordon, who had marched to oppose them. Peter, on his return, caused two thousand of them to be executed, and incorporated the rest among his troops. He afterwards employed foreign officers, either Ger- mans or Swedes, to instruct the Russians in the military art. It was chiefly during the war with Sweden that the Russian army was organized according to the European system. The Czar took advantage of the check he had sustained before Narva (Nov. 30, 1700,) to accomplish this important change in levying, equipping, and training ail his troops after the German manner. He taught the Russians the art of combating and conquering the Swedes ; and while the King of Sweden was bent on the ruin of Augustus II., and made but feeble efforts against the Czar, the latter succeeded in conquering Ingria from the Swedes, and laid open the navigation of the Baltic. He took the fortress of Noteburg (1702,) which he afterwards called Schlisselburg ; he next made himself master of Nyenschantz, Kopori, and Jamp (now Jamburg) in Ingria. The port of Nyenchantz was entirely razed ; and the Czar laid the foundation of St. Petersburg in one of the neighbouring islands of the Neva (May 27, 1703.) In the middle of winter he constructed the fort of Cronschlot to serve as a defence for the new city, which he intended to make the capital of his Enu)ire, and the principal dep6t for the com merce and marine of Russia. The fortune of this new capital • '■• ! < ! :i' r . *«!^^'orf»i. Clmrles Xll., wlio had taken refnge in Turkey, used every , efll.rl 10 instiiratc the Turks ugttinsl the Kussums ; and ho sue ^ .-eedcMl by dint ..f inlripuc. The Porte deilared war agauisi the | Czar towards the end of the year 1710 ; the latter opened the . camnaiLm of 1711 by an expedition which he undertook into i Moi.iavia ; but having rashly penetrated into the interior of thai | province, he was surrounded by the (Jrand Vuier near Falczi , on the Prulh. Besiej^ed in his camp by an army vastly supe- | rior to his own. and reduced to the last necessity, he found no other means of extricating himself from this critical situation, | than bv airreeinff to a treaty, which he signed m the cump ot i Falczi (21st July 1711 ;) in virtue of which, he consented to re- store to the Turks the fortress of AzofT, with its territory and its dependencies. This loss was amply compensated by the iin- portant advantages which the peace with Swe.len, signed at Ny- stadl (Sept. 10, 1 721,) procured the Czar. It was on this ucca- sion that the Senate conferred on him the cpithel of Great, (he Father of hu Country, and Emperor of all the Rusma^. His inauguration to the Imperial dignity took place, Octoljor 22d 1721, the very day of the rejoicing that had been appointed lor the celebration of the peace. Peter himself put the Imperial crown on his own head. . , • /-, That great prince had the vexation to see Alexis Czarowitz his son, and presumptive heir to the Empire, thwarting all his improvements, and caballing in secret with his enemies. Being at length compelled to declare that he had lorfeited his right to the throne, he had him condemned to death as a traitor (171«.) 1 In consequence of this tragical event, he published an Ukase, which vested in the reigning prince the privilege of nominating his successor, and even of ^hanging the appointment whenever ' he might judge it necessary. This arrangement became fatal to Russia ; the want of a fixed and permanent order of succession occasioned troubles and revolutions which frequently distracted the whole Empire. This law, moreover, made no provision in cases where the reigning prince might neglect to settle the sue- cession during his life ; as happened with Peter himself, who died without making or appointing any successor (Feb. I7-S&.) Catherine I., his spouse, ascended the throne, which, after a reign of two years, she transmitted to Peter, son of the unfortu- ""in Hungary, the precautions that had been taken by the States of Presburg to establish civil and religious liberty on a solid ba- sis, did not prevent disturbances from springing up in that king- lu m. July 8, 1709.) II in ilie NorlK. y, used every ; ami ho «uc- n\T ngiiirisi >htt or openi'd the iiidertodk into interior of that lor near Falczi y vastly supe- tf, he found no tical situation, in the cump of on^ented to re- 3 territory and nted by the im- signed at Ny- AS on this ucca- ?t of Great, the Riisfias. His , October 22d n iippointed for ut ttie Imperial lexis Czarowitz iwarting all his Miemics. Being ited bis right to 1 traitor (1718.) Ished an Ukase, e of nominating ment whenever t became fatal to icr of succession lently distracted s no provision in lo settle the suc- ter himself, who ssor (Feb. 1725.) !, which, after a n of the unfortu- "°^°P' > . f^m 'the the laws and phenomena of namre S' Jof an iuractive ^''"' 1 "kSrHSr::enr&dVthe§?scoveriesof lear^^^ ;=r,.^rlt^ted;f those ^g^^;^^— f l^^S^ S^ScTo^r tJ^ihy atS'ciL.olS^gy, became a branch of general P^>''''^°PH-. «.„,„„, ot„tes disturbedbytheam- influence in general affairs ;^^>^";„S^^^^^^^^^ to an extent That nation carr ed their ^^^^^J^^'^'I^? .^SeTcTal and maritime which could not fail to alarm '^'^^f'^cZoTihen own trade states, and make them perceive tha^^^^^^^^ „f and independence ^^^^^^^'^^^.^^^IXy important for their equilibrium on the Continent, u was 4 J » j.^j^ , posperitythatbound^^^^^^^^^ of England. This gave rise^ ^^^^^^ ^^xe tween France a".^ England a nvairy eighteenth cen- particularly manifested ^ft^V^^^'^i^^.f;^^ alliance among the fury, and which ^^'^'^J"^^,^"^ %Ta later date, and in^on- branches of the Ho«8e of Bourbon A ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^ sequence of the prmcipes which the ^ng p ^^ commerce of neutral states, the powers o^ n j^ "^^^ themselves against that '^n*^"/; . f ^^^^J^r^^ accused of wishing to "^P, "^"^^^^^Jfo/; hort time turned - tf thrn^^ni'SirS ops has been able to prober, her commerce and her independence. . v^:^;iie:s^m^' b j i Mi'i iver all classes 1 natural philo- )wledgc of the j j 1 chiefly for the i education, and j searches. Geo- ■ vere brought to I ferent scientific ! overed many of • ■ rose from the | jf an attractive j reries of learned j •himeras which i ipported by the ' logy, became a urbedbytheam- )eace of Utrecht, any great altera which took place which had been lie theatre of civil by the success of rtant advantages , both in Europe and gave her an id enjoyed before, larine to an extent cial and maritime of their own trade itain a system of Tiportant'for their nopolizing power kind of rivalry be- eflfects were more e eighteenth cen- liance among the r date, and in con- professed as to the he North leagued which they were I the Ninth Period, . short time turned en able to preserve rsBioD viii. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 337 This preponderance of England is the first change which the poliiical system of Europe experienced in the eighteenth century. The second took place in the North. Till that time, the norihem countries of Europe had never, except transiently, had any poH- lica! connexions with the South. Russia, separated by the possessions of Sweden on the coasts of the Baltic, had belongt-d rather to Asia than to our quarter of the world. Poland, fallen from her ancient greatness, had sunk into a state of anarchy and exhaustion. Denmark and Sweden were disputing the command of the Baltic, and had no other influence on the politics of the South than that which Sweden had acquired by the personal qualities of some of her kings. The great war of the North, which broke out at the commencement of the eighteenth century, and the conquests of Peter the Great, which extended the limits of his Empire as far as the Gulf of Finland, and reduced Sweden to a state of debility from which she has not yet recovered, enabled Russia not only to take a distinguished lead in the North, but to become an important member in the system of Europe. Meantime, the foundation of the Prussian monarchy gave rise to a new and intermediate power between the North and the South ; but that state remained within the bounds of mediocrity until the middle of the eighteenth century. At that time the genius of Frederic II. alone raised it to a pitch of greatness which enabled it to struggle against the superior forceof its neighbours, but without menacing the independence of other states. This growing power of Prussia, however, occasioned a rivalry between it and Austria, which for seventy years had an influence on the politics of Europe. It produced the extraordinary spectacle of an intimate alliance between two ancient rivals, the Houses of Austria and Bourbon ; and, by dividing Germany between two opposite systems, it paved the way for the dissolution of that Empire. Such was the third change which the polity of Europe experienced in course of the eighteenth century. The fourth change was less felt than the three others ; its fatal consequences did not develope themselves until the Ninth Period. For the first time within the last three centuries, the sovereigns of Europe ventured to break treaties and to violate engagements, to declare war and undertake conquests, without alleging any other motives than reasons of convenience, and the ambition of ag^andizement. Thus the basis of the equilibrium system, the inviolability of possessions honourably acquired, was sapped, and the downfall of the whole system prepared. The events of the wars for the succession of Austria, furmshed the first exampl)e» of this contempt for treaties ; Uiey were renewed. lit,' '■ iV i ft'* h ' i ill sit 1 1 m "WF u 888 CHAPTER 11. "commerce continued, in .he eighteen* ";'yi'»„^%»; ,m.to lion of V"" \Xto »hich lliey even carried to exce... SX-oVeVJ dTn cSnenliil nff.ir. wa. inc,ea»d; lt?a ^SrSTie n«.sar^ '^^^ZlTj'^r mO, Beside,, "IXtiirrv an i^ genc" : h"d "=«" » 'l»e'«« "' ' '^%^he^e!tra"ordinary efforts which the powers of E^'ope had 3i?;stutrdt.werer:ndG^^^^^^ i I! _■ ^-^i »?»s -.«- i, and by the Bavaria. Th** I cited, during , sorts of vie- long train of r, to be one of Europe. The 1, and became, | in. The niari- | edthe greatest if which were gulations. In ; up numerous •ried to excess, vas increased ; y in proportion ish them with on their wars, the year 1740, led a degree of irther improve- tes experienced ! the payment of Pitt, called the of Europe had the equilibrium of France and ity, which gave ts, industry and ich the long and ■ere attentive to echt and Stock- d against every rhe good under- at Britain during t of George II.— Walpole.wasthe sed the attention of the Pretender, 3 of Spain, ring the minority eace and political havin? it in vip« PBRIOD VIU. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 839 lO remedy those disorders in the finance, which Louis XIV. had left in so deplorable a state.' The King of Spain, on the other hand, who was desirous of reviving his rights to the crown of France, wont into the rash schemes of Cardinal Alberoni," his prime minister, purporting to renew the war ; to rsconquer those territories which the peace of Utrecht had dismemberf d from the Spanish monarchy ; to deprive the Duke of Orleans of the regency, and vest it in the King of Spain ; and to place the « re- tender, son of James II., on the throne of Great Britain. The treaty of Utrecht, although it had tranquillized a great part of Europe, was nevertheless defective, in as far as it had not reconciled the Emperor and the King of Spain, the two prin- cipal claimants to the Spanish succession. The Emperor Charles VI. did not recognise Philip V. in his quality of King of Spain ; and Philip, in his turn, refused to acquiesce in those partitions of the Spanish monarchy, which the treaty of Utrecht had stipulated in favour of the Emperor. To defeat the projects and secret intrigues of the Spanisii minister, the Duke of Or- leans thought of courting ati alliance with England, as being the power most particularly interested in maintaining the treaty of Utrecht, the fundamental articles of which had been dictated by herself. That alliance, into which the United Provinces also entered, was concluded at the Hague (Jan. 4, 1717.) The arti- cles of the treaty of Utrecht, those especially which related to the succession of the two crowns, were there renewed ; and the Regent, in complaisance to the King of England, agreed to banish the Pretender from France, and to admit British com- missaries into Dunkirk to superintend that port. Cardinal Alberoni, without being in the least disconcerted by the Triple Alliance, persisted in his design of recommencing the war. No sooner had he recruited the Spanish forces, and equipped an expedition, than he attacked Sardinia, which he took from the Emperor. This conquest was followed by that of Sicily, which the Spaniards took from the Duke of Savoy (1718.) France and England, indignant at the infraction of a treaty which they regarded as their own work, immediately concluded with the Emperor, at London (Aug. 2, 1718,) the famous Quad- ruple Alliance, which contained the plan of a treaty of peace, to be made between the Emperor, the King of Spain, and the Duke of Savoy. The allied powers engaged to obtain the consent of the parties interested in this proposal, and in case of refusal, to compel them by force of arms. The Emperor was to renounce his right to the Sjanish crovra, and to acknowledge Philip V. as the legitimate King of Spain, in consideration of his renoun- \1 ^■l'-\ '•ill'' 1 I I i • i: .Art •f, I , M . " i¥" m 340 CHAPTER IX. tunl 7«^^«'-'^'«" '^•"\"''"';''7au rhv of Tuscany, oi. o.,...lition ot 'The Duke of Savoy did not heMtnte to subscribe to the condi- ' J^of^tt quadruple ^^^; ^^,Z '^?r::^^ ^ King of Spain, who persisted in his ^^'"^"^'^J^'T j ^^.i the England declared war against him. The i' "[^"'j? '"yT^'V i„g for seveml ye.«. The «'« '"J^iP^'i J„ between as to the form of these '•'""".^•'^^"'"Jv JJ^i'j'^jfNetLrk^^ lip's renunciation of th^r™?^^"^,^"'*^ demanded 3hould be confirmed by the Spanish Lortes. rnuip riTTT^FFaiyf^?''^^'**™"^" •■ ■Jti^ 11 rh the trfnly ic EmpcrnT. ill, rpceiving » to give up. IS trniiftcrred iti'd to Don [\r(>, the oven- riim and Pla* I condition ot Empire, aftei | ; Farnesc and ttcr to secure lo introduce a [) be nuartered a. The con- ment of these c to the condi- rwise with the n France arid h invaded the English seized IS proceedings He signed the heron i from his the allies com- cily and Sardi- mer, and Victor )eace, however, remained many King of Spain, and conclude a Congress was 1721, under the disputes which rded their meet- al object was to ciation between ;d by the treaty was reluctant to arted difficulties anded that Phi- he Netherlands, hilip demanded. PKRioD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 341 In his turn, that the rrniitn'iation of the Emperor with regord to Spain, should lie rutilicd l)y the States of the Empire. To get clear of this (llfrieiiltv, Franc; and Eiijiland agreed, by a special compact, signed at I'aris (Sept. 27, 1721,) llial the renunciations of both princes, however defective they might be, should be held valid under the guaranty of the two mediating powers. Scarcely was this difllculty settled, when another presented itself, much more embarrassing. This related to the Company of Ostend, which the Emperor had instituted, and lo which, by charter signed at Vienna (Dec. 19, 1722,) he had granted, for thirty years, the exclusive privilege of trading to the East and We.st Indies, and the coasts of Africa. That establishment set the maritime powers nl variance with the Emperor ; especially the Dutch, who regardeil it as prejudicial to their Iiidian com- merce. They maintained, that according to the trer.ty of Mun- Hter, confirmed by the twenty-sixth article of the Barrier Treaty (1715,) the trade of the Spaniards with the East Indies was to remain as it was at that time. Nothing in those preliminary discussions met with so much opposition as the grant of the eventual reversion and investiture ofTuscany, Parma, and Placentia, which the Emperor had en- gaged, by the Quadruple Alliance, lo give lo Don Carlos, the Infante of Spain. The Duke of Parma, the Pope, and the Grand Duke of Tuscany joined in opposition to it. Anthony, the last Duke of Parma and Placentia, of the House of Farnese, de- manded that the Emperor should never, during his life, exerci.se over the dutchy of Parma, the territorial rights established by the treaty of the Quadruple Alliance. The Pope also protested loudly against that clause of the treaty which deprived him of the rights of superiority over Parma and Placentia, which his predecessors had enjoyed for several centuries. As for the Grand Duke ofTuscany, John Gaston, the last of the Medici, he maintained, that as his dutchy neld of God only, he could never permit that it should be declared a fief of the Empire nor recog- nise the Infante of Spain as heir of his estates, to the prejudice of his sister's rights, the widow of the Elector Palatine. Charles VI. without stopping at these objections, laid the business of these investitures before the Diet of Ratisbon ; and, after having obtained their consent, he caused copies to be made of the letters of reversion and investiture in favour of Don Carlos and his heirs-nmle. These havin?.hter „" Philip V. wL had been, ^-'^n^.^f^ ttrbl 1 l^'Initr^fr Ktmh av! ^;;on\ipperda. ^ who,n he had sent ^8 e ov to the Imperial Court put an end to the d.irerences bo- j me n te two powern, in despite of the 7-1";"- ^ Jj^^^"^; | In consequence, i special treaty was 5""'''"'»«*\„^;./'5"5;26 ' Uveen the Emperor and the K.ng of ^P^ . f P^' f ^^e pro- This treaty renewed the renunciation ol PhiliP V. » /"c pro vin es of Kaly and the Netherlands, as well as tliat o the Em- pe or to Spain and the Indies. The eventual investiture o the duchies of Parma and Placentia, and that of the grand dutchy Tu™; were also confirmed. The only now clause con- lained h K; treaty, was that bv which the King «1 ^^PJ"' '"'J^- ooU to Ruarantee he famous I^ragmalic Sanction of Charles VI., ii secured to the daughter of that Pnnce the succe^-on of all his estates. It was chiefly on this account that 1 hilip V. became reconciled to the Court of Vienna. The peace of Vienna was accompanied by a defensive alliance I JveenTe Emperor and the Ki\ig of Si^in. Among other Causes, one was^hat the Emperor should '"te^PJ ^° «^^3 1 for the Kini of tho Empire joined lliiit of Vienna. Tho Emperor even Buccfcded in (Ictai'liiiig the King of Prux^ia from the alliance of Munovcr to join liis own. Euro|)e seemed then on the ivcof a general war ; the ambassadors to the diHereiit courts were retailed. The English sent a numerous nnd powerful fleet to America, the Mediterrc.iean, and the Baltic ; while the Snaniards coimnenced hostilities, by laying siege to Gibraltar. Ihe death of the Em- press of Russia (May 17, 1727,) however, caused a change in tho disijosition of tho Northern powers. The Emperor, seeing he could no longer reckon on the assistance of Russia, showed no anxiety to second the etForts of the Spaniards ; but what chiefly contributed to the maintenance of peace was, that neither France nor England was desirous of war. In this situation of affairs, the Po|>e interposed his mediation ; and a new preliminary treaty was signed at Paris, which or> dained that there should be nn armistice for seven years ; that the Company of Ostend should be suspended for the same time ; and that a new General Congress snould be held at Aix-la- Chapelle. This congress was first transferred to Cambray, and thence tc Soissons, where it was opened in 1728. Ambassadors from almost all the Courts of Europe appeared there ; und they ex- pected, with some reason, a happy conclusion of the business ; as most of the difficulties which had embarrassed the Congress of Cambray were settled by the peace of Vienna, and as the only subject for deliberation was to settle the succession of Parma and Tuscany. But the Emperor having demanded that the Austrian Pragmatic Sanction should be adopted as the basis of the arrange- ments for establishing the peace of Soissons, that incident be- came the subject of new disputes. Cardinal Fleury, then prime minister of France, having strongly opposed this claim of the Court of Vienna, tho Emperor, in his turn, threw obstacles in the way of the negotiation at Soissons. This inclined the Car- dinal to make overtures to tho Court of Madrid, with whom he concerted a secret negotiation, in which he also found means to associate England. This gave rise to a treaty of peace, union, and oflTensive al- liance, which was signed at Seville between France, Spain, and England (November 9, 1729.) These powers engaged to gua- rantee the succession of Parma and Tuscany in favour of the Infante Don Carlos ; and to efTect this, they resolved to substitute six thousand Spanish troops in the Swiss garrisons, named by the Quadruple Alliance. The Dutch acceded to that treaty, in IJF^ '! {'■S i .11. '( i > r 344 (JHAPTER IX. ronsideration of the engagement which the contracting powers came under to give them entire satisfaction with respect to the The"lmperor! finding the treaty of Seville concluded .vith- out his co-operation, was apprehensive of having failed in his :.rincipal aim, viz. the adoption of the Austrian Pragniatic Sanc- tion. He was indignant that the allies at Seville should pre- tend to lav down the law to him touching the abolition ot tha Ostend Company, and the introduction of Spanish troops into Italy. Accordingly, being determined not to comply, he imme- diately broke off all relationship with the Court of Spain ; he recalled his ambassador, and took measures to prevent the Spa- nish troops from taking possession of Italy. The last Duke of Parma, Anthony Farnese, being dead (1731,) he took posses- sion of his dutchy by force of arms. At length, to terminate all these differences, the Kmg of t-ng- land, in concert with the States-General, opened a negotiation with the Emperor ; the result of which was a treaty of alhance signed at Vienna, between him, England and Holland (March 16 1731 ) In virtue of that treaty, the three contracting pow- ers' mutually guaranteed their estates, rights and possessions ; England and Holland, more especially, engaged to guarantee the° Austrian Pragmatic Sanction ; and the Emperor, on his side, consented to the introduction of Spanish troops into Italy, and to the su.-ression of the Company of Ostend; he even aereed that the Netherlands should never carry on trade with the Indies, either by the Ostend Company, or any other. In consequence of this treaty, which was approved by the States-General, Don Carlos took possession of Parma and P a- centia ; and the Grand Duke of Tuscany also recognised him as his successor. Thus terminated these long disputes abou the Spanish Succession, after having agitateu the greater part of Europe for upwards of thirty years. ... , .^^^ In the midst of these contentions, a war had arisen between the Porte ^.d the Republic of Venice ; in which the Emperor Chafles VI. was also implicated. The Turks were desirous of reco Sng the Morea, wLch they had been obliged to abandon the Venetians at the peace of Carlowitz ; but mstead of at- tacking that Republic, while the Emperor was enff J wUh \he French war, and unable to render it assistan.:e, they waitfd till the concfu'l^n of the treaties of Utrecht. Rastadt, and Baden, Lfore they declared hostilities. The pretexts which he Turks made to justify this rupture were extremely frivolous , but they knew we 1 thatthe Venetians, who had ived ,n the most c^n^- pletc security since the peace of Carlowitz, had neglected to re- iimmmm ing powers sped to the uded ivith- liled 111 his matic Sanc- should pre- ition of the troops into y, he imme- Spain ; he ent the Spa- ast Duke of took posses- ting of Eng- 1 negotiation f of alliance, and (March racting pow- possessions ; to guarantee peror, on his ps into Italy, id ; he even 1 trade with other. roved by the rma ana Pla- ;ognised him isputes about greater part isen between the Emperor •e desirous of i to abandon nstead of at- iged with the ey waited till and Baden, ch the Turks »us ; but they e most com- >glected to rc- PERIOP VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 345 |»ir the fortifications which had been dcstroj'ed in the war, and that it would be easy for them to reconquer them. In fact, during the campaign of 1715, the Grand Vizier noi only recovered the Morea, he even dispossessed the Venetians of the places which they still retained in the Isle of Candia ; and, ai the commencement of the following campaign, they laid MOge to the town of Corfu. Charles VI. thought he was bound, as the guarantee of the peace of Carlowitz, to espouse the lauso of the Venetians ; he declared war against the Porte, and his example was followed by the Pope and the King of Spain, who united their fleets to those of the Republic. The Turks were defeated in several engagements, and obliged to raise thr» siege of Corfu, after sacrificing a great many lives. The campaigns of 1716 and 1717 in Hungary, were trium- phant for the armies of the Emperor ; Prince Eugene gained a brilliant victory over the Grand Vizier, near Peterwaradin (Au- gust 5th,) which enabled him to invest Temeswar, which he carried after a siege of six months, and thus completed the conquest of Hungary. To crown his glory, that great captain next undertook the siege of Belgrade, regarded by the 1 urks as the principal bulwark of their Empire. The Grand Vizier marched to the relief of the place, at the head of a formidahi?? army. He encamped before Belgrade, and enclosed the Impe- rial army within a semicircle, reaching from the Danube to the Save. Prince Eugene had then no other alternative than to leave his camp, and attack the Turks in their intrenchmenls. He took his measures which such address, that, in spite of the great superiority of the Turks, he forced them back to their camp, and put them completely to rout (Aug. 16, 1717.) This victory was followed by the reduction of Belgrade, and several other places on the Save and the Danube. The Porte began to wish for peace ; and as the Emperor, who had just been attacked in Italy by the Spaniards, was equally desirous to put aa end to the war, both parties agreed to accept the mediation of England and Holland. A congress was opened at Passaro- witz, X small town in Servia, near the mouth of the Morau. A peace was there concluded between the three belligerent powers (July 21, 1718,) on the basi^' of the Uti pomdetis. The Empe- ror retained Temeswar, Orsova, Belgrade, and the part of Wal- lachia lying on this side of the river Aluta ; as also Servia, ac- cording to the limits determined by the treaty, and both banks of the Save, from the Drino to the Unna. The Venetians lost the Morea, but they retained several places in Her/egovma, Dalmatia, and Albania, which they had conquered during the war. The Porte restored to them the Island of Cerigo in ih»» Archipeingct. I h j. 1. ,^l .%[- ■ wm L \ \ i!ii I,. 1 846 CHAPTER IX. The success of Charles VI. in this war procured some new adva..tages to his house, on the part of the States of Hungary. ; The Diet of 1687, in vesting the hereditary right of that king- ar.n in the Emperor Leopold I., had restricted that right, solely to the male descendants of the House of Austria; and Charles VI , on his accession to the throne, had acknowledged the dec tive right of the States, in case he should happen to die without leaving any male offspring. This prince, find'"g fft«7^1;4« that he had no other children left than the two daughters by his marriage with Elizabeth princess of Brunswick, and being desi- rous of securing to them the succession of Hun^iy as well as his other estates, assembled a Diet at Presburg (1722,) and there engaged the States of the kingdom to extend the right of sue- cession to females, according to the order which he had estab- lished in the Austrian Pragmatic Sanction, and published some ^^Arevohd'on happened in the government of Sweden imme- diately after the death of Charles XII. and before the grea war of the North was quite ended. Reduced to a state of great dis- tress by the folly, ambition, and inflexible obstinacy of that prince, Sweden saw her finest provinces occupied by the enemy, her commerce annihilated, her armies and her fleets destroyed. Thev attributed these disasters chiefly to t.ie absolute power ol Charles XII., and the abuse he had made of it. 1 he only reme- dy for so many evils, they conceived, was to abolish a power vvhich had become so pernicious to the State. As Chyles had never been married, the throne, according to the hereduary law established in Sweden, passed to the son of the dutchess oi Hoi- stein-Gottorp, eldest sister of Charles ; but the Senate of Sv eden preferred to him the princess Ulrica Eleonora, younger sister ot Ihe late king ; because of the declaration she had made, renoun- cing all absolute power, and consenting to hold the crown only bv the free election of the States of the kingdom. The States, in an assembly held at Stockholm, in the beginning of 1719, de blared the throne vacant, and then proceeded to the election oi the princess. With their act of election, they presented her with I a new form of government, and an act known by the name ot I the Royal Assurance, which imposed new hnntations on the ' royal authority. The princess signed these acts (February jh) i and the States declared that whoever should attempt to restore ■ absolute power, should be considered as a traitor to his country. The government was intrusted to the queen conninctly with : the Senate ; while the legislative power was reserved to the Slates, to meet regularly every three years. The q"een had the right of proposing bills or ordinances : but before these i!f*ff::^"t?;-fnr-if. :?,%r-£~" PERIOD 7111. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 347 i some new of Hungary, if that king- , right, solely and Charles ged the elec- ) die without g afterwards ghters by his id being desi- ry as well as 22,) and there right of suc- he had estab- iblished some vveden imme- the great war e of great dis- of that prince, le enemy, her ;ts destroyed, jlute power of "he only reme- olish a power s Charles had tierediiary law Itches? of Hol- late of Sv eden unger sister of made, renoun- he crown only . The States, ig of 1719, de the election ol rented her with )y the name of itations on the (February 21,) empt to restore to his country, conjunctly with •eserved to the rhe queen had It before these could have the force of law, they were to be submitted to the examination of the States, without whose consent war was never 10 be proclaimed. As for the deliberations of the Senate, it was resolved, that they should be decided by a plurality of suffrages, that the queen should havf two votes, and a casting vote be- sides. Thus, the chief power was vested in the hands of the Senate, the members of which resumed their ancient title of Senators of the kingdom, instead of that of Counsellors to the King, which had been bestowed on them at the revolution of 1680. Ulrica Eleonora afterwards resigned the crown lO her husband prince Frederic of Hesse-Cassel. The States, in their election of that prince (May 22, 1720,) ordained that the Queen, in case she should survive her husband, should be reinstated in her rights, and resume the crown, without the necessity of a new deliberation of the Slates. Frederic, by the Royal Assurance, and the form of government which he signed, agreed to certain new modifications of the royal power, especially concerning ap- pointments to places of trust. By these different stipulations, and the changes which took place in consequence, the power of the Swedish kings was gradually reduced to very narrow limits. It was so much the more easy to make encroachments o" the royal power, as the King, by a radical defect in the new form of government, had no constitutional means of preserving the little authority that was left him. The death of Augustus II. of Poland, occasioned new dis- turbances, which passed from the North to the South of Europe and brought about great changes in Italy. Louis XV. took the opportunity of that event to replace Stanislaus on the throne of Poland, who was his father-m-law, and the former proteg^ of Charles XII. The Primate, and the greater part of the Polish nobility being in the interest of that prince, he was consequently elected (Sept. 12, 1733.) Anne Iwanowna, dutchess-dowager of Courland, and niece of Peter the Great, had just ascended the throne of Russia ; having succeeded Peter II. (June 20, 1730,) who was cut off in the flower of his age without leaving any progeny. The grandees, in conferring the crown on Anne, had limited her power by a capitulation which they made her sign at Mittau, but which she cancelled immediately on her arrival at Moscow. That princess, dreading the influence of France in Poland, in case of a war between Russia and the Porte, espoused the interests of Augus- tus III., Elector of Saxony, and son of the late King, whom she wished to place on the Polish throne. Part of the Polish nobility, withdrawing from the field of election, and supported by a Rus* sian army, proclaimed that prince, in opposition to Stanislaus, ihe proteg^ of France. iil'N I, i ii-ll in' "( s 348 CHAPTER IX. The Russians, reinforced by the Saxon troops, seized Warsp.'.v . and compelled Stanislaus to retire to Dantzic, where he was be- sieged by a Russian army, under command of Field-Marshal Munich, and obliged to seek safety in flight. Louis XV. wish- ! ing to avenge this injury offered* to his father-in-law, and not : being in a condition to attack Russia, resolved to declare war against the Emperor ; ,.a the ground that he had marched an j army to the frontiers of Poland, for supporting the election of the Saxon prince. Spain and Sardinia espoused the cause of Stanislaus, which seemed to them to be the cause of Kings in general ; while the Emperor saw himself abandoned by England and Holland, whose assistance he thought he might claim, in virtiie of the guarantee which the treaty of Vienna had stipulated in his fa- vour. But these powers' judged it more for their interests to preserve strict neutrality in this war, on the assurance which France had given the States-General, not to make the Austrian Netherlands the theatre of hostilities. The French commenced operations by directing the Count de Belleisle to seize Lorraine, the sovereign of which, Francis Stephen, son of Duke Leopold was to have married Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of the Em- peror Charles VL About the same time, Marshal Berwick passed the Rhine at the head of the French army, and reduced the fortress of Kehl. By thus attacking a fortress of the Em- pire, France gave the Emperor a pretext for engaging the Ger-, manic Bodv in his quarrel. In fact, he declared war against France and her allies ; which induced the French to seize seve- ral places on the Moselle, and to reduce the fortress of Philips- burg, at the siege of which. Marshal Berwick was slain (June 12, 1734.) , , ^ . The principal scene of the war then lay in Italy ; where the campaigns of 1734 and 1735 were most glorious for the allies. After the two victories which they had gained over the Impe- rialists near Parma (Ju'.e 29,) and Guastalla (Sept. 17,) they made themselves master of all Austrian Lombardy, with the single exception of Mantua, which they laid under blockade. A Spanish army, commanded by the Duke of Montemar, ac- companied by the Infante Don Carlos, directed their march on Naples, which threw open its gates to the Spaniards. The victory which they gained over the Imperialists at Bitonto (May 25,) decided the fate of the kingdom of Naples. After this conquest, the Infante passed to Sicily. He soon reduced that island, and was crowned King of the Two Sicilies at Pa- lermo (July 3, 1735.) The Emperor, overwhelmed by so many reverses, and unaWo 4i led Warsp.'.v e he was be- ield-Marshal s XV. wish- aw, and not declare war marched an election of islaus, which 1; while the ind Holland, virtue of the ted in his fa- ir interests to urance which the Austrian h commenced eize Lorraine, )uke Leopold ;er of the Em- shal Berwick , and reduced ss of the Em- iging the Ger-, d war against I to seize seve- ;ss of Philips- as slain (June ly ; .".here the for the allies, ver the Impe- lept. 17,) they irdy, with the ider blockade. Montemar, ac* leir march on aniards. The sts at Bitonto ^Taples. After soon reduced Sicilies at Pa- les, and unablo fill PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 349 •0 withstand the powers leagued against him, eagerly solicited assistance from Russia. The Empress Anne, who saw the war loiminated in Poland, and Augustus in quiet possession of the throne, despatched a body of ten tliousand auxiliaries, under the command of General Count de Lacy, into Germany, m thf i^pring of the year 1735. These troops, the first Kussians who had appeared in that country, joined the Imperial army on the Rhine, which was commanded by Prince Eugene. That Gene- ral, however, did not succeed in his design of transferring the seat of war to Lorraine. Matters were in this situation, when the maritime powers in- terposed their good offices for restoring peace between the Em- peror and the States leagued against him. Cardinal Fleury, perceiving that their mediation was not agreeable to the Impe- rial Court, took the resolution of concerting a secret negotia- tion with the Emperor, the result of which was a treaty of pre- liminaries ; although much deliberation was necessary before coming to the conclusion of a definitive peace. This was at lengtli signed at Vienna, between France, the Emperor, and the Empire, on the 8th of November 1738. The former treaties of Westphalia, Nimeguen, Ryswick, Utrecht, and the Quadruple Alliance, were admitted as the basis of this treaty. Stanislaus renounced the throne of Poland, and retained the title only during his life. They gave him, by way of compensation, the dutchies of Lorraine and Bar, on condition that, at his death, they should revert with full rig.it to France. The single coun- ty of Falkenstein, with its appurtenances and dependencies, was reserved for Francis, Duke of Lorraine. In exchange for the dutchy which he abdicated, that prince received the grand dutchy of Tuscany, whose last possessor, John Gaston, of the House of Medici, had just died without leaving any posterity (1737.) The kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with the ports of Tuscany, were secured to Don Carlos and his descendants, male and female ; and, in failure of them, to the younger bro- thers of that prince, and their descendants. On his part, Don Carlos ceded to the Emperor the dutchies of Parma and Pla- centia, and even renounced the rights which former treaties had given him over the grand dutchy of Tuscany. They restored to the Emperor all that had been taken from him in the pro- vinces of Milan and Mantua ; with the reservation of the dis- tricts of ^^ovara and Tortona, which he was obliged to cede lo Charles i^imanuel III., King of Sardinia, together with San- Pidele, Torre di Forti, Gravedo, and Campo-Maggiore ; is also the territorial superiority of the fiefs commonly called Langhcs, to be held entirely as Imperial fiefs. Finally, France under- iiH I*:: \\ . ,: i w .■:.■' I'll ,li It- '.' '( 'it i 1 ■ ,|:-,i Ik ijljIH \ w. 850 CHAPTER IX. took, in the most authentic form, to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction of the Emperor. The Kinf's of Spain and Sardinia were not satishcd with ihe conditions of this treaty. The former wished to preserve the •nand dutohy of Tuscany, with the dutchies of Parma and Placentia ; and the other had expected to obtain a larger portion M' Lombardy. Thus, these princes long hesitated to admit the articles agreed to between the courts of France and Vienna ; nor did they give their consent until the year 1739. While these disputes about the succession of Poland occupied a trreat part of Europe, a war broke out between the Turks and the Russians, in which Austria was also implicated. The Em- cress Anne of Russia, wishing to recover Azoflf, and repair the loss which Peter the Great had sustained m his unfortunate campaign on the Pruth, took advantage of the war between the Turks and the Peraians, to form an alliance with Khouli Khan, the famons conqueror of the East, who had just subverted the ancient dynasty of the Sophis of Persia. The incursions which the Tartars had made at diflerent times into the Russian provinces, without the Porte thinking proper to check them, served as a motive for the Empress to order an expedition against the Turks (1735,) and to declare /ar against the Porte soon after. It was during the campaign of 1736 that Count Lacy madf^ himself master of Azoti; and that Marshal Munich, after having forced the lines at Perekop, penetrated into the in- terior of the Crimea ; but having in that expedition lost many of his men by famine and disease, he found it impossible to maintain himself in that peninsula. The Emperor offered himself at first as a mediator between the belligerent powers. A conference was opened at Niemerow in Poland, which proved fruitless. The Russians who had just ! taken Oczakoff, emboldened by their success, were desirous to I continue the war ; while the Emperor, without reflecting on the i bad condition of his military strength, and the loss which he I had sustained by the death of the celebrated prince Eugene I (April 21, 1736,) thought only of sharing the conquest with the ' Russians. He then laid aside the character of mediator, to ' Tct on the defensive against the Turks ; but he had soon rea- I son to repent of this measure. The Turks, encouraged by the i famous Count de Bonneval, gained considerable advantages j over the Austrians ; and in course of the campaigns of 17J7 ! and 1738, thev dislodged them f m Wallachia and Servia, re- ! took Orsova, and laid siege to the city of Belgrade in 1739. The Court of Vienna, in a state of great consternation, had recourse to the mediation of M. de VilTeneuVe. the French am- 4J •j. le PragnAtic ified with ihe preserve the f Parma and arger portion to admit the and Vienna; J. land occupied he Turks and d. The Em- 1 nd repair the | s unfortunate 1 r between the \ Khouli Khan, | ust subverted i'he incursions o the Russian ) check them, an expedition linst the Porte '36 that Count irshal Munich, ted into the in- tion lost many impossible to liator between d at Niemerow s who had just ere desirous to eflecting on the loss which he prince Eugene iquest with the of mediator, to had soon rea- ^ouraged by the ble advantages ipaigns of 1737 and Servia, re- ade in 1739. isternation, had the French ajn- PERIOD Vlll. A. D. 1713 — 1799. 351 tossador a^ Constantinople, to sue for peace with the Porte ; Count Neipperg, who was sent by the Emperor to the Turkish camp before Belgrade, signed there, with too much precipita- tion, a treaty, under very disadvantageous terms for Austria : and the Empress Anne, who had intrusted the French ambas- sador with her full powers, consented also to a peace very un- favourable for Russia, notwithstanding the brilliant victory .vhich Marshal Munich had gained over the Turks in the neigh- bourhood of Choczim (Oct. 28, 1739,) which was followed by the capture of that place, and the conquest of Moldavia by the Russians. The Emperor, by that peace, ceded to the Porte, Belgrade, Sabatz, and Orsova, with Austrian Servia and Wallnchia. The Danube, the Save, and the Unna, were ngain settled as the boundary between the two Empires ; ^nd Austria preserved nothing but the Banat of Temcswar, of all that had been ceded to her by the peace of Passarowitz. The Austrian merchants, however, were granted free pas.sage into and out of the king- doms and provinces of the Ottoman Empire, both by sea and land, in their own vessels, with the flag and letters-patent of the Emperor, on condition of their paying the accustomed dues. Russia surrendered all her conquests, and among others Choczim and Moldavia. The boundaries between the two Em- pires were regulated by different special agreements. The for- tress of AzofT was demolished ; and it was stipulated that Russia should not construct any new fortress within thirty versts of that place, on the one side ; nor the Porte within thirty versts, on the side of the Cuban. Russia was even interdicted from having and constructing fleets or other naval stores, either on the Sea of AzofT or the Black Sea. The Zaporog Cossacs continued under the dominion of Russia, which obtained also from the Porte the acknowledgment of the Imperial title. The peace be- tween Russia and the Porte was declared perpetual ; but they limited that between Austria and the Porte to twenty-seven years. The latter was renewed under the Empress Maria Theresa ; and rendered also perpetual, by an agreement which that princess concluded with the Porto, May 25, 1747. The succession to Charle*- VL.the last male descendant of the House of Hapsburfj, who died October 20th 1740, kindled a new general war ir Europe. That prince, in the year 1713, had fublishijd an order of succession, known by the name of the 'ragmatic Sanction, which decreed, that failing his lineal heirs- male, his own daughters should succeed in preference to those of his brother the Emperor Joseph I. ; and that the succession of his daughters should be regulated according to the order of W f'J \ mi/. I III :11: nrimojrcniture, so thai ihc elder should be preferred to the , Vounffcr, and that she alone should inherit his whole eatate*. , He took . Nothing was letl to the Queen, except the kingdom of Hungary, with Lower Aus- tria, the Dutchies of Carinthia, Stiria and Camiola, and the Belgic Provinces. In the midst of these imminent dangers, Maria Theresa displayed a courage beyond her age and sex. Aided by the supplies of money which England and Holland furnished her, and by the generous efforts which the Hungarian nation made in her favour, she succeeded in calming the storm 23. I 1 k ■■ti H V (♦. . i I. I i. LI n II is CHAPTER It. 1 oat repulsing the enemy with vigour, and dissolving the grand leLue which had been formed agamst her. "^tCkT of Sardinia, who dreaded the p,epondenn» of the Bo^boK Imly liWew » abandoned .he gr,.nd «"i«"». «"J Sic.hes J«»"f J'' S^'ir'^VreateSed to bombard the city, and powi.ia ilia fe »„„'• .1 Hanoverians, and Hessians. defeated the Ffench at Dettingen (June 27. 17«.! They we™ £=tnrtS'«.S„;o»el=en?lcrth?^^^ lienerai seni, "i * ot' Vienna. Last v. that pnnce, m order S=«Ka™...^^ *"/,d'» th Kinrof sS. he territor/of Pa.ia, betwee" Si^.fSoi.nnd'^iy.edtcf"^^^^^^^^ wSo In for the «rviee of .he Queen, in oon„derat,on of the .applies which England promised to pay him. ,i'drt.?^:^i.'.t;rst"S;«J!iretrn"h"fr.n. ig the grand two victoriei ^ziislau (May Moravia, and iieen to get rid Iritain having ireslau, which Berlin (July to the King of ing the princi- 's of Tmppau, a was soon fol- med at the sud- acceded to the ith the Queen nderance of the d alliance, and compact which rds then turned king of the two English squad- ird the city, and inbardy, and re- f service which ing one of the 1, he sent to her s, and Hessians, ■my, fought and 3.) They were lich the States- which they had ;t prince, in order ) the interests of hich the Queen Pavia, between 'laceiitia, and the y claimed to the •I, abandoned all port an army of isjderalion of the he Queen recon- the French from \] rKKmri viii. a. d. 17 J 3 — 1789. 355 Bavaria, and drove them even beyond the Rhino The Emperor • /htirliJ* VII. van obliged to transfer his residence from Munich U) Fniiikfitrt on the Maiiio. France, who had never acted till lii'^n but as ihe ally of the Elector of Bavaria, resolved, m con- seijuence of these events, formally to declare war against the Queen and the King of Great Britain (March 15, 1744.) The King of the Two Sicilies broke his neutrality, and again joined his troops with the Spanish army, who were acting against the Queen and her ally the King of Sardinia. The war was now carried on with fresh vigour. Louis XV, attacked the Austrian Netherlands in person, and negotiated a treaty of Union, at Frankfort, between the Emperor, and several principal States of the Empire. By this treaty it was stipulatea, that the allied princes should unite their forces, and constrain the Queen to acknowledge the Emperor Charles VII,, and reinstate him in his hereditary dominions. It was in consequence of this treaty, that the King of Prussia again commenced the war, and made an attack on Bohemia. Prince Charles of Lorraine, who had invaded Alsace, at the head of an Austrian army, was obliged to repass the Rhine, and march to the relief of that kingdom. The French penetrated into Germany, and while Louis XV. laid siege to Friburg in Brisgaw, General Seckendorf, who commanded the Imperial army, reconquered Bavaria. Charles VII., who was then re- stored to his estates, returned to Munich. During these transactions, an unforeseen event happened, which changed the state of affairs. The Emperor died at the early age of forty-seven (Jan. 20, 1745,) and his son Maximilian Joseph II., used all expedition to make up matters with the Queen. By the special treaty, which he concluded with her at Fuessen (April 22, 1745,) he renounced the claims which his father had made to the succession of Charles VI, He again signed the Pragmatic Sanction, satisfied with being maintained in the possession of his patrimonial estates. The French had in vain endeavoured to prevent the election of the Grand Duke of Tuscany to the Imperial throne, who had been associated with his wife, Maria Theresa, in the government of her heredi- tary dominions. That prince, however, was elected at Frank- fort, under the protection of the Austrian and Pragmatic armies. An alliance had been concluded at Warsaw between Maria Theresa, Poland, England, and Holland (Jan. 8, 1745.) Au- gustus III. had engaged, as Elector of Saxony, to despatch an army of thirty thousand men to the Queen's assistance, in con- sideration of the subsidies which England and Holland had pro- mised to pay him That army being joined by the Austrian^, |!r 4 t .Ji .1 'iii»f7r' J , ^ / srw) ClIAPTBR IX i • ' liud nHvaticod into Silesia, whon- they """tnincfl n totnl dc»fra» near Holierifripdlicr^' (Junf 1.) 'I'lio vitlorimia Kin;,' of IVub'ib returned to Bylictniii, nnd tliero dofcntrd ilio niiics n swnrifl time, near Sorr, in the Circle of Konifjrat/ (Sept. HO.) He then attacked SaX'Hv , in order to I'ompcl the (.iueen to iimKe peofe. by hara.ssinjj ifn !'"leclor her ally. The victory, wliich ho gain- ed over the Saxons at Ke.iselsdorf (Dec. l/j,) made him mastpr of Dresden, and the whole Electorate, wliich he laid under con- iribu ion. These victories accelerated the peace between the King of Prussia, the Queen, and the Elirtor of Saxony, which Wfis Nigtied at Dresden, under the medial ion of (Inat Jlritain. Tlie Khig of Prussia restored to the Elector all hi •I'lates, the latter promising to pay him a million of Itnnerial crowns. The Queen jjave up Silesia and theComteof Glatz ; while the id.ig, as the Elector of Brandenburg, acmiiesced in the eie( ti(/ii v{ Francis I. >'■ he Imperial throne. The Kinp of England, the Dutch, and -te States of the Empire, undertook to guara'itec these stipuluu. ^;is. The treaties of Fuessen and presden restored tranquillity to the Empire ; but the war was contiimed in the Netherlands, Italy, and in the East and West Indies. The Ff nch, under the conduct of Marshal Saxc, distinguished themst-lves in the Netherlands. The victories which they gained over the allie? at Fontenoy (May 11, 1745,) and at Rocoux (Oct. 11, 1746,) pro- cured them the conquest of all the Austrian Netherlands, excep» the towns and fortresses of Luxemburg, Limburg, and Guoldres Charles Edward, son of the Pretender, encouraged and assist- ed by the Court of France, landed in Scotland in August 1746. Being joined by a number of partisans, whom he found in that kingdom, he caused his father to be proclaimed at Perth and Edinburgh, assuming to himself the title of Prince of Wales, and Regent of the three kingdoms. The victory which he gain- ed near Prestonpans over the English troops, rendered him mas- ter of all Scotland. He next invaded England, took Carlisle, and advanced as far as Derby, spreading terror and consternation in London. George II. was obliged to recall the Duke of Cum- berland, with his troops, from the Netherlands. That Prince drove back the Pretender, retook Carlisle, and restored tranquil- lity in Scotland, by defeating the Rebels near Culloden in the Highlands. Charles Edward was then reduced to the necessity of concealing himself among the mountains, until the month of October following, when he found means to transport himself to France. The campaign of 1745 in Italy was glqrious for the French, and their allies the Spaniards. Tne Republic of Genoa, being ti total dpfrt* iii),'()f I*ruB»<« lies ft Nf'Colid )().) Hf thnn T iiinko pcn'^e, irlucli lie gain- lo him irmster lid iimliT con- (> belwfcn the Snxony, which Grcftt Britain. Ill- ^.'I'liites, the crowns. The while tho King, the eie(:li(/ii of f Englaiifl. the k to guarasitoe 1 tranquillity to .e Netncrlnnds, ! French, under emwlvcs in the 1 over the allief j 1. 11, 1746.) pro- I hcrlands, excep* i 5, and Gueldres •aged and assist- n August 1745. he found in that ?d at Perth and 'rince of Wales, y which he gain- idered him mas- id, took Carlisle, ind consternation le Duke of Cum- s. That Prince restored tranquil- r CuUoden in the id to the necessity ntil the month of msport himself to IS for the French, I of Genoa, being IMAGE E\'ALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I '-1^ |2.5 1^ 1^ 112.2 ^ 1^ lillio 1.8 L25 11114 ill 1.6 7 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716)872-4503 -ym^^^m^^m^^. W^^m0 r i^:. ■■ .^w T: li^'^ jlfl k ^t'tmint I 'm r was given up to England, except the city of New Orleans, which was reserved to France ; as was also the liberty of the fisheries on a part of the coasts of Newfoundland, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The islands of St. Peter and Miquelon were given them as a shelter for their fishermen, but without permission to raise fortifications. The islands of Martinico. '^raudalonpe, Mariagalante, Desirada, and St. Lncia, were sunundered to France; while Grenada, the Grenadines, St. Vincent, IX>minica, and Tobaffo, were ceded to 34 ^ i\ I l:-| m --' .1. i ww^ - 370 CHAPTER IX. f; Enffland The latter power retained her conquei.t8 on the Sen- fX^d reitowd to Fmnce the island of Gorea on the coast of ^Ska France was put in possession of the forts and tactones wh"ch belong to her in the East Indies, on the coasts of Coro- mandel OriL, Malabar, and Bengal under the restriction of in Gemany TZ> the island of Minorca. England gaveup o herTSeisle on the coast of Brittany ; while Dunkirk was kept n the ame condition as had been ietennined by the peace Kix-la-Chapelle. The island of Cuba with the Havana was It'edto^he'Kingof Spain, -^o, on h.s part ceded to E^^^^^^ io«,l FlnTirfa with Fort Augustine and the Bay oi rensacom. rt S of Portugal was restored to the same state in which Kbfen before Se war. The colony of St. Sacrament in AmerkaTwhich the Spaniards had conquered, was given back ^ S" peace of Paris, of which we have just now spoken, was theera of England's greatest prosperity. Her commerce and Lavi^tion eSded over all parts of tlte globe, and were sup- 3bv a naval force, so much vhe more imposmg, as it was TTonger counterbalanced by the maritime power of France which had been almost annihilated in the Preceding war. The Jnmense territories which that peace had secured her, both in AfricTand America, opened new channels for her industry, ^nd whTt deSrves es^cially to be remarked, is, that she ac- quired at the same ti^e vast and important possessions m the ThSpire of the Great Mogul in India had fallen into decay »bout thebSginning of the eighteenth century. The viceroys and ieuv governor! of the Empire, called SoubaAs ani Nabobs Sd Omfindependent, and usurped the prerogatives o royalt,' Ke d^Sricts u'nder their authority; 7'g^..f,f^fj^;^P^: -or. reduced almost to the single city of Delhi, his capital, pre ;^rVed nothing but the shadow of sovereign power, by means of Srinvesituri which he granted to these ambmous princes and The coinage that was struck in his name. Whenever any 5?fferences aroS among these princes, they usually had recourse fo the Euroian nations, who had settlements in W.a, and had erected forS^Uh the consent of the Great Mogul, where thev E an imed force for the protection of their commerce. If the Frenc"Took the part of one nabob, it was sufficient to induce the English to espouse the quarrel of his adversary ; and wh^e Se two nations were mutually cult vatmg peace •« Europe, , -hey were offn at the same time making war m India, by fur- ! t, bts on the Sen- 1 1 m the coast of j ,8 and factories coasts of Coro- restriction ol she had made ngland gave up , Dunkirk was ' ed by the peace \ le Havana, was | ceded to Eng- ; r of Pensacola. state in which Sacrament in was given back ow spoken, was commerce and ;, and were sup- losing, as it was 3wer of France, iding war. The ired her, both in )r her industry, 1, is, that she ac- ossessions in the fallen into decay I. The viceroys bahs and Nabobt gatives of royalty he Mogul Empe- i, his capital, pre- wer, by means of mbitious princes, Whenever any lally had recourse in India, and had [ogul, where thev lir commerce. If jfficient to induce srsarj' ; and while jeace in Europe, r in India, by fur- PERioD vm. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 371 nishing supplies to their respective allies. Success was for i long time equal on both sides ; and it was not until the war of 1765, and by the victories and conquests of the famous Lord Clive, that England obtained a decided ascendency over the French in that quarter of the world. Sourajah Dowlah, the Soubah of Bengal, instigated, as is sup- posed, by the French, had taken possession of Calcutta (1756,) the principal settlement of the English on the Ganges. His cruel treatment of the English garrison, which he had made prisoners of war, excited the resentment of that nation. To avenge this outrage. Colonel Clive, supported by Admiral Wat- son, retook Calcutta (Jan. 1757 ;) and after havmg dispossessed the French of Chandernagore, their principal establishment on the Ganges, he vanquished the Soubah in several actions, de- posed him, and put in his place Jaffier Ali Khan, his general and prime minister, w^ho was entirely devoted to England. With this era commences the foundation of the British Empire in India. It happened a short time after, that the Mogul Empe- ror, Shah Allum, being driven from his capital by the Patans, an Indian tribe, solicited the protection of the English, who availed themselves of this occasion, as well as of the death of Jaffier Ali, which happened at this time, to get themselves vested by treaty (1765,) and by means of an Imperial charter, in the sovereignty of all Bengal. In virtue of this title, which legiti- mated their power in the eyes of the people, they seized on the public revenues of the kingdoms of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa ; with the reservation of an annual tribute, which they promised to pay to the Mogul Emperor, and certain pensions which they assigned to the Soubahs, whose phantom power they disposed of at their pleasure. The dominion of the English in India, was increased still more by subsequent conquests ; the most impor- tant of which was the powerful state of Mysore, which they utterly overthrew, after a series of wars which they carried on with Hyder Ali, and his successor Tippoo Saib.* [The death of Ferdinand VI., King of Spain, was an event of some importance. He was succeeded by his brother Don Carlos, King of the Two Sicilies, and eldest son of Philip V. by his ^second marriage, who assumed the title of Charles III. Under this prince the philosophy of the eighteenth century penetrated into Spain, where it displayed an energy, and gave rise to con sequences, which had not yet attended it in France. It occa- sioned the downfall of the Jesuits, which was accompanied by deedd repugnant to justice and humanity. The ministers and counsellors of that monarch, the Counts Arranda, Florida Blanca, and Campomanes, introduced into the internal administration «^ i 372 CHAPTER «• !"'■ I of Spain, especially its finances and tactics, an order ana rc^ni- larit? which Imd b^en long unknown in that country. Ajrr.cul- ture commerce, and industry were ^''^£'"".'"8 J° '^^J^'' '^[^"l" their langour, when the American war again threw them mto a state of fatal depression.] _ , i .u i Before quitting Naples to take possession of the throne of Spafn, Don Carlos, who, as King of the Two S.c.hes, had the title of Charles VII., published a fundamental law, bearmg, that agreeably to former treaties which did not admit the union of theltalian States with the Spanish monarchy, he transferred the k ngdom of the Two Sicilies to his third son Don Ferdinand j as hi eldest son, Don Philip, was incanable of reigning, and his second, Don Carlos, was destined for tlie throne of Spain. He mrusted the administration to a regency, during the nonage of he young prince, whose maiority was fixed at the age of seven- een^ B? Ihis law he rcgufated the order of succession which was to TaL place in the kingdom of the Two S.ci les, and which wa the same as that which Philip V. had established m Spam at the Cortes of 1713. After the descendants male and female of his own body, Charles substituted his brothers Don Phihp, Duke of Parma, and Don Louis ; adding, that the k/ngdom of the Two Sicilies should never in any case be united with the Spanirh monarchy. This regulation of the new King of Spain accorded perfectly' with the terms of the seventh article of the treaty of Vienna (1738,) which secured the kingdom of the Two Sicilies to that prince and his descendants, male and female , and Sing these, to his younger brothers and their descendants, "^ The King of Sardinia continued, however, to enforce his right of reversion to that part of Placentia, which the fourth article of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle had secured to him, in case Don Carlo shVuld remove frl the kingdom of the Two SicrUes t„ the crown of Spain. The Court of Prance, wishing to etam that possession for 6on Philip, and to prevent the tranquillity o^^^^^^ from beinc disturbed by the pretensions of the King of »ardinia, enLed foFocure tlL prince an equivalent with which he :a have 'reason to be satisfied. This enu.vaknt way^^^^^^^ flune 10 1763) by a convention concluded at Pans, Between France, Spain, L J the King of Sardinia. The latter consened To Sic7his right of reverSon in the two cases sjjeci ed in Ae seventh article of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; viz. (1.) tau rthemSe descendants of Don Philip ; (2.) Should that pnnce, or one of his descendants, be called either to the throne of Spa n ox "o that of the Two Sicilies ; and should one or other of '.he.e tii caLeV happn in the meantime, the drowns of France and ■ , I .i i i >uijMi»r«niMW I mtmut )rdcr aiiQ rcjn'* ntry. Agricul- to recover from rew them into the throne of Sicilies, had the AV, bearing, that it the union of , he transferred )on Ferdinand ; eigning, and his of Spain. He g the nonage of he age of scven- uccession which ilies, and which )lished in Spain nale and female lers Don Philip, . the kingdom of united with the w King of Spain th article of the gdom of the Two ale and female ; heir descendants, enforce his right e fourth article o( lim, in case Don e Two Sicilies to ling to retain that mquillity of Ita.lj King of Sardinia, It with which he valent was settled .t Paris, between e latter consented Bs specified in the ;; viz. (1.) Fail- hould that prince, le throne of Spain e or other of these ns of France and PPRIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 373 Spain engaged that the King of Sardinia should enjoy the same airiount of annual revenue, which might accrue to him (after deducting the expenses of administration,) from that part of Pla* centia on the Nura, should he overcome into actual possession. Foi this purpose, France undertook, by a special agreement, yvhich was signed at Paris the same day with the preceding, to pay the King of Sardinia, by twelve instalments, the sum ni eight millions two hundred livres ; on condition of reverting to France, should one or other of these alternatives happen. The sudden aggrandizement of Russia, since the time of Peter the Great, had changed the political system of the North. That power had raised herself to the first rank. She dictated the law to Poland and Sweden, her ancient rivals ; disposed of the throne of Poland on every change of reign ; and at the same time decided the fate of Courland. That dutchy, which had long been possessed by the family of Kettler who held it as a fief of the crown of Poland, had become vacant on the death of the Duke Ferdinand, the last malo descendant of that House. Ann, Empress of Russia, being then only Dutchess of Courland, had a favourite, named Ernest John Biron, a man raised by fortune, whose grandfather had been groom to James III., Duke of Cour- land. When that princess mounted the throne of Russia, she raised Biron to the rank of Count, and to the office of Great Chamberlain and Prime Minister. The haughty favourite as- sumed the name and arms of the family of Biron, in France ; and prevailed with the Empress to grant him the dutchy of Courland. At the death of the last Duke, he even succeeded in getting himself elected by the States of that country (1737;) with the aid of a body of Russian troops, which the Empress had sent to Mittau, to support his election. He was invested in the dutchy by the Republic of Poland, to be possessed by him- self and his heirs-male ; but he did not long enjoy this new dig- nity. He was deprived of it on the death of the Empress (1740;; and banished to Siberia by the Grand Dutchess Ann, mother of the young Emperor. This princess caused a new election to be made by the nobility of Courland. The dutchy was then conferred on Louis Ernest, Prince of Brunswick, who was to marry Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great. But the young Emperor, Iwan, having been dethroned immediately after, the Prince of Brunswick never obtained possession of the dutchy. The Empress Elizabeth having decla'-ed to the Republic of Poland that the Duke de Biron should never be liberated from his exile, Augustus III., King of Poland, declared the dutchy of Courland vacant. He then pre /ailed on the States ct that coun- try to elect his own son, Prince Charles, whom he solemnly invested in the dutchy (17/)9.) H? ^iUS J n "■"'^:r rp 374 CHAPTBR IX. \ A new change happened at the death of the Empress Elua- beth, in 1762. Peter III., on his accession to the throne ol Rus- s-a, recalled the Duke de Biron from his exile. The Empress. Catherine II., who succeeded her husband that same year, weiii even farther than this; she demanded the restoration of de Biron to the dutchy of Courland, and obliged Prince Charles of Saxony to give it up to him (1769.) The Duke de Biron then resigned the dutchy to his son Peter, who, after a reign of twen- tv-five years, surrendered it to the Empress ; the btates ol Courland and Semigallia made a formal submission to Russia (March 28, 1795.) ,„ , . ^ The dethronement of Peter III., which we have just men- tioned, was an event very favourable to Denmark, as it relieved that kingdom from a ruinous war with which it was threatened on the part of the Emperor. Peter III. was the head of the House of Holstein-Gottorp, whom Denmark had deprived ol their possessions in Sleswick, by taking advantage of the dis- asters that befell Sweden, which had protected that family against the Danish kings. The Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp ex- claimed against that usurpation ; to which the Court of Denmark had nothing to oppose, except their right of conquest, and the guarantee which the Kings of France and England, as media- tors in the treaty of Stockholm, had given to Denmark with respect to Sleswick. r u • v „ Peter III. was scarcely seated on the throne of Russia, virhen he began to concert means for recovering his ancient patrimo- nial domains, and avenging the wrongs which the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp, his ancestors, had received at the hands ol Denmark. Being determined to make war against that power, he attached the King of Prussia to his cause, and marched a Russian army of 60,000 men towards the frontiers of Denmark Six thousand Prussians were to join this army, which wassup- potlcd by a Russian fleet to be stationed on the coasts of Po- merania. The King of Denmark made every effort to repel the invasion with which he was threatened. He set on foot an army of 70,000 men, the command of which he intrusted to M. de St. Germain, a distinguished French officer. The Danish army advanced towards Mecklenburg, and esta- blished their head-quarters in the town of that name, one league from Wismar. The Danish fleet, consisting of twenty sail of the line and el-^en frigates, appeared at the same time off Rostock. The flames of war were about to kindle in the North, and Peter III. was on the point of joining his army in person at Mecklenburg, when he was dethroned, after a short ' feign of six months (July 9. 1762.> The- Empress Catherine mpress Ehu- throne oi Rus> The EmprciiB, line year, wetii storation of Jc ■ince Charles of de Biron then reign of twen- ; the States uf ision to Russia have just men- k, as It relieved was threatened he head of the lad deprived of tage of the dis- ted that family tein-Gottorp ex- )urt of Denmark nquest, and the ^land, as media- Denmark with of Russia, when incient patrimo- h the Dukes of at the hands of linst that power, and marched a ers of Denmark , which was sup- le coasts of Po- sfTort to repel the : on foot an army trusted to M. de nburg, and esta- that name, one i sting of twenty L the same time to kindle in the ling his army in ed, after a short iprcss Catherine i>RRI0D vui. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 375 il., who succeeded him, did not think fit to espouse the quarrel of her husband. She immediately recalled the Russian army from Mecklenburg; and being desirous of establishing the tran- quillity of the North on a solid basis, and confirming a good un- derstanding between the two principal branches of the House of Holstein, she agreed, by a treaty of alliance with the King of Denmark (1765,) to terminate all these differences by a provisional arrangement, which was not to take effect until the majority of the Grand Duke Paul, the son of Peter III. This accommodation between the two Courts was signed at Copenhagen (April 22, 1762.) The Empress, in the name of her son, gave up her claim to the ducal part of Sleswick, oc- cupied by the King of Denmark. She ceded, moreover, to that sovereign a portion of Holstein, possessed by the family of Gottorp, in exchange for the counties of Oldenburg and Del- menhorst. It was agreed, that these counties should be erect- ed into dutchies, and that the ancient suffrage of Holstsin-Got- torp, at the Imperial Diet, should be transferred to them. This provisional treaty was ratified when the Grand Duke came of age ; and the transference of the ceded territories took place in 1773. At the same time that prince declared, that he designed the counties of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst to form an esta- blishment for a youngei branch of his family, that of Eutin ; to which the contracting powers also secured the bishopric of Lubec, to be held in perpetual possession. The bishop of Lubec, the head of the younger branch of the Gottorp family, was that same year put in possession of the counties of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst ; and the Emperor Joseph II. erected these coun- ties into a dutchy and fiet male of the Empire, under the title of the Dutchy of Holstein-Oldenburg. Here it will be necessary to advert to the revolutions that took place in the Island of Corsica, which, after a long series of troubles and distractions, passed from the dominion of Genoa to that of France. The oppressions which the Corsicans had suffered under the government of the Genoese, who treated ihem with extreme rigour, had rendered their yoke odious and insupporta- ble. They rose several times in reoellion against the Republi- cans ; but from the want of union among themselves, they failed in the different attempts which they made for effecting their liberty and independence. One of the last insurrections of the Corsicans was that of 1729. They chose for their leader Andrew Geccaldi of a noble family in the Island, and Luigi Giafferi, a man of courage and an enthusiast for lilierty. The Genoese, after trying in vam to subdue the insurgents, were obliged to have recourse to the pro* ' li '■: i''M »iiiiii]'!,.ii'liri"lilill»» PBRIOD VIII. A. D. 1713—1789. MM ot Charkb under tne leric Louis an enemy irms. Biit the Empe- V insurrec- h declared I Giaflferi iyacinthus us the Ge- ps, had the ondition in irs. They roops ; and m in their enturer ap- euhof. He k, in West- \n at Tunis, lined to try prospects nduced the LS proclaim- le external irs of State, r of knight- ' the enthu- x)ldly made aces under ! people be- lie took the s. He em- 1^ a society merce with , and other tened with ired into an urt, fearing inces to get le Court of ' allegiance [ication was dmwn up at Versailles, and Count lie Boissieux wus charged to carry it into execution. This General liiiulcd in the Island (1738,) (It the head ol' a body of French auxiliaries ; and his ar- rival determined King Theodore to abandon Corsica, and seek his safety in flight. He retired to London, where he was im- prisoned for debt. After a long captivity he was set at liberty, and died in a state of misery (1756.) boissieux harassed the Corsicans exceedingly, but he failed in his efforts to reduce them lO submission. His successor, the Marquis de Maillebois, was more fortunate ; he took his measures with such precision uud vigour, that he obliged the Islanders to lay down their arms, and receive the law from the conqueror. Their Generals, Giaflcri and Paoli, retired to Naples. The war of the Austrian Succession, having obliged the French Court to recall their troops from Corsica, that island be- came the scene of new disturbances. Gaflbrio and Matra then took upon them the functions of generalship, and the direction of affairs. They had a colleague and coadjutor in the person of Count Rivarola, a native of Corsica, who, with the assistance of some English vessels succeeded in expelling the Genoese from Bastia and San Fiorenzo. The Corsicans might have pushed their advantages muth farther, if they could have sub- dued their own feuds and private animosities, and employed themselves solely in promoting the public interest ; but their internal divisions retarded their success, and allowed their ene- mies to recover the places they had conquered. Rivarola and Matra having resigned the command, the sole charge devolved on Gafforio, who was a man of rare merit and of tried valour. He was beginning to civilize his countrymen, and to give some stability to the government of the island, when he was assassi- nated, as is s';pposed, by the emissaries of the Genoese (1753.) His death plinged Corsica once more into the state of disordei and anarchy from which he had laboured to deliver it. At length appeared the celebrated Pascal Paoli, whom his aged father had brought from Naples to Corsica. Being elected General-in-chief by his countrymen ( 1756,) he inspired them with fresh couroge ; and while he carried on the war with suc- cess against the Genoese, he made efforts to reform abuses in the State, and to encourage agriculture, letters and arts. Nothing was wanting to accomplish this object, and to confirm the liberty and independence of his country, but the expulsion of the Geno- ese from the maritime towns of Bastia, San Fiorenzo, Calvi, Al- gagliola and Ajaccio ; the only places which still remained in their power. In this he would probably have succeeded, had he not met with new interruptions from France, who had underta- I I. ,!Sil* M-- 378 CnAPTBR IX. I !l ken, by the several treaties which she had concluded with ihs Genoese in the years 1752, 1765, 1756 and 1764, to defend their ports and fortifications in that island. Tlie original intention of the French, in taking possession of these places, was not to carry on hostilities with } aoli and the natives, but simply to retain them for u limited time, in discharge of a debt which the French government had contracted with the Kejablic of Genoa. The Genoese had flattered themselves, that if exonerated from the duty of guarding the fortified places, they would be able, with their own forces, to reconquer all the rest of the island ; but it was not long before they found them- selves deceived in their expectations. The Corsicans drove the Genoese from the island of Capraja (1767.) They even took possession of Ajaccio, and some other parts which the French had thought fit to abandon. At the same time the shipping of the Corsicans made incessant incursions on the Genoese, and annoyed their commerce. The Senate of Genoa, convinced at last that it was impossible for them to subdue the island, and seeing the time approach when the French troops were to take their departure, took the resolution of surrendering their rights over Corsica to the crown of France, by a treaty which was signed at Versailles (May 15, 1768.) The King promised to restore the island of Capraja to to the Republic. He guaranteed to them all their possessions on terra firma; and engaged to pay them annually for ten years, the sum of 200,000 livres. The Genoese reserved to themselves the right of reclaiming the sovereignty of Corsica, on reimbursing the King for the expenses of the expedition he was about to undertake, as well as for the maintenance of his troops. This treaty occasioned strong remonstrances on the part of the Corsicans, who prepared themselves for a vigorous de- fence. The first campaign turned to their advantage. It cost France several thousand men, and about thirty millions of livres. The Duke de Choiseul, far from being discouraged bythese dis- asters, transported a strong force into the island. He put the Count de Vaux in the place of the Marquis de Chauvelin, who, by the skilful dispositions which he made, found himself master trlin. had undertaken to mediate -tmmmimmm PERIOD VJII. A. D. 1713— 17S9. 383 and harassing I the bold pro- ands of the Ar- lorea. A Rus- ff and Admira: Northern Seas le Archipelago. , Iphinstone, they Capitan Pacha , 'he ships of the ha, having met when both were ibatants ; but the ' bay of Chism^, lole fleet during istantinople into ice in which the that if the Rus- ic, it would have capital. Rear- 3 Russian squad- issian Admirals ;xt year, though the command of IS at Perekop, de- ;ars, commanded oruki, after hav- limself master of ind received from the surname of etended deputies ced the dominion the protection of ght be, could not recruit her ar- :les, fatigues, and ing peace. The ed from the army d as far as Mca- 1 the course of « to the embarrass- )f Vienna, which, rtaken to mediate lietween Russia and the Porte, rejected with disdam the condi- tions of peace proposed by the Empress. Moreover, they strongly opposed the independence of Moldavia and Wallachia, us well as of the Tartars ; and would not even permit that the Russians should transfer the seat uf war to the right br nk of the Danube. The Court of Vienna went even farther : it threatened to make common cause with tlie Turks, to compel the Empress to restore all her conquests, and to place matters between the Rus- sians and the Turks on the footing of the treaty of Belgrade. An agreement to this effect was negotiated with the Porte, and signed at Constantinople ('uly 6, 1771.) This convention, however, was not ratified, the Court of Vienna having changed its mind on account of the famous dismemberment of Poland, concerted between it and the Courts of Berlin and St. Peters- burg. The Empress then consented to restore to the Turks the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, on the conclusion of the peace ; and the Court of Vienna again engaged to exert its friendly interference in negotiating peace betv/een Russia and the Porte. In consequence of these events, the year 1772 was passed entirely in negotiations. A suspension of arms was agreed to between the two belligerent powers. A Congress wos opened at Foczani in Moldavia, under the mediation of the Courts of Ber- lin and St. Petersburg. This Congress was followed by another, which was held at Bucharest in Wallachia. Both of these meetings proved ineffectual, the Turks having considered the conditions proposed by Russia as inadmissible ; and what dis- pleased them still more was, the article relative to the indepen- dence of the Tartars in the Crimea. This they rejected as con- trary to the principles of their religion, and as tending to esta- blish a rivalry between the two Caliphs. They succeeded, however, in settling the nature of the religious dependence under which the Khans of the Crimea were to remain with re« gard to the Porte ; but they could not possibly agree as to the surrender of the ports of Jenikaleh and Kerch ; nor as to the unrestrained liberty of navigation in the Turkish seas, which the Russians demanded. After these conferences had been re* peatedly broken off, hostilities commenced anew (1773.) The Russians twice attempted to establish themselves on the right bank of the Danube, but without being able to accomplish it ; they even lost a great number of men in the difierent actions which they fought with the Turks. The last campaign, that of 177 \, was at length decisive. Abdul Hammed, who had just succeeded his brother Mustaph* en versts from 8 from that war, [lined from Rus- his part of Mol- ind Czemowitz, ' its ancient ter- id by the princes I to Austria for Itemative but to rince Ghikas of B proTinces, was ina was confirm- 776, and 1777,) Earthtiuake at Lwbon. P. 3U4. Engagement of the Rusiiian and Turkish Fleets off Scio, 1770. P. :tS'2. ■^ t *i ! I-, PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 385 which at the same time regulated the limits between the two States. The peace of Kainargi, though glorious for Kussia, proved most calamitous for the Ottoman Porte. By establishing the independence of the Tartars, it lost the Turks one ot their principal bulwarks against Russia ; and they were indig- nant at seeing the Russians established on the Black Sea, and permitted unrestrained navigation in all the Turkish seas. Henceforth they had reason to tremble for the safety of their capital, which might be assailed with impunity, and its supplies intercepted, on the least disturbance that might arise between the two Empires. The many disasters which the Turks had experienced in the war we have now mentioned, had a direct influence on the fate of Poland, which ended in the dismemberment of that kingdom. This event, which had been predicted by John Casimir in the seventeenth century, was brought about by the mediation of the Courts of Berlin and Vienna for the restoration of peace between Russia and Turkey. The conditions of that treaty, which were dictated by the Empress Catherine II., having displeased the Court of Vienna, which had moreover displayed hostile inten- tions against Russia, by despatching troops into Hungary, and taking possession of a part of Poland, which Austria claimed as anciently belonging to Hungary, the Empress took this occasion of observing to Prince Henry of Prussia, who then sojourned at her Court, that if Austria seemed inclined to dismember Poknd, the other neighbouring powers were entitled to do the same. This overture was comrrunicated by Prince Henry to his brother the King of Prussia, who resolved to act on this nevy idea. He foresaw it would be a proper means for indemnifying Russia, contenting Austria, and augmenting his own territories, by establishing a communication between the kingdom of Prussia, and his dutchy of Brandenburg. These considerations induced him to set on foot a negotiation with the courts of Vienna and St. Petersburg. He gave the former to understand, that if war should break out between Austria and Russia, he could not but take part in it as the ally of the latter power ; while he repre- sented to the Empress of Russia, that if she would consent to restore Moldavia and Wallachia to the Turks, and indemnify her- self by a part of Poland, she would aroid a new war, and facili- tate an accommodation with the Porte. In this manner did he succeed, after a long and difficult negotiation, in recommending to the two Imperial courts, a project which was to give Europe the example of a kingdom dismembered on mere reasons of con- venience. A preliminary agreement was drawn up, in which the equality of the respective portions of the three courtu waa ■'I' * 386 CHAPTBR IX. ra:»St»s ioSr:^r„,nf s:i::.» "„4 oV=. r?«n»r. for oUaining a final «™S™';„'t'J ! the three Courts, were P'^^^?"^''^ "\^^" f^; ^s and districts establishing the l^f'^'X^^t.-oPo ad m^ his ministry, in manded. A y*^^'^"'^" ^. g^^^te and the Equestrian order, Tlf of Ve kinin of Galicia and Lodomeria. One very PERIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 387 A negctiatioii r reculaling the le Empress and the divisions to d at St. Peters- (Aug. 5, 1772.) which were to I'cly, were there r. They agreed ?mber following, genient with the the same treaty urks, in order to lid the Porte. In letters-patent of r, ill September ies and districts id memorials for cr the countries il his ministry, in ' the powers that • alternative left, three courts de- ^ar-saw, appointed Equestrian order, iree powers, as to iiich the provinces I them on the part iigned at Warsaw, the Diet of Poland, ■eaty with the Re- Sips, which Sigis- Polaiid in 1412 ; ow, part of Sando- jcutia, and part of j were again incor- , een dismembered ; | . r Slate, under the j ' meria. One very was, the rich salt r, which furnished ivonia, the greater j linatc of Msci?law, , and the two extremities of the Palatinate of Minsk." These vhe Empress formed into two grand governments, those of Polotsk and Mochilew. The King of Prussia had the states of Great Poland, situated beyond the Netze, as well as the whole of Polish Prussia, except the cities of Dantzic and Thorn, which were reserved to Poland." That republic, in virtue of a treaty with the King of Prussia, renounced also her rights of domaine, and tiic reversion which the treaties of Welau and Bidgost had secured to her with regard to Electoral Prussia, as well as the districts of Lauenburg, Butow, and Draheim. The portion of the King of Prussia was so much the more important in a poli- tical point of view, as it united the kingdom of Prussia with his possessions in Germany ; and, by giving him the command of the Vistula, it made him master of the commerce of Poland ; especially of the corn-trade, so valuable to the rest of Europe. The three courts, in thus dismembering Poland, renounced, in the most formal manner, all farther pretensions on the re- public ; and, lastly, to consummate their work, they passed an act at Warsaw, by which they sanctioned the liberum veto, and the unanimity in their decisions formerly used at the Diet in state matters; the crown was declared elective, and foreign princes were to be excluded. The prerogative of the King, al- ready very limited, was circumscribed still more by the establish- ment of a permanent council ; and it was statuted, that no one could ever change this constitution, of which the three powers had become the guarantees. [This partition of Poland must be regarded as the harbinger of the total overthrow of the political system which for three hun- dred years had prevailed in Europe. After so many alliances had been formed, and so many wars undertaken, to preserve the weaker states against the ambition of the greater, we here find three powers of the first rank combining to dismember a stat? which had never given them the slightest umbrage. The bar riers between legitimate right and arbitrary power were thus overthrown, and henceforth the destiny of inferior states was no longer secure. The system of political equilibrium became the jest of innovators, and many well disposed men began to regard It as a chimera. Though the chief blame of this transaction must fall on the courts of St. Petersburg, Berlin, and Vienna, those of London and Paris were accomplices to the crime, by allowing this spoliation to be consummated without any mark of their reprobation.] In Sweden, the aristocratic system had prevailed since the changes which had been introduced into the form of government by the revolution of 1720. The chief power resided in the body n *' i\ /':J^''> 'tr If ^he Senate, and the royal J-^-i^^-^jKi.^ojS shadow. The same Action., to H"^""^ ' ^J , ^y^^^^,, ,ho stale, we have spoken above, contmued o n^ talc a ^^ ^^^.^^^^^^ The Hat« were of "P'"!""' ;'^,' Vj^Jl a, d Finland, it was ne- and to recover the P'^.'"'',?,^.'^ ^ C c'^ ""'^ '^' ''"""' • cessary to cultivate f"«"JJ P ^^^J^ „7" ^tpture with Russia, order to secure 'I'^'Xr ha..d nailinel that Sweden ex- The Bonnets, on the other ™. ' ;„ „o under- hausted by. the P-ced-g war • -^M to u g 8 ^^ .^^^ . taki..g against R"««'«;^/ ' P^jew £" to maintain peacfand they had no other object m view than ji,,,„eti„n. These good understanding ^^''J «'" "^^^'J"' ^ „,quiFed a new impot- fwo factions, instigated by ^orc^guJM, g ^^^ ^^^ p^^^^ tance ^v^en the war broke oub,en^ ,^^^^ ^^^^^ It was in the Diet of ^^^^^^ '^ jyrnriving the members of the possession of the f y""""""!' f J„ Jov Sts. There was some ! Sppo^i'" P^^^y °f T" r"T ^co W.C ce of her connexions reason to believe that F™"^^^' '" ^-^J^^"; ' Sweden against ' with the Porte, had used every eflyt to st^rP ^^^^^ I Ru-ia. and that the J-- "J;^^^^^^^^^^^ , Constantinople to Stockholm, na ^^^^ ^^^j,j „„j Russia had then to make ^'''l^XZ\l\n peace with Swe- influence of the Bonnets, m °™f '"'"";;, ^^d by the Court of den. In these endeavours .^^Hrto Tupport tie interests of tetArof r o^to-lit^^o thwart France in her po- "'^;S of Adolphus Jr^^^^S^, ^hS n^eantime. opened a -^^^^^^^ ^Sol of his son and suc- was summoned «" f^""^ ^Q 1771? This young prince at cesser Gustavus HI. (^f- 12. J'? ; J^J'^ ^^ fo e^onciliate first interposed ^tween the twopart.es, wim ^^^ ^^^^-^ them; but ^vith so httle ^^'^^'^^'^'^^i'^^^^ animosity, until the B«""«»;;^j^nrtreTta^ exp"l«io" of the England, went ««J^' f ^^^^^^bu" from all other places and Hats, not only from the f."^'^""* dignities in the kingdom. I^'^^'^;;"'"!" dv was in the time of an? circumscribed as the royal Ppr'f^^X.ions to be imposed Adolphus Frederic, they de^"'!^.^ "^^^J^"^^^^^^^^ with Russia : on hiS successor. The "«a.ies that ^^^^^^ and England, were evidently the resuu 01 > that faction who had now ^^^^^I'^^^^Zl the necessity of In this state of affairs, the youi^gK.K ^^^ J. Mjiwigijjijuuj-im- — I Iced .0 a mere nncts, of which jwiract the slate. Lry of Sweden, hiiid, it was ne- |il the Porte, in e with Riisnia. int Sweden, ex- re in no tinder- . of pacification, ntnin peace and .notion. These ed a new impor- atid the Porte, nd means to get members of the There was some if her connexions I Sweden against who passed from object than this, ise the credit and peace with Swe- l by the Court of rt the interests of France in her po- happencd in the 1 the Diet, which f his son and suc- I young prince al I view to conciliate ler increased their rtcd by Russia and al expulsion of the II other places and n became extreme ; was in the time of nions to be imposed tjected with Russia system adopted by government, iw the necessity of Iministraiion. His li popular manners. TEKIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 889 had gained liiin a niuiiber of partisans. He possessed in an einiiiftit ikjjfrce the art of dissimulation; and while he was Miaiiiii;,' every arriitigcinpnl for a revolution, and concertiug rnea- suri's ill xccrel with the French ainba.ssador, he seemed to have iiotliiii'T so iniu-h at heart as to convince the world of his sincere attachment to the established constitution. It is alleged, that he had .sent emissaries over the whole kingdom to stir up the people against their governors ; and that he might have some pretext for calling out his troops, he induced Captain Hellichius, the commandant of Christianstadt in Blekingen, to raise the standard of revolt against the states who still continued their sittings at Stu<'kholtn. That officer, known afterwards by the name of Gvstafsckeld, or the S/iield of Guslar us, published at first a kind of manifesto, in which he reproached the States for their misconduct ; which he showed to have been diametrically opposite to the public in- terest and the laws of the kingdom. Prince Charles, the King's brother, who was at that time al Landscrona in Schonen, being informed of the proceedings of the commandant of Christianstadt, immediately assembled the troops in the provinces, and marched to that place, with the intention, as is said, of stifling the revolt in its birth. The news of this insurrection spread consternation in the capital. The Stales were suspicious of the King, and took measures to prevent the ambitious designs which they supposed him to entertain. Hellichius was proclaimed a rebel by the Senate, and guilty of high treason. They advised the King not to quit Stockholm, the command of which was intrusted to a senator, the Count of Kalling, with the most ample powers. At length the regiment of Upland, whose officers were devoted to the Senate, were ordered to the capital, with the intention, as is supposed, of arresting the King. That prince then saw that he had no longer time to delay, and that he must finish the execu- tion of the plan which he had proposed. On the morning of the 19th of August, the King presented himself to the troops who mounted guard at the palace ; and having assembled the officers, he detailed to them the unfortu- nate state of the kingdom, as being the consequence of those dissensions which had distracted the Diet for more than fourteen months. He pointed out to them the necessity of abolishing that haughty aristocracy who had ruined the state, and to restore the constitution to what it was before the revolution of 1680 ; ex- pressing at the same lime his decided aversion for absolute and despotic power. Being assured of the fidtiity of the guards, who were eager to take the oath of allegiance to him, he ordered a demchment to surround the Council Chamber where the Se- '4' . i 'Jl' 390 CHAmR IX. natora were aasembled, and put the leaders of the ruhng party under arrest. The artillery and other regiments of guards hav- ing also acknowledged his authority, their example was soor, followed by' all the colleges (or public offices,) both civil ano military. The arrest against Hellichius was revoked, and the regiment of Upland received orders to march back. These mea- sures and some others were executed with so much skill and punctuality, that the public tranquillity was never disturbed ; and by five o'clock in the evening of the same day, the revolu- tion seemed to be accomplished without shedding a single drop of blood. Next day, the magistrates of the city took the oath to the King, and the assembly of the States was summoned to meet on the 21st. On that day the King caused the palace to be sur- rounded by troops, and cannons to be pointed into the court op- posite the Chambt-r of the States. Seated on his throne, and surrounded by hi. guards, the King opened the assembly by an energetic discou'-si;- which he addressed to the members, in which he painted, in lively colours, the deplorable state of the kingdom, and the indispen-suble necessity of applying some prompt remedy. The new form of government which he had prepared was read by his orders, and adopted without opposition by the whole four orders of the kingdom. The king then drew a psalm-book from his pocket, and taking off his crown, began to sing Te Dettm, in which he was joined by the whole assembly. Mat'ers passed in the interior of the provinces with as little tumult and opposi- tion as in the capital and principal cities. The King's brothers iSLcived, in his name, the oath of fidelity on the part of the in- habitants and the military. In virtue of this new form of government, all the fundamen- tal laws introduced since 1680 were cancelled and abolished. The succession to the throne was restricted to males only. The lineal order, and the right of primogeniture, as settled by the convention of 1743, and by the decree of the Diet of 1760, were confirmed. The King was to govern alone, according to the laws ; and the Senate were to be considered as his counsel- lors. All the senators were to be nominated by the King, and matters were no longer to be decided by a plurality of votes. The senators were simply to give their advice, and the decision belonged to the King. Courts of justice, however, were ex- cepted. The chief command of all the forces in the kingdom, both by sea and land, and the supreme direction of the Exche- quer, were conferred on the King. On the report of the senate, he filled up all the high offices in the state, both military, civil, and ecclesiastical. He alone had the right of pardoning, and of summoning the States, who could ne*er assemble on tlieir le ruling party of guards hav- inplc was soon both civil and voked, and the . These inea- much skill and ever disturbed; lay, the revolu- g a single drop took the oath to ninoned to meet palace to be sur- ito the court op- his throne, and assembly by an imbers, in which of the kingdom, prompt remedy. spared was read the whole four psalm-book from ling Tt Detim, in Mai'ers passed mult and opposi- ? King's brothers le part of the in- .11 the fundamen- d and abolished. I to males only, re, as settled by he Diet of 1760, ine, according to d as his counsel- by the King, and ilurality of votes, and the decision wever, were ex- I in the kingdom, on of the Exche- )ort of the senate, >th military, civil, f pardoning, and assemble on tlieir rBRioo VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1780. iH own authority, except in a case where the throne became VMallli by tJK? total oxlitiotion of the royal family in the male line. The dunitioii of the Diets was lixcd for three muiiths, and the King had the nrivilege of dissolving them at the end of that time. He could make no new laws, nor interpret the old ones, nor im- pose subsidies or assessments, nor declare war, without the ad- vice nnd consent of the States. lie was allowed, however, to levy an extraordinary tax, in cases where the kingdom might hi attacked by sudden invasion ; but on the termination of the war, the .States were to be assembled, and the new tax discon* tinned. All negotiations for peace, truces, and alliances, whe- ther offensive or defensive, were reserved to the King, by whom they were to be referred to the Senate. If, in these cases, th« unanimous voice of the Senate was opposed to that of the King, it became his duty to acquiesce in iheir opinion. Every Swedish citizen was to be judged by his natural judge. The King could attaint neither the life, honour, nor fortune of any citizen, otherwise than by the legal forms. All extraordinary commissions or tribunals were to be suppressed, as tending to establish tyranny and despotism. The revolution of Stockholm, of which we have just now spoken, had nothing in common with that which happened at Co- penhagen the same yeor ; and which, without in any way af- fecting the constitution of the kingdom, merely transferred the reins of government from the hands of the reigning Queen to those of the Queen-dowager."- In a remote corner of Europe, there existed an association of warriors, of a kind quite peculiar, namely, that of the Zaparog Cossacs ; so called because they dwelt near the cataracts of the Dnieper, where they served as a military frontier, first to the Poles, and afterwards to the Russians. The chief residence of these Cossacs was called Setscha. It contained a considerable mass of houses, scattered and badly constructed, and had a small fort occupied by a Russian garrison. The position of Setscha had not always l)e(.ii the same ; but it was ultimately fixed on the western bank of the Borysthenes, opposite Kame- noi-Saton, an ancient fortress of the Russians, and was called New Setscha. These Cossacs, known in Poland by the name of Haydamacs, and formidable by their incursions and their de- vastations, had adopted a republican form of government. Their capital was divided into thirty Kurenes, or quarters. Every Cossac belonged to one of these Kurenes. There he lodged when he stayed at Setscha, and was obliged to conform to its laws. All those who belonged to the same Kurene, formed as it were one and the same family. Like the ancient Spartans I I'V !'■. t I 309 OHAFTBS n. thev were nourished with the same food, and ate a*, the mam tabfo. The overseer of ench Meparate Kurene v as called Ata- man, and the chief of all the Kurenes Koichewoi- Ataman. All the chiefs, without distinction, were elected by common consent ; the Ataman by his own Kurene, and the Koschewoi l>y the whole Kurenes united. They were deposed whenever they be- came unpopular. The assemblies of Setscha were either ordi- nary or extraordinary. In that which was repularly held every year on the 1st of January, they made a formal division of the fields, rivers, and lakes, among the Kurenes. They mad«» use of lots in order to avoid disputes ; and they renewed them every year, that a favourable chance might be given to all the Kurenes in succession. At th«t assembly they elected new chiefs, if they happened to be discontented with the old ones. As for the ex- traordinary assemblies, they were held when it was in agitation to undertaKe a campaign, or to make an excursion ; and gene rally on all occasioms when the common interest seemed to re- quire it. They had a judge and some other officers in Setscha. The judge never pronounced sentence except in affairs of little importance. Those which appeared more weighty required the intervention of all the chiefs. They would suffer no woman to remain in Setscha. Those who were inclined to marry were obliged to remove elsewhere. To keep up their numbers the Zaparogs received deserters and fugitives from all nations. They were particularly careful to recruit their ranks with young boys, whom tbey kidnapped in their excursions ; and brought them up according to their customs and manner of living. The treaty of Andrussov between Russia and Poland had left these Cfossacs under the common protection of those two States. They preferred that of Russia, and were continued under the dominion of that power by the peace of Moscow. Being afterwards implicpted in the revolt of Mazeppa, they put themselves under the protection of the Tartars of the Crimea af- ter the battle of Pultowa, and transferred their capital of Setscha to the eastern bank of the Dnieper, nearer its mouth. Being discontented under the Tartars, who repressed their incursions, and often imposed exactions on Setscha, they took the resolution of putting themselves once more under the dominion of Rus- sia (1733.) The Empress Anne confirmed them in their pri- vileges, and furnished money to assist them in rebuilding their capital on the western bank of the Dnieper. As they continued, however, to commit robbery and plunder on the frontiers without intermission, and having neither friends nor allies, Catherine II. resolved to annihilate this fantastic as- sociation. Besides their depredDtions, the Zaparogs were ac- te a', the nailM an called Ate Ataman. Ali mmon conjicnl , schewoi Ivy the icnever they be- ere either ordi- Inrly held every division of the They mad* uie wed them every all the Kurenes !wchief», if they As for the ex- wn.s in asitation ^ion ; and gene si seemed to re- iccrs in Setscha. n nflairs of little hty required the flfer no woman to 1 to marry were eir numbers the ■om all nations. ranks with young IS ; and brought er of living. and Poland had ion of those two were continued Mice of Moscow. [azeppa, they put of the Crimea af- :apital of Setschn i mouth. Being their incursions, )ok the resolution ominion of Rus- em in their pri- rebuilding their bery and phmder ig neither friends this fantastic as- iparogs were ac- <^ PBIIOD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789. VM filled of having usurped pufsessinn (»f several roiiiitrios between the DriijMier nnd the Hi>j>'; ns well iin of Mvcrnl distrutN which \\vtk lit nil tiincM lH>li)iiiri>(l lo tlu> ('(i.sMU'N of th(> Don. What mop' pitrticuliiriy cxiifncratt'd the KinprcsM a>,'niiiMt thoni, wns, ilint iK'iiig so olwtitmtcly ultiirlicd to tlicir nhsunl form of tjo- vornmfut, they onpofc.l every schiMiie of reform, the ohjuf. of whii li was to muke them live in re',Milnr nociety, nnd in the boii'ls of mntrinutny ; or l«) induce ihf ni to form themselves into regiments, after the manner of the other Cossncs. They had also refused to send their deputies to Moscow, at the time when Catherine had sent for them from all partis of the Empire, for the formation of a new code of laws ; and there was some rea- son to fear they might attempt to revolt, on "ccount of the changes which the Empress proposed to make n the adminis- tration of the government. These nnd other considerations in* duced that princess to despatch a body of troops against Setscha (1775.) The Zaparogs, attacked unawares, and inclosed on all hands, saw themselves without the means of making the least resistance. Their capital was destroyed, and their whole tiibo dispersed. Those who were not inclined to embrace another kind of life, were sent back to their native towns and their re» spective countries. The succession of Bavaria reverted of right to the Elector Palatine, Charles Theoaore,as head of the eider branch of Wit- telsbach. That prince had on his side, the Feudal Law of Ger- many, the Golden Bull, the peace of Westphalia, and family compacts frequently renewed between the two branches of that house ; all Europe was persuaded that, should the case so turn out, the rights of the Elector Palatine would be beyond all con- troversy. Meantim»', the Elector Maximilian had scarcely closed his eyes, when several pretenders appeared on the field, to dispute the succession as his presumptive heirs. The Emperor Joseph II. claimed all the fiefs of tne Empire, which his pre- decessors had conferred on the house of Bavaria, without ex- pressly including the princes of the Palatine branch in these investitures. The Empress, Maria Theresa, besides the fiefs of the Upper Palatinate holding of the crown of Bohemia, demand- ed all the countries and districfi of Lower and Upper Bavaria, as well as of the Upper Palatinate, which had been possessed by the Princes of Bavaria-Straubingen, who had become extinct in 1425. She also alleged a pretended investiture, which the Em- peror Sigismund had granted, in 1426, to his son-in-law Duke Albert of Austria. The Electress-Dowager of Saxony, sister to the last Elector of Bavaria, thought herself entitled to claim the allodial succession, which she made out to be very extensive Mi ; 394 CHAPTER IX. Lastly, the Dukes of Mecklenburg brought forward an ancient deed of reversion, which their ancestors had obtained from the Emperors, over the landgraviate of Leuchtenberg. • Before these different claims could be made known, the Aus- trian troops had entered Bavaria, immediately after the death of the late Elector, and taken possession of all the countries and districts claimed by the Emperor and the Empress-Queen. The Elector Palatine, intimidated by the Cabinet of Vienna, ac- knowledged the lawfulness of all the claims of that court, by a convention which was signed at Vienna (Jan. 3, 1778,) but which the Duke of Deux-Ponts, his successor and heir presumptive, refused to ratify. That prince was supported in his opposition by the King of Prussia, who treated the pretensions of Austria as chimerical, and as being incompatible with the security of the constitution of the Germanic body. The King interposed in this affair, as being a guarantee for the peace of Westphalia, and h friend and ally of the parties concerned, who all claimed his pro- tection. He demanded of the Court of Vienna, that they should withdraw their troops from Bavaria, and restore to the Elector the territories of which they had deprived hiin. A negotiation on this subject was opened between the two courts, and numerous controversial writings were published ; but the proposals of the King of Prussia not proving agreeable to the court of Vienna, the conferences were broken off about the end of June 1778, and both parties began to make preparations for war. ^ It was about the beginning of July when the King of Prussia entered Bohemia, through the county of Glatz, and pitched his camp between Jaromitz and Konigratz, opposite that of the Em- peror and Marshal Daun, from which he was only separated by the Elbe. Another army, composed of Prussians and Saxons, and commanded by Prince Henry of Prussia, penetrated into Bohemia through Lusatia ; but they were stopped in their march by Marshal Laudohn, who had taken up a very advantageous position, and defeated all the measures of the Prince of Prussia. At length a third Prussian army marched into Austria and Sile- sia, and occupied the greater part of that province. Europe had never seen armies more numerous and better disciplined, and commanded by such experienced generals, approach each other so nearly without some memorable action taking place. The Emperor and his generals had the good sense to act on the de- fensive ; while the efforts of the King of Prussia, to bring him to a general engagement, proved altogether unavailing. This prince, who had lost a great many rnen by sickness and deser- tion, was compelled to evacuate Bohemia about the end of Oc- tober, and his example was soon followed by his brother Prince 1 rBRioD vui. A. D. 1713—1789. 895 ward an ancient itained from the ■g- cnown, the Aus- 'ter the death of le countries and ess-Queen. The of Vienna, ac- that court, by a 1778.) but which eir presumptive, in his opposition isions of Austria le security of the nterposed in this ^oKtphalia, and n claimed his pro- , that they should ire to the Elector . A negotiation ts, and numerous proposals of the court of Vienna, if June 1778, and ir. i King of Prussia :, and pitched his e that of the Em- jnly separated by ians and Saxons, , penetrated into led in their march ery advantageous Prince of Prussia. Austria and Sile- ice. Europe had ' disciplined, and )roach each other :ing place. The to act on the de- a, to bring him to lavailing. This :kness and deser* It the end of Oc- is brother Prince Henry. At th"! beginning of this first campaign, the Empress- Queen being desirous of peace, had sent Baron Thugut to the King of Prussia, to offer him new proposals. A conference was agreed to take place at the convent of Braunau (Aug. 1778,) which had no better success than the preceding, on account of the belligerous disposition of the Emperor, who was for continu- ing the war. At length the return of peace was brought about by the powerful intervention of the courts of Versailles and St. Petersburg. France, who was obliged, by the terms of her alliance with Austria, to furnish supplies for the Empress-Queen, could not in the present case reconcile this engagement with the interests of her crown, nor with the obligations which the treaty of West- phalia had imposed upon her, with respect to the Germanic body. Besides, the war which had broken out between her and England, on account of her alliance with the United States of America, made her anxious for the restoration of peace on the Continent, for avoiding every thing which might occasion a diversion of her maritime forces. The Empress of Russia, who thought her glory interested, could not remain a quiet spectator of a struggle which, if prolonged, might set all Europe in a flame. She de- clared to the Court of Vienna, that in consequence of the ties of friendship and alliance which subsisted between her and the Court of Berlin, she would find herself called on to join her troops to those of Prussia, if the war was to be continued. But, before coming to that extremity, she would interpose her good offices, conjointly with France, to bring existing differences to an amicable conclusion. The mediation of these two courts having been accepted by the belligerent powers, a congress was summoned at Teschen, in Silesia, which was opened in the month of March 1779. The Empress of Russia, to give the greater weight to her interfer- ence, despatched a body of troops to the frontiers, destined to act as auxiliaries under the King of Prussia, in case the war should happen to be renewed. Prince Repnin, who commanded that body, appeared, at the same time, in the capacity of ambassador- extraordinary at the Congress. France sent, on her part. Baron de Breteuil, her ambassador at the Court of Vienna. All things being already prepared, and the principal difficulties removed, the peace was concluded in less than two months. By this treaty, the convention of the 3d of January, made between the Court of Vienna and the Elector Palatine, was annulled. Austria wa."? required to give up all her possessions in Bavaria, except the places and districts situated between the Danube, the Inn, and the Salza, which were ceded to her as all she could claim of ti»e ^^ M It: 396 CRAPTBS nc roccession of Bavaria, which she had renounced in 4e most for- mal manner. The fiefs of the Empire, which had been confer, j red on the House of Bavaria, were secured by that treaty to the . Elector Palatine and his whole family ; as well as those situated in the Upper Palatinate, and holding of the Crown of Bohemia. j The Elector Palatine engaged to pay the Elector of baxony, for his allodial rights, the sum of six millions of florins, money of the Empire ; while the Empress-Queen gave up to the said prince the rights which the crown of Bohemia had over certain ieiffniories lying within Saxony, and possessed by the Counts o ScCurg. The Palatine branch of Birkenfeldt, whose right ot succession to the Palatine estates had been disputed, on the Itiound of their being the issue of an unequal marriage, were now declared capable of succeeding to all the estates and pos- sessions of the House of Wittlesbach, as comp'ehended in the family compacts of that house. The existing treaties between the Court of Vienna and he King of Prussia, and also those of Westphalia, Breslau, Berlin, and Dresden, were renewed and confirmed; and a formal ac- knowledgment made to the royal line of Prussia, of their right to unite the margraviatcs of Baireuth and Anspach, failing the piesent possessors, to the hereditary succession of the Electorate of Brandenburg; which right the House of Austria had called in question during the dispute which we have already mention- ed. As for the House of Mecklenburg, they granted to it the Diivilese of the non appellando,m virtue of which, no one could carrv an appeal from the tribunals of that country to the sove- reien courts of the Empire. The two mediating powers under- took to guarantee this treaty. Thus the war for the succession of Bavaria was checked at its commencement. The following peculiarities are worthy of remark, viz. that the Palatine famiW, who were the party chiefly interested, took no share in it ; while Bavaria, the sole cause of the war, was no way engaged in it , and the Elector Palatine, who had even refused the assistance of the King of Prussia, was, nevertheless, the party chiefly ben- efited by the peace, by means of the protection of that prince. The House of Austria having failed, as we have ]ust seen, m her project of conquering Bavaria, tried, in the next piace, to get possession of that country by way of exchange for the IN e- Qierlands. The Elector Palatine appeared willing to meet the views of the Court of Vienna ; but it was not so with the Uuko of Deux-Ponts, who haughtily opposed the exchange; while the King of Prussia, who supported it, was obliged to acknowledge that such an exchange was inadmissible, and in opposition both to former treaties, and to the best interesi8>of theGermamc body in the most for- ad been confer* hat treaty to the as those situated wn of Bohemia. lector of Saxony, f florins, money e up to the said had over certain by the Counts of dt, whose right of disputed, on the I marriage, were ! estates and pos- pi^ehended in the ' Vienna and the , Breslau, Berlii\ and a formal ac- isia, of their right ispach, failing the 1 of the Electorate \ustria had called ! already mention- granted to it the hich, no one could untry to the sove- ing powers under- for the succession I. The following le Palatine famiW, share in it ; while ay engaged in it , sed the assistance party chiefly ben* 1 of that prince, have just seen, in the next place, to liange for the N«« rilling to meet the so with the Duko :hange ; while the sd to acknowledge in opposition both le Germanic body 1 1 I ii PKRiOD Vtll. A. 0. 1713 — 17S9. 90T The Court of Vienna then abandoned this project, at least in uppenrancc ; but the alarm which it had caiisecf throughout the Empire, gave rise to an association, known by the name of the Germanic Confederation. It was concluded at Berlin (July 23, 1785,) between the' three Electors of Saxony, Brandenburg, and Brunswick-Luneburg ; besides several provinces of the Im- periol State who adhered to it. This association, purely de- fensive, had no other object than the preservation of the Ger- manic System, with the rights ond possessions of all its members. The Revolution in North America, deserves to be placed among the number of those great events which belong to the general history of Europe; Besides the sanguinary war which it kindled between France and England, and in which Spain and Holland were also implicated, it may be regarded as the harbinger of those revolutions which took place soon after in several of the Continental Slates of Europe. The English colonies in North America were no otherwise connected with the mother country, than by a government purely civil, by a similarity of manners, and by customs, which long usage had rendered sacred. They were divided into provinces, each ot which had its particular constitution more or less analogous to that of England, but imperfectly united with the mother coun- try, because the inhabitants of these provinces were not repre- sented in the national Parliament. If they had been so, Great Britain would certainly never have enjoyed that monopoly which she had reserved to herself, agreeably to the colonial system of all modem nations. The exclusive privilege of sending her commodities to the Americans, by lettering their industry, alien- ated their affections from England, and made them naturally de- sirous of shaking off her yoke ; and this propensity could not fail to increase, in proportioti as these colonies increased in strength, population, and wealth. One consideration, however, likely to secure their allegiance, was the protection which England granted them against their Eowerful neighbours the French in Canada, the Spaniards in 'lorida, and the Barbarians in the West. The Canadians, es- Ecially, proved daring and troublesome neighbours to New Eng- id, which rendered the assistance and protection of the mother country indispensable. The aspect of affairs changed at the thne of the peace of Paris (1763.) England, by getting pos- session of Canada and Florida, broke the main tie Avhich at- tached the colonies to her government. Delivered then from the terror of the French, and having no more need of foreign succour to protect them from their attacks, the Americans began to concert measures for extricating themselves from the domin- ion of Britain. i 5b r«1 .'.< re 398 cnAFTBii a. Tlic first disturbances that broke out were occasioned by the altomnts which the Briish Parliament had made to unpose mc's on the Americans. The national debt of England having h^c eased considerablv during the precedmg war. the Parha- ment thought they had a right to oblige the colonjes to furnish Se r Juota for the' liquidation of that debt, -h.ch had been^on. tracto( , in part, for the interests of America. The Parliament passed an act, according to which all contracts ,n the American colonies were to be drawn upon stamped paper ; and the tax on Ihe stamp was regulated according to the different objects of the conirac" When^his act had passed into a law, and was about to bo carried into effect in America, it caused a general maur- rection. The people committed all sorts of excesses and abuses n.a n" the Ki Jg's' officers. The Courts of Justice were shut un and the colonies began to form associations among them- K They diJp"ted"the right of the British Parliament to impose taxes on them ; alleging that they were "ot represented there, and that it was the constitutional privilege of every Eng- Uian, not to be taxed except by means of his own represen- atives. The colonies having thus attacked the sovereignty and oTislative power of the Parliament, laid an interdict on all '•ommerce with the mother country, and forbade the purchase of commodities imported from Great Britain. The Parliament rescinded the Stamp act They publ shed, however, a declaratory act which set forth that the colonies were subordinate to, and dependent on, the Crown and Parha- ment of Great Britain, in whom resided full power and au- thority to make laws and statutes binding on the colonies, mall nossible cases. The provincial assemblies of the colonists were Snioined, by that act, to receive into their towns whatever num- ber of British troops the mother country might think proper to send, and to furnish them with wood and beer. Far from al- laying these disturbances, this new act tended, on the contrary, ^exasperate them still more. The Americans considered i as ; tyrannical, and as having no other design than to des^^roy the I foundation of their liberty, and to establish an absolute and I '^^fhefiS' ministry made still farther conce.ssions. They I abandoned altogether the idea of a tax to be levied m the m- ?e^or of the country, and limited themselves entirely to taxes I or duties on importe'd goods. The Stamp act was replaced by another (1767,) which imposed certain duties on lea, paper, fead and paint-colours, &c. &c. exported from England mto the olonie": 'This act was no better received than its predecessor. The Assembly of Massachusetts, which was formed at Boston, !! J ~l I :casioned by the nadc to impose England having war, the Parlia- onies to furnish had been con- The Parliament in the American ; and the tax on int objects of the r, and was about a general insur- esses and abuses ustice were shut ns among them- h Parliament to e not represented ge of every Eng- is own represen- sovereignty and interdict on all ,de the purchase They published, that the colonies rown and Parlia- II power and au- Lhe colonies, in all the colonists were ns whatever num- it think proper to sr. Far from al- 1, on the contrary, IS considered it as in to destroy the an absolute and ncessions. They levied in the in- entirely to taxes ; was replaced by ies on tea, paper, England into the %n its predecessor, formed at Boston, rEBIOD Till. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 890 addressed circular letters to all the colonies, cxhortmg them to act in concert for the support of their rights against the mother country. The resolutions which some of the colonies had al- ready adopted, of prohibiting thn use of commodities manufac- tured in Great Britain, became common to all the colonies ; and the American merchants in general, countermanded the goods which they had ordered from England, Scotland, and Ireland. The spirit of revolt thus extending wider and wider, the British government determined to employ troops for the restoration of order and tranquillity in the colonies, and making them respect the sovereignty of Great Britain (1769.) Affairs were in this situation when Lord North, who had been placed at the head of the admiriistration, succeeded in calming the minds of the colonists, by passing an act which abolished the obnoxious ta.xes, with the single exception of that on tea. The view of the minister in retaining this tax, was not of reap- ing any advantage from it; but he hoped by this trifling duty to accustom the colonies to support greater taxes. The Ameri- cans were very sensible of this ; however, as they imported very little tea from England, and as the Dutch furnished them with this article by way of contraband, they showed no symptoms of resentment until the year 1773. At that time, the Parliament having given permission to the East India Company to export tea to America, of which they had large supplies in their ware- houses, the Americans, indignant to see this Company made the organ of a law which was odious to them, resolved to oppose the landing of these tea cargoes. Three of the Company's vessels, freighted with this article, having arrived at Boston, and prepa- ring to unload, the inhabitants boarded them during the night of the 21st of December, and threw all the chests into the sea, to the number of 342. In the other provinces, they only sent back the ships loaded with this obnoxious commodity. On the news of this outrage, the British Parliament thought it necessary to adopt rigorous measures. Three acts were passed in succession (1774,) the first to lay the port of Boston under in- terdict ; the second to abolish the constitution and democratic government of Massachusetts, and substitute a royal govern- ment ; and the third to authori: ^ the colonial governors to trans- port to England the Americans who were accused of rebellion, to be tried at the Court of King's Bench. General Gage was sent to Uo.^ton with a body of troops and several vessels to carry these coercive measures into effect. By thus adopting decisive mea- sures, the British Parliament in vain flattered themselves, that they could reduce, by force, a continent so vast, ond so remote from the mother country, as that of America. Supposi.ig even II \i :.~J 400 CHAPTER IX' flmt ll.ev could have suwceded, the spirit and nature of the A general Congress, composed of the rePJ«H«nta •>«« of aU^he clonics was opened at Philadelphia (Sept. 0-/77^.) iney del ed the acu of the British Krliament aga.nst Massachu. sous u be unjust, oppressive, and unconst.tut.onal. They ate;d never more to nn port articles of cornmerce from G eat bS. and preset un address to the King, and a petition ?o"hrHouse of 5on..nons. for the -dress c^ those gr.va^^^^^^^^^^ which the colonies had to complam. Th s latter step naving nrodtld no effect, and the Parliament havmg «t.l Frs.^ted m i fheir rigorous measures, hostilities commenced in the month o Am 1 1775. The American Congress then conferred the com- mS of their army on George Washington, a rich planter m | T^Lll who had Acquired considerable military reputation by hisCc^ss in opposing the French in Canada ; and at the same til to ra se" hSnediate supplies of which the colon.es stood n iieed the Congress agreed to issue paper money, sufficient to ITtt Avoidable expenses of the war. A declaration, pub- j Ushed in "he month of July, 1775, explained the reasons which I had compelled the Americans to take up arms ; and announced Er mention not to separate from Great Britain, nor adop a pLro7absolu"te independence B"t as the BrU.sh Minis^^^^^ i hid made extraordinary efibrls for '^e campaign of 1776 and 1 aken a body of German troops mlo their pay. the Americans ' .houL'ht proper to break off all alliance with England that they tight have Recourse in their turn to the protection o foreigners, ^hp indenendence of the Colonies was thereiore formally de- clal^>aTAct^Cong^ess(July4,1776,) They f- drew ' up articles of confederation and perpetual union among tjie States ' ' of America, to the number of thirteen provinces, under the title ot^rUnied States of Amrica. In virtue of this union, each of th • Slates remained master of its own egislative and inter- „a adm nistration. while the Congress, which was co^PO^ea o^ i 1 deouties from all the colonies, had the power of regulating all ' poEa affairs ; that is to say, every thing concerning war or Seacf, alliances, money matl.^rs. weights and measures, posts, §^ 'as well as the settlement of any differences wh.ch migh aSse between two or more of the confederate States. The first : i ?a oumble action for the Americans in their ^ar agun^t Eng- ■ I «nd wa^ that at Trenton on the Delaware, (Dec 25, 177r>,) ' wjie Geneml Washington surprised a My of Hessians and 1 niture of the i i i them to main- wever, far from i I ed the cause of | nishment. i I tatives of all the , 1774.) They aiiist Massachu- utional. They erce from Great g, and a petition 3se grievances o( itter step having still persisted in in the month of nferred the corn- 1 rich planter in jry reputation by and at the same ihe colonies stood jney, sufficient to declaration, pub- he reasons which ; and announced itain, nor adopt a ! British Ministry lign of 1776, and y, the Americans fngland, that they tion of foreigners, efore formally de- They then drew I among the States ;es, under the title of this union, each ;;islative and inter- 1 was composed ol r of regulating all :oncerning war or d measures, posts, ences which might States. The first f war agi.inst Eng- 3, (Dec. 25, 1776.) y of Hessians and I 41 '■ tn ■i; Dentructioii of the Bastile ut TarU by the People. P. 433. Lxccutioii of Louis XVI "C VrMu-i-.. P. 429. Ill J tl f u|)le. P. 433. PKRioD nu. it D. 1713 — 1789. 401 English, and made thorn prisoners. But the event which in some degree set the seal to the independence of America, waa iliL' important check which General Burgoyne met with near tSnratogn. Having advanced from Canada to support the opera- tions of General Howe, who was marching on Philadelphia, he was compelled by the American troops under General Gates to Iny down his arms, by a capitulation which was signed in the camp .It Saratoga (Oct. 16, 1777.) The news of this disaster was nu sooner received in Europe, than France, who, during ihe time that England was occupied with the disturbances in America, had put her marine on a respectable footing, took the resolution of acknowledging the New Kepublic,and entered into d formal alliance with it. Treaties of friendship, alliance, and commerce, were concluded at Paris between them and the Uni- ted States of America (Feb. 6, 1778.) France demanded as a primary condition, that the United States should not lay down their arms, until England bad acknowledged their independence. I'he notification which the Court of France made to that of Lon- don of this treaty with the United States, became the signal of war between these two nations. This war which France had undertaken against England for the free navigation of the seas, was the first which did not in- volve the continent of Europe, as it was confined entirely to maritime operations. The European powers, far from thwart- ing France in this enterprise, applauded her success; and while Great Britain depended on her own stren^h, and had not a sin- gle ally on the Continent, France contrived to interest Spain and Holland in her cause. Spain, after having for some time held the rank of a media- ting power, entered into the war in fulfihnent of those engage- ments which she had contracted, by the Family Compact ; and as respected Holland, England had determined to break with her. The British ministry were oflended at that Republic, which, instead of granting England the supplies that she was entitled to claim in virtue of former treaties, had lent itself an accomplice to the interests of her enemies. The Dutch, on their side, com- plained of the multiplied vexations with which they were inces- santly harassed by the British privateers. They had sought to protect themselves against these, under the shield of that armed neutrality which tne Empress of Russia had just negoti- ated for protecting the commerce of neutral States ; and it was in order to prevent their accession to that neutrality, that Eng* land made such haste to declare Mrar against the Republic (Dec. 20, 1780.) Without entering here into the details of that war, the prin* 26 4i ;1 p. 420. .:■<• 402 OHAPTSK II. cipal scene of which was in America, though it extended to Africa and the Indies, we shall cnn^ne ourselves to a few g^n- era) observations. When hostilities commenced between Franco nnd England, the latter had a very great superiority in maritime strength. She had armies at the two extremities of the globe. The number of her vessels was prodigious. Her arsenals were overloaded with stores. Her doclc-yards were in the greatest activity ; but after France and Spain had united their naval force, it was no longer possible for Great Britain, obliged as she was to divide her strength, to defend her distant possessions against the numerous attacks of the French and their allies. Not fewer than twenty- one engagements took place between the belligerent powers ; m all of which England, from the experience of her Admirals, and the ability of her naval officers, did not lose a single shin of the line. The first naval action was fought near Ushant (July 27, 1778,) between D'Orvilliers and Admiral Keppel. This action, the glory of which was claimed equally by both nations, was as indecisive as most of those which followed it. The only decisive actior, properly speaking, was that which Admiral Rodney fought with Count de Urasse (April 12, 1782,) between the isfands of Dominica and Saintes. The English Admiral having broken the French line, succeeded in taking five ships of the line, inclu- ding the Admiral's, and had the honour to carry him prisoner to London. At the beginning of the war, the English stripped the French of their possessions in the East Indies, such as Pondicherry, Chandemagore, and Mahe. They took from them the islands of St. Peter and Miquelon, as well as that of St. Lucia, and Gorea on the coast of Africa. The French afterwards repaid themselves for these losses, by conquering the islands of Domin- ica, St. Vincent, Grenada, Tobago, St. Christophers, Nevis and Monteserrat. All the forts and establishments of the English on the Senegal in Africa, as well as Gondelore in the East In- dies, fell into their possession. The Spaniards made themselves masters of the fort:t which the English occupied on the Mississippi. They took fort Mo- bile or Conde, in ancient French Louisiana, and subdued the whole of Western Floridii, with the town of Pensacola. In Europe they recovered, with the assistance of the French, the island of Minorca, with port Mahon and fort St. Philip; but the combined forces of the two nations failed in their enterprise against Gibraltar. This place, which was bravely defended by General Elliot, was twice relieved with supplies by the English fleet — first by Admiral Rodney (1780,) an4 afterwards by Lord T 1 rU 1 it extended lo res to a few g^n- CR nnd England. me strength. She The number of overloaded with livity ; but ofker it was no longer tras to divide her inst the numerous wer than twenty- rerent powers ; in her Admirals, and single shin of the Ushant (July 27, pel. This action, >th nations, was as The only decisive iral Rodney fought 'een the islands of ral having broken s of the line, inclu- carry him prisoner tripped the French :h as Pondicherry, n them the islands of St. Lucia, and I afterwards repaid ; islands of Domin- jtophcrs, Nevis and ents of the English ore in the East In- of the fortJi which rhey took fort Mo- a, and subdued the of Pensacola. In of the French, the St. Philip ; but the in their enterprise >ravely defended by (lies by the English afterwards by Lord rsRioD VIII. A. D. 1713 — 1789. 4n Howe (1788.) The flnnting batteries invented by M. D'Ar^oii, whirii wf'ri" directed ngniuNt the garrison, were destroyed by thn red-hot bullets whirh tli(« English commander showered upon them in i,'rp tioned. England dissembled, pretending to refer to treaties, and to wait a more favourable opportunity for explanation. But in order to prevent the Dutch from taking shelter under the armed neutrality, she declared war against that Republic, even before the act oi her accession to these treaties had been ratified by the powers of the North. New disputes had arisen between the Russians and the Turks after the peace of Kainargi. The haughtiness of the Porte was unwilling to admit the independence of the Tartars, which was sanctioned by that peace. He was indignant to see the Russians parading their flag even under the walls of Constantinople ; and moreover, he tried every stratagem to elude the execution of those articles in the treaty which did not meet v/ith his approba- I! 1 - lets expelled the £han Dowlut Gueray, who was favourably SmedCards the Porte, and put Sahin G-ray .n hjs plac. who was devoted to the interests of Russ a. 1 his lattnr having SLe^ dispossessed by Selim Gueray, with the assistance of the Porte the Empress marched a body of troops mto the Crimea, iTer the command of Suwarow (1778.) and restored her pro- ♦po-p tn the throne bv force of arms. ^ThP Turks made cr.-":.t preparations for war, and a new rup-, I turlbetweenrtwo empires was expected when, by the inter- tare between me \ ambassador to the Turk- Fsh Cour the fi van r^eVted to an accommodation which was conclS It Constantinople (Marcli 21, 779,) under the name TihTExplicative Convention. The independence of the Cn- ^Pn^ndXe sovereignty of Sahin Guenvy, were thereby acknow- Su4d anronf^^^^^^^^^ anew. Russia and the Porte engaged to withdraw theTr troops from that peninsula, as well as from the wtnaravv ineir j promised especially never to al- 'i'l° p "cT., of^'p'Snt-, fo, Wring wi.h .he lege uiiy v\\'-'- "^ » , t^i,„„„ The free intercourse be- tIeXtk KftrXVhtSea'vt secured in the most expr^s ma. iier to all Russian vessels that wore of the form, size a'ldcapacity, of the ships of other nations who carried on trade "'S.nrnSofdId not restore any permanent good und^r- standing between the two Empires ; new troubles were no long i , snrinffin- up aS4.) and even to withdraw ! From the territories of the Republic. The retirement of the Duke ! embodened the oppo.unUs of the Stadtholder, who soon went be- i vond all bounds, ^f hut party, purely aristocratic .n its ongu., had I C a ler wards reinforced by a nudlitude of democrats who, I! To^o Sed with hu,nblin/the Stadtholder, attacked e '■ ' the power of the magistrates ; and tried to change the constUu- ! i tion by rendering the government more popular and democraUc. • n the prLipal towns, associations were formed under the ■ i name of^Fre Vfc, for exercising the citizens m the manage- : St o arms. The party opposed to the Stadtholder took the 1 Zlo(Zrio,s. fhe/were secretly supported by France whTwished to employ them as an instrument for deslroymg the Xerfo EnglaUand attaching the Repubhc to her own imere tJ^ A popSlar insurrection, which happened at the Hague 1785 urnished the Stales of Ho.land with a pre ext for re- movhg the Stadtholder from the command of that place, which was ilusted to a Council. This blow, struck at a prerogative Xh was regarded as inherent in the Stadthoklership.mduced Ihe Prince of Orange to quit the Hague, and (ix his residence n the provhce of SueldSrs, the States which were most par- "cukrly devoted to him. An attack which the prmce made agai t the towns of Elburg and Haltem, for refusing to ex- ecL the orders which he had intimated to them in the nan,e of the States of Gueldors. exasperated the minds of the Uutch^ U added to the strength of the Patriotic party, and encouraged he States of Holland to make a renewed attack on tie Stad- tholdership ; and even to go so far as to suspend the prince from the functions of Captain-General ot that province. The Court of Berlin had taken measures, bo h with the States-General and the province of Holland, to facilitate an ac- commodation between the two parties F;f ^Ji^ ^^'"'^^ "^ who succeeded his uncle Frederic the Great, (1786,) sent to the Hague, with this view, the Count de Gortz, his minister of state . while M. Gerard de Ravneval was ordered to repair thither on the nart of France. A "negotiation was opened between these two ministers and the principal leaders of the Patriotic party but without effect. Their animosities rather increased, and the Patriots broke out into every kind of violence. They uismis- sed the magistrates of the chief towns by force, 7f/<^P'^J«^ them bv their own adherents ; a step which obliged the aristo- crats to coalesce with the Stadtholder's party, in order to with- suind the fury of the republicans. A civil war seemed 'o aU ap^arance Sevitable. In this state of mMters. the Princess of power. That to withdraw nt of the Duke soon went be- lts origin, had t mocrats, who, j attacked even : Tc the constitu- | md democratic, ned under the in the inanage- holder took the led by France, destroying the blic to her own ed at the Hague I pretext for re- hal place, which iit a prerogative lorship, induced X his residence were most par- le prince made refusing to ex- em in the name ids of the Dutch and encouraged ick on tie Stad- l the prmce from nee. s, both with the ) facilitate an ac- leric William II. 1786,) sent to the minister of state ; repair thither on ed between these ! Patriotic party, ucreased, and the E. They liismis- rce, and replaced bliged the aristo- in order to with- ar seemed 'o all rs. the Princess of PBBioo vm. A. n. 1713 — 1789. Orange took the resolution of repairing in peroon to the Hague, with the dr^sign, as she alleged, of endeavouring to restore pence. She was arrested on her route by a detachment of the republican corps of Gouda (June 28, 1787,) and conducted to Schcenhoven, whence she was obliged to return to Nimeguen, without being able to accomplish the object of her journey. The King of Prussia demanded satisfaction for this outrage offered to his sister. The States of Holland, not feeling dis- posed to give it in the terms which the King demanded, he sent ii body of 20,000 men to Holland, under the command of the Duke of Brunswick, who, in the space of a month, made him- .self master of the whole country, and even obliged the ciiy ot Amsterdam to submit. All the former resolutions which had been taken for limiting the power of the Stadtholder, were then annulled, and the prince was re-established in the plenitude of his rights. Although the subsistence of the alliance between France and the Republic was obviously connected with the cause of the Patriots, the former took no steps to support that party, or to oppose the invasion of the Prussians. France had even the weakness to negotiate with the Court of London, for disarming their respective troops ; declaring, that she entertained no hos- tile intentions relative to what had passed in Holland. The po- litics of the States-General from that time, underwent a com- plete revolution. Renouncing their alliance with France, they embraced that of Prussia and Great Britain. By the treaties which were signed at Berlin and the Hague (April 15, 1788,) these two powers undertook to guarantee the resolutions of 1747 and 1748, which made the Stadtholdcrship hereditary in the House of Orange. France thus shamefully lost the fruits of all the measures which she had taken, and the sums which she had lavished for attaching Holland to her federative system, in opposition to England. The troubles which we have just now mentioned were soon followed by others, which the innovations of the Emperor Jo- seph II. had excited in the Austrian Netherlands. The differ- ent edicts which that Prince had published since the first of January 1787, for introducing a new order of administration in the Government, both civil and ecclesiastical, of the Belgic pro- vinces, were regarded by the States of that coimtry as contraiy to the established constitution, and incompatible with the en- gagements contracted by the sovereign on his accession. The great excitement which these innovations caused, induced the Emperor to recall his edicts, and to restore things to their an- cient footing. Nevertheless, as the public mind had been exas- : i . N \ ^k -,« ui* nt «"ii •1^ 412 CHAPTEB IX. Derated on both sides, disturbances were speedily renewed. The Einpcror ha vin<^ demanded a subsidy, which was refused by tlie Slates of Brabunt and Hainault, this circumstance induced him to revoke tiie anmesty which he had granted ; to suppress the States and Sovereign Council of Brabant ; and to declare, that he no longer considered himself bound by his Inaugural Con- tract. A great number of individuals, and several members of the States, were arrested by his orders. The Archbishop of Mechlin, and the Bishop of Antwerp, were suspected of having fomented those disturbances, and saved themselves by flight. Two factiojis at that time agitated the Belgic Provinces, where they fanned the flame of civil discord. The one, headed by Vonk, an advocate, and supported by the Dukes of Ursel and Arem- berg, inclined to the side of Austria. These limited their de- mands to the reformation of abuses, and a better system of re- presentation in the States of the Netherlands. The other, under the direction of Vandernoot, and the Pensionary Vaneupen, rovinco preserved its independence, and the exercise of the , egisiative power. Their union was declared permanent iind irrevocable. They meddled neither with religion nor the con- stitution, and they admitted no other representatives than those who had been already nominated. This latter determination highly displeased General Vandermersch, and all those of Vonk's party, who had as much horror for an oligarchy in the States as for the despotism of the Court of Vienna. The party of the States prevailed nevertheless by the influence of Vandernoot, and the instigations of the priests and monks. Vandermersch, and all the zealous partisans of reform, were removed from the management of afiairs. The former was even arrested, and General Schonfield put in his place. Ruinous impeachments and imprisonments were the consequences of this triumph of ike aristocratic faction. These divisions, added to the death of Joseph II., which hap- pened in the meantime, produced a change favourable for the mterests of the Court of Vienna. Leopold II., who succeeded his brother on the throne of Austria, seemed disposed to termi- nate all these differences; and the Belgic Congress, seeing they could not reckon on the assistance of foreign powers, were also desirous of coming to an accommodation. The Court of Berlin had refused its protection to the Belgians, and that of London was decidedly opposed to their independence. These two courts, conjunctly with the United Provinces of the Netherlands, inter- posed their mediation for allaying those disturbances. The Emperor Leopold solemnly engaged, under the guarantee of the three media*ing powers, to govern the Netherlands agreeably to the constitution, laws, and privileges which had been in force under the Empress Maria Theresa ; never to do any thing to their prejudice ; and to annul whatever had been done to the contrary under the reign of Joseph II. A declaration published by Leopold (Nov. 1790,) enjoined all his Belgic subjects to take anew the oath of allegiance. That Prince granted a general and unconditional pardon to all those who should lay down their arms within a given time. All the provinces in succession ac- knowledged their allegiance. Brussels opened her gates to the Austrian troops (Dec. 2, 1790,) and the patriots Vaneupen and Vandernoot took refuge in Holland. 'if; n= 414 CHArTER U. The nnimosily which had for n long lime subsisted betweiD Riisstn nnil the Porto, oira^ioned a new war between these two powers in 17W. The T nripecial pence with the Porte on the basis o*" the statvs aiili bellnm. This peace was signed at Szistnwn, in Bulgaria (Aug. 4, 1791,) under the mediation of Hollnnd and Prussia. The Emperor restored Belgrade, and in general, nil that he had taken from the Turks during llje war. He agreed to retain Chocziin no longer than the conclu- sion of the peace between the Russians and the Turks ; only they promised him a more ndvantageous frontier on the left tmiik of the Unna ; and on the side of Wallachia, the river Tzerna was ndopted as the boundary between the two Empires. The Empress of Russia having resolved not to receive the proposals which the two allied courts ofTered her, then continued the war alone against the Porto, and her generals signalized thein,selves by new exploits. At length the British ministry be- ing convincea that this Princess would never yield, thought fit to abandon the terms which, in concert with the Court of Ber- lin, they had demanded, as the basis of the peace to be conclud- ed between Russia and the Porte. Besides, they were desirous of making up matters with Russia, at the time when she de- tached herself from France, by renouncing the engagements which she had contracted with that power by the treaty of com- merce of 1787, with the Court of Berlin. The British minis- try agreed never to assist the Turks, should they persist in re- fusing the equitable conditions of peace which the Empress had offered them. A negotiation was opened at Galatz on the Danube. The preliminaries between Russia and the Porte were signed there; and the definitive peace concluded at Jassy in Moldavia (Jan. 9, 1792.) This treaty renewed the stipulations of all former treaties since that of Kainargi. The Dniester was establishea as a perpetual frontier between the two Empires. The Turks ceded to Russia the fortress of OczakofT, with all the country lying between the Bog and the Dniester. The cession of the Crimea, the isle of Taman, and part of the Cuban, lying on the right bank of the river of that name, was confirmed to Russia. The Porte likewise engaged to put a stop to the piracies of the Barbary Corsairs, and even to indemnify the subjects of Russia for their losses, should they not obtain reparation within a lim- ited time. Russia likewise restored all ner other conquests ; only stipulating, for certain adrantages, in favour of Moldavia and Wallachia. It had been agreed between the plenipotentiaries of the Iwe Empires, that the Porte should pay a sum of 12,000,000 of piasters, to indemnify Russia for the expenses of the war. But 27 ,> '■ '•! J^^ ■¥ 4t8 CRAPTBR X. intimation that she 7"'*' "''";;",'. ,7, /xcLd tho admiration the Porte; a piece of generoMty ^^»"' /^J^;; „f j„,,v Rave of the Ottoman nlen.potentmnos T»u^pcjn o^,^ ^^^. ^^^^^ new energy to t\ie '^"'"'"'^'^7,;^ town and port of Odessa, Sea; and the Empress found d the own anaj^^^^^^^ ^^^ CHAPTER X. PERIOD IX. . ^f ih. Vrenrh Revolution to the doum- From the mnmencement of the ^'^^^'^.^uqIirIS. faU of Buonaparte, a. d. 1789— l»io- The period of the Frencl. R-olution on whi^^^^^^ - tering, Ls not --prehend more han -^^^^^ that short space <^«"''''"«J"S'' ^ed it. In course of that than the two centuries which prece« Usa u. , ^^0 po- Unte the condition of f ,Xo7X o^itd Uour of th ee kingdoms and whole nations in the "uns. ^.^^^ l?wa8 an era fertile ,n "a^l^ both « J'^^^^^f „^,„„,„ It displayed the extremes of suffenng and ^^ ^^^^ and magnanimity. *^\"edom8 ro.e a. i . ^^j New principles in '^"^tvf ,fe sEurorwas subdue'd and were Quickly superseded by f'?;^.^^ZTeZ\iiy, and after- enslaved, first in the naine of ^f'^y J"J^^"„'',, /^ length an wards to gratify the ^'^^^ °J "^^^i^'^"'^^^ he nations of the tZ^^:^^^ tiTuirpati^n which they had too powers who dismembered P"'"^"*^'":*" f'„ „ "ample that might Ld equity yield to conve-ence, and t n„ xamp^^^^ ^^^^ ^graltEf wU XnTinTe-iinets of Europe, that Empress gare U in favour of tlio luimirniion of Jiistty ifnvc on the Black »ort of Odessa, twoen the Bog 1 Oczakoff. ion to the down- 815. lich wc are on- r-fivc years ; but (riant instruction n coarse of that inRed. The po- d labour of three its basis, burying irtues and vices, ence, of meanness ppeared by turns, led for a day, and was subdued and quality, and after- ir. At length an the nations of the vhich they had too ted in the fifteenth f Westphalia and uring the neriod of its downfall. The iciples.by the three vhich made justice ixample that might rhe other was the ets of Europe, that PBHIOD IX. A. 1). 1780 — 1^15. 410 fne project of fnundiiijf an univorinl monarchy was for evef hopi'lc! U,e e%h.ee„.h cen- > - "^eSitr r-^usxr^i^d!" t£ UUng government of Fmn^inaq ^^|^. ^^^^^^ -"••iSfel'BstSsrb^sCir^ cations, letters of exile, *<^- ' ^' . Certain bodies, it is true, resisted only by the feeblest t'^";Yh;sc nrSges were seldom possessed means f J^ :r:;r'e" xtpteH^^^^^^ respected. 1 he noDiesse ^eie r g ^y the prohi- thestate and totally separated from th^^^^^^^^ ^ Jmpted from ?'^\n fTXchTey subsUtuted'v'oruntary grants/ Besides laiation, tor wmcn 'nej ^i ;„i,,nal administrat on was badly these oppressive imposts, the mtemal »»"""' y^^ „ere °'^"'"i,- ^dtd rnrLeV*fa^°X w» ataSked «. all.the "efS'rdes^neVtX-SotSnnhhacieswiththeir mtm ;e of Amiens tiH at its greatest ill the TrealY of 2cline and fall ot restoration of a a sketch of the shall shortly ad- is of Europe un if other parts of lay happen to he ;ommencing with 789,) and ending \e Revolution in state of her finan- sneral imiAorality to the mal-\dmin- Louis XV. ; and, id political, which [le eighteenth cen- ^ abuses in the ex- be corrected. The 1 arbitrary rather lity, greater power ties of the subject of imposts, confis- rous authority was lin bodies, it is true, ileges were seldom )m contributions to mons, by the prohi- also exempted from ry grants. Besides listration was badly orders, which were ibandoned to all the irtial representation. vho lived on the fa- lon sympathies with rmy for which they il appointments and into two classes, one d abbacies with their PERIOD IX. A. D. 178ft— 1816. 421 rich revenues, while the other was destined to poverty and la bour. The commons scarcely possessed a third part of the soil, for which they were compelled to pay feudal services to the territorial barons, tithes to the priests, and taxes to the King. In compensation for so many sacrifices, they erjoyed no rights, had no share in the administration, and were admitted to no pub- lic employments. Such was the condition of France when Louis XVI. ascended the throne. This order of things could not continue for ever; but with proper caution and skilful management, many salutary improvements might have been introduced, without plunging the nation into rebellion and anarchy. Louis XVI. had just views and amiable dispositions ; but he was without decision of character, and had no perseverance in his measures. His pro- jects for regenerating the State encountered obstacles which he had not foreseen, and which he found it impossible to overcome. He was continually vacillating in the choice of his ministers ; and his reign, up to the assembling of the States-General, was a complication of attempt«(l reforms, which produced no benefi- cial result. Maurepas, Turgot, and Malesherbes, had been succes- sively intrusted with the management of affairs ; but they found it impossible to give satisfaction to any party. Their efforts for retrenchment displeased the courtiers, while the people were dis- contented at the continuation of existing abuses. The exhaust- ed state in which the American war had left the finances of the kingdom, and the unskilfulness of the ministers ; one of whom, the celebrated Necker, could contrive no other method of repair- ing these losses, than by means of forced loans, which augment- ed the national debt, and added to the other embarrassments of the government. The plan of M. de Calonne, another of the ministers, was to assemble the Notables, or respectable and dis- tinguished persons of the kingdom (Feb. 23, 1787,) with the view of obtaining through their means those new imposts which he could not expect to be sanctioned by the Parliament of Paris. But this assembly seemed little disposed to second his designs. They discovered, with astonishment, that within a few years loans had been raised to the amount of one th'^asand six hun- dred and forty-six millions of francs ; and that there was an an- nual deficit in the revenue of one hundred and forty millions. This discovery was the signal for the retirement of Calonnn. His successor. Cardinal Brienne, the Archbishop of Toulouse tried in vain to overcome the resistance of the Parliament, who declared, by a solemn protestation (May 3, 1788,) that the right of granting supplies belonged to the States-General alone. Louis XVI., yielding to this expression of the public opinion, promised ^ 11 '»•' ; ' 's-i^ap^nm':^,.:, 422 CHAPTER X. to assemble the deputies of the nation. A second meetir ; of the Notables, held at Versailles (Nov. 6,) deliberated as to the f'mn and constitution of the Stales-General. _M. Necker, who was recalled to the ministry, counselled the King to prefer the advice of the minority, who had espoused the popular side ; and proposed to grant to the Tier.s-Etat, or Thtrd Order a double number of Representatives in the States-General ; which advice was followed. ,. .,, The Slates-(Jeneral were summoned to meet at Versailles on the 27th of April 1789. The number of deputies was twelve hundred ; six hundred of wJiom were of the Tiers-Etat, three hundred of the noblesse, and three hundred of the clergy. Ihe Kincr opened the assembly in person (May 5, 1789^ It was accompanied with great solemnity and magnificence. The dergy occupied the first place; next came the noblesse. Ihe liers- Etat followed hst. These individuals comprehended the choice of the nation; but the greater part of them were entirely inex- perienced in state affairs, and not a few of them were imbued with the principles of the new philosophy. The majority pro- posed to rocenerate the government according to their own specu- lative notions ; while others secretly entertained the hope ot overturning it, to gratify their own antipathies ; or to satiate their avarice and ambition. , ,1.1, A difference immediately arose on the question, whether they should sit according to their orders. Conciliatory measures havincr been tried in vain, the deputies of the Tiers-Etat resolved to declare themselves a National Assembly. The King having ordered them to suspend their sittings, they changed their place of assembly to a Tennis Court, where, in opposition to the Koya authority, they took an oath never to separate until they ha 1 achieved the regeneration of France. The majority of the clergy, and some of the nobles, joined this tumultuous assembly. Louis XVI., by a Royal Session (June 23,) condemned the con- I duct of this meeting ; abrogated its decisions ; and published a declaration containing the basis of a free constitution. B«t the authority of the King had now ceased to be respected. Ihe 1 National Assembly refused to accept from him as a boon, what 1 they were preparing to seize by force. Alarmed at this opposi- tion, Louis commanded the nobles and the clergy to join the I popular party, or Tiers-Etat, as a measure for conciliating the i public mind. t.^. , „ „f I The prime agent in this revolution was Mirabeau, a man ol i an ambitious and turbulent spirit, who inflamed the Assembly by his violent harangues. A demagogue from mterest, and o ' good abilities, though immoral in his character, he was resolved I meetir. ' of ited as to the Necker, who to prefer the lar side ; and ier, a double which advice Versailles on s was twelve rs-Etat, three i clergy. The rsg.) It was J. The clergy . The Tiers- dcd the choice entirely inex- were imbued I majority pro- leirowuspecu- i the hope of ; or to satiate , whether they tory measures s-Etat resolved e King having gcd their plac( on to the Boy a I until they hal najority of the tuous assembly, emned the con- md published a iition. But the espected. The as a boon, what d at this opposi- ■rgy to join the conciliating the a beau, a man of (d the Assembly interest, and of he was resolved PBBIUD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1816. 423 *o bu'ld 1 is fortune on the public troubles, and to prevent, by all ipeans in his power, the first symptoms of a return to subordina- tion and tranquillity. The Duke of Orleans supplied money to corrupt the troops, and excite insurrections over all parts of Franco. In the mean time, the King assembled an army at Versailles, under the command of Marshal Broglio ; and btmishcd Necker (July 11,) with whom he had some just reasons to be displeased. This was the signal for a popular commotion. Paris was in a state of the greatest fermentation. The press inflamed the pub. lie mind. The people discussed in the open air those questions which were agitated in the Assembly. A table served the pur- pose of a rostrum ; and every citizen became an orator, who harangued on the dangers of his country, and the necessity of resistance. The mob forced the Bastille (July 14,) seized on the depots of arms, mounted the tri-coloured cockade, which was the distinctive banner of the city of Paris, and became that of the apostles of the revolution. Bailly, the academician, was appoint- ed mayor ; the citizens formed themselves into a National Guard, under the command of the Marquis La Fayette. The King, placed in so critical a situation, and surrounded with danger, ;'onsented to withdraw the troops collected in the capital and the neighbourhood. He recalled M. Necker, (July 17,) and re- paired to Paris to intimate his good intentions to the Assembly ; declaring, that he identified himself with the nation, and relied on the afTection and allegiance of his subjects. The National Assembly had usurped the whole legif lative power, and ui dertaken to draw up a new constitution. T deir charter commenced with a Declaration of the Rights of Man. Such was the ardour of their revolutionary enthusiasm, tha iJiey abolished, without discussion, and at one nocturnal sitting, the feudal regime, the rights and privileges of provinces and corpo- rations, the tithes, and the greater part of the seignorial preroga- tives. It was decreed (Aug. 4,) that the legislative power should be exercised by a single chamber ; and that the King could not refuse his sanction to these decrees longer than four years. As the Revolution did not proceed with a rapidity equal to the wishes of the Orleans faction, they took care to stir up new insur- rections. The mob of Paris attacked Versailles (Oct. 6,) in- vested the Chateau, committed the most horrible excesses, and conducted the King and his family prisoners to Paris, where they were followed by the National Assembly. These legisla- tors decreed the spoliation of the clergy, by placing their benefices at the disposal of the nation. They ordered the division of France into eighty-three departments ; the sale of the crown- V:f, wtm 424 CHAPTER X. lands, and ecclesiastical property ; the proceeds of which to be pkdged for the redemption of tie paper money, which waa or- Sered to be issued, under the name ofassignats ; the admission Sr/ews to the rights of citizens; the prohibition of monasUc vows • the ri-ht of the National Assembly to declare war. m oTsequence of a proposition from the King ; a -" ar consU^^^ tion, which rendered the clergy jnJ^F"'!^"^"^*^,^^ ''\1ho!,'; church, and gave the people a right to nominate their bishops , 5he Swon 5f the noblesse ; and the establishment of a tribunal It Orleans for iudcring crimes of high treason against the nation OccupTe'dwiih these decrees (1790-91,) the National Assem- bly left Ihe King no authority to repress the crimes and excesses wLch were multiplying every day within the kingdom nor d^d thev adopt themselves any measures for putting a stop to them. The King, indeed, according to the plan of their constitution, was. To be Ihe depository and supreme head of the executive power ; but he had been stripped of the means necessary to the Eve exercise of any authority whatever. He had n«'ther places to grant, nor favours to bestow. He was left without any Kol o?er the inferior parts of the administraUon, smce^he men who filled these posts were elected by the people. He was not even allowed the pomp of a throne, or the splendour of a crown The Assembly seemed to think it a part of their glory to divest their monarch of his most valuable prerogatives. They magTned that a monarchy could subsist when its authority was reduced to a phantom ; that the throne could stand secure amidst ZrZ of ranks ; exposed to all the waves of faction, and when every sentiment of respect and affection was destroyed. Such was^the la of royalt'v entertained by the French legisktoj^ By abolishing the graiations of society, they sapped the very foundations of that frail ««* '"^^gi^^y.^^J'^^^.r^^'^l'^fltdt modelled and fashioned according to their own ideas. Thousands of noble families, finding their lives insecure, reso ved to abandon the country. The King himself made an attempt to escape from he capSy in which he was held. He did escape in disgu.se lut wS reJognised, and arrested at Varennes ^y theNationd Guard (June 25,) reconducted to Pans, and suspended from his S ions. Monsieur, the King's brother, was more fortunate He aJ^"ved at Brussels. The Count D'Arto.s, the younger brother, had quitted France the year before. The Orleans party undertook to compel the National As em- bly to pronounce the'deposition of the King. A l"ge ^-'^^^^^^^^^ which had met in the Champs-de-Mars (July 17, 1791,) was dis Trsed by an armed force, by order of Bailly, and commanded Ey La Fayeue The mode-ate party in t^ie National Assembly of which CO be which was or- the admission on of monastic declare war, in iccular conslilu- ihc head of the their bishops ; cnt of a tribunal ainst the nation National Assem- ica and excesses ingdom ; nor did ; a stop to them. eir constitution, jf the executive necessary to the He had neither 1 left without any tration, since the people. He was [e splendour of a art of their glor)' rogatives. They its authority was md secure amidst faction, and when lestroyed. Such rench legislators. sapped the very y which they had deas. Thousands solved to abandon ipt to escape from scape in disguise, s by the National ispended from his is more fortunate. tois, the younger National Assem- large assemblage, 17, 1791,) was dis- and commanded iationai Assembly PBRIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815. 425 had gained the ascendancy. The constitutional articles were revised in some points, and digesttd into n systematic form. The King accepted this new code fS^^pt. 13;) and tlieru was every reason to believe tliat he was n.'dlved to carry it iiilo exe- cution. The Constituent Assembly, altti having declared Avig- non and Venaissin annexed to France, separated (Sept. 30,) to make way for a Legislative As.seinbly. The Royal brothers and most of tht; emigrants, havina- fixed their residence at Coblentz, published addresses to all the Courts of Europe, to solicit their assistiiiire in restoring the King, and checking the revolutionary loriciit which threatened to inundate Germany. The Princes of tlie Empire, who had possessions in Alsace, found themselves aggrieved by the decrees of the Con- stituent Assembly, in respect to those rights which had been guaranteed to them on the faith of existing treaties. They ac- cordingly claimed the intervention of the Emperor and the Empire. The Electors of Mayence and Treves had permitted the French noblesse to organize bodies of armed troops within their estates. After the arrest of the King at Varennes, the Emperor Leopold had addressed a circular to all his brother Sovereigns, dated from Padua (July 6,) in which he invited them to form an alliance for restoring the King's legitimate author- ity in France. Accordingly, an alliance was concluded at Vienna a few days after between Austria and Prussia, the object of which was to compel France to maintain her treaties with the neighbouring States. The two monarchs, who met at Pilnitz (Aug. 27,) declared that they would employ the most efficacious means for leaving the King of France at perfect liberty to lay the foundation of monarchical government. But after Louis had accepted the constitution of the Assembly, the Emperor formally announced (Nov. 12,) that the co-operation of the con- tracting powers was in consequence suspended. In a moment of unreflecting liberality, the Constituent Assem- bly had formerly declare to force the King to sanction the decrees of the Assembly, and recall the patriot ministers. The King saved his own life, and that of his Queen, by repelling those factions demagogues with firmness and courage. He constantly refused to grant what they demanded of him by violence ; while the National Assem- bly displayed the most shameful pusillanimity. They oven car- ried their cowardice so far, as to replace Pethion and Manuel in their functions, whom the King had suspended for having failed to perform their duty. rethion, and those v.'ho ruled at their pleasure the Sections of Paris, where no royalist dared to appear, then demanded the dethronement of the liing; and in order to compel the Assem- bly to pronounce sentence against him, the conspirators publicly organized a new insurrection. The populace rose in arms, and attacked the Castle of the Tuileries (Aug. 10.) The King re- fused the assistance of those faithful citizens who had flocked round his person. Misled by unwise or perfidious counsels, he repaired with his family to Paris ; and entering the National Assembly, addressed them in these words : " Gentlemen, I am come here to avoid the commission of a great crime. I shall always consider myself and my family in safety when I am among the representatives of the nation." The populace having assailed the Castle, the faithful Swiss Guards defended it with courage, and perished in the performance of their duty. The greater part of those found in the Tuileries were massacred by the rabble. The representatives of the nation, who were, during this time, in a state of the greatest alarm, decreed, in presence of the Sovereign, and on the proposal of Vergniaud, that the King should be suspended, and a National Convention assembled. Some days after, Louis, with his Queen, the Dauphin, Ma- dame Royale, and Madame Elizabeth, the King's sister, were imprisoned in the Temple, under a guard of the municipality of Paris, composed of partisans of the Revolution. This munici- pality, and the ministers appointed by the Assembly, exercised a most tyrannical authority. The prisons were crowded with priests and nobles. Danton, the Minister of Justice, and a most violent revolutionist, entered into arrangements with the Com- muve for the massacre of these innocent men. The cruel work of butchery continued for three days without remorse (Sept. 2, i^ 1 M 4-28 CIUPTCB X. ^"Trw;;';hadco.n.ncncod in the month "f April 1791. L-J ner Roc unhand, and Lu Fayette commanded the French s^i^t their "p-tthj:;s:;t:r=ofr::i.(^::. trians had meridy acted on llu.aekn^.ve ^ ^^^^ ^^^ concluded at Berlu. (^eb. 7.) between 1 ^^ ^^^-^^^ the command of Ihe army , "^,. "y , *^ ,c„,„ on 1 which was :i=hv^;^««9g^y-.d ■»^-.sdis^;|S'h(Al5^^-^ ""T°„lS"I*laws and acts which ihc Convenlion publis^ Mfttf i-RRiob IX. A. D. 1799 — IS 15. 429 to interp«»«e It to the Tribu- 1 put to dniilh the Legislative ir the National •il 1791. Luck- ed the French ss. The Aus- le of an alliance npcror and the ssiana, to whicti jf emigrants, all uul an Austrian e by way of the ir gates to the arrested by the La Fayette in •ss and the want . 20,) which was led army retired emburg. siasts in France, ) The very day yalty, on the pro- :i proclaimed the ceded it, this was of the Girondists on of order ; the u continuing the of contest which but they assumed lain purpose from ! Mountainists, as 1 the reproach of '.ralkts, a reproach in order to nave a the Republic was onvention publish- France, would be lid extravagances ; I such of its opera- , or produced any to banish all enii- grnnts for ever ; and to order those to bo put to death who should return to their native country- Soon after, they made a tender of ihrir nssislnnce to all subje'cn who niiu;hl be inclined to revolt aganist their legitimate sovereigns; and in the countries which were occupied by their own nrniies, they proclaimed tlie sover- eignty of the people, and the abolilion «if iheestalilished authori- ties. The moderate party, nr, more ]' operly speaking, the less furiousparty of the Convention, were willing to spare the King'.s life. This, however, was one reason for the Mduntainiitts to 5 lit him to death. The Convention accordingly decreed (Dec. , 1792,) that a trial should bo instituted against Louis Capet, as they called him ; and combining, in the most absurd manner, the functions of accusers, judges, and legislators, they assumed the right of pronouncing as to his culpability. Twice they com- pelled him to appear at their bar (Dec. 11, 26,) where de Seze, Malesherbes, and Tronchet undertook his defence. The de- meanour of the King was full of candour and dignity. Of seven hundred and twenty voters, six hundred and eighty-three de- clared him guilty (Jan. 15, 1793.) Thirty-seven refused to vote on different grounds, some of which were honourable ; but the Assembly did not contain a single man who dared positively to pronounce the innocence of their victim. Two only of those who refused to vote, declared they did not think themselves entitled , to sit as judges of the King. The minority in vain had flattered themselves that they might rescue the King from death, provided they referred the punish- ment to the nation itself. But in this they were disappointed. Of seven hundred and eighteen voters, fourliundred and twenty- four objected to the appeal to the people. Two hundred and eighty-three admitted it ; and eleven had voted from interested motives, which could not be sustained. Nothing now remained hut to pronounce the punishment to be inflicted on the King. Of seven hundred and twenty-one voters, three hundred and sixty-one were for an unconditional sentence of immediate death, and among these the Duke of Orleans, (Jan. 17.) The partisans of Louis interposed, and appealed from this sentence to the na- tion. In vain did the Girondists support this petition. Of six hundred and ninety voters, three hundred and eighty decided that his execution should take place within twenty-four hours. Louis heard his sentence of death with composure and Chris- tian resignation. He had already made his will, a monument at once of his piety and the purity of his heart. He died the death of a martyr (Jan. 21, 1793.) At the moment when the executioner's axe was ready to strike, the Abbe Edgeworth, his confessor, addressed him in these sublime words : — " Son of St. It* I ... . -i 4:J0 CHAPTER X. J . iT„..ini, "• The whole "mhabimuts of Paris, who !;:r;,x"t:r ""\vi.b .":,: .0. , .- «... a ,no«n. tat «iK»..o 'oii;.!''! iii 1I.0 nty. , . ,|^ conduct "^^ ',^ '^j Sdles (June 24 ;) -^-T'r''Z^;Tv!i^^^^^^^-^^^ to exercise the accordmg to wh cl t lie I '^"''''J'^ le.rislalive measures. After sovereignty, •"''l/'^'''t'rno e wa« in t le ha,.ds of the Com- U,e 2d "f J;;-;/ -.;;;^,f Xcl ^^^^^f "med in the Convention, mittec ol l"H' r ^ r„r e L a popular assembly more Danton, the cJucf of ' '^^^P, f ^J, ;^^ the most influ- extravagant than ^e - b -^^-^^^^^^^^^^ by Robespierre, ence for a tnt^e , 7\ '"^ . , , j,.„e had been adopted m the The ConsUtut..n of \« f ^»;^^°' ^ m decreed that it should be Primary Asb^^-^: /'^ «£ PJ^ Republic was in a state ol suspended ^ug- -« •) ""^^ ^^^ ^,3 acknowledged. nical and the -«f .-^^^"rj;^/*^ til Frances v^^^^^^^^ with Robespierre was at the h^*^*^ «' "-^^j^-^^'^J '„",„ies were disper.- revolutionary comm.tteej f J"^ "^'eU-afTected to pun- ed every -hejej^raggu g^he weaj^th^^^^^^^ ishment. A law wun re^ui" r • p^sons with the public edifices ^ « Pn o^^^^^^ ^^^ remedy the fa^l of the as- vjctims de;ogd ^^des^cuon. ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^„^j ^e mar. signals, the ^"""^^""f" „_\„mption : a measure which reduced mum, on all articles "f ^o"f.""™P"2{I „ Qu^en. Maria Antoinette, the country toa state 0^^^^^^^^^ brought to was •^'^Xr. (O t 16 Many of the Girondist deputies vvere :i:erd':n t& i^^^tr:^^ 7:^^ ^^"^S:^::^ ^o^ody pitied tsof Paris, who in«. A mourn- j 1 conduct of the A not check the with which the the ruin of the liy 1 flruRfe'le of I riiris (June a,) une, unil by the jdcd the victory. fedcrahsin. The title of Sam-cv- le Reign of Ter- hnn un assembly oodwink and de- robiilioii the plan lelles (June ^4 ;) re to exercise the meiisures. After unds of the Com- i the Convention. ar assembly more id the most influ- d by Robespierre. len adopted in the d that it should be I was in a state ol vledged. •nt, the most tyran- )ry ever recorded, ncc swarmed with mies were dispers- ell-afTected to pun- ersons changed all 1 the prisons with the fall of the as- t. called the maxi- jure which reduced 1. Maria Antoinette, ml, and brought to idist deputies were le same fate. The ct of execration to 7.) Nobody pitied PKRIOD IX. A. V. 17b9 — iSli). 431 hiN fntp. Over nil tin- provinces of the kingdom the blood of the innocent flowed in lorrenln. The revoiulionints diil not stop here. To their political cririiec they lulded iicis of impiily. They liegim liy iiliolishing the (jrrcgorian caiciuhir and tin- Christian em, iirid Nul)>iituted in its place the era of the iicpublic ; t,'. ii'l, 179:j.) Ueiienil Carteaux took possi-.isiou of iMiirfieillo!*, with the iiNsiNtance of the populnco. Toulon proclniined Louis XVII. (Auir, i»9,) and threw them selves under the protection of AdrniniU Hood nnd Lnn^arn, who were cruisinij otf their coast with the Kngli.^h tind Spanish fleets Kellcrinan had onler.-: to he^ieije Lyons; a ta.«k which was nfterward.s intru.sted to Doppet. This city surrendered after a vitforous re.nistance (Oct. 9.) It hecaine the scene of the most atrocious actions. Its finest huildini^s were entirely ruined nnd demolished by order of the Convention. Carteaux took Toulon by assault (Dec. 21.) It was during the siege of this place, that a young officer distinguished himself by his (Courage, and after- wards by his enthu.siasm for the Revolution. This youth was Napoleon Bonaparte, a native of Ajnccio in Corsica. The very same day on which the Convention met, the Duke of Saxe-Teschen nt the head of the Austrian army, had com- menced the siege of Lille ; but he was obliged to raise it in about twenty days. The Legislative Assembly had declared war against the King of Sardinia (Sept. 10, 1792.) General Mon- tesquiou took possession of Savoy, nnd Anselm made himself master of Nice. Some months niter, the Convention declared these provinces to be annexed to France. While the allies were retiring from Champagne, Custine took Mayence by n coup de main (Oct. 21,) assisted, as it afterwards appeared, by treachery. Dumouriez, with asuperior force, bent the Duke of Saxe-Teschen ut Gemappe (Nov. 6,) and soon achieved the conquest of the Belgic provinces. The Convention having declared war against England and the Stadtholder of the Netherlands (Feb. 1, 1793,) at) well as against Spain, a powerful coalition was formed against them, of which England and Russia were the prime supporters ; the one by her ammunitions, and the other by the subsidies which she furnished. They were joined by all the Christian Sover- eigns in Europe, with the exception of Denmark. Dumouriez undertook the conquest of Holland, and penetra- ted as far as Moerdyk : but he was obliged to abandon his ob- ject in consequence of the defeat of Miranda who had laid siege to Maestricht, by the Austrian army under the command of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg. Dumouriez was himself defeated at Nerwinden (March 18,) after which he retired towards the fron- tier of France. Being determined to put an end to the tyranny of the Convention, and to re-establish the constitution of 1791, he concluded an armistice with the Austrinns, and delivered up r" PBBioD IX. A. n. 1789—1816. 433 (•«•, nftPT the re Murspillod, and ion. Biirtlonux Carti'ttiix look tho populace, ul threw them il LniiKura, who ,; Spanish fleets tank which was renJere (1 after a eno of tlie most iroly ruined and (lUX took Toulon of this place, that lurage, and after- This youth was )rsica. jn met, the Duke army, had com- raise it in about lad declared war ) General Mon- dm made himself nvention declared lilo the allies were encc by a coup de ured, by treachery. [oofSaxe-Teschen le conquest of the jclared war against nds (Feb. 1, 1793.) was formed againsl prime supporters ; the subsidies which 16 Christian Sover- mrk. )lland, and penetra- to abandon his ob- who had laid siege ;he command of the himself defeated at ed towards the fron- 1 end to the tyranny onstitution of 1791, 18. and delivered up to them the commissioners which 'lie Convention had sent to deprive him of his office ; but Ihm army haviti),' rt-'fused to obey him, he escuned to Tounuiy, where (Jenerul Clairfait then wa».. The younjr Duke nf Chartres accompanied him in his flight. During the rest of the campaign, success was divided In'tween the two parties. The Austriuns, who were conquerors at Fi»- mars (May 21,) took Conde, Valenciennes, and Quesnoy (July.) The Duke of York, who con\iiianded tho English army, wa.'^ Deat by Houchard at Hondscote (Sept. 8.) Jourdun compelled General Clairfait, by means of the battle of Wattignies, to raise the siege of Maubeuge. On tho side of the Pyrenees, the Span- ish generals, Kicardosand Venturu-Caro, gained several advan- tages ; the former having taken Bcllegardc, CoUioure, and Port Vendre. On the Rhine, the allies had the best of the campaign. After an obstinate siege, Mayence surrendered to tho Prussians (July 22,) who beat Moreau at Pirmasens (Sept. 14,) though they failed in the siege of Landau. An army of tho allies, 80,000 strong, commanded by Wurmser and the Duke of Bruns- wick, forced the lines at Wissemburg (Oct. 13,) and penetrated nearly as far as Strasburg ; but General Pichegru, who had taken the command of the French army, obliged Wurmser to repass the Rhine (Dec. 30.) The Prussians maintained them- selves on the left bank of that river, between Oppenheim and Bergen. In France, the revolutionists were divided into three parties. The Committee of Public Safety, at the head of which was Robespierre, supported by the club of Jacobins, governed with an absolute power. Heoert, Chaumette, Anacharsis Clootz, a native of Prussia, and the other members of the Commune of Paris, formed a second party ; more violent than the first, but contemptible from the character of the individuals who composed it. The third, comprehended Danton, Desmoulins, Herault de Sechelles, and others, who stood in awe of Robespierre, and were terrified by the extravagant fury of these bandits. The faction of the Commune was the first that was annihilated by the temporary union of the other two parties (March 24, 1794.) After that, Robespierre found little difficulty in sending Danton and his friends to the scafTold (April 6 ;) but in a short time some of the members of the Committee of Public Safety, and the re- mains of the Girondist party, conspired against him. In order to please the people, he abolished Oie worship of Reason (May 7,) and caused the Convention to proclaim the existence of a Supreme Being (June 8 ;) he introduced a new religion, that of Deism, of which he created himself high-priest. The power of Robespierre was now in its apogee, and his 28 4' r m 'I'fliit'*" 434 CHAPTER X. downfall approached. As the revolutionary tribunal was noi sufficiently expeditious in despatching those whom he had mark- ed out for destruction, he passed a decree (June 10,) by which an unlimited authority was vested in that tribunal. This open- ed the eyes of his enemies in the Convention ; and, not doubt- ing that they were doomed to death, they conspired the ruin of the tyrant. T allien and Billaud Varennes were the first that attacked him before the tribunal. Having repeatedly attempted to defend himself, he was prevented by the voice of the Assem- bly, crying, " Down with the tyrant !" At length, repulsed and dispirited, he allowed himself to be arrested. Having found means, however, to escape from the fjuard, he saved himself in the midst of the Commune, which was composed of those who had adhered to him after the fall of Hebert. Both sides took to arms; Robespierre and his faction were outlawed, but they showed little courage. Finding themselves undone, they en- deavoured to escape the swords of the enemy, by despatching themselves. Robespierre attempted self-destruction, but he only broke his jaw-bone with a pistol shot. He was executed, with twenty-one of his accomplices (July 28, 1794.) Eighty-three others met the same fate in course of the two following days; fi jm that time the reign of terror was at an end, and thousands of innocent persons were liberated from the prisons. His do- minion, however, was not yet discontinued ; and the career of this Convention, from its beginning to its dissolution, was mark- ed by a series of cruelties and oppressions. The campaign of 1794 was triumphant for the French arms. Pichegru commanded the army of the North, and Jourdan that of the Sambre and the Meuse. The Duke of Coburg had at first the command of the Austrian army ; but towards the end of the campaign, he transferred it to Clairfait. The King of Prussia, become disgusted with the war, had threatened to with- draw his grand army from the Rhine, and to leave only his con- tingent as a prince of the Empire, and the 20,000 men which he was bound to furnish Austria, in virtue of the alliance of 1792. But England and Holland being engaged, by a conven- tion signed at the Hague, to furnish him with supplies, hepro- mised to retain 62,400 men under arms against France. Tney were under the command of Field-Marshal Mellendorff. The taking of Charleroi by Jourdan, and the battle of Fleurus, which he gained over the Duke of Coburg (June 26,) decided the fate of the Netherlands. After some movements in conjunction with the army of the Upper Rhine, under the command of the Duke of Saxc-Teschen, — movements which had but little success, from the want of agreement among the gfenorais. — Clairfait. at the ■* tribunal was noi lotn he had mark- ine 10,) bjr which unal. This open- ; and, not douht- ispired the ruin of rere the first that peatedly attempted oice of the Assem- igth, repulsed and d. Having found e saved himself in losed of those who Both sides took to jutlawed, but they ;s undone, they en- my, by despatching truction, but he only was executed, with '94.) Eighty-three two following days ; end, and thousands le prisons. His do- ; and the career of ssolution, was mark- for the French arms, th, and Jourdan that ke of Coburg had at but towards the end irfait. The King of id threatened to with- to leave only his con- le 20,000 men which tuc of the alliance of ngaged, by a conven- with supplies, hepro- rainst France. Tney lal MellendorfT. The ttle of Flcurus, which 3 26,) decided the fate Its in conjunction with command of the Duke 1 but little success, from rals.— Clairfait. at the PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815. 435 h»!ad of the Austrian army, retired, about the end of the year, on the right bank of the Rhine, followed by MellendorfT, whom the French had never been able to bring into action. The army of the Pyrenees, under the command of Dugom- oiier, gained a splendid victory at Ceret over General La Union vApril 30,) and retook Bellegarde. The two generals of the army were slain at Monte-Nero, where, after a battle of three days, the Spaniards were repulsed by Perignon (Nov. 27.) The French took Figuieres (Feb. 4,) and Roses about cwo month» after. The western army of the Pyreneec, under the command of MuUer, entered Spain, took Fontarabia and St. Sebastian (Aug. 1, 11,) beat the Spaniards at Pampeluna (Nov. 8,) and spread terror to the very gates of Madrid. After the reduction of Toulon, the English fleet, under Admiral Howe, being invited into Corsica by Paoli, took possession of that island (June 18,) which submitted to Britain as an independent kingdom. The French fleet, under Admiral Villaret Joyeuse, was defeated off Ushant by Admiral Howe (Jun« 1.) Most of the French colo- nies had already fallen into the power of the English. General Pichegru, favoured by the rigour of winter, and the intrigues of the party opposed to the Ho ;se of Orange, had made himself master, almost without striking a blow, of the United Provinces of the Netherlands (Jan. 1795,) where the Patriots had re-established the ancient constitution, such as it had been before the year 1788 ; the office of Stadtholder being again abolished, as the Prince of Orange, after being deprived of all his functions, had fled to England. France concluded a treaty with this Republic at the Hague (May 16,) where the indepen- dence of the latter was formally acknowledged. She entered also into an alliance against England ; paid one hundred mil- lions of florins ; and ceded a part of her territory. It was at this time (June 8, 1795,) that the royal Infant Louis XVII., only son oi Louis XVI., died in the Temple, in consequence of the bad treatment which he had endured incessantly for nearly three years. His uncle, who had assumed the title of Regent about the beginning of 1793, succeeded him in his right to the throne. That Prince, who then resided at Verona, took the title of Louis XVIII. After the battles of Mans and Savenay, and th' taking of Noir- moutier, the Vendeans had found themselves grtatly exhausted But at the time of which we now speak, they formed themselves into bands of insurgents in Brittany and Normandy, under the name of Ckovans. After the death of Larochejacquelin, Cha- rette and Sapineau concluded a peace with the Convention at Tausnaie (Feb. 17, 1795.) Cormartin, the leader of the Chouans, „ f ■ ' , ;t >■ -i :: i 1 1 '( 43G CHAPTER X. did the same at Mabilais ; but, a few weeks after, the Conven- tion caused hitn to be arrested and shot, with seven other chiefs. This was the signal for a new insurrection. The English go- vernment at length resolved to send assistance to the Royalists. A body of emigrants and French prisoners of war were landed in the Bay of Quiberon (June 18.) But the whole of the expe- dition was badly managed, and had a most disastrous result. General Hoche attacked the troops on their debarkation. Tbo greater part might have saved themselves on board the vessels ; but the Marquis de Sombreuil, and five hiindred and sixty young men of the best families, were taken and shot by order of Tal- lien (June 21,) in spite of the opposition of General Hoche, who declared that he had promised to spare their lives. In the National Convention, two parties were contending foi the superiority ; the Thermidorians or Moderates, and the Ter- rorists. The inhabitants of Paris, reduced to de.spair by the dearth which the waximum had caused, and instigated by the Jacobins, had several times revolted, especially on the days of the 12th Germinal (April 1,) and the 1st Prairial (May 20.) The moderate party, strengthened by the accession of many of the deputies proscribed since the 2d June 1793, gained the vie tory ; and purged the Convention, by banishing or putting to death the most execrable of the Terrorists. They even concili- ated, in some respects, the opinion of the public, by drawing up a new constitution (June 23,) \vhich might appear wise and ju- dicious compared with the maxims which had been disseminated for several years. Its fundamental elements were a Legislative Body, composed of two elective chambers ; one of which was to have the originating of the laws, and the other, composed of men of judgment and experience, was to be invested with a veto. The executive power was to be lodged in the hands of a Council of five persons, clothed with an authority greater than that which the Constitution of 1791 had given to the King. The Convention passed several other laws, which indicated a desire to return to the principles of morality. They also resolved to exchange Madame Royale, the only remains of the family of Louis XVI., for the deputies delivered up by Dumouriez. Bui they lost again the iflTections of the people, by their laws of the 6th and 13th F-uctidor of the year Three, (Aug. 22, & 30, 1795.) Premo'iished by the fault which the Constituent As- sembly had committed, in prohibiting its members from entering into the Legislative Body, and wishmg, at the same time, tc s- cape punishment for the many crimes they had committed, they ordained that two-thirds of the members then composing the Convention, should, of necessity, become a part of the new Le- ■BSSE PEHIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1816. 437 it after, the Conven- seven other chiefs. The English go- ce to the Royalists. if war were landed whole of the expe- disastrous resuU. . debarkation. Tbo n board the vessels ; Ired and sixty young lot by order of Tal- General Hoche, who ir lives. were contending foi lerates, and the Ter- ;d to despair by the and instigated by the icially on the days of it Prairial (May 20.) accession of many of 1793, gained the vie nishing or putting to . They even concili- public, by drawing up It appear wise and ju- had been disseminated nts were a Legislative 3 ; one of which was he other, composed of to be invested with a Iged in the hands of a authority greater than id given to the King, iws, which indicated a ly. They also resolved jmains o"f the family of p by Dumouriez. But e, by their laws of the rhree, (Aug. 22, & 30, ;h the Constituent As- niembers from entering at the same time, tc s- ey had committed, they irs then composing the ! a part of the new Le- gislation ; and that if the Primary Assemblies did not re-appoint five hundred of the ex-conventional deputies, the newly elected members should themselves complete the quota, by adding a sufficier number of their ancient colleagues. The New Constitution had been submitted for the approba- tion of the people, which they doubted not it would receive, as it was to deliver France from the revolutionary faction. The Con- vention took advantage of this disposition of the people, to cor..- pel the Sections likewise to accept the two decrees, by declar- ing them an integral part of the Constitution. But this attempt was the occasion of new troubles. The Sections of Paris wished to vote separately on the Constitution, and on the decrees which, in that case, would have been rejected over all France; the moderate party of the Convention, if we can honour them with that name, joined with the Terrorists. Perceiving the storm to be gathering, they now sought assistance and support from the troops whose camp was pitched under the walls of Paris. They armed a large body of men, at the head of which was Bona- parte, who gained a sanguinary victory over the Parisians, on the 13th Vendemiaire, in the year Three (October 5th, 1795.) The desire to restore the Bourbons had been the secret motive with the chiefs of the insurrection. A new Legislative Body assembled, which might be regarded as a continuation of the Convention ; so long at least as the five hundred deputies of the Convention were not excluded, who sat in consequence of the annual renewals of one-third of its mem- bers. The Executive Directory, appointed by the Council of the Ancients from a hst presented by the Council of Five Hun- dred, consisted of Lareveillere-Lepeaux, Rewbel, Barras, Le Tourneur, and Carn6t, who had replaced Sieyes, — this member having declined to make one of the Directory — the whole five being Regicides. The forms of Terrorism were mitigated in some respects, but the morals of the administration gained no- thing by the change. The reign of the Directory was an era of corruption and dissoluteness, whose effects were long felt. An Unbounded avarice seized the nation, and the Directory encour- aged and fed that shameful passion, by lending itself to the most infamous traffic. Men coveted the nobility of riches, rather than that of honour and birth. The Directory had to struggle against two inconveniences ; the one was the spirit of rebellion, which induced the Terrorists to form a I'onspiracy among themselves, — such as that of Druet and Babeuf (Mny 10, 1796,) and that which is known by the name of the Conspiracy of the Camp at Grenoble (Sept. 9.) The other inconvenience was still more serious, namely, the .f; ''■J ma. I S.t^ 438 CHAPTER X. ^Srmirp'riv "V neffecmal. .he ...igna.s ™re reptaced t"Sl:o„'';Ll°~d.h., U ».u.dhe found n--y then »e':ame ■ •; ^ ^^^^^ accustomed to pay. 'ThTEtcudve oTreSory had succeeded in puttingan end to thPwL in La Vendee. This success was owing to the firmness =B:53£^t:o»S^S'S^^! %teS.ral"^^^^^^ a third of the members of the two eg\l ve councils, the moderate party gamed the ascend ancv On M. Berthelemy's being appointed to the Directory, here aro"e a schism between LareveiUere-Lepeaux, Rewbel and Barras who were called the Triumvirs, and Carndt and Ber- fhelmayrwho were inclined for peace, and for p77g,7^^"^^° therea ures of the Kevolution. The triumvirate lost the ma- oritv ia the Council, where Pichegru had put himbelf at the Dof the moderate party, who hoped to restore the monarchy. R^yil 4' aS£ by'^^^ of W press -hich France^t en erioved, had made such progress as frightened the triumvirs Thev thought themselves sure of the army, so easy to be sedu- red when thev are allowed to deliberate ; and especially of Bo- naparte They hen performed the exploit, which ,s known by ?he name of the Revolution of the 18th Fruct.dor (Sept. 4^ Si; and he moderate kws, issued three months befo^. were superseded by revolutionary measures. The au hors, ed- ■. „n,1 nrinters of rovalist or moderate Journals, were a so ts itity of assigtiats ',000 francs. To )0,000 in specie. Its vere replaced ; and finally by the former after ere put into effec- ! found necessary The State thus ions of francs. It system of regular omed to pay. putting an end to ing to the firmness was betrayed, and ho had fallen into ime fate at Nantes [March 29.) The Generals, signed a idal, the leader of le members of the gained the ascend- d to the Directory, peaux, Rewbel, and I Carn6t and Ber- ir putting an end to ivirate lost the ma- put himself at the store the monarchy, which France then sned the triumvirs, so easy to be sedu- id especially of Bo- which is known by ?"ructidor (Sept. 4.) erthelemy and Car- l such of them aa !erts of Sinamari in two Councils were iree months before, The authors, ed- Journais, were also olished, and contin- Merlin, n la-vjer of r&'iffiriwr'r- , PEIIIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815. 439 Douay, was appointed to the place of one of the exiled Direc- tors, and the poet Francois, a native of Neuch&teau in Lorrain, to that of another. Here, it will be proper to take a retrospect of the events of the war. The Grand Duke of Tuscany was the first th^it set the example of a reconciliation with France, which wi- signed at Paris, (Feb. 9, 1795.) The King of Prussia, whf.j finances were exhausted, entered into a negotiation with Berthelemejr, the Republican ambassador, which was concluded at Basle by Baron Hardenberg, (April 5.) Prussia not only abandoned the coalition ; she even guaranteed the neutrality of the North of Germany, according to a line of demarcation which was fixed by a special convention, (May 17.) The Landgrave of Hesse Cassel likewise made peace at Basle, (Aug. 28th.) The retreat of the Prussians oa the one hand, and the scar- city which prevailed in France on the other, had retarded the qpening of the campaign of 1795. Field Marshal Bender hav- l : ; ; '1 «»1 3 ii, ; 440 CHAPTER X. tories which he gained at Montenotte, Deco, Millesimo, Ceva, and Mondovi, over the Austrian General Beaulieux, and the Sardinian General Colli, he obliged the King of Sardinia to sign a truce at Cherasco, (April 28,) by which he surrendered up three fortresses. Bonaparte passed the Po at Placentia ; granted a truce on very disadvantageous terms to the Duke of Parma ; and forced the passage of the Bridge of Lodi, (May 9.) The fate of Lombardy was decided. Cremona and Piz- zighitone opened their gates to the conqueror, (May 14,) who soon made his entry into Milan. The Duke of Modena obtain- ed a suspension of arms. The King of Sardinia agreed to sign a peace at Paris, by which he surrendered Savoy and the dis- trict of Nice. The terror of the French arms was so great, that the King of Naples promised to remain neutral, by a con- vention which he concluded at Brescia (June 6.) The Pope also obtained neutrality, by the armistice of Bologna, (June 28,) but on conditions exceeding "y severe. Though the war had ceased in Tuscany, a body of French troops occupied Leghorn, (June 28,) to seize the English merchandise in that port. The Court of Vienna was resolved to make every effort to save Mantua, the only place which remained to them in Italy. At th^ head of 50,000 fresh troops, Wurmser marched from the Tyrol, broke the French lines on the Adige, (July 31,) and com- pelled Bonaparte to raise the siege of Mantua. The latter General encountered the Austrians, and beat them al Castig- lione ; without however, being able to prevent Wurmser from throwing fresh supplies into Mantua. This place was invested a second time ; and a second time the Austrian army marched to its relief. While Bonaparte was engaged with Davidovitch at Roveredo, (Sept. 4,) and Massena pushing on as far as Trent, Wurmser marched in all haste towards Mantua. Bonaparte suddenly directed his course against him, vanquished him in several battles, and compelled him to throw himself, with th'3 wreck of his army into the fortress (Sept. 15.) After this event, the King of the Two Sicilies, and the Duke of Parma, signed a definitive neace at Paris ; and the Republic of Genoa concluded a treaty, (Oct. 9,) by which it retained at least the appearance of indtpendence. Austria tried a third time to relieve Mantua. Two armies under the command of Alvinzi and Daviii'^vitch marched, the one from Friuli, and the other from the Tyrol. The former was encountered by Bonaparte, who defeated them in a sanguinary iction at Arcole, (Nov. 17.) Immediately he directed his march aj^ainst the other, and beat them at Rivoli, (Nov. 21.) While matters were thus passing in Italy, the army of the I illesimo, Ceva, ulieux, and the of Sardinia to he surrendered o at Placentia; to the Duke of of Lodi, (May cmona and Piz- , (May 14,) who f Modena obtain- lia agreed to sign voy and the dis- is was so great, leutral, by a con- ; 6.) The Pope tlogna, (June 28,) igh the war had ccupied Leghorn, 1 that port. ie every effort to to them in Italy. marched from the Fuly 31,) and com- ntua. The latter it them at Castig- it Wurmser from place was invested in army marched with Davidovitch JR as far as Trent, mtua. Bonaparte anquished him in himself, with the 15.) After this Duke of Parma, lepublic of Genoa tained at least the I a third time to nimand of Alvinzi uli, and the other red by Bonaparte, Arcole, (Nov. 17.) lie other, and beat ', the army of the PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 1815. 441 Sambre and Mouse, commanded by Jourdan, had sevi,,il en- gagements with the Archduke-Charles, brother of the Emperor, on ilie Sieg and the Lahn. Morcau, at the head of the army of the Rhine and Moselle, passed the Rhine at Strasburg, and gained several advantages over the army which Wurmser hail com- manded at the beginning of the campaign ; he concluded truces with the Duke of Wurtembcrg, the Margrave of Baden, and the Circle of Swabia, who supplied him with money and provisions, (July,) and penetrated into Bavaria, the Elector of which was also obliged to submit to very rigorous conditions, (Sept. 7,) to obtain a suspension of arnis. Jourdan, on his side, having also passed the Rhine, marched through Franconia, as far as iho Upper Palatinate. The iichduke-Charles, who, since the departure of Wurmser for Ita'.y, had been at the head of all the Austrian armies in Germany, retired before so great a superiority of num- bers, and drew near to the quarter whence he expected the ar- rival of reinforcements. He immediately fell on the undis- ciplined army of Jourdan, defeated them at Aniberg,(Aug. 24,) and Wurtsburg, (Sept. 3;) and put them so completely to the rout, that tiiey were obliged to repass the Rhine (Sept. 19.) This disaster compelled Moreau to make his retreat ; in effecting which, he displayed the talents of a great general. After a number of engagements, in which he was more frequently the conqueror than conquered, he brought back his army to Hunin- fen, (Oct. 26,) where they passed the Rhine. That fortress and [ehl were the only points on the right bank of the Rhine which remained in the possession of the French. The Cabinet of London, finding that Spain had declared war against her (Aug. 19,) according to the treaty of St. Ildefonso which allied her strictly with France ; and moreover, seeing Ireland threatened with an invasion, ordered the British troops to evacuate the island of Corsica, (Oct. 21,) of which the French took possession. Lord Malmesbury was sent to Lille to nego- tiate a peace (Oct. 24,) which he was not able to obtain, because the conditions were not agreeable to the three Directors who formed the majority. The attempts which the French made to land in Ireland (Dec. 22,) under Admiral Morard de Galles, and General Hoche, proved unsuccessful. In 1797, the Austrians made a fourth attempt to save Man- tua. Alvinzi arrived with 80,000 men ; but after several bloody engagements, this army was dispersed, and old Wunnser was compelled to surrender Mantua by capitulation (Feb. 2.) Bo- naparte, who had broken his truce with the Pope, invaded the Ecclesiastical States ; but being menaced in the rear by a new Austrian army, he again made peace with his Holiness at To- J n * '; > Si .iH 442 CIMPTKR X. i\! m luntino (Feb. 19.) The Pope, besides renouncing Avignon i\nd the Venaissin, ceded also Fcrrara, Bologna and Komagnn. The new Austrian army in Italy was commanded by the Archduke- Charles ; but not being able to cope with that of Bonaparte in pitched battle, the Archduke retired through the Tyrol and Curin- thia into Stiria, where he was followed by the French General. This precipitate march threw the French army into a situation highly perilous; since, besides the want of provisions, they were menaced in the rear by an insurrection of the Tyrol, and the arms of the Venetian Republic. Bonaparte then offered peace, which was accepted by the Cabinet of Vienna, and signed at Leoben (April 18, 1797,) the same day that Heche passed the Rhine at Neuwied ; and two days after Moreau had passed that river at Strasburg. The preliminaries at Leoben were honourable for Austria. She renounced, it is true, Belgium and all her possessions in Italy, as far as the Oglio ; but she was indemnified by a con- siderable part of the Venetian territory, as well as by Istria and Dalmatia ; for which the Republic were to receive Bologna, Ferrara and Romagna ; Peschiera and Mantua were to be sur- rendered to the Emperor. France recognised the principle, that the integrality of the Empire was to be the basis of a pacifica- tion with the Germanic Body. Immediately after the peace ol Leoben, Bonaparte, without having received orders, overturned the Venetian Republic, and caused his troops to occupy that city (May 16.) He united the provinces of Lombardy which Austria had ceded, into a Republic, on the model of that oi France (June 29;) and this new State was called the Cisalpine Republic. He obliged the Genoese to change their government, and toconstitute themselves into the Ligurian Republic (June 6.) The negotiations for a definitive peace were long in coming to a conclusion. Bonaparte regretted having promised the restitution of Mantua ; and the three Jacobin members of the Directory, who were displeased with the terms on which the peace with Germany was to be founded, began to intrigue for the cession of the left bank of the Rhine ; and with this view, to protract the conclusion of the peace, until the Revolution of the 18th Fructidor should gain their party the asseiulancy. The negotiations with Lord Malmesbury were immediately broken off; and Bonaparte threatened to resume hostilities, unless Austria would accept the conditions dictated by the New Di- rectory. Peace was at length concluded at Cainpo Formio near Udina, (Oct. 17,) by Buonaparte, and Count Louis de Cobenal. The two parties divided between them, it is said, the whole ter- ritory of the Republic of Venice ; so that the Adige should be ig Avignon nnd 'lomugna. The the Archduke- }f Bonaparte in fyroland Carin- rench General. into a situation sions, they were Tyrol, and the in offered peace, and signed at xhe passed the had passed that ble for Austria, possessions in nified by a con- as by Istria and eceive Bologna, were to be sur- le principle, that sis of a pacifica- 'ter the peace ol rders, overturned s to occupy that ionibardy which model of that ol ed the Cisalpine leir government, cpublic (June 6.) long in coming g promised the members of the s on which the to intrigue for with this view, le Revolution of ssendancy. The lediately broken ostilitics, unless ly the New Di- ipo Formio near uis de Cobenzl. 1, the whole ter- kdige should be I PERIOD IX. A. I). 1781) — 1815. 443 ihe frontier on the Continent of Italy, while tin- Venetian Is- lands, on thtj coast of Albania and Turkey, should belong to France. Austrian Lonibardy, with Peschiera and Mantua, the Modenois, and the Venetian territory to the west of the Adige, and the three Leijutincs of Bologna, Ferrara, nnd Roningna, were to form the Cisalpine Republic. A Congress for a treaty of peace with the Empire was to be opened at Rasladt. By certain secret articles, the Emperor consented eventually to the perpetual and complete cession of the left bank of the Rhine ; and stipulated for him.self the possession of Salzburg, in case of a partial cession ; and greater advantages, provided the whole left bank of the Rhine were abandoned to France. The States of Germany, who might suffer loss by the partial or total cession of the left bank of the Rhine, were to receive indemnification in Germany, as was expressed in the treaty. A compensation was to be allowed to the Prince of Orange ; but this was not to take place in the neiffhbourhood of the Batuvian Republic, nor in that of the Austrian posscss^ions. Prus.sia was to pre serve hei provinces on the left bank of the Rhine ; but she was to claim no new acquisitions in Germany. The Directory were not eipially satished with all the articles of this treaty; bat they durst not disavow the negotiator, who had assisted in accomplisbin? the Revolution of the 18th Fruc- tidor. The French government were displeased with the in- crease of power granted to Austria, and especially with the dismemberment of Bavaria, which Rewbol,who piqued himself on his political abilities, regarded with reason as contrary to the interests of France. Moreover, the articles relative to Prussia and the Prince of Orange were in direct opposition to the Con- vention of Berlin, (1794,) which was the basis of the existing unanimity between Prussia and France. By that Convention the Bishopric of Munster was made over to the King, by way of reimbursement for his possessions beyond the Rhine ; while the House of Orange was to have Wurtzburg and Bamberg. These circumstances obliged the Directory to conceal from the Court of Berlin the secret articles of the treaty of Campo Formio ; and this constraint greatly embarrassed them, by the mistrust which it excited on the part of Prussia. General Bonaparte, with Trielhard and Bonnier, members Df the Convention, were appointed to negotiate at Rastadt with the deputation of the Empire. Bonaparte made only a short stay (here, to sign a secret convention with Count Louis de Cobenzl, (Dec. 1 ;) according to which Mayence was to be restored to the (ruops of the French Republic, in fulfilment of what had been resolved on at Campo Formio. The object which the French I I . ;! i '/^ i "I 444 CIIAPTEn X. n.-otittt.rs proposoa. was to obtnm the entire ''c^''"" " ^^f left bunk of the Rhino, free from all charges ; and to obtain ,t V ho u boinir ..bliR,Hl to p.ir.lK,«e it at the price which Bona- pa te had pro^nis..! to Austria. The means tor attammff the Sect veUlo seaiie tlie consent of the majority of the deputa- "ion mid the agroemeiit of I'n.ssia, and then to prevail with Ihe la ir to object to ihe dimnembernK-nt of Bavar.a-a measure which would compel France to reveal the secret negotiations at Camno Forinio. The first proposition on which these mm- isters (lemanded the cession of the whole left bank of the E e became the subject of a tedious negotiation, RH«"'ile Kr nronolc'l aTd thwarted by a thousand intrigues. At lenglfi h" deputation admitted itW-h ^f •) ^"V^TrS U.en which the ministers were determined to reject. The latter then proposed as a second basis, the idemnification of the princes in possession of the left bank of the Rhine ; which was adopted ^without much difficultv ^!iarch 15.) The third d~\ ^ ferred to the manner of" carrying the fundamental articles in o execution. On this ground the French advanced a multitude of pretensions, each more unjust and more ridiculous than the "'until then the negotiations, in all probability, w-re serious on the part of Austria and France ; as the former, supported by r"i sia,\oped to obtain the consent of Prussia to the dismem- be r^ent of Bavaria ; while France, on her side, vainly antici- pated a sUcfallLc; with the Cabinet of Berlin, which would Save e^mbled lh< Directory to have dictated its own conditions of neae B. .towards iL middle of the year, war had be- come inevitable, in consequence of the numerous aggressions which the Executive Directory had committed in difTerent coun- tries To them war had become necessary to occupy their ar- m'es. The continuation of the Congress at Rastadt, therefore, served m.>relv to gain time to prepare for hostilities 1 the C"urt of '/ieina had flattered themselves, that the Cisalpine Republic would form an independent State.they were undeceived ?;^he treaty of alliance with France which t^at Republic was otliged to accept, in spite of the determined refusal »[. tl\« C^oun- cil of Ancients. It was, in reality, a treaty of subjection by which, among other articles, it was stipulated that here should always be 25,000 French troops in the Cisalpine States, tor the support of which they should pay eighteen millions per annum. A tumult having happened at Rome, •" wh'ch .°ne of the French generals was killed, the Directory made Uiis a pretext for invading the Ecclesiastical States. General Berthier pro- ckimed thf Roman Fepublic (Feb. 15, 179S;) and Pope ^us cession of ihe d to obtain it whicli Bonn- fUtnininp the of the (lepnta- [o prevail with ia — a measure t negotiations ich these min- "t bank of the ion, ttltornatel ■s. At lenf^lli Icr restrictions The latter then the princes in h was adopted rd demand re- articles into red a multitude ulous than the lely L'th la y, •.V'^re serious 3r, supported by to the dismem- le, vainly antici- n, which would own conditions ir, war had be- ous aggressions 1 different coun- )ccupy their ar- stadt, therefore, 3tilities. If the it the Cisalpine vere undeceived it Republic was sal of the Coun- f subjection, by lat there should e States, for the ons per annum, lich one of the le this a pretext il Berth ier uro- and Pope Pius 1 ya^iii. But in order to obtiiiii n tiiiituul co-oj'prnlion, it was iiccoHsiiry to begin by Liablishiriff mutiinl ronndi.'iirf. 'J'hi.s was irnpnssiblo, us ciich of tlic f'lbincM? iuid iti yvni ^l(■(•r('t, whicli it would not commiiiiicnto to " ■ f !i"r. Piu*" sia had her own treiity of tlie If^t of August 179<, , , d A\w ■■< iu>T SLcrot nrtii'ics of Cnmno Forinio. The circuinsijini'i' \vh: h dntorinined the Emporor I'liul to takr a part in the war o 'unst Franco, was the indignation «liic! he felt at the 8poliuii.or> of the Knights of Malta, whom lie liad taken under his protection, and afterwards accepted tlie oflice of Grand Master of the Order This coalition was formed by tren'ie* of alliance between the several parlies respectively. HnssiaagTi d to send an army of 60,000 men, under Suwarow, tothe Daiiiilie, and to furnish Prus- sia with 45,000, to bo paid by Great Britain. After the revolution of the ISih Fructidi)., t)ic Execuli\c Di- rectory of the French Republic bad to strugj^de against the gene- ral discontent, as well as ag.viist tli*- disorderel -late of the finances, and the intrigues of liic Jacobms, whose tiflucnce they had imprudently augtnented, hoping, by their means, to annil.i- latc the party of the op|)o.vilioii. That faction would infallibly have aflecled a counter-revolution in France, had not the Direc- tory, by a stretch of arbitrary power, annulled the elections of 1798. The want of funds, which was always growing worse, had retarded the renewal of the war ; but w:;en it broko out, the Directory adopted a measure which we ought not to pass in si- lence, as it has exercised a lasting influence on nil the States o( Europe, who were obliged to follow the example. We allude to the law which introduced the military conscription (Sept. 5, 1798,) and M hich was the work of General Jourdan. Th( Coalition was not yet consolidated, and Austria had not yet fin died her preparations for war, when the King of the Two Siciliet, instigated by a party who wished to urge the Cabinet of Vienna to greater despatch, commenced hostilities, by expelling the French from Rome (Nov, 24.) That enterprise failed of success. The Neapolitan troops, who were commanded by a foreigner. General Baron de Mack, showed neither disciplme nor courage. After this first repulse, the King took shelter in Sicily. His capital became a prey to the most frightful anarchy. Mack, to save his life, deserted to the enemy. The Lazzaroni defended Naples against the French army, and it was not till after a battle of three days, that Championnet, who was at theii head, succeeded in getting possession of tjie city ; after which he nmnofherclaims. IJcrlin, tit liru b«- dtr the mediation (I nbtaiii n iniauitl al)lisliin(T Miuiunl ' (^ibincii? hud it"* > ■Vii- '.:i]u:\: PlD"'- rtX., , d Aus!' =• rcuins'»rn"i! wh;' i' n the war o 'iinst t the spoliiil'oi* o! Jcr his prolection, iKlcr of the Order iancc between the ) !»end an army of id to furnish Prus- the Executive Di- np:ainst the gene- Icreii =late of the ios 1.0 I.I |5o ""^^ llln^^ I Ui 1120 1.8 |i-25 11.4 ill.6 W^^^ '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 .,•»—_; li,, , ,;;-5;*r=ivs:a;!s?!SS«HsS»«!B5S?RT)'F ■)W9«aBB«*;'t;:r,,;,..^,s«^?^^55«a^«««?se^^ :/j r/. i CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques ~miMi»^''m^0Smimkmm\:&^},^:i PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815. 447 proclaimed the Parthenopeaii Republic (Jan. 25.) General Jou- bert took possession of Turin ; and when the new campaign opened, the whole of Italy was in the hands of the French. The Executive Directory made these hostile preparations of the King of the Two Sicilies a pretext for declaring war against the King of Sardinia (Dec. 6, 179S,) who was in alliance \yith France. General Joubeit having already advanced into Pied- mont, Charles Emanuel I /. signed an act, drawn up by General Clauzel, by which he renounced the exercise of all power, and commanded his subjects to obey the provisional government which the French were about to establish. He afterwards re- tired into Sardinia, where he protested against the violence which he had experienced. The Congress of Rastadt had continued their sittings. On the 6th December 1798. the French plenipotentiaries gave in their ultimatum on the third proposition relative to the mode o( carrying into execution the two fundamental articles agreed to ; with a threat to quit Rastadt unless it was accepted within six days. The majority of the deputation, who were not initiated into the secrets of great cabinets, and who were importuned by a crowd of princes, nobles, and deputies under the influence either of interest or terror, accepted this ultimatum ; against which Austria, Saxony, and Hanover voted. The plenipoten- tiary of the Empire ratified it ; probably because the Court of Vienna, who were on the point of abrogating every thing that had passed at Rastadt, did not think it necessary to enter into any discussion on that subject. This finished the operations of the Congress. From that moment, the French plenipotentiaries did nothing but complain of the march of the Russian troops, who in effect had penetrated into Galicia, and were approaching the Danube. The deputation, whose distinctive character was Dusillanimity, confirmed these complaints in presence of the Emperor (Jan. 4, 1799,) who, however, eluded giving any posi- tive answer, until the whole of his measures were organized. A French army, commanded by Jourdan, passed the Rhine, be- tween Strasburg and Basle. The Congress, nevertheless, con- tinued to sit until ^he 7th April, when it was dissolved by Count Metternich, who aimuUed all its decisions. The 28th of April was a day memorable in the annars oi modern history. Some of the Austrian Hussars, within a quar- ter of a league of Rastadt, assassinated the French ministers Bonnier, Debry, and Roberjot, who were on their return to Paris. That deed was not aiithorized by the Executive Directory, aU though it was attributed to them because they had artfully turned it to their advantage, by exciting the public mind which had (•««• •, :-iAtA so«' i^ih CHAPTER X. 448 already declared itself against the war ; neither was it author ized by any cabinet, or commander of the army. Its real au- thor has never been officially made known. The French Republic had already declared war against the Emperor and the Grand Duke of Tuscany (March 12, 1799,) without any apparent motive. But, before this declaration was made, the campaign had already opened in Switzerland, where General Massena had dislodged the Austrians from the country of the Grisons, which tliey had occupied in consequence of a treaty with the Republicans, concluded at Coire (Oct. 7, 1798.) The Archduke Charles, at the head of the main Austrian army, acquitted himself gloriously. He defeated Jourdan in several pitched battles at Pullendorf and Stockach (March 20, 25,) and compelled the army of the Danube, as it was called, to repass the Rhine. The remains ef Jourdan's army were then united to that of Massena. In Italy, while General Macdonald, who had succeeded Cham- pionnet in the command, was covering Rome and Naples, Gen- eral Gauthier occupied Florence. Sherer, at the head of the army of Italy, was defeated by Kray at Legnago (March 25,) Roco (30,) and Verona (AprifS.) It was at this time that Su- warow arrived in Italy with the Russians, and took the chief command of the combined army. IMoreau, who with a noble resignation had taken on himself the interim command of the French army in its present discouraging circumstances, was de- feated at Cassano (April 27,) and retired to Alessandria. It was of great importance for Suwarow to prevent Macdonald, who had arrived at Naples, from joining Moreau. But the two French generals manoeuvred so dexterously, that this junction took place ; although Macdonald had been attacked by Suwa- row near the Trebia (June 17,) where he sustained a considera- ble loss. The whole of Lombardy fell into the hands of the Allies. Mantua likewise capitulated. Joubert, who had been appointed General of the army of Italy, had scarcely arrived when he offered battle to Suwarow near Novi (Aug. 15 ;) but he was slain near the commencement of the action. Moreau, who had continued with the army as a volunteer, could not pre- vent the general rout. Championnet, who succeeded Joubert, was not more fortunate. Coni, the last place in their possession, having been taken (Dec. 3,) the French retired within the Ap- penines. The Archduke Charles having marched into Switzerland, Massena took up a strong position on the Aar and the Reuss. The hopes which they had entertained of bringing over Prussia to the coalition having entirely failed, it was agreed between I: (' r fcia#is*«»4-»^'-*''*^ '*"•'• •■^^«-'* PERIOD IX. A. o. 1789—1815. 449 r was it author Its real au- war against the larch 12, 1799.) declaration was itzerland, where from the country jnsequence of a e (Oct. 7, 1798.) 1 Austrian army, iirdan in several irch 20, 25,) and called, to repass were then united succeeded Cham- ,nd Naples, Gen- the head of the ago (March 25,) lis time that Su- d took the chief vho with a noble command of the nstances, was de- essandria. It was Macdonald, who 1. But the two hat this junction tacked by Suwa- lined aconsidera- the hands of the rt, who had been scarcely arrived i (Aug. 15 ;) but action. Moreau, !er, could not pre- icceeded Joubert, I their possession, d within the Ap* into Switzerland, r and the Reuss. jing over Prussia agreed between Great Britain and Russia (June 29,) that the army of 45,000 men which the latter had eventually promised to place at the dis- posal of the King of Prussia if he became a party in the war, should henceforth be employed against France in Switzerland. Accordingly these troops, who were commanded by Prince Kor- sakoff, havmg arrived on the Limmat, the Archduke joined to them 30,000 Austrians ; while with the rest of his troops he marched towards the Rhine, where a new French army had occupied Heidelberg and Manheim. The Archduke compelled them to repass the river, and took Manheim by assault (Sept. 18.). After the battle of Novi, Suwarow quitted Italy with the Russians whose number was now reduced to 24,000 men, to march on the Limmat, and take the command of the allied army in Switzerland. Massena, who was anxious to prevent this junction, attacked Korsakoff, and defeated him near Zurich (Sept. 24 ;) which obliged him to evacuate Switzerland. Suwarow, whose march across the Alps had now become very dangerous, accomplished it nevertheless with boldness and celerity; and although he had to encounter Lecc orbe who wished to intercept him, and afterwards Massena who was in pursuit of him, He crossed the small cantons of the Orisons, and effected a union with the remains of Korsakoff's army. The Roman and Parthenopean Republics had fallen to pieces after the departure of Macdonald. Ancona, where he had \eh a body of troops, did not surrender until the 29th of November. The combined fleets of the Turks and Russians, about the end of the year 1798, had taken possession of the French islands that had formerly belonged to the Venetians. Corfu held out till the 1st of March 1799. The Archduke Charles having advanced on Switzerland after the defeat of Korsakoff, Lecourbe, who had been called to the command of the army of Alsace, passed the Rhine ; but he was soon after compelled to return to the left bank of that river. In virtue of a convention which was concluded at St. Peters- burg (June 22,) the Emperor Paul, in addition to the 105,000 men which he had already despatched, engaged to furnish 17^00 more. These with 12,()00 English, under the command of the Duke of York, attempted to make a descent on Holland, and landed at Helder. This expedition proved a total failure. The Duke of York, after having been worsted in several engage- ments with General Brune, evacuated the country, in conse- quence of a capitulation signed at Alkmaar (Oct. 18, 1799.) These disasters were but feebly compensated by the taJdng of Surinam (Aug. 16,) the last of the Dutch colonies which fell into the hands of the English. 450 OBAPTBR Z. While these events were transacting in Europe, Bonaparte had subdued the greater part of Egypt ; but he was less suc- cessful in the expedition which he undertook against Syria. Being obliged to raise the siege of Acre (May 19,) after sus- tauiing considerable losses, he returned to Egypt wUh the feeble remains of his army. Shortly after (July 16,) a Turkish fleet appeared off Aboukir, and landed a body of troops, who took possession of that fort. Bonaparte directed his march against them, beat them, and almost totally annihilated them (Juljr 25;) but being displeased at the Directory, who had left him without support, and having heard of their disorganization, he resolved to return to Europe. He embarked secretly (Aug. 23,) and landed at Frejus on the coast of Provence (Oct. 9, 1799.) At the time of his arrival, France was in a state of the most violent commotion. The Council of Five Hundred was become more and more Jacobinical, in consequence of new elections. Sieyes, Gohier, Roger Duces, and Moulins, with Barras, Direc- tor of the Ancients, formed the government. The revolutionary measures which were adopted by the Council, seemed a pre- lude to the return of Terror. Such was the law which author- ized the Directory to take hostages among the relations of the emigrants (July 12 ;) and the loan of a hundred millions, which was decreed (Aug. 6.) ... In the west, the Chouans had organized a new insurrection under the conduct of George Cadoudal and the Counts de Frot- te, D'Autichamp, and de Bourmont. Disturbances had broken out in other provinces ; the government had fallen into contempt ; » general restlessness had taken possession of the public mind. Barras and Sieyes were perfectly conscious that this state of things could not continue. Each of them, separately, had con- trived the plan of a new revolution ; and each of them endeav- oured to make a partisan of General Bonaparte, who had just arrived in Paris, and on whom the hopes of France seemed at that time to depend. The General deceived Barras, and entered into a conspiracy with Sieyes and the more powerful mem- bers of the Council of Ancients. On the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799,) the Council nominated Bonaparte commandant of the troops ; abolished the Directory ; and ordered the Legislative Assembly to be transferred to St. Cloud. The meeting which took place next day was a scene of great turbulence. Bonaparte ineffectually attempted to defend himself in the Council of t ive Hundred, when tue Tirmness of his brother Lucien and the gren- adiers of the guard alone secured his safety. The Council was dissolved, and the constitution of the year Three abolished i IN ov. 11.) A provisional government was established, consisting of l-V'tfli-'-l'i'i'-'^"-- Surope, Bonaparte t he was less suc- 9k against Syria, lay 19,) after sus- ypi with the feeble 5,) A Turkish fleet f troops, who took his march against !dthem(Juljr25;) id left him without sation, he resolved ly (Aug. 23,) and >ct. 9, 1799.) a state of the most indred was become I of new elections, vith Barras, Direc- The revolutionary icil, seemed a pre- law which author- the relations of the red millions, which a new insurrection the Counts de Frot- rbances had broken alien into contempt ; of the public mind. s that this state of separately, had con- ich of them endeav- parte, who had just if France seemed at Barras, and entered lore powerful mem- 8th Brumaire (Nov. 1 commandant of the Bred the Legislative The meeting which julence. Bonaparte the Council of Five jucien and the gren- '. The Council was hree abolished (Nov. )Ushed, consisting of PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815. 451 Sieves, Roger Ducos, and Bonaparte. A legislative commission of twenty-five members were charged to draw up the plan of a new constitution. The new constitution was announced on the 22d of Frimaire, of the year Eight (13th Dec. 1799.) The republican forms were preserved ; and the government, in appearance, was intrusted to a Council of three persons, appointed for ten years, and decorated with the title of Consuls, viz. Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Le Brun ; but in reality to the first only, on whom they conferred a power truly monarchical. The other constituted bodies were a Conservative Senate, contrived by Sieyes, to be the guardian of the public liberties ; a Tribunal of one hundred members, whose business it was to discuss such forms of law as the government laid before them ; and a Legislative Body of three hundred members, who gave their vote without any previous debate. Bonaparte seized the reins of government with a firm hand. He abrogated several of the revolutionary laws, amalgamated its different parts into a system, and by degrees organized the most complete despotism. He consolidated his power by quashing the insurrection in the West. By his orders. Generals Brune and Hedouville concluded a peace (Jan. 18, 1800,) first with the Vendeans at Montfaucjon, and afterwards with the Chouans. He fave a most striking example of perfidy, by causing the brave 'rotte to be shot a few days after. But he conciliated the af- fection of his subjects by the restoration of religion, which he established by means of a Concordat with the Court of Rome, (July 15, 1801.) Bonaparte was no sooner placed at the head of the govern' ment, than he proposed to make peace with England, by means of a letter (Dec. 26, 1799,) not written, according to etiquette, bv one of his ministers to the Secretary of State for Foreign Af- fairs, but in his own hand, and addressed to King George IIL, whom he complimented for his patriotic virtues. He stated the necessity for peace ; and trusted, that two nations so enlightened as France and Great Britain, would no longer be actuated by false ideas of glory and greatness. This step, made in so un- usual a form, could not possibly have a successful result, espe- cially as Mr. Pitt was determined to employ all the resources of England to overthrow the revolutionary despotism which the First Consul was endeavouring to establish in France. That great statesman endeavoured, by the treaties of subsidy which we have already mentioned, to repair the lo.ss which the coalition had just suffered by the retirement of Paul I., who being morti- fied with the bad success of the Russian arms, which he ascribed i' \i tfki' •#-.jii ^1 ■ % i L i ,1 1 HI" ■» ,»»" ' ■ , I'-ip w " 452 CHAPTER X. 10 the allies themselves had recalled his troops at the beginning of the year ISOO. ■ t i General Mel.is.who romnmnded the Anstrians in Italy, open- ed the campaign of 1800 in the most splendid manner. In con- sequence o/ the victory which he gamed over Massena at Voltn (April 10.) the latter was obliged to throw himself into benoa, where he sustained a siege of six weeks with great courage. Melas made himself master of Nice (May 11,) and Souchet passed the Var on his march to Provence But, in a short time, feonaparte, at the head of a new army which collected a D on passed the Alps, and took possession of Milan (June 2;) w^ule Melas was not yet aware that his army was in existence, b or • tunately for the latter, Massenawas obliged to surrender Genoa at that very time, (June 5,) which placed the corps of Genera Ott at his^disposai. He had found it dimcult, with his small earrison, to preserve order among the inhabitants, of whom 15.000 are said to have perished by famine or disease during the blockade. General Ott was defeated by Berlhier at Monte- bello (June 9.) Melas himself engaged General Bonaparte at Marengo (June 14.) Victory was already within his grasp, when tlie arrival of the brave Desaix with his division, disap- pointed him of the triumph. The defeat had a most discourag- ing effect on General Melas, and cost Austria the whole of Lombardv. A truce which was concluded at Alessandria (June 16,) put bonapartc in possession of that town ; as well as ol Tortona, Turin, Placentia, Coni, Genoa, &c. The Austnans retired beyond the Mincio. Moreau, at the head of a French army, had passed the Rhine (April 25,) and defeated Kray in several engagements. Ihe Austrians then retired within the Upper Palatinate. Moreau had already made himself master of Munich, when he received the news of the truce at Alessandria. He then concluded an armistice at Parsdorf (July 15.) The Count St Julien who had been sent by the Emperor Francis II. to Pans, having siened the preliminaries of peace without sufficient authority, the Court of Vienna refused to ratify them, as they had engaged not to make peace without the consent of England. Hostilities were to recommence in Germany in the month of September ; but the Archduke John, who commanded the Austrian army m Bavaria, having requested that the armistice should be prolonged, General Moreau consented, on condition that Philipsburg, Uim, and Ingolstadt, should be given up to him. This arrangement was signed at Hohenlinden (Sept. 20.) and France immediately demolished the fortifications of these two places Hostilities having recommenced about the end of November, General Mo- ^-jai»i;;itf JBWtfWtft^i ^ vriiw.^** )sutthe beginning inns in Italy, open- mnnner. In con- Masscna at Voltri imscif into Genoa, th great courage. 11,) and Souchel ut, in a short lime, collected at Dijon, an (.June 2;) while in existence. For^ to surrender Genoa e corps of General cult, with his small mbitants, of whom c or disease during Borthierat Monte- enerul Bonaparte at r within his grasp, his division, disap- id a most discourag- ustria the whole of It Alessandria (June own ; as well as of Sec. The Austrians ad passed the Rhine engagements. The 'alatinate. Moreao h, when he received then concluded an int St. Julien, who I. to Paris, having sufficient authority, [IS they had engaged ngland. Hostilities onth of September ; le Austrian army in should be prolonged, It Philipsburg, Ulm, This arrangement France immediately places. Hostilities ember. General Mo- period IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815. 453 reau defeated the army of the Archduke John, at the memorable baillo of Jlohcnlindt'u (Dec. 3 ;) after which he marched in all haste on Vienna. Austria being released from her engagements by the Cabinet of London, then declared that she was determined to make peace, whatever might be the resolutions of England; on which a new armistice was concluded at Steyr {Dec. 25.) Braunau and Wurtzburg were delivered up to the French. General Brune, who commanded in Italy, renewed the truce of Alessandria by the convention of Castiglione (Sept. 29,) and thus gained time to take possession of Tuscany, which they had forgot to include in the truce. Being reinforced by the army of Macdoiiald, who had arrived in Lonibardy, he passed the Brenta ; after traversing, by a perilous march, the lofty mountain of Splu- gen. In virtue of a new truce, signed at Treviso, the French obtained the recovery of Peschiera, the forts of Verona, Legnago Fermo, and Ancona. Meantime, negotiations for peace had been entered into at Luneville, between Joseph Bonaparte and Count Louis de Cobenzl. The First Consul having refused to ratify the armis- tice of Treviso, because it had left Mantua in the hands of the Austrians, the Imperial plenipotentiary at Luneville signed an additional convention, by which that place was delivered over to the French. Peace between Austria and France was signed a few days after (Feb. 9 ;) and Francis II., at the same time, made stipulations for the Empire. He ceded the Belgic provinces, the county of Falkenstein and Frickthal. In Italy, the frontier line between Austria and the Cisalpine Republic was traced, so that the Adige should separate the two States, and the cities of Verona and Porto Legnago should be divided between them. The other conditions were, that the Grand Duke of Modena should have Brisgau in exchange for his dutchy ; that the Grand Duke of Tuscany should renounce his grand dutchy, and receive a free and competent indemnity in Germany ; that the F t'-je should give up all the left bank of the Rhine ; that the here-.u-^^ry princes, who lost their territories in consequence of these v sa- sions, should receive compensation from the Empire ; and lastly, that the Germanic Body should ratify the peace within the space of thirty days. By a secret article, Saltzburg, Berchtolsgaden, Passau, the bishopric and city of Augsburg, Kempten, and twelve other immediate abbeys, besides nineteen Imperial cities in Swabia, including Ulni and Augsburg, were secured to the Grand Duke of Tuscany. The Empire showed great anxiety to ratify this peace, which was the precursor of its annihilation The English had compelled General Vaubois to surrender the Isle of Malta. After the flight of Bonaparte from Egypt, Kleber ■fr . } tfti!- 1:^1 4' w i'- -'^ HMWiWMMi mmk^maimfmtfUH^ 454 CHArrRn x. hud taken the coinmnnd of the French army, which was thnn reduced to 12,000 men. A convcntiori was conchided at El Ariscli with the Oriuid Vi/i(!r who had arrived from S^ria at tlie head of a formidable army, by which the French General engaged to evacuate the country. The English government having refused to ratify this treaty, unless Kleber would surren- der himself prisoner of war, timt General immediately attacked the Grand Vizier, and defeated him at El Hanka (March 20 ;) after which he again subdued Cairo, which had raised the stand- ard of revolt. The English Government were willing to ratify the convention of the 24tli January ; but General Menou having succeeded Kleber who had fallen by the dagger of u Turkish fanatic, was determined to maintain himself in Egypt, in spite of an evident impossibility. Sir Ralph Abercromby, the Eng- lish commander, who arrived with a British force, effected his landing at Aboukir (March 8, 1801.) Menou was defeated in the battle of Rahmanieh, near Alexandria (March 21,) which cost General Abercromby his life. But the French soon saw themselves assailed on all hands by the Turks and the English, who had been recalled from the East Indies, and had disem- barked on the shores of the Red Sea. General Belliard, who had the command at Cairo, concluded a capitulation (June 27,) in virtue of which he was sent back to France with the troops under his orders. Menou found himself obliged to follow his example, and capitulated at Alexandria to General Hutchinson (Aug. 30,) who consented to the safe conveyance of the French troops to their native country. Thus ended an expedition, which, had it proved successful, must have become fatal to the British Empire in India, and given a new direction to the com- merce of the world. Various treaties were concluded between the peace of Lune- ville and that of Amiens, which put an entire end to the war. (1.) General Murat,who commanded the army in Italy, having shown some disposition to carry the war into the kingdom of Naples, Ferdinand IV. concluded nn armistice at Foligno (Feb. 18,) which he afterwards converted into a treaty of peace at Flo- rence. He gave up the State of Presidii, and his share of the island of Elba and of the principality of Piombino. By a secret article, he agreed that 16,000 French troops should occupy the peninsula of Otranto and part of Abruzzo, until the conclusion of peace with England and the Porte. (2.) Portugal, since the year 1797, had wished to withdraw from the first coalition, and even concluded a peace with the Executive Directory at Paris (Aug. 10 ;) but the English stjuadron of Admiral St. Vincent having entered the Tagus, the Queen refused to ratify that Ifnn iiiB I ^t tiv it ■iM^ttUt*''^- • which was ihon iH concluiiod at El v(!il from Syria at he French General nplish povernment el>er would surren- iincdiately attacked Ianl{a (March 30 ;) lad raised the stand- ore willing to ratify neral Mcnou having ugger of u Turkish r in Egypt, in spite Hircromby, the Eng- h force, effected his nou was defeated in (March 21,) which e French soon saw rks and the English, ies, and had disein- ncral Belliard, who pituhition (June 27,) mce with the troops )bliged to follow his General Hutchinson ?yance of the French ided an expedition, e become fatal to the direction to the com- n the peace of Lune- itire end to the war. rmy in Italy, having into the kingdom of tice at Foligno (Feb. rcaty of peace at Flo- and his share of the }mbino. By a secret ps should occupy the until the conclusion ) Portugal, since the he first coalition, and e Directory at Paris Admiral St. Vincent efused to ratify that PIRIOD IX. A. D. 1789—1815. 465 treaty. Portugal thus o itinued at war with Franco until 1801. Thf French army, which was ulready in Spain, having shown some disposition to enter Portugal, peace was concluded at Ma- drid between Lucion Bonaparte and M. Freire (Sept. 29.) the ministers of the two States at the Court of Spain. Portugal shut her ports against the English, and regulated the frontiers of Guiana, so as to prove advantageous to France. (3.) In Rus- sia Bonaparte had succeeded to a certain extent in conciliating the good will of the Emperor Paul. Nevertheless, at the death of that prince (Oct. 8, 1801,) there existed no treaty of peace between Russia and France. A treaty, however, was signed at Paris in the reign of Alexander, by Count MarkofT and Tal- leyrand (Oct. 11,) and followed by a very important special con- vention by which, among other things, it was agreed : That the two governments should form a mutual agreement, as to the principles to be followed with respect to indemnifications in Germany ; as well as to determine respecting those in Italy, and to maintain a just equilibrium between the Houses of Aus- tria and Brandeburg : That France should accept the mediation of Prussia, for the pacification with the Porte : That the inte- grality of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies should be maintained, according to the treaty of the 28th March, 1801 ; and that the French troops should evacuate the country as soon as the fate of Egypt was decided : That a friendly disposition should be shown to the interests of the King of Sardinia ; and that the Elector of Bavaria and the Duke of Wurtemberg should be com- fensated for their losses, by a full indemnity in Germany. (4.) mmediately after General Menon had signed the capitulation of Alexandria, the preliminaries of peace between France and the Porte were concluded at Paris (Oct. 9 ;) but they were not confirmed into a definitive peace, until after the preliminaries were signed at London (June 25, 1802.) The free navigation of the Black Sea was secured to the French flag. When Mr. Pitt had quitted the English ministry, France and England came to terms of better accommodation. The first ad- vances were made on the side of the latter power. The preli- minaries were signed at London, between Lord Hawkesbury and M. Otio ; including their respective allies (Oct. 1, 180L) Of all her conquests. Great Britain was to retain only the Island of Trinidad, and the Dutch possessions in Ceylon. Malta was to be restored to the Knights of St. John, under the protection of a third power ; and Egypt was to belong to the Porte. The French troops were to abandon the kingdom of Naples, and the English to quit Porto Ferrajo. France was to acknowledge the Republic of the Seven Islands, which was composed of Corfu and the six other islands formerly belonging to the Venetians ^■■'W AM CHAPTRR Z- For carrying these preliminaries into execution, a ConareM was openoci at Ami-ns, where Joseph Bonaparte appeared for France, Lord Comwallis for England, the Chevalier Azara for Spain, and M. Schimmelpenninck for the Batavjan Republ.c. Some unexpected difficulties arose with regard to Malta, ns Grea^ Britain had repented of having given it up in the preliminary treaty. They found means, however, to remove these obstacles , and the peace of Amiens was finally signed after a negotiation of six months (March 27, 1802.) We shall only take notice here in what respects these articles differed from the preliminaries. With vegaA to the stipulation respecting the surrender of Malta to the Knights of St John. sevVral modifications were added, viz. as to the election of a i^ew Grand Master; the suppression of the F';"fJ ,f "^^ ,^"8^^ Langues, or class of Knights ; the institution of a Maltese hingtu, the time for its evacuation ; and the future appointment of the earrison. Finally, it was said in the treaty, that the indepen- dence of that island and its present arrangement, were placed under the guaranty of France, Great Britain, Austria, Spain. Russia and Prussia. It may be mentioned, that Russia and Prussia declined to undertake that guarnnty, unless certain modifications were added. This refusal furnished England with a pretext for refusing to part with that island ; and the war, as we shall soon find, was recommenced rather than give up that 'T°ne Mtide o^thetreaty of Amiens having promised the Prince of Orange a compensation for the losses he had sustained m the late Republic of the United Provinces, both in private property and exMUses, another convention was signed at Amiens between France and the Batavian States, importing that that compensa- tion should in no case fall to the charge of the latter. There is one essential observation which we must make on the peace of Amiens. Contrary to the general practice, the for- mer treaties between France and Great Britain were not renewed by that of Amiens. It is not difficult to perceive the cause ot this silence. At the time when the peace of Utrecht was con- cluded, Great Britain had an interest in having the principle o. free commerce for neutral States held sacred ; and she hod con- sequently announced it in the treaty of navigation and commerce. wiJich was concluded in 1713. All the following treaties, unt 1 that of 1783 inclusive, having renewed the articles of Utpct^t, the silence on this subject at Amiens placed Great Britain, m this respect, on the footing of a common right, which, according to the system of the English, would not have been favourable to the principle of a free trade,-a doctrine which it was for their tion, a Consreu arte appcaroa for levalicr Azara for ntavian Republic, to Malta, ns Great n the preliminary re these obstacles ; 'ter a negotiation )ect8 these articles to the stipulation ights of St. John, « election of a new ?nch and English a Maltese Langiu; ippointment of the , that the indepen* ment, were placed n, Austria, Spain, ., that Russia and ity. unless certain shed England with 1 ; and the war, as than give up that )romi8ed the Prince ad sustained in the in private iiroperty at Amiens between hat that compensa- [le latter. we must make on al practice, the for- (1 were not renewed rceive the cause of f Utrecht was con- ing the principle ol 1 ; and she had con- tion and commerce, wing treaties, until articles of Utrecht, d Great Britain, in t, which, according ■ been favourable to ich it was for their #l»»jtWWitT*if^. PRjimo IT. A. n. 17S9— 1S15. 467 huoroft to siipprrss, siiirc they liad then llir rnrnmnnd of the rpr>.. VVr Imvo now i)rought down the liJMtory of the French Kev"- liilioM, from its cnnimenrornt'nt to the yonr 1802, when the Fri'iich power In-j^'aii to prepoiidcrnte in Kiiropc Tho inflii- I'Mi'o of the Hcnnhiic was i-rioriiKiusly ^rrcnt. Tlu' Nrthorlnnds and u floiirisliinp porliori of (ii-rtniuiy. ns well ns (Jeiievn, Sii- vny, and I'ii'dinoiit, were ineorjiorMtcd with the territories whifh had been governed by Louis XVI. Tho Dutch nnd the Cisal- pine States, includiiiir the Milaiiois, a considernlile part of the Venetian territories, tho dntchies of Mantua, Modena and Par- ma, besides some of the Ecciesiaslical provinces, had bowed tli«ir neck to the yoke of the First Coii.'^ii!. Tho Swiss, enslaved by the Directory, had not been al)le to recover their ancient inde- pendence. ^Tuscany and tho Ligurian Republic durst not pre- sume to dispute the will of tho conqueror ; while Spain, forget- ful of her ancient dignity, was reduced to a state of subservient and degraded alliance. It will be now necessary, according to the plan of this work, that we take a .survey of the more remark- able events which happcmod in the course of the preceding thir- teen years, in the other States of Europe. Portugal hail been a ro-partner in the first coolition against France, nnd had furnished a body of 6000 troops to Spain, ond some ships of war to England. We have already related how Mary I. was prevented from disengaging herself from the treaty of 1797. The Prince of Brazil, who had assumed the regency (July 15, 1799) in consequence of the infirm state of his mother's health, took a more decided part in the second coalition, by sign- ing an alliance with Russia (Sept. 28.) This alliance drew him into a war with Spain. The Duke of Alcudia, usually styled the Prince of Peace, seized several citi< '" ■-■■>"■"' f " xt-tunn - nn-iM t 458 CHAPTER X. ca. was on the point of interrupting the repose of this indolent monarch. But matters were adjusted by a convention signed at the Escurial (Oct. 28, 1790,) by which Spam renounced her rights over laat distant possession. The chief favourite since 1790 had been Don Manuel Godoy, created Duke of Alcudia ; a weak minister, under whom every thing became venal, and the whole nation corrupt. The revolutionary principles which had taken root there after the expulsion of the Jesuits, as sufli- cient care had not been taken to supply the place of these fathers witii other public instructors of youth, were readily propagated under so vicious an administration ; especially after the pubhca- tion of the famous Memoir of Jovellanos (1795,) on the improve- ments of agriculture and the Agrarian La^y ;. a work %yhich \yas composed by order of the Council of CastiU,., and written with clearness and simplicity. The author, no doubt deserved credit for the purity of his sentiments ; but in his enthusiasm tor the objects which he recommended, he overlooked all existing laws ; encouraged the spoliation of the church, the crovyn, and the com- munity ; as well as the suppression of corporations, and condi- tionariegacies, or liferents ; in short, a total and radical subver- sion of the institutions of the country. This work may be said to have produced a revohition in Spain ; for the Cortes of Cadiz did no more than carry into execution the schemes of Jovellanos. If the Prince of Peace failed in conducting the administration of the interior, he was not more successful in making the crown of Spain respected abroad. By the peace of Basle (July 22, 1795 ) Charles IV. renounced the Spanish part of St. Domingo. Bv the alliance ofTensive and defensive of St. Idletonso (Aug. 19 1796,) Spain identified herself with the French system. The war with Great Britain ruined her marine. Admiral Jer- vis defeated the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent (Feb. 14 1797,) commanded by Admiral Cordova. It was in this engage ment that Captain Nelson, afterwards so famous, established his fame, by the courage and conduct which he i>splayed Admiral Hervev conquered the important island of Trinidad (Feb. 18.) General Stewart without much difficulty took possession of Mi- norca (Nov. 7, 1798.) The alliance of Spain with France was also the reason why the Emperor Paul de<:lared war against her after his accession to the coalition (July 27, 1799.) ine Porte followed the example of Russia (Oct. 1, 1801.) After the peace of Luneville, a reconciliation with the former power was Lned at Paris (October 4.) The war which Spain was obliged to wage with Portugal, procured her the city of 01iven9a, which was ceded by the peace of Badajos (June 9.) By the treaty signed at St. Ildefonso, Spam surrendered Lou- ii h i ini ri nrt ii t i iiDTiiTm(a-inTiiiiu»ii«ii"il *' pose of this indolent a convention signed Spain renounced her chief favourite since d Duke of Alcudia ; g became venal, and lary principles which the Jesuits, as sufia- plare of these fathers re readily propagated ially after the publica- 795,) on the improve- w •. a work which was till-*, and written with doubt, deserved credit lis enthusiasm for the )ked all existing laws ; le crown, and the com- irporations, and condi- tal and radical subver- Dhis work may be said for the Cortes of Cadiz schemes of Jovellanos. ting the administration i\ in making the crown ■ce of Basle (July 22, h part of St. Domingo, of St. Idlefonso (Aug. ,h the French system, marine. Admiral Jer- St. Vincent (Feb. 14 It was in this engage famous, established his he displayed. Admiral of Trinidad (Feb. 18.) took possession of Mi- Spain with France was I declared war against (July 27, 1799.) The ct. 1, 1801.) After the the former power was hich Spain was obliged city of Oliven9a, which e9.) Spain surrendered Lou- _ji...ijjj ii ,, -,a PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1815. 459 isiana to Bonaparte ; and eventually the Slate of Parma (Ucto- ber 1, 1800.) She also surrendered to him five ships of the line, besides a considerable sum of money which she paid him ; and all this on the faith of his promising to procure the Grand Dutchy of Tuscany, with the title of Royalty, to the King's son-in-law, the Infant of Parma. These stipulations were more clearly established by the treaty v/hich Lucien Bonaparte and the Prince of Peace afte'rwards signed at Madrid (March 21, 1801.) The peace of Amiens cost Spain no other sacrifice than the Island of Trinidad, which she was obliged to abandon to England ; en- tirely on the decision of Bonaparte, who did not even ask the consent of Charles IV. Spain had lost all sort of respect or consideration, both from the universal and contemptible weak- ness of her government, and because she had voluntarily placed herself under dependence to France. From the very commenccnicnt of this period. Great Britain had been preserved from the influence of the revolutionary prin- ciples, which had a great many partisans in that kingdom, by the firmness of her Prime Minister, William Pitt, and the splen- did eloquence of Edmund Burke, a member of the House of Commons. Pitt consolidated the system of finance, by extend- ing the sinking fund, which he had created in 1786. He gave vigour to the government, by obtaining the suspension of the Ha- heus Corpus Act ; and by means of the Alien Bill (Jan. 4, 1793,) which allowed the magistrate an extensive authority in the sur- veillance of foreigners. The greatest number of malcontents appeared in Ireland, and these consisted chiefly of Catholics ; although an act, passed in 1793, had rendered the Catholics eligible to almost all oflicial employments. That island never- theless was the theatre of several conspiracies, the design of which was to render it independent. Their leaders acted in unison with the French, who made attempts at different times to effect a landing in that country. Fifteen thousand troops, ac- companied by eighteen sail of the line, embarked for that pur- pose from Brest harbour in the mor^th of December. But thi^s formidable armament had scarcely put '.o sea, when they were overtaken by a storm. Eight of these vessels reached the Irish coast, and appeared ofT Bantray Bay ; but they were forced from that station by another tempest, when they returned to France with the loss of two ships of the line, some frigates having nar- rowly escaped falling in with two squadrons of the English navy. At length, as a remedy for this political mischief, the union of Ireland with Great Britain was effected, so that both kingdoms should have one and the same Parliament ; and George III. as- Mijiiiiiii . matmiwi "7 M 460 CHAPTER X. sutncd the title of Kin? of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (July 2, 1800.) p . „ .; Great Britain was the moving pr.ncple of the two first coah- lions a.rainst Franco, although she fought rather with money than wUh troops. She succeeded in ruining the marine and the commerce of both France and Spain; and obtained the com- plete command of the sea. A short time before the death of kul I., she was involved in a war with the powers of the No th. The resentment of that Prince against the Cabinet of London, for refusing to put him in possession of Malta, which the English troops had seized, was the true cause of host.hties ; althoudi a litigated question of public right was made the pretext, llie point at issue was, whether the convoy granted to the merchant shins of neutral states by their sovereign, protected them from being searched by those of the belligerent powers, or not Den- mark, with whom the discussion first arose, inaintained the a( r- mative, and England the negative ; although it was not till the end of the year 1799 that she maintained this doctrine. At that time there had been some misunderstanding between Ad- miral Keith, the commander of the British forces in the Medi- terranean, and Captain Van Dockum, who was convoying a fleet of Danish merchantmen. In the month of July following he Danish frigate La Freya, which had attempted to defend her convoy against a search of the English cruisers, was taken and carried into the Downs. .,„,;„„ These acts of violence gave rise to a very warm discussion between the Courts of London and Copenhagen. The formei having sent a fleet to the Sound, commanded by Admiral Dick- son, Denmark was obliged to yield to the tempest, but in a man- ner very honourable. By a convention which was signed at Copenhagen (Aug. 29, 1800,) ihedecis.on of the question u-as remitted for further discussion. The English Government re- leased the Freya, and the King of Denmark promised to suspend ''^ ThTaccommodation did not meet with the approval of the Emneror Paul. That prince, who entertained lofty ideas, but who yielded too often to his passions, had determined to revive th.) principles of the Armed Neutrality, according to the treaty of 1780, and to compel England to acknowledge them. He in- vited Denmark and Sweden, in so very peremptory a manner, to join with him for this purpose, that these States could not refuse their consent without coming to an open rupture with him. 1 hi8 agreement with the courts of Copenhagen, Sweden and Berh r was finally settled by the conventions signed at St. Petersburg (Dec. 16, and 18.) As Great Britain could not find a more con- JJ *> ^ i tf >* Tr -- " ■^■i«y*^.-iM irKKT-tinmrOTi; t fpn"' "»»' PERIOD IX. A. D. 17S9 — 1S15. 4GS parte in Lombard/, Ferdinand IV. avertcU the storm which threatened him, by signing first a suspension of arms at Brescia (June 5 1798,) and the peace of Paris a few months after, which he obtained on honourable conditions. We have already mentioned, that he was one of the first sovereigns who entered into the second coalition against France ; and that the precip- itancy with which he then commenced hostilities, proved pre- judicial to the success of the war, as well as disastrous to^ him- self. He did not regain possession of the kingdom of Naples till after the retreat of Macdonald in 1799 ; and he purchased pence (March 28, 1800) at the expense of receiving into his kingdom 16,000 French troops, who remained there until the conclusion of the treaty between Alexander and Bonaparte. The combined fleets of Turkey and Russia had subdued th« islands that formerly belonged to the Venetians, viz. Corfu, Zante, Cephalonia, St. Maura, Ithaca, Paxo, and Cerigo. Ac- cording to a convention concluded at Constantinople between Russia and the Porte (March 21, 1800,) these islands were to form an independent State, although subject to the Ottoman Em- pire, under the name of the Republic of the Seven Islandt This Republic, was acknowledged in subsequent treaties by France and Great Britain. By the peace of Basle, Germany had been divided into two parts; the North, at the head of which was Prussia; and the South, where Austria had the predominancy, in consequence ot her armies, and by the favour of the ecclesiastical Princes ; for the secular States abandoned her as often as they could do so with impunity. By a convention which Prussia concluded at Basle with France (May 17, 1795,) the neutrality of the North of Gennany was recognised, on conditions which the Princes situ- ated beyond the line of demarcation were anxious to fulfil. Prussia afterwards concluded arrangements with these States for establishing an army of observation. This defection created no small animosity between the Courts of Berlin and Vienna, which the French dexterously turned to their own advantage ; especially during the sitting of the Congress at Rastadt. In vain did the Emperor Paul, who had determined to make war against the Republic, attempt to restore harmony between these two leading States. He was equally unsuccessful m his pro- ject of drawing Prussia into the coalition. Although Frederic II. had been deceived by France, who, after having promised him, in a secret convention concluded at Berlin (August 5, 1798,) a compensation proportioned to the loss which he had flusiamed by ceding the left bank of the Rhine, entered into en- gagements directly opposite, by the secret articles in the treaty 30 r I T !/, I: 1!p^' i ( _^ . ...- k. ■11 466 CHAPTER X. ;si'uy^tc,:tr.i:i"ti p™i." «-»- "p^™"'' •» their '^^-XT^^AfZrlnZ S'ei was assembled at War- to avoid the i«co,.vea.ences of jjf/''*^;^^;;;;,, of Russia enter mto an f '"^^« «S7J.VJ;',i,;;vho, in consequence of his ^"tSs resohuion of the Diet could not but displease the Em- ores VRusia, who remonstrated against .t as a d.reci mfrac- E of the ar tides agreed between her and the Republic in ?;«; The p£, who thus foresaw that the changes which thev had in view wLd embroil them with that princess, ought tS h^aJe consi^e^d. in the first place, how to put themselves in o a good state of defence. But instead of P^o^^^l^l^L^l^^Z Sg S; r;;?; it th?cUtution which had Wn submit- »iiiwiiW I MIIIW i .lWWI! PKnioD IX. A. D. 1789 — 1»16. 467 William III., who ainud rnithful to a inances appeared to transplanted into en on a soil well root. By the peace the loft bank of the id the momeni was nfall of the German 1 with a strange ma- fi their very founda- csi'cs which appear u the North another by their neighbours, luthority of the laws, go of a foreign yoke. ,t while the forces of and the Turks, as we 3ft at liberty to alter to the government of as assembled at War- onfcderation, in order mm Veto, and of the he Empress of Russia o engage the Poles to le was thwarted in her in consequence of his eftbrt to instigate the lem, by offering them lir government, which ommittee of Legisla- sioned to draw up the lew energy to the Re- but displease the Ern- st it as a direct infrac- r and the Republic in lat the changes which th that princess, ought to put themselves into roviding for the melio- my of the Republic on nsidcrablo time in dis- ^hich had been submit- ted to them. The assurance of protection from Prussia, which hnil been officially ratified to them, rendered the Poles too con- fident ; and the treaty of alliance which the King of Prussia had in effect concluded with the Republic (March 29, 1790,) began to lull them into a profound security. Stanislaus Augustus, after having long hesitated as to the party he ought to espouse, at length voluntarily joined that party in the Diet who wished to extricate Poland fronj that state of degradation into which she had fallen. The new constitution was accordingly decreed by acclamation (May 3, 1791.) However imperfect that constitution might appear, it was in unison with the state of civilization to which Poland had arriv ed. It corrected several of the errors an abandoned to lonarch towards Po- ; Empress of Russia It of that kingdom. iroi,c entertained for rolution, with which, Cing and the nation mon except appcar- ourt of Berlin ; and engagements which It was then that the cir situation. Their re thrown into a state onvulsed by intestine lity to oppose an ene- npaign of 1792 turned 'atriotic party. Af\er 1 on Warsaw ; when xcded to the confede- itution of the 3d May, I'^arsaw. That prince conditions which the n. A suspension of the reduction of the igemenls entered into ention of St. Peters- entered Poland, and pie of the Russians. )f Berlin and St. Pe* icts of Poland which ith their own domin- 1791, and the propa* the French, were the ind. 1 PKnionix. A. p. 1789— lRf/5- 469 Prni'sia Iruik |>oh»es9io« of the \ntgPT pfirl of Great Poland. In* cluiiint,' tlie cilicH of Dantzic and Thorn ; l\w f^>wn of CzeiistO' fhowii in Little Poland was also ndjiidged to her, with its fron- tier exiondiiig to the rivers Piiicrt, Sterniewka, Jezowka, nnd Bziira. The loft bank of thoso rivers was assigned to Prussia, and the right ros'.«rved to Poland. The portion awarded to the fornier, t-ontaiiioi'. ono thousand and sixty-one Oertnt'in srpiaro miles, and one iniliion Uvo hundred thousand inhabitants. Rus- sia got nearly tlvo half nf Lithuania, including the Palatinates of Podolia, Pololsl' aiul Minsk, n part of the Palatinate of Wilna, with the half of Novogrodok, Brzo.sf, and Volhynia ; in all, four thousand five hundred and fifiy-lhroe Gorman square milcf and containing threo millions of inhabitants. The Poles were obliged to yield up, by treaties, those pro- vinces which the two powers had seized. The treaty between Poland and Russia was signed at the Diet of Grodno (July 13, 1793.) But that v/ith the King of Prussia met with the most decided opposition ■ and it was necessary to use threats of com- pnl'iion before it was consunnnutod. On this occasion, these tv/o powers renounced anew the rights and pretensions which they might still have against the Republic under any denomina- tion whatsoever. They agreed to acknowledge, and if it should be required, uIro to guarantee the constitution which should be established by ih'.' Diet with the free consent of the Polish nation. After these treaties, came a treaty of alliance and union be- tween Russia and Poland (October 16, 1793,) the third article of which guaranteed their mutual assistance in case of attack ; the direction of the war was reserved to Russia, as well as the privilege of sending her troops into Poland, and forming maga* vcines there, when she might judge it necessary ; while Poland agreed to enter into no connexion with foreign powers, and to make no (^Ii^nge in her constitution, except with the approbation of Russia The portion that was left to the Republic, either in Poland or Lithuania, contained three thousand eight hundred and three square miles, with somewhat more than three mil- lions r.f inhabitants. This State was divided into eighteen palatinates, ten of which were in Poland, and eight in Lithua- nia. To each of these palatinates were assigned two senators, \ palatine, a castellain, and six deputies to sit in the Diet. These diflerent treaties, and the grievances of which the Poles had just cause to complain, threw the public mind into a ftate of agitation, which in the following year broke out into a general insurrection. A secret association was formed at War- saw ; it found numerous partisans in the army, which was to have been disbanded according to the arrangements with Rus- r*.! rt iSi I ' H »* ^_.:». _ 470 CHAPTER X sia The conspirators chose Thaddeus Kosciuszko for theii chief, in this projected insurrection against Russia. That gen- eral had distinguished himself in the American war under Washington ; he had very recently signalized his bravery in the campaign of 1792 ; and after the unfortunate issue of that war, he had retired into Saxony with a few othei^ patriots, who were ready to exert their energy in the cause of freedom. The in- surgents reckoned with confidence on the assistance of Austria, who had taken no part in the last dismemberment of Poland , they flattered themselves that Turkey and Sweden would not remain mere spectators of the eflbrts which they were making to regain their liberty and their independence. Kosciuszko :md wished that they should postpone the execu- tion of their plan, in order to gam more time for preparation ; especially as a suspicion was excited among the Russians. He even retired into Italy, where he remained until one of his ac- complices, who had been ordered, as a propagator of sedition, to banish Aimself from the Polish territories, informed him that his countrymen wished him to appear among them without de- lay, as a better opportunity might not soon arise. Madalinski, who commanded a brigade of cavalry under the new govern- ment, when summoned to disband them, refused ; and throwing ofl* the mask, gave the sigt.al for insurrection. He suddenly quitted his station, crossed the Vistula, and after having dis- persed some detachments of Prussians, whom he encountered m his route, he marched directly to Cracow, where he erected the standard of revolt. The inhabitants took arms, expelled the Russian troops who were quartered in that city, and pro- claimed Kosciuszko their General. A sort of dictatorship was conferred upon him (March 24, 1794,) which was to continue so long as their country was in danger. He took an oath of fidel- ity to the nation, and of adherence to the principles stated in the act of insurrection, by which war was declared against the invaders of their rights and liberties. The Russians and Prussians immediately despatched their troops to arrest the progress of the insurrection. The defeat oi a body of Russians near Raslavice, by Kosciuszko, inspired the insurgents with new courage. The inhabitants of Warsaw rose in like manner against the Russians, who had a garrison there of 10,000 men, under the command of General Igelstrom. It was on the night of the 17th April that the tocsin of revoh was sounded in the capital ; the insurgents seized the arsenal, and distributed arms and ammunition among the people. A brisk cannonade took place between the Russians and the Poles. The combat continued for two successive days, in which several •ifgit'iiit-'rWiiT siOL- iKosciuszko for theii Russia. That gen- merican war under |zed his bravery in the late issue of that war, le' patriots, who were )i freedom. The in- assistance of Austria, fnberment of Poland , d Sweden would not h they were making ence. d postpone the execu< time for preparation ; ng the Russians. He ■d until one of his ac- opagator of sedition, to es, informed him that long them without de- )n arise. Madalinski, under the new govern- refused ; and throwing rection. He suddenly and after having dis- whom he encountered :ow, where he erected ts took arms, expelled in that city, and pro- )rt of dictatorship was lich was to continue so > took an oath of fidel- le principles stated in IS declared against the ately despatched their •ection. The defeat oi osciuszko, inspired the ihabitants of Warsaw , who had a garrison I of General Igelstrom. at the tocsin of revolt Its seized the arsenal, mong the people. A lussions and the Poles, days, in which several FERIOO IX. A. D. i7£M — 1816. 471 thousands of the Russians perished, while 4S00 were made pri- •oner". Igulslrom escaped from the city with about 3000 men. The same insurrection broke out at Wilna, from whence it ex- tended ever all Lithuania. Several Polish regiments who had entered into the service of Russia, changed sides, and enlisted under the banners of the insurgents. In spite of their first success, it was soon perceived tha^ Poland was deficient in the necessary resources for an enter- prise of such a nature as that in which they were engaged. The great body of the citizens were neither sufHciently numer- ous nor sufficiently wealthy, to serve ns a centre for the revolu- tion which they had undertaken ; and the servitude in which the peasantry were kept, wns but ill calculated to inspire them with enthusiasm for a cause in which their masters only were to be the gainers. Besides, the patriots were divided in opin- ion ; and the King, although he appeared to approve their ef forts, inspired so much mistrust by his weakness and timidity, that he was even accused of secretly abetting the interests of Russia. Lastly, the nobles who alone ought to have shown courage and energy, were found but little disposed to give any effectual support to the cause of liberty. Every contribution appeared to them an encroachment on their prerogatives ; and they were as much averse to a levy en masse as to the raising of recruits, which deprived them of their tenantry. They were, moreover, afraid of losing those rights and privileges which they exclusively enjoyed. Under these considerations, Kosciuszko was convinced that it was inipossible for him to organize an armed force equal to that of the Russians and the Prussians, who were acting in concert to defeat the measures of the insurgents. After some inferior operations, an important engagement took place on the confines of the Palatinates of Siradia and Cujavia (June 8, 1794,) where he sustained a defeat ; in consequence of which the King of Prussia made himself master of Cracow. That prince, supported by a body of Russian troops, undertook, in person, the siege of Warsaw. The main forces of the insurgents were assembled under the walls of that city. They amounted to about 22,000 combatants, while the enemy had more than 50,000. The siege of Warsaw continued nearly two months, when a general msur rection, which had spread from Great Poland into Western Pros sia, obliged the King to retire, that he might arrest the progress of the insurrection in his own dominions. The joy of the insurgents, on account of this incident, was but of short duration. The Court of Vienna, which till then had maintained a strict neutrality, resolved also to despatch on • 1 "«' •^- i^^- 472 CHAPTER X. army into Poland. This army was divided into two columns, one of which marched on Brzesci, and the other on Dowhno. On the other hand, the Russians under the command of Suwo- row, advanced into Lithuania, and pursued u body of the m««ur- gents, who were commanded by Sirakowski. Kosciuszko. whc now saw the great superiority of the enemy, made a last effort to prevent the junction of the army of Suwarow with that of Baron de Fersen, the Russian General. Directing his march towards the latter, he fought a bloody battle with him near Matchevitz (Oct. 10, 1794.) The action continued from sunrise till beyond mid-day. Six thousand of the Polish army perishet* on the field, and the test were made prisoners. Kosciuszko was himself dangerously wounded, and fell into the hands of the conqueior. He had endeavoured to escajpe by the swiftness of his horse, but was overtaken by some of the Cossacs; one of whom, without knowing him, run him through the back with his lance. Falling senseless from his horse, he was carried to a monastery ; when it was intimated, by one of his officers, that he was the Commander-in-chief. Surgical aid was immediately administered to him, and he was soon after conveyed to St. Petersburg. , „ i tu • This disaster quite dejected the courage of the Poles. Their Generals, Dombrowski and Madalinski, who were carrying on the war in Prussia and Great Poland, abandoned these provinces, and marched with their troops to the relief of Warsaw. Suwa row likewise directed his march towards that capital, and was there joined by a considerable body of Prussians, under Dorfel- den and Fersen, in conjunction with whom he commenced the blockade of that city (Nov. 4.) The Russians, who amounted to 22,000 men, prepared for an attack of the entrenchments of Praga, one of the suburbs of Warsaw. The Poles, who had a body of between eight and ten thousand men, made a courage- ous defence ; but nothing could withstand the ardour and im- petuosity of the Russians, who were burning with rage to avenge the blood of their countrymen who were massacred at Warsaw. Three batteries had Seen erected in the night; and the two first divisions, though harassed by a vigorous fire in every direc- tion except the rear, bravely surmounted every obstacle. In the apace of four hours, they carried the triple entrenchment of Pra- ga by main force. Rushing into tae place, they pursued their adversaries through the streets, put the greater part of them to the sword, and drove one thousand into the Vistula. In this scene of action, a regiment of Jews made an obstinate defence, and at length were totally extirpated. Thirteen thousand of the Poles, it IS said, were left dead on the spot ; two thousand were into two columns, other on Dowhno. ommand of Suwa- budy of the in«iir- KoRciuszko. who made a last eflbrt rarow with that of irecting his march tie with him near inued from sunrisp )lish army perishe<' Kosciuszico was the hands of the by the swiftness of le Cossacs; one of >ugh the back with , he was carried to of his ofRcers, that lid was immediately ler conveyed to St. f the Poles. Their were carrying on ned these provinces, f Warsaw. Suwa lat capital, and was sians, under DorfeU he commenced the ians, who amounted le entrenchments of i Poles, who had a 'n, made a courage- the ardour and im- with rage to avenge ssacred at Warsaw, night; and the two 1 fire in every direc- ry obstacle. In the itrenchment of Pra- they pursued their iter part of them to le Vistula. In this 1 obstinate defence, een thousand of the two thousand werr PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — 18i6 473 drowned in the Vistula, and between fourteen and fifteen thou- sand were made prisoners. The suburb of Praga was pillnired, and razed to the foundation. Terror seized the inhabitants of Warsaw, aod they determined to capitulate. Suwnrow made his triumphant entry into that capital, and was prc-enterl with the keys of the city (Nov. 9.) The Polish troops laid cJotvu their arms ; the insurrection was quelled ; and the greaterpari of those who had distingiiishcd themselves in it, were arrested by the Russians. The Kingr of Poland retired to Grodno ; and the final dismemberment of that country was agreed upon by the three allied powers. The Court of Berlin having signified their intention of retain- ing Cracow and the neighbouring country, of which their troops had just taken possession, Austria, who was also desirous of pro- curing that part of Poland, took advantage of the distontent which the conduct of Prussia during the campaign o( 1794, and her retreat from the ensuing coalition, had excited in the Em press of Russia, and entered into a separate negotiation with the Court of St. Petersburg. They arranged privately between themselves, as to the shares which were to fall to each. An act. in form of a declaration, was signed at St. Petersburg, between these two courts (Jan. 3, 1795,) purporting, that the Cabinet of Berlin should be invited to accede to the stipulations therein contained; in consideration of the offer which the two courtfi made to acquiesce in the reunion of the remainder of Poland with the Prussian monarchy, and the engagement which they entered into to guarantee that acquisition. A negotiation was afterwards set on foot with the Court of Berlin, which was protracted to a great length ; as that Court, who were ignorant of the engagement which Catherine had come under to secure Cracow to Austria, had always entertained the hopo of being able to retain it themselves. It was only when the act of the 3d January was communicated to them, that they agreed to a' special convention with the Court of Vienna, which was signed at St. Petersburg (Oct. 24, 1796.) The city of Cra cow was abandoned to Austria, who, on her side, resigned in favour of the King of Prussia a portion of the territory which the declaration of the 3d January preceding had secured to her. It was settled, that the limits of the Palatinate of Cracow should be regulated between these two powers, under the mediation of the Court of St. Petersburg. Stanislaus had then no other al- ternative left, than to resign his crown into the hands of the Em- press of Russia. The act of his abdication was dated at Grodno (Nov. 26, 1795.) It WHS bv these dificxent conventions, that Russia obtained hU If 4"* *i- IM ■p^ , * itm ■ ^^\tt '*t4t3^pMWH@HIM^- --■^v:- ■■'m-t^f^ 474 CHAPTER X. that remained of Poland and Lithuania, as far as the Niemen nna the confines of Brzesci and Novogrodek. bhe likewise ined the greater part of Samogitia, with the whole of Cour- oDtainea '"^ o , r . ^ ^ gijgg „ Little Poland, that t' oT thf tS y of Ihelm situated on the right bank of the C and the remaUer of Volhynia; in «- containing about two thousand square miles, with one million two hundred ^^AtSi^rrassigned. in addition to the principal part of Cracow the whole Palatinates of Sendom r and Lublin, with part the district of Chelm. and the Pa aUnates of B"e«c., whfch Hes on this side of the Niemen, as well as the small dis- uSn L tt"e Poland, making part of the Palatinate of Cracow ; h:':hr:onsisting of abSu? one thousand J^erman «jua^^^^ miles with a population of one million. Finally, by a suDse ^uen convendo.1 which was concluded at St. Pfrsburg {Jan. ^'mh the three co-participant Courts arranged among them- sSves as to the manneJ of discharging the debts of th^ KHig and the Republic of Poland. They »g^««ft bank of the Bug ; thirty-four thousand an of inhabitants, latinates of Masovia the Bug ; in Lithu- ki and of Samogitia rell as the small dis- alatinate of Cracow; ind German square Finally, by a subse- St. Petersburg (Jan. rranged among them- e debts of the King ed by this same con- 1 annuity of 200,000 was not yet perceived ret possession of the ture and industry of L wise administration, ! day have a powerful Empress Catherine, e eulogies of the phi- their new doctrines, lie then declared her- ench Revolution, and ^terminate the Repub- irms herself, and only nner, and by conclud- at of Drontningholm r St. Petersburg with y 12, 1782,) and that me city with Prussia. from the list, she re« PRHioD IX. A. u. 17c(a — 1816. 475 ■oived to send into the field the sixty thousand men ivhich Eng' land waR to take into pay. The treaty was on the eve of being signed, when the Empress was suddenly cut off by death {Nov. 17, 1796.) Paul, her successor, refused to sanction that treaty. We have already noticed the active hand which that monarch took in the war of 1799 against France ; and we have already mentioned the unsuccessful attempt which he made to revive the principles of the armed neutrality. This Emperor, who wanted stead- iness and consistency, published at his coronation (April 5, 1797,) a fundamental law regarding the order of succession to the throne. This law, intended to prevent those revolutions which the unsettled state of the throne had produced in Russia, es- tablished a mixed lineal succession, agreeably to the order of primogeniture ; admitting females only in case of the total extinction of the male descendants oi the male line of Paul ; and defining with the most scrupulous exactness, the order in which females and their descendants should succeed to the throne. But being weak and narrow-minded, and incapable of discharging his imperial functions, he entailed upon himself the Hatred of both the nobility and the people. He met with a violent death, having been murdered by a party of daring con- spirators (March 24, 1801.) Alexander, who succeeded his unfortunate father, lost no time in restoring peace to his dominions, by entering into an arrange- ment with Great Britain (June 17,) by which he abandoned the principles of free trade for neutral vessels ; admitting that even a convoy should not protect these from being subjected to a search or visitation, when ordered by the Captain of a vessel belonging to the public navy of a belligerent state. He like- wise concluded peace with France and Spain (Oct. 4, 8.) Sweden had extricated herself without loss from the war which Gustavus III. had imprudently commenced. That Prince had succeeded in extending the royal prerogative, and making the Diet adopt the fundamental act of union and secu- rity (March 29, 1792,) vesting in himself the right of making war and peace, which according to the former order of things, he could only exeicise with the concurrence of the States. Be- ing endowed with an ardent and heroic character, he had pro- potied to march at the head of the armies which Louis XVI. nad set on foot ; but he fell the victim of a conspiracy formed by the discontented nobles, leaving his son a minor. The Regency of the Duke of Sudermania, during the minor- ity of Gustavus IV., was infested by jealousies and intrigues ; while the finances, which were under bad management, fell ..'M %* x'hl ■U . II I triifii'iiiff iif TllTr- 470 OHAfTBB XI. gradually mlo a state of disorder. The policy of the Re^en. Tva-s decidedly f..r the maintenance of peace. The vourg King hi n.elf assumed the reins of government (Nov^-^' ^^ ^^^^^^^^ Althoujrh he had e .tered into the league of the INorih, tormea bv Pau! I for the maintenance ..f the mant.me rights of neu- ril State L acceded shortly after to the opposite systen., to M Alexander 1. had declared h.mself favourable Christian VII. had reigned m Denmark «'"^« ™ ' ^^^^^^^^^ the last twenty years, the Prince Royal and Count Bernstorr had Ken at L\ead of his councils. Under their adm.nistra- !;;JX" kingdom nourished in P-f-d pea^ jv^^^^^^^^^ for an instant been nterrupled, except in 1800, by i"^ ^^xauou .Jeatment which the Danish ships had met with on the part of il%Z. Denmarkwasthefirs^of the European powers that abolished the African slave trade (May 16, 179b.) CHAPTER XI- PERIOD IX. The Military Preponderarue of Prameunderthe mayofNa poleon Bonaparte, a. d. 1802—1810. In the period on which we are now entering, and which com- orehends^eight years, we shall find Napoleon Bonaparte devot- rnThis unremitting efforts to a threefold project, the object of which was to secure for himself the empire of the world. The first of^hese was to render the monarchical government hered,. Ty in his family, preparatory to the introduction of a unjveml dominion; the next was to extend the boundaries ot Fnn^e, and The last to surround that country, not with a multitude of Slnublics as the Directory had done, but with a number of J^t^^mTnar^w':, the exisSnce of which should be - amal^J Sited with his own dynasty, that they must stand or faU wiA it We shall find him keeping these projects incessantly in view, so that every step whicn he took towards the accomplish- ment of the one. was calculated at the same time to advance the "^BctiTethe end of the year 1801. a council, composed of 450 deputies of the Cisalpine Republic, was assembled at Ly«ns, "> order to deliberate as to the changes to be made m the cons tu t;on. which was assimilated more and "-o'^to the^-^'Xc '^ forni. In the mean time, the Presidency of 'he u-pubhc xvas llc^ cy of the Receni The vourg King ovembijr 1, 1796.) the North, formed time rights of neu- opposite system, to trourable. since 1766 ; but for d Count Bernstorf er their administra- euce which had not DO, by the vexatious with on the part of ropean powers timt 1796.) tider the sway of Na 1—1810. ring, and which com- mon Bonaparte devot- project, the object of B of the world. The il government heredi- luction of a universal undaries of France ; with a multitude of It with a number of should be so amalga* lust stand or fall with rojects incessantly in irards the accomplish- e time to advance the icil, composed of 450 lembled at Lyons, in made in the constitu- re to the monarchii-al of 'he aI ^public wa« PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 477 conferred on Bonaparte (January 26, 1802,) under the title of (he Italian Republic. Notwithstanding the easy triumph which the constitution oi the year Eight had gained, by dissolving the Legislative Body of France, dissension was not long in breaking out among its member? ; and an opposition was formed which, coiulomnpd n, silence, had no other means of manifesting itself, than by secret- ly thwarting the views of the government. There was, liowcver, another opposition which appeared among the members of the tribunate, and which greatly irritated Bonaparte, by openly at- tacking his projects of legislation. The period had now arrived, wnen one-fifth part of the members of these two bodies were to retire. But the new convention, in settling this partial altera- tion, were divided as to the mode of proceeding ; or rather it was the general opinion, that the ex-members should be deter- mined by lot. This temporary vacancy furnished Bonaparte v/ith a pretext for getting rid of all those whose pre.sence had laid him under any sort of restraint. A decree of the Conser- vative Senate, of the 22d Ventose, in the year Ten (March 13, 1802,) turned out twenty of the tribunes, and sixty of the le- gislators ; and supplied their places with members taken from the lists formed by the Electoral Colleges of the Departments. Having thus discovered what advantages might accrue to him from an institution which Sieycs had contrived for balancing the authority of the government, from that moment he convert- ed the Senate into an instrument for sanctioning his own mea- sures. A notification from the French ambassador in Switzerland announced that the Valais>hould henceforth form an Independ- ent Republic (April 3.) The inhabitants had not requested this favour ; it was granted to them because Bonaparte wished to get possession of the Simrlon, preparatory to the union of that country with France. The second decree of the New Consti- tution of the 6th Floreal (April 26,) granted a general amnesty to all emigrants who should return within the space of three months, and take the oath of allegiance. All their property that remained unsold was restored to them, except the forests. About a thousand individuals were excepted from this act of justice, which strengthened the authority of Bonaparte by conciliating the public opinion in his favour. Immediately after this, Bonaparte submitted to the Tribunate and the Legislative Body a plan for the institution of a Legion of Honour (May 10.) This Legion was to be composed of fif- teen cohorts of Dignitaries for life. The First Consul was the Chief of the Legion ; each cohort was to be composed of seven (It )'! m r \rm(.llnt^arf»Wmi^fTlmf 478 CHAPTER XI. Grand Officers, twentj Commandants, thirty Officers, and three hundred Logionarifis. The object of Bonaparte evidently wns to esinblii^h n new aristocracy. But the minds of the Council were so little prepared for this proposition, and so contrary was it 10 the republican ideas with which they were still imbued, thm it passed but by a very small majority, and the First Consul thouirhi proper to delay carrying it into execution. For some time the First Consul had been in negotiation with Pope Pius VII. nn the affairs of religion. He had adjusted a Concordat with liis Holiness, subjecting public worship to the superintendence of ten prelates of the highest rank, and fifty bishops. This famous Concordat was signed at Paris (July 15.' and ratified at Rome (Aug. 15,) 1801. It was afterwards sub- mitted for the acceptance of the French nation, and adopted by a very great majority. The Sabbath and the four grand festi- vals were restored ; and from this date the government ceased to follow the decennary system. This was the first abandon- ment of the Republican calendar. Bonaparte hoped to attach to liimself the sacerdotal party, the order most disposed for pas- sive obedience ; and in this manner to balance the clergy against the Royalists, and the Pope against the interests of the Coali- tion. The Concordat was ratified with great pomp in the church of Notre Dumo by the Senate, the Legislative Body, the Tri- bune, and the public functionaries. The First Consul appeared in tlic ancient court carriage, with all the circumstances and eti- quette of royalty. Another law of the Constitution of the 30th of Floreal (May 20,) sanctioned the Slave Trade in the colonies restored to France by the treaty of Amiens, and in the French colonies sit- uated beyond the Cfape of Good Hope. By this law, however, slavery was not restored in St. Domingo. That colony was un- der the dominion of the Negroes, who, after having massacred the Whites, and committed barbarities which surpass even those of the French Revolution, had succeeded in establishing their independence. After the preliminaries signed at London, Bo- naparte had sent an expedition to that Island, having on board 40,000 men, commanded by his brother-in-law General Le Clerc. On their arrival at St. Domingo, the French took possession of the town of Cape Francois, which was the seat of government, as well as of several other places. Toussaint L'Ouverture, ori- ginally a slave, and raised to be the Chief of the Blacks, sub- mitted to the French ; but General Le Clerc, having afterwards arrested him, had him conveyed to France where he died. This circumstance excited the Blacks to a new revolt under the com- mand of Christophe, the relative and friend of Toussaint ; and 'i >l> ii |l|.M"HIHW l l li) Officers, and three mrie evidently wpm irids of the Council lid so contrary was re still imbued, thm the First Consul ution. in negotiation with He had adjusted a ublic worship to the lest rank, and fifty d at Paris (July 15/. was afterwards sub- tion, and adopted by the four grand festi- government ceased the first abandon- irte hoped to attach lost disposed for pas- ice the clergy against iterests of the Coali- nt pomp in the church ntivc Body, the Tri- 'irst Consul appeared :ircumstances and eti- 30th of Floreal (May colonies restored to e French colonies sit- Jy this law, however, That colony was un- fter having massacred ich surpass even those I in establishing their gned at London, Bo- and, having on board law General Le Clerc. rich took possession of e seat of government, aint L'Ouverture, ori- ef of the Blacks, sub- erc, having afterwards where he died. This revolt under the com- nd of Tnussaint ; and •SRIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 479 after a bloody war, France lost this valnnble colony, togethei with a numerous nrmy and many commcrciiil ndvanlnges. After the conclusion of the ponco of Amiens, the Tribunate, purpd of its Republican members, signified a wish that some pledge of national gratitude should be offered to General Bona- parte. The Conservative Senate then nominated him First Consul for ten years. When this decree of the Senate was an- nounced to him, he could not conceal his chagrin ; and that he might not be compelled to accept a favour which he disdained, he demanded that the decision of the Senate should be submitted for the sanction of the people. The two other Consuls were re- solved to consult the nation (and this was the only occosion in which they ever acted on their own authority,) not ns to the de- cree of the Senate, but on the question whether Bonaparte should be elected Consul for life. Out of .1,577,379, of which the primary Assembly was composed, 3,66S,885 voted in the affirmative, and only 8,494 in the negative. Agreeable to this expression of the public voice, the Senate proclaimed Bonaparte First Consul for life (August 2, 1802.) Two days after, the third decree of the Senate of the 16tb Thermidor, brought the government still nearer the monarchical form, by granting to the First Consul great influence over th ^''. " Diet was to assemble in one of the six prmc.pal c.t es n Sw t Louis d'Affrv. was nominated by Bonaparte. "'^XuttiTnSgtt^^^ details of these negcjijio-. we shaU merely observefthat the ma n <>b8t«<=l« '^h'";! »>«^ 'r; Tded the negotiations of Ratisbon being removed ^y the treatu^s which France concluded on this occasion, tje deputation came w a final conclusion, known by the name of the -Recess (or R- mt time two partie* ! ; and Switzerland !h the Unionists or nooratic, alternate!) istilution, mott aria- le approbation of the ns, and rejected by hcd a right to vote, he Helvetic Senate imong the a'-ceptors ; (July 3,) as having )Ie. Bonaparte had icd on their willing- Helvetic povernmeni t invitat 'VI, he with- .) Thtfi ound him to fur- nish. Theamount of this subsidy is not officially known. The hopes which this Monarch had entertained of escaping from the war were sadly disappointed. He was dragged into it towards the end of the following year. Portugal likewise purchased her neutrality, by a convention which was signed between General Lannca, Bonaparte's minis nterests regulated by inst this violatiop o( pectation of rendering d the capitulation of bunt Walmoden, who latter, however, laid onvention which was ese proceedings, the lediately blockaded by le invaders from bene- ow.edge the neutrality rench troops to evacu- r proved disastrous in (lid them under obliga- )oth French and Bata- nd five frigates, with a for conveying to Eng- the conclusiiin of peace 1801,) Bonaparte had 1 of Naples ; but, by a ence, he pretended that lever he should happen IV. was obliged to suc- sment with General St. ain took possession of ig of Louisiana to the > small coolness between Already had he brought r the command of 6en- , however, succeeded in 1 importance for her to her hand, as Bonaparte , especially considering itated upon England, it Jladrid (Oct. 30,) that nstead of the succoun* ncnt iKiund him to fur- t officially known. The ed of escaping from the dragged into it towards trality, by a convention nes, Bonaparte's minis PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802— 1S1C. 483 ter at Lisbon, and Don Manuel Pinto ; the contents of which are not known with certainty. From the breaking of the peace of Amiens to the second war with Austria, Bonaparte had employed himself about a project for effecting a landing in England, for which he had made im inense preparations. All the ship-carpenters throughout France were put in requisition for the equipment of a flotilla intended to convey the armies of the Republic to the English shores. A multitudinous army, called the Ar-my of England, was assem- bled on the coasts, extensive camps were formed, and convoys prepared for protecting the transportation of these invaders. In England, under the ministry of Mr. Pitt, vigorous measures of defence were adopted, by setting on foot a regular army of 180,000 men. The English Admirals frequently harassed the French shipping, and bombarded the towns situated upon the coasts. But from this th^re did not happen any result of im- portance. St. Lucia, St. Peter, Miquelon, and Tobago, as also the Dutch colonies of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, fell into the hands of the English in the beginning of the year 1803. General Rochambeau, who had succeeded Le Clerc, concluded a capitulation at St. Domingo, with Dc^salines the B'ack Chief, for the evacuation of Cape Franjois ; but as the English Ad- miral Duckworth blockaded it by sea, he was obliged to sur- render with his whole army, which was transported to Eng- land. Dessalines, thus relieved from the French, proclaimed the independence of St. Domingo, or the island of Hayti, of which he assumed the government, under the title of Governor- General, for life. Meantime, the plan of Bonaparte for disengaging himsel from those political restraints which fettered his ambition, was growing to maturity. Three parties divided France — the Roy- alists, the Systematic Republicans, and the Jacobins. Of the two first, the one had always entertained hopes that Bonaparte would recall the Bourbons ; and the other, that the moment was approaching when true liberty would take the place of despotism. General Moreau was regarded as the head of this party, if his character had at all made him a proper person to play an active game in public affairs. Bonaparte, who desired neither King nor Republic, was convinced that he could only arrive at his pur- pose by attaching to himself the Jacobin party. In order to in- spire them with confidence, lie felt that i' was necessary to give them a pledge ; this was, to be continually at variance with the other two parties, which they equally detested. Bonaoarte resolved to ruin Moreau, whom he mistrusted i.*i1 '•w m* *? OHAPTBRXl. 484 Pichepru. Georges. Cadoiulal, and other Royalist Chiefs, se- cretly en ered France, believinij that the t.me was now como for reestablishing royalty, and that Moreau wou d place h.m- self at the head of the enterprise. Pithegrn twice saw his old friend Moreau, who refused to take any part m a plot agajns he Government; but he was reluctant to betray th» excelent man, whom Bonaparte hated, and who had been excepted by name from the general amnesty. His silence was sufficient to eSgle him in a pretended conspiracy, with which the tnbu- "■^PicTegm tpt himself secreted in Paris for some days, but through the treachery of a friend he was at length discovered arrested, and committed to prison, where he was found dead, on Tmoniing of April 7th., 'a black handkerchief being twisted around his neck, and tightened by the twisting of "^ f J^ ^o proof appeared against Moreau of takin? n.^' part m the con^ SDiracv ; but his own confession, that he had seen Pichegru E was deemed sufficient by his judges to justify his con- dTmnaUon, for a high, although not capital crime ; he was sen- fenced to t'wo years'imprison^ent, which, by J*- ."tercession d his friends was commuted for the same period of ex le. Ihis distinguished General made choice of America, as his place of ^''Auhis time another occurrence took phce, which imist ever 'orm the darkest chapter in the history of Bonnparte-the arrest, condemnation, and execution of the Duke d'Engh^en Jh s Drince was living in retirement in the castle of Ettenheim, in fh" Dutchy of Baden, a neutral territory. On the evening of ihe 14th of March, a troop of French soldiers passed Hje 'jon- tier, surrounded the castle, and seized the P""<^|' *"'[';" J" "^j tendants. He was immediately conveyed to Strusburgh, and from thence after a confinement of three days to Pans, where he was kept for a few hours in the Temple, and then removed to ,he nefghbouring castle of Vincennes^ ?\-*'h r±J Hd- 20th he was charged by a military cx,urt, of which General Hul- lin was president, with having fought against France, being .n the pay of England, plotting against the nternul and externa safely of the Republic, and having conspired against the 1'^ of the chief Consul. The court pronounced him ?"dty ; the de- cision was immediately despatched to B«""P«"«' «"{. '^'^ f "'j •ence " condemned to def h," which was written on the back of it. carried into execution .t six o'clock the following mornmg. The charges alleged against him were unsupported by any eviSence but he persevered in declaring, that her"ld ever in the rights of his family, and that as a Condc, he could n«ver enter France, b'lt with arm.^ in his hand. H' Royalist Chiefs, se- ime was now como u would place him- ni twice saw his old part in a plot against betray this excellent lad been excepted by nee was sufficient to ith which the tribu- i» for some days, but at length discovered e was found dead, on erchief being twisted sting of a stick. No any part in the con- c had seen Pichegru res to justify his con- tl crime ; he was sen- by the intercession ol eriod of exile. This fjerica, as his place of Ince, which must ever Bonaparte — the arrest, ke d'Enghien. This stle of Ettenheim, in ^ On the evening of dicrs passed the fron- prince, and all his at- [}d to Strusburgh, and lays to Paris, where he and then removed to On the night of the of which General Hul- linst France, being in interniil and external ired against the life of d him guilty ; the de- [)naparte, and the sen- written on the back of le following morning, unsupported by any g, that he would ever as a Cond6, he could hand. I-KRIOD IX. A. D. 1802 — 1810. 485 This last act paved the way for Bonaparte to ascend the throne. France had scarcely recovered from the slupor in which she had been plunged by the judicial murder of a Bourbon, when the Conservative Senate, who had perceived that the best way to please Bonaparte was not to wait till he should make bi» wishes known to them, presented an address, inviting hini tc complete the institutions necessary for tranquillizing the State (March 27.) At this signal of flattery, many of the Orders of the State were eager to express their desire that the power which was vested in Bonaparte, should bu conferred en him by a hereditary title. One month was allowed to elapse, for pre- paring the public mind for the result. It was then that the First Consul, in replying to the address of the Senate, desired these Orders to e-xplain themselves more clearly. The Tribunate took the merit of anticipating this explanation, by voting the re- establishment of hereditary monarchy in favour of Bonaparte and his family (April 30.) The Senate, not wishing to be be- hind in complaisance, acceded to the desire ; and a decree of that Body declared Bonaparte Emperor of the French (Ma^ 18;) conferring on him the Imperial dignity, to be hereditary in himself, and his lawful or adopted sons, to the exclusion of his daughters ; and failing the males, to his brothers Joseph and Louis, and their male descendants. The same decree of the Senate made several important changes in the constitution, with the view of rendering it per- fectly monarchical. Bonaparte accepted the dignity which had been conferred on him. He only asked, that the nation should be consuK. J upon the question of hereditary right. Wishing to legalize this attempt in the eyes of the people ; he invited the sovereign Pontiff to Paris to crown him. This ce- remony took place in the Church of Notre-Dame (Dec. 2, 1804 ;) and contrary to the general custom, Bonaparte put the crown on his own head, after which he placed it upon that of his spouse. Some weeks afterwards, in opening the Session ol the Legislative Body, he solemnly declared, that, as he was sati» fied with his grandeur, he would make no more additions to the Empire. The base transaction of 21st March was followed up by an exchange of ver^violent letters, between the Russian amkissador at Paris, and the minister of Bonaparte. In addition to the indig- nation which that event had excited in Alexander, and which the prevailing tone of the notes of the French minister were not calculated to diminish ; there was a dissatisfaction, on account of the non-execution of many of the conditions agreed to in the Ueaty of 10th October 1801. Alexander demanded, that the m r I \uld this happen, each men to repel such an , moreover, that there ituated to the west of IS provided for the se- ror Alexander imme- 1, with the view of 'ran:"e. Declarations, jed between these two jy agreed to set on foot was limited to threats. Bonnparte, and on the 3venting the union of ling in their own ports, ch colony of Surinam commenced hostilities ere marked by new ag- 1 Italy. 1. A decree of )led nt Paris (Mar. 18,) [taly ; and it was stipu- me of his legitimate or should have evacuated e no foreigners except and Malta; and that should never be united d to TVlilan (May 26,) vn of the Emperors of ^eiic Bcauharnais, the ted his viceroy. 2. He der the title of a here- :a Bacciochi his sister, s completed the spolia* PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802— ]S10. 487 tion ot the House of Buoncompagni, to whuin that title and en* tTite belonged, together with the greater part of the Isle of Elba. 3. The Senate and people of the Ligurian Republic demanded voluntarily, as is said, to be united lu the French Empire. Their request was agreed to (June 5;) and the territory of that Repub- lic was divided into three departments. 4. The Republic of Lucca demanded from Bonaparte a new constitution, and a prince of his fcmily. By a constitutional statute (June 23,) that Repub- lic was erected into a principality, under the protection of France ; anc] conferred as a hereditary right on Felix Bacciochi, and his wife Eliza Bonaparte. 5. The States of Parma seemed destined to be given up by way of compensation to the King of Sardinia, together with the territory of Genoa ; but Bonaparte, finding himself involved with the Emperor Alexander, caused them to oe organized according to the system of France. It was impossible for the sovereigns of Europe not to unite against a conqueror who seemed to apply to politics that maxim of the civil law, which makes every thing allowable that the laws do not forbid. We have already seen that Russia and Austria had concerted measures for setting bounds to these usur- pations. But it was William Pitt, who was restored to the British ministry in the month of May 1804, that conceived the plan of the third coalition. Disdaining the petty resources which the preceding ministry had employed for harassing France, he conceived the idea of a grand European League, for the pur- pose of rescuing from the dominion of Bonaparte the countries which France had subdued since 1792, and for reducing that kingdom within its ancient limits. With regard to the territories which were to be taken from France, he proposed arrangements, by means of which they might form a barrier against her future projects of aggrandizement ; and finally, to introduce into Europe a general system of public right. In fact, the plan of Mr. Pitt, which was communicated to tlic Russian government (June 19, 1805,) was the same as that which, ten years afterwards, was executed by the Grand Alliance. If this plan failed in 1805, it was only because they calculated on the participation of Prussia, as an indispensable condition ; which *hey did not give up when that power had declared her resolution > > preserve her neutrality. By the treaty of April 1 1th, between Russia and Great Britain, it was agreed that the Emperor Alexander should make another attempt for arranging matters with Bonaparte, so as to prevent the war. M. de Novosilzoff, one of the Russian ministers, was •ent to Paris. On his arrival at Berlin, he received the pass- Eorts which the cabinet of Prussia had procured for him at F'aris ; ut Hi the same time, he received an order from St. Petersburg ri7ilf,r 488 CHAFTBK XL not to continue his journey. The annexation of the Ligunan Republic to France, at the moment when they were making con- ciliatory overtures lo Bonaparte, appeared too serious an outrage for the Emperor to prosecute farther negotiations. War was consequently resolved on. ,„,... u The preparations for the invasion of England had been ear- ned on for some time with extraordinary vigour. Every thing •eemed to announce, that Bonaparte meant lo attempt that peril- ous enterprise. Part of his troops had already embarked (Aug 27 ^ when all of a sudden the camp at Boulogne was broken up. and the army directed to move towards the Rhine, which it pass- ed within a month after. Austria had set on foot three armies. The Archduke Charles commanded that of Italy, where it was expected a decisive blow was to be struck ; the second army, under the command of the Archduke John, was stationed m the Tyrol, to maintain a communication with the third army on the Inn, which was commanded nominally by the Archduke Fer- dinand the Emperor's cousin, but in reality by General Mack. The first Russian army under the command of General Kutusoff had arrived in Gallicia, and was continuing its march m all haste. It was followed by another under Michelson. The Rus- sian troops in Dalmatia were to attempt a landing m Italy. The army of Mack passed the Inn (Sept. 8.) They had reckoned on the co-operation of the Elector of Bavaria ; but that prince, who was always distrustful of Austria, abandoned the cause of the allies, and retired with his troops into Franconia. The Electors of Wurtemberg and Baden were desirous of con- cluding treaties of alliance with Bonaparte, after he had passed the Rhine ; these treaties were signed at Ludwigsburg and Et- tingen (Oct. 4, and 10.) The plan of Bonaparte was to cut ofl the army of Mack who had entered into Swabia, from that of Kutusoff which was marching through Austria. In this he suc- ceeded, by presuming to violate the Prussian territory. Mar- mont who had come by way of Mayence, and Bemadotte who had conducted the army into Franconia, where they were joined by the Bavarians, traversed the country of Anspach, and came thus on the rear of the Austrian army (Oct. 6.) From that date scarcely a day passed without a battle favourable to the French. Several divisions of the Austrians were obliged to lay down their arms. Mack, who had thrown himself mto Ulm, lost all resolution, and signed a capitulation (Oct. 17,) by which he pro mised to surrender if assistance did not arrive withm eight days. He did not, however, wait for this delay. By a second capitulation two days after, he surrendered on the spot with 25,000 men. The army of Mack was totally destroyed, except 6000 caval- jtion of the Lignrian »y were making con- serious an outrage siiations. War was gland had been car- igour. Every thing to attempt that peril- ;ady embarked (Aug logne was broken up. Rhine, which it pass- on foot three armies, f Italy, where it was k ; the second army, , was stationed in the the third army on tlio the Archdulce Fer- ity by General Mack, d of General Kutusoif ling its march in all Vlichelson. The Rus- landing in Italy. Sept. 8.) They had )r of Bavaria ; but that ustria, abandoned the roops into Franconia. were desirous of con- e, after he had passed Ludwigsburg and Et- naparte was to cut ofi Swabia, from that of istria. In this he suc- sian territory. Mar- , and Bernadotte who here they were joined f Anspach, and came t. 6.) From that date mrable to the French, obliged to lay down self into Ulm, lost all 17,) by which he pro ive within eight days. r a second capitulation t with 25,000 men. d, except 6000 caval- I'ERIOC IX. A. D. 1802— ISIO. 489 ry, with which the Archduke Ferdinand had opened himxelf a passage through Franconia ; and 20,000 others with which Kien- muyer had retired to Biaunau, where he was met by the van- Fuard of Kutusoif. The^e two generals continued their retreat. The Russian army repassed the Danube rieur Grein (Nov. 9,) and directed their march towards '.he Morau. A few days after (Nov. J3,) Viennii, the capital of Austria, fell into the hands of the French. They passed the Danube near that city, and pur- sued the Russians. In the meantime General Buxhovvden with the second Russian army, having joined KutusoHTat Olmutz, on the same day that the EJinperor Alexander arrived in the camp, they conceived themselves strong enough to encounter the ene- my, and immediately discontinued their retreat. The battle of Austerlitz, which Bonaparte fought (Dec. 2,) with the combi- ned army of the Austrians and Russians, decided the campaign in his favour. Meantime Bonaparte found himself in a position which might become dangerous. When the Archduke Charles had perceived that the French had concentrated their forces on the Danube, he sent supplies to General Mack, and commenced his retreat from Italy, that he might be nearer the centre of hostilities. This retreat he could not effect, e.\cept by hazarding several engage- ments with Massena, who continued the pursuit. When near Cilley he formed a junction with the Archduke John, who had retreated from the Tyrol (Nov. 27.) The united armies of these two princes amounted to 80,000 men, with whom they marched towards Vienna; while the Hungarians rose en masse to defend their sovereign. The next day after the battle of Austerlitz, the Russian army received a reinforcement of 12,000 men. An army composed of Prussians, Saxons, and Hessians were on the point of penetrating into Franconia ; and some corps of Prus- sians, Russians, Swedes, Hanoverians, and English, had joined a second army in the north of Germany, ready to invade Bel- gium. Moreover, the English and the Russians were preparnig to effect a landing in the kingdom of Naples. It was in this critical moment that the Cabinet of Vienna signed an armistice at Austerlitz, by which they engaged to send back the Russian army, and to quell the insurrection in Hun- gary. Within twenty days after, peace was signed at Presburg between Austria and France (Dec. 26.) The former acknow- ledged all the claims of Bonaparte, ana ceded to him, to form a Eart of the kingdom of Italy, the ancient states of Venice, with talmatia and Albania ; and tc his allies, the Elector of Baden and the new Kings of Bavaria and VVurtomberg, the Tyrol and all her hereditary possessions in Swabia. iSl I V'M IK m ^1,^ 490 CIUPTER XI. The violation of the Prussian territor_y in Franjonia, had M- 'iled Ihe most lively indignation nt Ben.n. The King resolved. | :^.rd in hand, to Jvenge thi. mUrnge "g-'-^^Xl? ncf S I The Prussian troops occupied Hanover, which the French had | ju't evacuated ; an^d thatUuntry was restored to |^^« leg. Uma^ tovereiffn. A hody of Russians, for who.n they had till then vallv demanded a passage through S.les.a. ohtained permisMon to traverse that province to jmn the ""'^ "f ^u J«o»r. The Emperor Alexan-Ur had himself arrived at Berhi. 0=^26.) as well as the Archduke Anthony, Grand-Master of the Teutomc Kni..hts. A convention was cone uded at Po sdam (Nov. 3 ) J^tween Alexander and Frederic HI. of Prussia This atter nrince joined the coalition, with the reservation of a prelim.na.7 St mp to obtain the assent of Bonaparte to conditions extre^nely equitable. In case these were re ected, Frederic promised to ta1 was on his march news of the battle of I the labour of three ig England by plant- lation then conceived strength to another, f states, independent n of the head of the repaired to Munich, Beauharnais, and de- )f Italy. In announ- l, 1S06,) he declared ermining the common posing the Federative IS the first time that ne after, he declared, irt of the Grand Em- the Imperial family, 30,) may be regarded System he had lately Imperor of the French ^s of his family ; and le would arrive when Ijacent states, the kingdom of Italy, 'rara and Carfagnana, t. At the same time, lutchies, as hereditary states of Parmu ; all enerals and ministers. PERIOD IX. A. D. 1789 — ISin. 498 The dutchy of Cleven, ceded by Prusitia, as well as that of Berg which Imd born ceded to him by the Kiiii,' of Bavaria, were conferred, together with the hereditary diirniiy of Admiral of France, on hid brother-in-law Jonchiin Miirat (Munh HO.) Alexander Berthier was crented Prince of Neiirchiiti.'l (June 5.) At a la'er iMriod, hv granted the diitcliy >'f Henevento to M. Talleyrand rerigord, under the title of Sovereiy;!! I'riniipniity ; -and the principality of Poiitecorvo to Jean Biipti-le Beriiiulotte, the brother-in-law of Joseph Bonaparte. He ior)k these twt) ter- ritories from the States of the Church, under the pretext that their sovereignty was an object of litigation between the Courtk of Rome and Naples ; an allegation which was not true. The continuation of the History of Bonaparte presents us with a series of new usurpations and aggrejisioiiK. Towards the end of January, the French troops entered into the free city of Frankfort, where they levied four millions, to punish the in- habitants for their connexion with the English. Bonaparte was living at that time in the most perfect peace witii the German Empire to which that city belonged, aiicl which could not protect it. By the treaty of Presburg, the Bocca di Cattaro, in Dalma- tia, was to be restored to the French ; but the Russians, whose fleet was cruising off these coasts, immediately took possession of that place (Feb. 4,) at the moment when the Austrians were about to surrender it to the French. Bonaparte made this a pretext for refusing to give up to the Court of Vienna the for- tress of Braunau, which he was to evacuate according to the stipulations of that same treaty, and for leaving a part of his army in Germany. He did more ; he ordered General Lauris- ton, who commanded the French army in Dalmatia, to occupy Ragusa (May 27,) a Republic placed under the protection of the Porte, with whom there subsisted a treaty of peace. It was not, however, until the 13th August 1807, that Ragusa was formally united to the kingdom of Italy. The Elector of Baden and the Princes of Nassau were oblig- ed to make cessions to France. The former surrendered Kehl, nnd the latter Cassel and Kostheim, opposite Mayence. Wesei, a fortress in the dutchy of Cleves was likewise occupied by the French troops. All these were so many violations of the peace of Luneville, and the treaty of Vienna in 1805. In order to promote this federative system, the States-General of the Batavian Republic received a hint to ])etttion Bonaparte for a King. A treaty was in consequence concluded at Paris (March 24,) by which Louis, the brother of Napoleon, was cre- ated Hereditary and Constitutional King of Holland ; the title to descend to his male issue. That young man accepted with i':^ f*i' 401 CHAPTKR XI. '»..■ rclMct»tic(! u iTowii which he had never coveted, and which h« wnro with iiiiuli dififnity. William Pitt, whom history would have been proud to call the Grout Pitt, had shn not already given that title to his father, hnd died about the b<>^rinnin^r of the year (Jan. 23.) Charles Fox, hin forrnor onta^fonist, succofilfd him in the niinixtry. He im« nuMliatoly t'liton-d into negotiations for peace between Francn and Knglaiid. This comuiission, on the part of the latter, wai intrusted lirst to Lord Yarmouth and afterwards to Lord Lau- derdale. After the death of Fox (Sept. 13,) the negotiations ended without having produced any change in the relations be- tween France and England ; nnvertheless they deserve to be placed among the important events of that year, as they were the immediate cau.(. 6,) by which he resigned a crown which could only oppenr valuable in his eyes so long ns he was able to fulfil the duties, and exercise the prerogatives which were attached to it. This transaction, which put an end to the German Empire, had been kept a secret from Prussia. Bonaparte, in announcin to Frederic William the result which it had produced, invitei him to form a similar confederation in the North of Germany ; but at the same time, he negotiated privately with the Electors of Hesse and Saxony, to prevent them from entering into that union ; and declared, that he could never permit the cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Lubec, to become parties to it. In his negotiations with England, he proposed to make over these ci- ties to Ferdinand IV. King of the Two Sicilies. He carried ni.s stratagems even farther. He several times oflfcred to the English plenipotentiaries the same Electorate of Hanover which, a few months before, he had almost compelled Prussia to claim as her own ; and he offered to the Elector of Hesse the princi- pality of Fulda, which had been granted to the House of Orange, then in strict alliance with that of Brandeburg. All these un- derhand man«Euvres opened the eyes of the Cabinet of Berlin, which immediately resolved to declare war. Unfortunately for Prussia, she commenced hostilities without waiting the arrival of the supplies which Russia owed her, in virtue of the alliance between the two States by the treaty of PeterhofT (July 2S, 1800;) and she had to take the field against an active enemy, whoso warlike troops were already in the heart of Germany. General KnobelsdorfT, whom the King of Prussia had sent to Paris, gave in the demands which were to be considered as his ultimatum : — Bonaparte treated his propositions as extravagant and insulting, and accordingly commenced hostilities. The campaign was decided by the battle of Jena, or rather by two battles which were fought on the same day (Oct. 14, 1806.) Bonaparte in person gained the one near Jena over Prince Ho> 1 fc AwM 496 CHAPTER XI. ■\*i^ henlohe ; Marshal Davoiist gained the other near Auerstadt over thej)ukc of Brunswick, Commander-in-chief of the Prus- sian army. The rout was complete. For a siiort time the troops retired without confusion. The approach of the enemy's cavalry, however, extinguished all remains of order, and the most precipitate dispersion of the vanquished army ensued. About 20,000 were killed and wounded in the battle and piir- suit ; and the prisoners formed at least nn equal number. The scattered remains of the troops who united after the action, were either defeated or obliged to surrender as prisoners of war. The King, with the wreck of his aruiy, marched hack to Prussia. Berlin, his capital, fell into the hands of the conqueror. The carelessness, the unskilfulness, or the treachery of their com- inanders, and the want of means of defence, were the causes why several fortresses, and whole battalions of troops, surren- dered after a slight resistance. There were some who were even obliged to capitulate in spite of their bravery. At Erfurt, Field-Marshal MellendorfT capitulated with 14,000 men (Oct. Ifi.) Spandau fell on the same day that the enemy entered into Berlin (Oct. 2f5.) Prince Hohenlohe, after a brave defence, ca- pitulated at Prentzlau (Oct. 29,) with a corps originally consist- mg of 16,000 infantry, and sixteen regiments of cavalry. Stettin and Custrin opened their gates after a slight resistance (Nov. 1.) At Lubec, 21,000 men, with General Blucher, laid down their arms (Nov. 7.) Magdeburg capitulated next day with 22,000 men. Immediately after the battle of Jena, Bonaparte took posses- sion of the principality of Fulda. He also sent a message to the old Duke of Brunswick, that none of his family should ever reign after him. That prince died of the woimds he had received at Auerstadt ; and his lifeless body was not permitted to be deposi- ted among the asiies of his ancestors. The Elector of Hesse, who had remained neutral, was declared an enemy to France, and his territories seized. Bonaparte, in return, granted neu- trality to the Elector of Saxony, whose troops had fought against him at Jena. The King of Prussia had tried to allay the £.torm which threat- ened his monarchy. The Marqui« de Lucchesini and General Zastrow entered into a negotiation with Marshal Duroc at Char- lottenburg (Oct. 30.) Bonaparte refused to ratify the prelimi- naries which were signed there, because the idea had occurred to him in the meantime of exciting the Poles to insurrection. An armistice was then signed (Nov. 16,) on conditions extremely rigorous, by which Breslau, Glogau, Colbei^, Graudentz ana Dantzic, were delivered up to the French. Frederic, who luid -*»;»- rt »«iiwi J w «H iiaB»»iaJB ! i.a » a other nenr Auerstadt in-chief of the Prus- or a sliort time the proiuh of the enemy's ns of order, and the uished army ensued. in the battle and pjir- equal number. The after the aciion, were prisoners of war. The ched back to Prussia. the conqueror. The reachery of their com- rciice, were the causes ions of troops, surren- were some who were ir bravery. At Erfurt, vith 14,000 men (Oct. the enemy entered into fter a brave defence, ca- corps orifjinally consist- lents of cavalry. Stettin jjht resistance (Nov. 1.) Ilucher, laid down their i next day with 22,000 Bonaparte took posses- Iso sont a message to the family should ever reign jnds he had received at t permitted to be deposi- The Elector of Hesse, cd an enemy to France, in return, granted neu- roops had fought against ' the itorm which threat- Lucchesini and General Marshal Duroc at Char- ed to ratify the prelimi- e the idea had occurred [le Poles to insurrection, on conditions extremely [JolbeiW. Graudentz ana ch. Frederic, who hiid PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802 — 1810. 497 resolved to throw himself on Russia, whose forces were approach- ing in all haste, rejected that armistice. From Berlin Bona* parte repaired to Posnania, where he concluded a treaty with the Elector of Saxony (Dec. 11.) That prince then assumed the title of King, joined the Confederation of the Rhine, and go* possession of the Circle of Cotbus, belonging to Prussia. By a treaty signed at the sRme plaf;e (Dec. 15,) the Dukes of Sax- ony, of the race of Ernest, weie likemse received into the Con- federation of the Rhine. A Russian army of 90,000 men had arrived in Prussia in the month of Novembier. Frecieric William, on his side, formed a new army of 40,000 men. Several actions took place without any decisive result; but after the battle of Pultusk (Dec. 26,) where the victory was claimed both by the French and Rus-* sians, each party retired to winter quarters. During Bonaparte's stay at Berlin, he conceived the idea of the Continental System ; or at least reduced its elements into shape. The purport of this system was to ruin the commerce, and by consequence, the prosperity of England, by excluding from the Continent of Europe the importation not only of her own manufactures, but the productions of her colonies ; the use of which had become, through long habit, one of the necessaries of life to all the nations of Europe ; and for which, moreover, no substitute could be found in home manufactures. This chi- merical scheme, and the Federative System, which we have already mentioned, were the two scourges which Bonaparte in- flicted on the Continent of Europe. The abuse, it was alleged, which the English made of their superiority by sea, had provo- ked Bonaparte to this measure. The right of blockade, that is, the right of a belligerent power to station a force before a hostile port sufficient to prevent any neutral vessel from entering, is founded in principle. But England pretended, that if a port were declared to be under blockade, it must be considered as actually blockaded ; and accordingly, she had declared all the ports between Brest and the Elbe under blockade (May 16.) An order issued by Bonaparte, known by the name of the De- cree of Berlin, declared the whole British Islands in a state of: blockade, by way of reprisals (Nov. 21.) He commanded ail British subjects to be arrested, who might be found in the coun- tries occupied by his troops, or those oi his allies. He ordered their property, and every article of British or colonial produce on the Continent to be confiscated ; and excluded from his ports all vessels which should come directly from Britain, or any of its dependencies. The development of this system we saall notice afterwards. 32 m ^es- II ■ «»■ .1 s^ t 498 CHAPTER XI. The repose of the armies did not continue longer than a month. Genera fienn.-sen, who had the chief command of the Russmm and Prussians: undertook to relieve the cities of Grauden z DantHc and Colberg. After a number of petty engagements SS daTm'no parti'cular notice,, tb^ campaig^ was grmina ed bv the battle of Eylau in Prussia (i eb. 8, 1807.) .**°"»P°"«' o?rather Davoust. was successful against the left wmg and thfl centre of the allie;; but Lestocq, the Prussian General, having arrived on the field of battle, near the right wmg of the Prus- l"s which had never been engaged, marched instanly to s^- nort the left win-T which was giving way, and snatched he vie forv rom thJTands of Davoust. Bennigsen who was m want of ammTnition, retired towards Koningsberg leaving Bonapane nn the field of battle, wh ch was covered with JU.UUU ot me Frpnch slain and 12,000 wounded. The Russians had lost n 000 men After this carnage, Bonaparte announced that he ild defeated the Russians, and retired behind the Passarge. Hostilities were then suspended for some months. "rSe month of FebrWry, negotiat ons f- Pe-V^ f J^ newed. Bonaparte, who was at Osterode, sent General Bertrand Sh was on y a mancuvre of Bonaparte, who merely wished o gaTn timeto repair his losses. The negotiations, accordingly, wefe broken off. Baron Hardenberg, who had been placed by r/S of Prussia at the helm of foreign affairs then resumed the nroifcfofM Pitt, which had failed in 1805, because Count Hau^wS the former minister, had dissuaded Frederic Wi ham "om ending into the alliance. The basis of a new coalition waTlaS by fhe convention of Bartenstein, between R"«|'a and Prussia ((pril 21,) in which Austria, Great Britain, Sweden rnTSLma'rk'we;; invited to join. The --ej;/^';-"-;: Son with the King of Sweden was likewise signed at Barten st^nn consequence of which Prussia promised to send a body oftroops intokmerania. Austria ^vas disposed to enter imo this nroiect, but before coming to a decision, she tried the chem if l;ediation ; and in the month of M'^jch, jw pro- nosals for peace were made, which proved unsuccessful. Sup- E wcreVomised to Prussia by a convenl.ou signed at Lon- 5on ( W 27,) but which a change of circumstances prevented ^' WhUe^hTSes continued in a kinxander obtained from Bonaparte the spoliation of his former ally, or according to the form which was given to it in that transaction, That the King of Prussia should recover one half of his estates. The provinces which Prussia had obtained by the second and third division of Poland were ceded to the King of Saxony, under the title of the Dutchy of Warsaw, with the exception of the fortress of Graudentz, which remained in the possession of Prussia, and the city of Dantzic, which was to regain its independence, with the exception of the department of Bialystock which was annexed to the Russian Empire. Alex- ander acknowledged the Kings created by Bonaparte, including the King of Westphalia. He likewise acknowledged the Con- federation of the Rhine, and ceded to Bonaparte the Seignory of Jever, which he inherited from his mother. He promised to withdraw his troops from Moldavia and Wallachia; and to make common cause with Bonaparte against England, should the lat- ter refuse to make peace by submitting to the principles of free commerce by sea. It appears, moreover, by certain secret arti- cles, that Alexander promised to surrender to Bonaparte the Bocca di Cattaro, and the isles of the Ionian Republic ; which took place in the month of August following. The peace which was signed between Russia and Bonaparte two days after (July 9,) included nearly the same stipulations. A special convention was required for executing the articles of the treaty, which related to the evacuation of the States of the King of Prussia. This was negotiated and signed at Konings- berg (July 12,) with unpardonable precipitancy, by Field-Marshal Kalkreuth, who forgot to insert certain stipulations so essential and so obvious, that it must have appeared to him superfluous to mention them. Bonaparte took advantage of these omissions to ruin the provinces which were left in possession of Prussia. It may be justly said, that the convention of Koningsberg did nearly as much mischief to Prussia as the peace of Tilsit itself. It occasioned the necessity of signing a series of subsequent con- ventions, by each of which Prussia had to submit to some new sacrifice. Some of the more important of these we shall after- nrards have occasion to mention. The' King of Sweden, who was attacked in Pomerania by Marahnl M ortier, had concluded an> armistice at Schlalkorv PKKIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 501 been so coiiipletely >naparte demanded his minister Baron nberg. The Prince uted in their place, "uly 7.) The Em- spoliation of his was given to it in I should recover one russia had obtained were ceded to the Dutchy of Warsaw, ntz, which remained Dantzic, which was on of the department isian Empire. Alex- Bonaparte, including nowledged the Con- jarte the Seignory of er. He promised to illachin ; and to make gland, should the lat- ^he principles of free by certain secret arti- ler to Bonaparte the lian Republic ; which ig. The peace which B two days after (July executing the articles on of the Slates of the id signed at Konings- ncy, by Field-Marshal pulations so essential jd to him superfluous age of these omissions possession of Prussia. n of Koningsberg did I peace of Tilsit itself, •ies of subsequent con- o submit to some new f these we shall after* ;ked in Pomerania by nistice at Schlalkorv (April 18.) Gustavus Adolphus IV. projected an attack on Mar- shal Brune, while a body of 10,000 Prussians were to make a descent for blockading Colberg. To carry this project into exe- cution, he was so eager to declare against the armistice, that, on the signature of the peace of Tilsit, he found himself alone under arms, and exposing his troops to great danger. This unseason- able zeal obliged him to evacuate Stralsund and the whole of Pomerania (Sept. 7.) In erecting the Dutchy of Warsaw, Bonaparte had given it a constitution modelled after that of France, without paying atten- tion to the difference of manners, customs, and localities of the inhabitants. The King of Saxony wos put in possession of that State ; but the new dutchy was nothing else than a province of the French Empire. The city of Dantzic was again ilunged into a state of the most abject dependence ; and until the yeai 1814, it remained under the o-ders of a Governor-general ap- Eointed by the French. The throne of Westphalia was destined y Bonaparte for his younger brother Jerome. That monarchy was composed of the greater part of those provinces ceded by the King of Prussia ; of nearly all the estates of the Elector ol Hesse and the Duke of Brunswick ; of a district belonging to the Electorate of Hanover ; of the principality of Corvey, and the county of Rittberg — containing in all about two millions of in- habitants. Only a small part of this kingdom was situated in Westphalia ; and it is not known by what chance the name ol that country was selected for the new monarchy. Deputies from that kingdom were summoned to Paris, where they received from the hands of Bonaparte a constitutional charter (Nov. 16,) in the construction of which they had never once been consulted. As to the other districts which Bonaparte had taken possession of in Germany, or of which he had deprived their rightful sove- reigns, viz. the Electorate of Hanover, the principalities of Erfurt. Fulda, Baireuth, and Munster, with the counties of Catzeneln- bogen and Hanau, they were governed entirely to his own inter- est, and disposed of at his convenience. While the armies of Bonaparte were occupied in Prussia, Spain formed the resolution of shaking off the yoke which the Emperor of France had imposed upon her. Charles IV. soli- cited privately the mediation of the Emperor Alexander, to bring about a pence with England. By a proclamation of October 30th 1806, a levy of 40,000 men was ordered for the defence ol the country, without mentioning against what enemy. This imprudent step, which they had not courage to prosecute, ruined Spain. At the commencement of 1807, a French army was as- sembled in the vicinity of Bayonne. A trap was laid for Gharlea it,- S ■■* '' .ii 5oa CHAPTER XI. IV : and he had the misfortune to fall into it. According to a on -ention signed at Fountainbleau (Oct. 27,) between h.s plem- Dotentiarv and that of Bonaparte, for the partition of Portugal, K k ngdom was to be divided into three lots. The most north- X parf was destined for the King of Etruria (who w„s to sur- render up Tuscany to Bonaparte,) and to be called the kinadom of Northern Lusitania. The southern part, comprising A.ga. ves, was to form a principality for Don Manuel G«J«y- Jhe p o- vinces in the middle part were to be disposed of at the general peace, when the King of Spain was to assume the title of hm- peror of the two Americas. Immediately after the signing of this treaty, Bonaparte an- nounced to the Queen-Dowager of Etruria, who was Regent for her son Louis II., that the kingdom no longer be onged to him; and that a new destiny awaited him in Spain. In course of a few days, the French troops occupied Tuscany. Mana Louisa resigned the government, and retired to Madrid AH this took place after Bonaparte had obtained orders that the 15,000 Span lards, who were in Etruria, should be sent to the islands of ^ ATcree of the French Senate, of August 18th 1807, though not published till a month after, suppressed the Tribunate, and introduced other changes, intended to extinguish all traces of the Republic. Bv a treaty signed at Fountainbleau, Bonaparte made over to his brother Louis, the principality of East Friesland and the territory of Jever, in lieu of the city and port of Flushing. In terms of the treaty of the 27th October, 30,000 French troops, under the command of Junot crossed the Pyrenees in two divisions ; and took possession of Pampeluna, St. Sebastians, Figu^ras, and Barcelona. The two divisions united again at Salamanca, and being reinforced by 13,000 Spaniards they marched upon Li.bon ; while 40,000 others assembled at Bay- onne, under the pretence of supporting their companions if it were necessary, ^he Prince Regent of Portugal embarked with all his treasures (Nov. 29,) and departed for Brazil. The whole of Portugal was taken possession of; and General Junot pro- claimed that the Hou:e of Braganza had ceased to reign in bu- rope ; but the French never executed their scheme of partition. We have already observed, what progress the Federative system of the French Empire had made in 1807 by the founda- tion of the kingdom of Westphalia and the dutchy of Warsaw, and by the occupation of Portugal ; and we shall next advert to the measures adopted during the same year by Bonaparte, for consolidating the Continental system, and by Great Bft"'" /or eounleracting its effects. An order was issued by the British t. According to a between his pleni- tition of Portugal, The most north- Sa, (who was to sur- Icalled the kingdom mprising Algaives, Godoy. The pro- id of at the general no the title of Em- saty, Bonaparte an- who was Regent for er belonged to him; in. In course of a my. Maria Louisa drid. All this took lat the 15,000 Span It to the islands of it 18th 1807, though the Tribunate, and ■ui.sh all traces of tiie sau, Bonaparte made f East Friesland and port of Flushing, .ber, 30,000 French sed the Pyrenees in eluna, St. Sebastians, ons united again at 00 Spaniards, they s assembled at Bay- eir companions if it ugal embarked with Brazil. The whole General Junot pro- ased to reign in Eu- scheme of partition. ress the Federative 1807, by the founda- dutchy of Warsaw, shall next advert to ir by Bonaparte, for )y Great Britain for isued by the British KKIOD IX. A. 0. 1802— ISIO. 508 Cabinet (Jan. 7,) declaring that no neutral vesse. would be per- mitted to trade with any port belonging to France or her allies, or occupied by their troops, or under their dependence. A de- cree, published at Warsaw (Jan. 25,) ordered the confiscation of all English merchandise in the Hanseatic towns, which had been occupied by the order of Bonaparte. An order of the Brit- ish Cabinet (March 11,) again prescribed a rigorous blockade of the mouths of the Elbe, the Weser, and the Ems. A declara- tion was made by Bonaparte (Oct. 14,) in presence of the foreign ambassadors at Fountainbleau, purporting that he would permit no connexion, either commercial or diplomatic, between the Continental powers and England. An order of the British Cabinet (Nov. 11,) declared, that all the ports and places in France, and the countries in alliance with them, or any other country at war with England, as well as all other ports and places in Europe where the British flag was excluded, though not actually at war with Great Britain ; and all other ports and places of the colonies belonging to her enemies, should hence forth be subjected to the same restrictions as if they were really under blockade ; and, consequently, that the vessels destined for these ports should be subjected to examination by the British cruisers ; and required to stop at a British station, and pay a duly proportioned to the value of the cargo. Another order of the British Cabinet (Nov. 25,) modified the preceding declara- tion in favour of neutral vessels, which should come to discharge either English merchandise or Colonial produce in the British ports. A decree of the 17th December, called the decree of Milan, because it was issued at that place, declared, that all ships which should be searched by a British vessel, or pay any tax whatever at the requisition of the English Government, should be denationalized, and regarded as English property ; and having thus forfeited their original and national rights, they might be lawfully captured wherever found. The same decree declared the British Isles to be in a state of blociiade both by sea and land. Having thus established the Continental system, Bonaparte used every endeavour to make all the Continental Powers ac- cede to it. Prussia and Russia adhered to it, after the peace of Tilsit. Denmark soon entered into this French system. Spain acceded to it (Jan. 8,) Austria (Feb. 18, 1808,) and Sweden (Jan. 6, 1810 ;) so that, for some years, the Continent of Eu- rope had no other medium of communication with England than by way of Constantinople. There was one prince in Christen- dom, who refused his accession to the Continental system, and that was Pius VII. This sovereign Pontiff declared, that an .! :■- r M\ 504 CHAPTER ». alliance which prohibited all intercourse with a nation from whom they had suflcred no grievance, was contrarv to religion. In order to punish his Holiness for this resistance, &Dneral Miol- lis had orders to occupy Rome (Feb. 2, 1808.) This was the commencement of a series of aggressions and attacks, by which Bonaparte vainly hoped to bend that great personage, lo eratify his resentment, he stripped the States of the th«rch, by a decree issued at St. Cloud (April 2,) of the provinces of Urbino, Ancona, Macerata and Camerino, which were annexed to the kingdom of Italy. In order to add lustre to his crown, and to attach his servants to him by the ties of interest, Bonaparte resolved, not to re- store the noblesse— though there was no reason known why he should not— but to create titles of nobility which should pass ni hereditary succession to their descendants. These title* were those of Princes, Dukes, Counts, Barons, and Chevaliers or Knights. They were constituted by an Imperial statute, which he transmitted to the Senate ; for the decrees of the Se- nate were seldom used, except in declaring the union of territo- ries, or ordering levies of conscripts. . . , • i The spoliation of the Church appeared but a trivial violence compared with that masterpiece of intrigue and cunning by which the House of Bourbon was deprived of the throne ol Spain. The second French army formed at Bayonne, passed the Pyrenees about the beginning of the year, under the com- mand of Joachim Murat, and advanced slowly as if it only waited an order to seize the capital. A popular insurrection broke out at Madrid, directed against Godoy, the Prince of Peace • and Charles IV., who, from the commencement of his reign, had been disgusted with state affairs, abdicated the crown in favour of his son, the Prince of Asturias (March 19, 1808,) who assumed the title of Ferdinand VII. The intrigues of the Queen-molher, who was unwilling to quit the throne, and the plots concerted by Murat, soon embroiled the R«yal Jnmi'y"' disputes. The French troops entered Madrid (Mar. 23.) la- king advantage of the inexperience of the young monarch, they inveigled him into an interview with Bonaparte at Bayonne, where Charles IV. and his Queen, allured by promises of fa- vour and friendship, likewise presented themselves. This weak prince there retracted his abdication, and ceded his dominions over to Bonaparte by a formal treaty (May 5.) By threatening Ferdinand VII. with death, they extorted from him a similar de- claration (May 10.) Charles fV. his Queen, and the Prince of Peace were conveyed to Compeigne, and afterwards lo Mar- seilles. '-^mv-^ vith a nation from ontrary to religion. nnre, General Miol- «.) This wns the d attacks, by which at personage. To 8 of the Church, by provinces of Urbino, rere annexed to the ) attach his servants resolved, not to re- ason known why he which should pass ants. These titles rons, and Chevaliers an Imperial statute, le decrees of the Se- the union of terrilo- ut a trivial violence ue and cunning by 'ed of the throne of at Bayonne, passed I'ear, under the corn- slowly as if it only popular insurrection adoy, the Prince of ommencement of his , abdicated the crown IS (March 19, 1808,) The intrigues of the the throne, and the the Royal family in irid (Mar. 23.) Ta- yroung monarch, they naparte at Bayonne, ed by promises of fa- nselves. This weak ceded his dominions 5.) By threatening om him a similar de- m, and the Prince of 1 after^vards to Mar- PERIOD IX. A. D. 1902- 1810. 600 Ferdinand VII. nnd his brothers were imprisoned in the cas- tle of ValcMicny. Bonnpartt- conforn-rl the throne of Spain on his brother Joseph (June'),) who wiis tli«'* ^j iif 'iw* n CnAPTBR Xt. 606 peror Alexatuler, (UirinR the interview of Erfurt, got .his miir reduced to or.e hundriHl .u.d twn.ty .nillums. In n.nseauenc. oi this, a new convention wtu signed at Berlin (iNov. J,) at- cordinR to which, St.-ttin. Cu«trin. and (ihfrm, were to renm.n in the hands of the French, as s.vuriiy for puyinenl of the sli- puhited sun. ; the rest of the Pru**iun states were evacuated. Austria was on the point of entering into the fourth coalition, when the peace of Tilsit was concluded. From that inou.ent the Cahinel of Vienna resolved to prepare for war by s ow and successive operations, which inijrht appear to be merely mea- suresof precaution ; more especially by orRanizin<,' her armies an better principles, and trainin- all the citizens to arms, by the institution of a militia called Li>,dtv^:hr, that they mi^'ht be in condition to act on the spur of the moment. The Arch, uke Charles, who was appointed Generalissimo, supenntendeil all these preparations, and succeeded in reviving the courage of the nation. Although these armaments could not escape the notice of the French agents, and although in the course of the year 180S, and especially in the beginning of the year 1&U9, they had several times asked for explanations on this subject, never- theless. Count Sladion who was at the head of the depiulment for foreign aaiiirs, and Count .Metlernich the Austrian minister at Paris, dissembled so well, that Bonaparte never dreamt of war till it was on the very point of breaking out. Ihe time chosen for this was when the French armies were occupied in Spain and Portugal. Reasons— or it may be rather said pretexts— were not want- ing to Austria; for undoubtedly her true motive was, to raise herself from that state of abasement into which she had sunk. Violations innumerable of the peace of Presburg, the organiz- ing of the Confederation of the Rhine, the compelling her to accede to the Continental System, and the spoliation of the Bourbons in Spain, were causes more than sufTicient to justity her having recourse to arms. The war which Austria under- took in 1809, has been called the war of the fifth coalition. It is true that Great Britain, Portugal, Spain, and the King of Sicily, were her allies ; but, with the exception of the descent which the English made on Zealand, she had to support alone \he whole burden of the war. On opening the campaign, she made an appeal to the German nation, which was answered by the Kings of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Saxony, by a declara- tion of war. ^ . u • . The-Austrians had divided their forces uito three armies , iwo hundred and twenty thousand men, under the Archduke Charles, were destined to act in Germany; the Archduke I'er- Erfurt, goi (his suit )iiH. Ill coiisequen':* Berlin (Nov. 3.) ac nfjiiu, wero to rciiiiiin r payment of the sti- es were evacuiitcd. the fourth coalition, From that inouietit n for war by slow uiid •iir to he merely iiieo- (ir<(ani/iiig her armies 'iti/ens to arms, by the that they mij,'ht be in iient. The Archduke mo, superintended all ving the courage of the d not escape the notice ihe course of the year f the year 1809, tiiey on this subject, never- liead of the depnrlment 1 the Au.strian minister iparto never dreamt of ■aking out. The time niiies were occupied in !texts — were not want- ue motive was, to raise which she had sunk. Presburg, the organiz- , the compelling her to 1 the spoliation of the lan sufFicien'. to justify ■ which Austria under- f the fifth coalition. It pain, and the King of cception of the descent e had to support alone ling the campaign, she vhich was answered by I Saxony, by a declara- ces into three armies ; 1, under the Archduke ny ; the Archduke For- MRioD IX. ». P. 1802—1810. r>07 dinand of Est/% with thirty-six thousand men, wa4 to penetrate through the dutchy of Warsow into Prussia, where he expected 10 1k' joined by the troops of thot country. The Arcndukt) John, with eighty thousand men, was to enter Italy. The campaign was op»'iied, on the part of the Austrians, by the in- vasion of Bavaria (April 10, 1809.) Bonaparte at first beat the Archduke Louis and General Miller, who commanded two divi- sions, at Abensberg (April 20,) and thus cut them otf from the grand army under the Archduke Charles. The latter was him- self defeated at Eckmiihl and Ratisbon, three days after, and ertectcd his retreat along the left bank of the Danube., Bona parte then pursued Hiller, who was defeated at Eberslwrg (May 3,) and retired to Kreins, on the left bank of the Danube. Vi- enna in consoijiience was left defenceless, and surrendered by capitulation (May 13.) It was there that Boiia|)arte passed. the Danube, and fought with the Archduke ut EberdsorlF, Aspern and Essling, two most sanguinary engagements (May 21 — 22,) in which the French lost 30,000 men. He then retired to the Isle of Lobau, where his army, cut off from provisions and supplies, pas.sed forty-eight hours in great distress, until they had succeeded in reconstructing the bridges which the floods o( the Danube had carried away. In Italy the Archduke John had defeated Eugene Beauharnais, who commanded the French army, at Sa(,'ile ; but being informed of the defeat at Ratisbon. he commenced his retreat, and was defeated near the Piave (May 8,) after which he retired on the Kaab, where he was again defeated (June 14.) Beauharnais then joined the army of Napoleon. The Archduke Ferdinand took possession of Warsaw, and marched as far as Thorn, where he took from the Prussians one hundred pieces of cannon. But an insurrection which happened in the rear of his army, obliged him to retreat, when the Polish troops took possession of Cracow (July 14.) About the beginning of July, Bonaparte pas.sed over to the left bank of the Rhine. The battle of EnzersdorflT, where Ber- nadotte and the Saxons distinguished themselves, was bloody, but not decisive : next day (July 6,) the Archduke Charles was defeated at Wagram, and retreated in good order into Moravia. An armistice wos then concluded near Znaym (July 12,) c«i conditions very oppressive for Austria. But the negotiations for peace were long protracted ; as both parties were waiting the result of an expedition which the English had made to Zealand ; and as Austria hoped that Prussia, and perhaps even Russia, would declare in her favour. The inhabitants of the Tyrol ; who were very mnch attached to the House of Austria, from whom they had been separated at m tiif i(i*' (In'' no8 CHAPTBR XI. ihe |..ri.T of Proshnrsr, hml tnkfi. up arms unacr the conduct of a.. i!mk...per. nun.-ul lloir-r. By iho urnu.tu-e of /'"-^y'"; A"- •riu wns cmiipoll-.l i.. .ibatulon ihis l.r.ivo people, whom th« Bu- varin.is an.l the Fn-nch loKollier Im.l ^real .litlictiUy in reducing Id submission. .... •• • i u.. .».„ VVoomnot puss in silence the bol.l expedition made by the Duke of Bruiiiwick, the son and heir of hiin who had command- ed at Jena. At the head of a body of volunteers which he had forme* ,tl,.. tinentnl system, though under certain modifiitnlions. Had Charles executed this engagement, his kingdom would have been ruined beyond resource. The part of the Hanoverian States belonging to the King of England which Bonaparte had still reserved in his own possession, was ceded by a treaty concluded at Paris (Jan. 14,) to his brother Jerome, to be incorporated with the kingdom of Westphalia. Besides the dutchy of Lauenberg, Bonaparte reserved to himself a landed revenue of four millions five hundred and fifty-nine thousand francs, for bestowing in legacies and endowments. Louis Bonaparte had reluctantly accepted the crown of Hol- land ; but from the moment he had placed it on his head, he de- voted himself to the interests of the country; and resisted, as far as prudence would allow, the arbitrary orders of his brother, when he judged them prejudicial to the welfare of Holland. This gave rise to frequent broils, accompanied sometimes with threats. Bonaparte reproached the Dutch Government, more especially for not earnestly and rigorously enforcing the Con- tinental system, so pernicious to their commerce. At the be- ginning of the year 1910, things had come to such a state, that it was expected Napoleon would cancel the kingdom of Holland from the list of European States. To avert this calamity, Louis signed a treaty at Paris (March 16,) by which a body of 12,000 Dutch and 6000 French were to be stationed at the mouths of all the rivers, to protect the French revenue-officers who were superintending the execution of Bonaparte's orders. Louis ceded to him Dutch Brabant, Zealand, and a part of Gueldres. of which the Waal was henceforth to form the frontier. In vain did that excellent man hope, by so great a sacrifice, to repur- chase the independence of his kingdom. Under pretext of cer- tain insults which the French agents had received at the hands of this exasperated people, Bonaparte sent a French army to occupy the whole country. Then Louis resigned a crown which he could no longer wear with honour ; he abdicated in favour of his son (July 3.) But Napoleon, indignant at a mea- sure on which he had not been consulted, annexed the kingdom of Holland to the French Empire, by a decree dated at Kam- bouillet (July 9.) Some months afterwards, the Republic of Valais, which, since the year 1802, had formed an independent State, was united to the French Empire by a decree of Bonaparte (Nov. 12.) But the most important of his usurpations in 1810, and that which was instrumental in working his downfall, wus the union of the H.unseatic countries situated on the coasts of the North Sea, viz. certain districts of W:;stphalia, and the Grand Dutchy of Berg "ERIOD IX. A. D. 1S02— 18J0. 511 lions. Hrtd Charles I have been ruined n States belonging id still reserved in concluded at Paris >rporated with the ;hy of Lauenberg, lie of four millions , for bestowing in the crown of Hol- )n his head, he de- ; and resisted, as lers of his brother, eifare of Holland, d sometimes with Government, more enforcing the Con- nerce. At the be- ) such a state, thai ingdom of Holland his calamity, Louis 1 a body of 12,000 d at the mouths of -officers who were !'s orders. Louis part of Gueldres. frontier. In vain lacrifice, to repur- ider pretext of cer eived at the hands a French army to resigned a crown ; he abdicated in ndignant at a mea- lexed the kingdom se dated at Kam- /^alais, which, since tale, was united to > (Nov. 12.) But 10, and that which i»s the union of the he North Sea, viz. d Dutchy of Berg some possession.! of the princes of Salm-Salm, and Saki-Kyr- burg, part of the dutchy of Oldenburg, the free cities of Bremen and Hamburg, as well as the citv of Lubcc and the duti>hy of Lauenburg. By a decree of the Senate (Dec. 13,) these places were declared united to France ; the necessity of which Bona- parte had stated in a message addressed to these pliant and sub- missive bodies. France still retained possession of Guadaloupe, the Isle of Bourbon, and the Mauritius. The year 1810, in which the greatness of Bonaparte in Europe reached its summit, deprived him of these possessions. General Beckwith and Admiral Cochrane, attacked and seized Guadaloupe. An expedition sent by Lord Minto, the English Governor-General in India and a thousand men from the Cape, reduced the Isle of B.. ur- bon (July 7,) and that of the Mauritius some months after. It will now be necessary to point out some of the modifica- tions wlich the Continental system underwent. The English had shov n some disposition to put an end to that unnatural stale of commerce which preceding measures had established. They first modified the Orders of 1807 regarding America; so that the Americans were permitted, under certain conditions, to carry on trade in all ports subject to French influence, which were not actually under blockade ; and the law of blockade was even restricted to the ports of Holland and France, and those of the northern part of Italy, between Pesaro and Orbitello. The clause in the decree of 11th November, relative to the payment of a compulsory duty in England, was abolished. A new era in the Continental system began with a decree of Bonaparte (Aug. 7,) known by the name of The Decree or Tariff of Trianon. A second, by way of supplement, was issued from St. Cloud (Sept. 12.) Making a distinction between the trade and the produce of the colonies ; and availing himself of the universal custom which had rendered the latter among the necessaries of life, he resolved to take advantage of this cir- cumstance to replenish his treasury, by permitting their impor- tation on paying an ad valorem duty of 50 per cent. A third decree, signed at Fontainbleau, ordered all English merchandise, found in France or her dependencies, to be seized and burnt. At that time, France, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, were covered with bonfires, which destroyed the property of native merchants, and opened a new prospect for English manufactures one day to replace the articles that wore thus wantonly consumed. We shall now give a short outline of the most remarkable events that took place in the rest of Europe, during this period of French preponderance. 51-2 CHAPTBR XI. For more than six years Portugal, by means of the pecuniary sacrifices which she had made to the French crown, haJ maiu- tanied iier neutrality between France and England. But as she had betrayed her predilection for England during the Prussian war, her ruin was determined oti ; and as she could no longer I'onceal from herself the danger of her position, the Prince Ke- )7ent entered into a strict alliance with Great Britain, by a con- vention signed at London (Oct. 22, 1807.) General Junot had taken possession of the country after the Roy.il family had em- barked for Brazil ; and solemnly declared, that the House of Braganza had ceased to reign in Europe (Feb. 1, 1808.) Fol- lowing the example of the Spaniards, the Portuguese soon shook off the yoke of the oppressor. The city of Oporto gave the first signal of insurrection (June 6 ;) an English army, commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley, landed in Mondego Bay (July 31,) and defeated Junot at Vimeiro (Aug. 21.) The French General, whose army was reduced to a most distressing state, obtained from General Dalrymple, who had taken the command of the Engli.«h troops, a capitulation on very honourable terms, wliich was concluded at Cintra (Aug. 30.) Junot, and his troops, were conveyed to France in English vessels. The Russian Admiral Siniawin was not so fortunate. He was. then lying in the Tagus with a fleet of nine ships of the line, and a frigate, which had been employed in the war against the Turks in the Archipelago, and found himself under the ne- cessity of surrendering his fleet to Sir Charles Cotton the Eng- lish Admiral (Sept. 3,) which was not to be restored to the Em- peror until the conclusion of a pacific treaty between Russia and Great Britain. The convention of Cintra, of which the true circumstances are not well known, excited so great a discontent in England, that Sir Heu Dalrymple and Sir Arthur Wellesley were called home, that an investigation might be made into thi.i unpopular measure. During their absence, and after the affair of Corunna, Soult received orders to attempt the conquest of Portugal, where there were not more than 8000 English troops, under the command of General Craddock, and an army of the natives. At the head of 23,000 men he marched towards Chaves, and took possession of that place (March 7,) which is one of the frontier fortresses of the kingdom. But on his arrival at Oporto he encountered the Portuguese army, who for three days disputed with him the EDSsession of the place. Here he remained a full month before e durst proceed on his march. Meantime General Wellesley had landed at Lisbon with a new English army. He manoju- wed so well that by the end of May, Soult was obliged to retire IS of the pecuniary 1 crown, hai maiu- ghind. But as she uring the Prussian he could no Inneer on, the Prince Re- t Britain, by a con- General Junot had yal family had em- that the House of eb. 1, 1808.) Fol- tuguese soon shook )porto gave the first 1 army, commanded Bay (July 31,) and e French General, sing state, obtained be command of the irable terms, which and his troops, were ; so fortunate. He of nine ships of the d in the war against imself under the ne- les Cotton the Eng- restored to the Em- between Russia and , of which the true 30 great a discontent ir Arthur Wellesley ht be made into thii) r of Gorunna, Soult ortugal, where there ider the command of ires. At the head of id took possession of frontier fortresses of I he encountered the puted with him the 1 a full month before J General Wellesley army. He manceu- was obliged to retire Tr PERIOD a. A. D. 1803—1810. 513 into Galicia, with the loss of his artillery an' baggage. Next ycai the French sent a third expedition to Po tugal, bat as this belt gs more properly to the war in Spain, v c shall take o'-ca- sion to notice it afterwards. After the retreat of Soult, the For- tuguese acted a considerable part in the liberation of Europt* General Wellesley, who was intruisted with very extensive powers, organized their army, and augmented it to 40,000 m<>», wiih the assistance of 600,000/. Sterling, which England fur nished for that purpose. The connexion between Great Britain and Portugal, became still more intimate bj' the treaty of alliance which was conclu- ded at Rio Janeiro (Feb. 19, 1811.) George III. there promised never to recognise any King of Portugal but the heir and legiti- mate representative of the House of Braganza. The Regent granted Britain the right of building ships of war in Brazil, and of supplying themselves with timber for the purpose from the forests of that country ; and by abrogating certain former stipu- lations, he agreed to receive into his ports as many British ves- sels as chose to enter. The Regent likewise promised to co- operate with England for the abolition of the Slave Trade ; and this is the first example of a stipulation of the kind. Together with this treaty there was also concluded a treaty of commerce. Towards the end of 1810 Portugal became the theatre of war, as we shall observe when we come to speak of Spain. Charles IV. King of Spain, had flattered himself that by sub- mitting to the payment of subsidies to France, according to the treaty of October 30, 1803, he would be exempted from the ne- cessity of taking part in the war which had broken out between Bonaparte and England ; and it was on the faith of this that the latter power had commenced hostilities. Four Spanish ships returning to Europe, loaded with treasures and valuable merchandise from South America, were seized off Cape St. Mary (Oct. 5, 1804,) by an English squadron. After that act of hostility, which, but for the negotiation that had preceded it, might have been regarded as a violation of the law of nations, Charles IV. declared war against England (Dec. 12 ;) and the following year he had the mortification to see his marine totallv destroyed by the battle of Trafalgar, which Admiral Nelson gained over the combined fleets of Gravina and Villeneuve. In 1806 the English made an attempt to get possession of the Spanish colony of Buenos Ayres. Tne expedition sailed from St. Helena under the command of Admiral Sir Home Popham. The troops were commanded by General Beresford. Buenos Ayrea capitulated on the 2d July ; there the English found nn* merous treasures which were transported to Europe ; but t.n 33 •1 .(« m i^i' ' H,-! hi VM I i■^ 514 CHAPTER XI. incunection of the inhabitants, headed by a Spaniard named Puerido" and Liniers a native of France, obliged General Beres- ford to surrender himself and his troops prisoners of war (Aug. 12.^ Admiral Popham took possession of Maldonado (Oct. 29,} where he remained in expectation of the supplies which he f x- Scted to come from England. General Auchmuty landed m. aldonado in the beginning of the following year, and took the town of Monte Video by assault (Feb. 2.) New reinforcements having arrived from England, General Whitelocke again attack- ed Buenos Ayres, and penetrated into the town (July 5 ;) but Liniers, at the head of the Spaniards, made so able a defence, that the English General signed a capitulation, by which he v»b- tained the restitution of all British prisoners ; and the English promised to evacuate Monte Video within the space of two months. Charles IV. and his minister, during the war with Prussia, had shown a desire to shake off the yoke of Bonaparte. By signing at Fontainbleau the partition of Portugal, they opened a way for the French armies into Spain, who took possession of St. Sebastian, Pampelunn, Figueras, and Barcelona ; and were even masters of Madrid while one part of the Spanish army were occupied in Portugal, and the other in Denmark. The con- sequences of these imprudences were, the overturning of Spain, and the dethronement of the House of Bourbon, as we have noticed above. When the Spaniards rose in rebellion against the royal intru- der, they formed themselves into Juntas, or directorial commit- tees, in every province. That of Seville, which was composed of enterprising men, took the lead in the insurrection, declared war against Bonaparte in the name of Ferdinand VII., and con- cluded an armistice with England. Their authority was not acknowledged by the Provincial Juntas, each of which had set on foot an army of their own. All these armies engaged the French troops wherever they met them, and were very often vanquished. The insurrection did not come to a head till after the battle of Baylen (July 20, 1808,) where 14,000 French troops, under Generals Dupont and Vidal, laid down their arms. Castanos, to whom this success was owing, was then appointed Generalissimo ; and the Junta organized a Regency, at the head of which they placed the old Cardinal de Bourbon. There were two other events which greatly encouraged the Spaniards ; the one was the expulsion of Le Febvre from Saragossa by General Palafox, and the other the arrival of the Marquis de la Romana at Corunna with 7000 men, who had been conveyed to the ic- land of Funen for invading Sweden, but had embarked, m spite of the French, to come to the assistanco of their country a Spaniard named ged General Beres- oners of war (Aug. aldonado (Oct. 29,) pplies which he ex- uchmuty landed at T year, and took ilie ew reinforcements elocke again attack- town (July 5 ;) but e 80 able a defence, ion, by which he ob- s ; and the English n the space of two le war with Prussia, of Bonaparte. By ortugal, they opened 10 took possession of Jarcelona ; and were f the Spanish urmy Denmark. The con- verturning of Spain, Jourbon, as we have fainst the royal intru- r directorial commit- which was composed insurrection, declared jinand VII., and con- lir authority was not ich of which had set I armies engaged the and were very often ne to a head till after here 14,000 French laid down their arms. r, was then appointed Regency, at the head Jourbon. There were d the Spaniards ; the Saragossa by General arquis de la Romana n conveyed to the le- ad embarked, m spite " their country PERIOD IX. A. D. 1803~1810. 515 Joseph Bonaparte having abandoned Madrid and retired to Burgos (Aug. 1,) a Central Junta was established at Araniucz. This Junta raised three armies: that of the North, under Blake and Romanu ; that of the Centre, under Castanos ; and that of Arragon, under Palafox. Immediately after the interview at Erfurt, Bonaparte placed himself at the head of his army, which had been increased to 180,000 men ; and after gaining several advantages over the enemy, he sent back his brother Joseph to Madrid. Meantime, two divisions of the English army having arrived, the one from Lisbon, and the other from Corunna, they formed a junction in the province of Leon, under the command of Sir John Moore. Bonaparte marched against them, but they thought it prudent to retire. Having arrived at Astorga,he re- ceived intelligence of the preparations of the Austrians, when he set out for Paris, leaving the command of the army to Soult, who obliged the English to embark at Corunna, after a severe engagement in which Sir John Moore lost his life. A treaty of peace and alliance was signed at London between England and the Supreme Junta, acting in the name of Ferdinand VII. (Jan. 14, 1809.) England sent into Portugal a new army, under the command of Sir A. Wellesley. The second siege of Saragossa. which was undertaken first by Junot, and continued by Lannes, vas one of the most extraordinary events in modern war. The garrison, commanded by Palafox, and the inhabitants of the place who were completely devoted to him, performed prodigies of valour. When the French took the city (Feb. 21,) it presented nothing but a mass of ruins. It was calculated that above 100,000 men perished in that siege. Marshal Victor defeated Cuesta at Medellin (March 28,) and Suchet defeated General Blake at Belchite (June 16 :) but Soult, who had penetrated into Portugal, was repulsed by Wellesley^ who fought the bloody battle of Talavera with Marshals Jourdan and Victor, which turned to the disadvantage of the French. The misconduct of the army of Cuesta, which had been con- t'oined with that of Wellesley in this battle, determined the latter lenceforth to carry on a defensive war with the English and Portuguese alone ; and to leave to the Spaniards the care of occupying the French, by harassing their troops incessantly, destroying their convoys and magazines, and surprising their entrenchments. The battle of Ocana (Nov. 19,) which Cuesta fought with General Mortier and lost, was the last pitched bat- tle which the Spaniards fought. From that time they confined themselves to a Guerilla warfare, by which they did infinite damage to the enemy In 1809, the Central Junta retired to Seville. Towards the ■^0^ ■rp" >i.< il 's. ' #■'' ■' ih 516 CHAFTER XJ. end of the year, they were replaced by an Executive Directory uf nine membera; and next year these were superseded in their turn by a Regency of five members, which was established at Cadiz. An assembly of the Cortes was summoned to meet there, the members of which were nominated, not by the clergy, the nobility, and the cities, which composed the legitimate States of Spain, out by the great body of the inhabitants. That assem- bly, who could do no more for the defence of their country, em- ployed themselves in establishing a democratic constitution in Spain, destroying by degrees all the institutions of the monarchy. Soult, who was commander-in-chief of tho army of the South, conquered the whole of Andalusia in 1810, with the exception of Cadiz, which Victor had in vain attempted to besiege. The principal efforts of the French were then turned towards Portu- gal ; and on this occasion Massena was ordered to undertake the reduction of that country, at the head cf 70,000 men. Junot laid siege to Ciudad Rodrigo, which surrendered after a vigorous defence (July 10.) Almeida was likewise obliged to capitulate a few weeks after (August 27.) These conquests were made, without any apparent wish on the part ofthe English commander, recently created Lord Wellington, to prevent them. He had then begun to carry into execution the plan of defensive warfare which he had conceived after the battle of Talavera. In the spring he was stationed on the Coa, and began to retreat after the fall of Ciudad Rodrigo ; nor did he stop till he had reached Torres Vedras. Four months were employed in effecting this slow tetrograde march. Massena followed him every step, suf- fering from continual fatigue and daily skirmishes ; and strug- gling against amine, as the English army had destroyed every thing that lay in their way. Towards the end of October, Lord Wellington took up an impregnable position, where for four months the French General found all his manceuvres unsuccess- ful Lord Wellington took advantage of this interval to secure considerable reinforcements which arrived from Lisbon. He was thus prepared to fall upon his adversary, when the impossibility of subsisting longer in an exhausted country should at length compel him to retreat. When giving a summary of the history of France, we spoke of the renewal of hostilities between Bonaparte and Great Britain in 1803, as well as of the part which the latter took in the Con- tinental wars of 1805, 1807, and 1809. The efforts which she had made to support these expenses, added a frightful increase to her national debt ; but the constantly increasing progress of her commerce furnished her with the means of meeting this enormous expenditure In vain had Bonaoarte expected to rain PKRior IX. A. 0. 1802—1810. 617 Executive Directory superseded in their was established at summoned to meet d, not by the clergy, [the legitimate States roitants. That assem- Jof their country, em- cratic constitution in ons of the monarchy- o army of the South, ), with the exception ted to besiege. I'he irned towards Portu- irdered to undertake f 70,000 men. Junot Jered after a vigorous obliged to capitulate onquests were made, ! English commander, vent them. He had 1 of defensive warfare of Talavera. In the began to retreat after op till he had reached loyed in effecting thie d him every step, suf- cirmishes ; and strug- T had destroyed every end of October, Lord ition, where for four (lantBuvres unsuccess- this interval to secure from Lisbon. He was irhen the impossibilitv ntry should at length of France, we spoke arte and Great Britain atter took in the Con- Fhe efforts which she d a frightful increase icreasing progress of eans of meeting this oarte expected to i uin the industry of England by the Continental system. In the Fionch, Spanish, and Dutch culonie;-; which she conquered, she found new channels to supply the place of those which were shut against her on the Continent of Europe. The Empire of the sea still remained in the possession of the British ; and, in 1807, they annihilated the marine of Denmark, the only king- dom which then retained any maritime power. But of this cir- cumstance we shall speak hereafter. The year 1806 is remarkable for the abolition of the slave trade in the English colonies. Since 1785, the Blacks had found zealous advocates in the British Parliament, amongst whom Fox, Wilberforce, and Pitt, were the most distinguished. But the British Government, too sagacious to enter precipitately into a measure which might endanger the fortun-; of the planters, and even the tranquillity of the colonies, wishfd first to consult ex- perience on the subject, and to leave the proprietors time to pre- pare themselves for a different order of things. For twenty years they had refused to adopt the bill which Mr. Wilberforce regularly laid before the Parliament, to demand restrictive laws against the trade. It was not until Mr. Fox and Lord Grenville entered into the ministry, that this question occupied their serious deliberations. An Act of Parliament, ratified by the King (May 16, 1806,) forbade the exportation of slaves from the Englisn colonies, and conveying them into foreign colonies. A Bill of the 6th February 1807, which was ratified by the King on the 17th March following, enacted, that the slave trade should ac- tually cease from the date of May 1st ensuing ; providing, how- ever, that vessels already departed fn the trade should be allowed to import slaves into the West Indies until the 1st January 1808 Of^ all the countries which were brought under the yoke of Napoleon, the most unfortunate without dispute was Holland. Her commerce, the only resource of her numerous inhabitants, was annihilated by the Continental system ; her finances were in such a state of disorder, that, in spite of all their economy, the annual deficit was regularly about twenty millions of flo- rins : her inhabitants were harassed as much by the soldiers of Bonaparte as by his revenue officers ; and as if nature, in con- cert with political oppression, had conspired her ruin, her soil was laid waste, and her industry destroyed by periodical inun dations, fires, and other calamities. Such is the picture which that wrretched country presented up to the moment when Bona- parte extinguished the feeble remains of independence which it enjoy«d. After various alterations, that Republic obtained a constitution similar to that which had existed in France since 1804. M. Schimmelpennink was placed at the head of the go •^*' if m> «: '" ■■«* 518 CHAPTER XI. vemment (April 1806,) under tlio title of Grand Pensionary and vested with such powers as the last Stadtholders had never exercised, e\en after the revolution of 1788. We have already observed how this power, together with the Royal title, were rendered hereditary in favour of Louis Bonaparte ; and how the Dutch monarchy vanished at the fiat of Napoleon. Switzerland, with the exception of some partial commotions which are scarcely worthy of remark, had remained tranquil under the system of government which Boncparte had pre- scribed in the act of mediation (Feb. 19, 1803.) The Conti- nental System, and the prohibition laid on the greater part ol Swiss commonaparte ; and hnv> Napoleon, partial commotions remained tranquii loncparte had pre- 1803.) The Conti- the greater part ol their industry and inhabitants to emi )ur3e towards North il signed at Friburg en France and the ivantageous for that Bonaparte was sa- 5wiss agreed to im- ; of salt, which they partly from Bavaria and quintals per an 'ed from furnishing than 20,000 troops. 1?. signed, by which >usu.nd Swiss volun- I this nation of war- md to make up the te state of the Swiss lint with Bonaparte. been perpetually di- we now speak, that uence of Bonaparte, les, and the kingdom St. Marino, which ! general convulsion. 1805 had borne the d by the enormous r the support of the ■ the civil list of the itted with great im- ion, which was con- >itants. It obtained ace of Presburg by ', and by that of tlif PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 51 •'k *». erial Deputation had irg which was taken Electoral title was he Teutonic Knights ho House of Austria. Jrisgau, and Ortenau, e, the germ of which by the Confederation and Wunamberg, the 1 Dukes of Clevcs and he Princes of Hohen- Aremberg, ond Count 6, 1806,) who was tinounced in their de- the Emperor Francis 6,) completed the dis- inces who had joined ', instead of the mere ed under the authori- Triers which the laws ancient customs, and chments of absolute g under foot the well arried their injustice i^er the princes, pro- quals, who were un i ; and who had not lir to Paris, in ordei rBKlOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. S21 to co-opernte in that trniisnction, or counternrt tli»» intrigiieii by whii'h it was acconinlished. TIk' KliTtor Arili-Clianc('lli)r then assumed the dignity of Prini-e F'rinmto ; tlip Elector of Hadcn, ilie Dukus of Bert; ond Cloves, ond the Landgrave of HL'ssc-Darnistadt todk the title of Grand Dukes; to which the an of the 12lh July attached th' nrerogoiivew of the royal dignity. The head of the house oi Nassau took the dignity of Duke, ond Count Leyen that of Prince. A federal Diet, divided into two chambers, was to de- liberate on the general interests of the union ; but that assembly never met. Of the six free cities which the Deputation had preserved, the King of Bavaria had Augsburg adjudged to him by the peace of Presburg ; he afterwards obtained Nuremberg by an act of the Confederation. Frankfort fell to the shore of the Prince Primote ; so thot there remained only three of the Hanseatic towns. Several other princes entered successively into the Confedera- tion of the Rhine ; but none of those accessions were voluntary. They all took place in consequence of the war with Prussia, which broke out in October 1806. These princes, token accord- ing to the order of accession, were the following: — The Elector of Wurlzburg, the old Elector of Saltzburg, who took the grand ducal title, the King of Saxony, the Dukes of Soxony, the Houses of Anhalt and Schwortzburg, the Prince of Waldeck, the Houses of Lippe and Reuss, the King of Westphalia, the House of Mecklenburg, ond the Duke of Oldenburg. Thus all Germany, with a few exceptions, entered in succession into that Confede- ration. Several other changes occurred in the Rhenish Confedera- tion, especially after the peace of Schoenbrunn. The grand dutchy of Berg received considerable accessions. The kingdom of Westphalia was augmented in 1810, by the union of the States of the King of England in Germany, with the exception of the dutchy of Lunenburg, as has been already mentioned. Within a short time after he hod disposed of the territory of Hanover, Bonoporte formed the grand dutchy of Frankfort, by adding the district of Fulda, and the greater port of the county of Hanau, to the possessions of the Prince Primate ; with the deduction of the principality of Ratisbon, on condition that after the death of the Prince Primate, who had assumed the title of the Grand Duke of Frankfort, these territories should pass to Eugene Beou- harnais and his male descendants ; and failing these, they should revert to the Crown of France. The Grand Duke ceded to Napoleon the principality of Ratisbon, and his moiety of the navigation-dues on the Rhino. m t^ h !««' 1^ "W^ I J! I J: I Its.;": ' ,f 529 CHAPTIR XT. The i;it>ctor of Bavaria had lost by the fM-acn of LunevHle that part uf the i'alatiiuito NitimtucI on the left bunk of tho Khine, with this diilohy of Deux-nonts. Tho Deputation of 1803 de- prived him of the retit of the Palatinate ; but that act amply compemiatfd him, by makinjr over to him the bishoprica of Bamberi^, Wurtzburj,', Freisinj^en, Passau, and Auitfsburjf, with several abbeys and free citie*. By tho peace of I'resburK, Bo- naparte took Wurtzburg from him ; but ho gave him in lieu of it tt considcrablo part of the spoils of Austria, especially the county of Tyrol, which contained more than 700,000 inhabitants. To recompense that monarch for the zeal which he had displayed 1809, BonapartB put him in posse.^sion of the principalities of Baireuth and Ratisbon, the dutchy of Saltzburg, with Berch- tolsgaden, and the part of Lower Austria whicli the Emperor had renounced by tho peace of Schonbrunn. In return, the King of Bavaria ceded back a part of the Tyrol, containing about 305,000 souls, which was annexed either to the kingdom of Italy or the Illyriau provinces. By the peace of Luneville, the Austrian monarchy had lost, in point of extent and population ; but she had gained an addi- tion of six millions of francs to her revenue. 1 he government had to struggle incessantly against th^ ruinous state of the ex- chequer, and the over-circulation of paper money. Neither loans nor economy could recover them. The embarrassed state of his finances was still more increased by the disastrous war of 1805. The peace of Presburg cost the Emperor the States that formerly belonged to the Venetians, the Tyrol, and all the possession.') of his House in Swabia. He acquired nothing by that treaty, ex- cept the dutchy of Saltzburg and Berchtolsgaden. His losses amounted to more than a thousand German square miles of ter- ritory, and nearly three millions of subjects. The following year (Aug. 6, 1806,) he voluntarily laid aside the Imperial crown of Germany, adopting instead, the hereditary Imperial crown of Austria, with the name of Francis I. Besides Saltsburg and Berchtolsgaden, the ci-devant Grand Duke of Tuscany lost also Passau and Eichstctt ; but ho oblained the principality of Wurta- burg. The Archduke Ferdinand was deprived of Brisgau and Ortenau. At the commencement of the year 1807, Austria had made warlike preparations which indicated that, but for the precipi- tancy with which the peace of Tilsit had been concluded, she would have made a powerful diversion on the rear of the French army. It was not till the convention of Fontainbleau that she obtained the restitution of Braunau, which had remained in the possession of the French, and which she purchased by new ter pcacd of Lunflvllle bank of tho Rhine, luiution uf 1S03 (Ih- but that act nniply In the bishoprics of mil Augiiburg, with |cc of I'rcsburu, Bo> gave him in Ueu of itria, especially the 700,000 inhabitants, ich he had displayed the principalities of tzburg, with Berch- which the Emperor nn. In return, the rol, containing about to the kingdom of monarchy had lost, had gained an addi- J. 1 he government nous state of the ex- loney. Neither loans barrussed state of his iastrous war of 1806. ! States that formerly all the possessions of ig by that troaty, ex- Isguden. Hib losses 1 square miles of ter< !ct8. The following e the Imperial crown ry Imperial crown of isidcs Saltsburg and of Tuscany lost also irincipality of Wurt2- rived of Brisgau and , Austria had made , but for the precipi- been concluded, she le rear of the French ontainbleau that she had remained in the irchased by new ter >£^ r^l^' PERIOD IX. A. D. 180S— 1810. 023 riiorial losses on the side of Italy ; from that inomcnt the Arch- duke Charles made great exertions fur rc-orguiii/iiig the army, introducing a new order and a better diifciplint-, forming bodies of militia, and repairing fnrtres.Nc.s. M(! coritiniied to inspire the natiiiii with an enthu»iaMm which it had never lnTore displayed. Many wealthy individuals made large pecuniary sacrifices for the seivice ol'^their country The peace of Schccnbrunn, which terminated the war of 1809, brought Austria down to the ronk of the third Contiiu'iilul power. That monarchy compri'hended ii surface of 9471 Ger- man square miles, and a populnticm of twenty-one millions ; but her commerce was annihilated by the loss of Trieste and Fiunie, which separated her from the sea. The immense quantity of paper money in the ceded provinces, flowed back into ttie interior of the kingdom, and reduced the currency of these bills to one- hfth of their nominal value. Prussia, by the Resolutions of the Deputation of 1S03, gained 426,000 subjects, and more than four millions of francs to her revenue ; and the provinces which she acquired, established, to a certoin extent, the continuity of her Westphalian possessions with the centre of the kingdom. A convention with the Elector of Bavaria respecting an exchange of territory, made consiiler- able additions to the Principalities in Franconia. The King, from that time, occupied himself in applying the remedy of a wise administration to repair the calamities which wars and levies had inflicted on the country. In vain had they tried every means of persuasion to make him join the third coalition ; and it was only the violation of his territory by the French troops, that at last prevailed with him to take that step. We have al- ready spoken of the convention at Potsdam, by which he engag- ed eventually to become a party to that confederacy, and of the attempt which he made to restore peace by means of negotiation. We have already mentioned how he became involuntarily, and by the turn which his minister gave to the affair with which he was intrusted, the ally of him whom he wished to engage in war. Prussia obtained, by the treaty of Vienna, the precarious possession of the Electorate of Hanover, in lieu of which she ceded Anspach, Cleves, and Neufchatel The superficial extent of the whole monarchy amounted then to 6746 German square miles, with a population of 10,668,000 souls. The occupation of Hanover dragged Prussia into a war with England ; and the course pursued towards her by Bonaparte soon compelled her to declare war against France. He had offered the Electorate of Hanover to the King of England, and opposed Prussia in the project of associating Saxony, Hesse, m I"; I I Hi 524 CHAPTER XI. and the Hanseatic towns, in the confederation which Frederic wished to oppose to that of the Rhine. The convention of Vienna thus became the occasion of inflicting new calamities on Prussia. Frederic William renounced the territory of Hanover, by the peace which he concluded with George III. at Memel (Jan. 2S. 1807 ;) but the treaty of Tilsit cost the former the half of his German estates, viz. an extent of 2657 German square miles, and a population of 4,670,000 souls. This sacrifice was not sufficient to appease the resentment of Bonaparte. By misin- terpreting the equivocal terms of the convention of Koning.sberg. he restored to the King only a part of his provinces on the east of the Vistula, which were desolated by the war, and reduced almost to a deser'. After sixteen months of peace, he could not obtain repossessic i of his other provinces, until he engaged lo pay 120,000,000 ol francs, to leave three fortresses in the hands of Bonaparte by way of pledge, and to promise never to keep more than 40,000 men in the field. Prussia was in a state of the greatest destitution, at the time when Frederic William turned his attention to the administra- tion of the country. The army had devoured the substance of the inhabitants ; the population had suffered a great diminution ; while sickness and a complication of miseries, were continually cutting them off in considerable numbers. The King submitted to many privations, to fulfil the obligations he had contracted towards France, and thereby to obtain the final evacuation of tlie kingdom, as well as to relieve those provinces which had suf- fered more severely than others by the sojourn of the French army. He did every thing in his power to revive agriculture and industry among his subjects, and restore the resources of the army ; and thus prepare the way for recovering the rank which the Prussian monarchy had former^ held. Independently of the hardships which Bonaparte inflicted on Prussia, by protracting the stay of his army, and by the contri- butions which he imposed on her, this country was made the vic- tim of a rapacity which is, perhaps, unprecedented in history By a convention which the King of Saxony, as Duke of War- saw, concluded with Bonaparte (May 10, 1808,) while occupied at Bayonne in overtiming the Spanish monarchy, the latter ceded to him, for a sum of twenty millions of francs, not only the pecuniary claims of the King of Prussia over his Polish subjects, (for these he had abandoned by the peace of Tilsit,) but also those of certain public establishments in Prussia, such us the Bank, the Society for Maritime Commerce, the Endow- ment for Widows, Hospitals, Pious Foundations, Universities. and Schools ; and what may seem incredible, those of private ration which Frederic e convention of Vienna calamities on Prussia. y of Hanover, by the I. at Memel (Jan. 28. former the half of his jrerman square miles, 'his sacrifice was not onaparte. By misin- ention of Koning.sberg, s provinces on the east the war, and reduced i of peace, he could not es, until he engaged lo fortresses in the hands promise never to keep destitution, at the time ntion to the administra- voured the substance of sred a great diminution ; series, were continually i. The King submitted ions he had contracted e final evacuation of the svinces which had suf- ! sojourn of the French ver to revive agriculture restore the resources of for recovering the rank erly held. h Bonaparte inflicted on irmy, and by the contri- untry was made the vic- nprecedented in history xony, as Duke of War- ), 1808,) while occupied sh monarchy, the latter ions of francs, not only 'russia over his Polish )y the peace of Tilsit,) iments in Prussia, such Commerce, the Endow- }undations, Universities redible, those of private ^ \\i\i PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 525 individuals in Prussia over Polish subjects. The pecuniary claims were so much the more considerable, as the capitalists of the ancient provinces, since the introduction of the system of mortgage into Prussia, had advanced large sums to Polish pro- prietors for the improvement of their patrimonies. The sums thus taken from those who had furnished them, and transfeired to the King of So xony, were estimated at first at forty -three millions and a half of francs, and four millions of interest ; but the financial authorities of the dutchy of Warsaw, discovered that they amounted to sixty-eight millions'. In vain did Fre- deric William offer to repurchase this pretended right of the King of Saxony, by reimbursing the twenty millions of francs which the latter had been obliged, it was said, to give to Bona- parte. The Revolution of 1814 rectified this piece of injustice, as it did many others. During this period the north of Europe was agitated by three different wars, that of England against Denmark, which occa- sioned a rupture between the Cabinets of St. Petersburg and London ; that of Russia against Sweden, in which Denmark was involved ; and lastly, the war between Russia and the Porte, in which England look an active part. The expedition of the English against the Isle of Zealand in 1807, was an event which was censured at the time with great severity ; and which cannot be justified, since it is the nature of all preventive war to destroy the very arguments and evi- dences of its necessity. Nevertheless, if on the one hand, we consider what was requisite to support the interests of Bona- parte after the peace of Tilsit, or more properly speaking, to :arry into execution the system he had organized ; and if on the other, we examine into his conduct a short time after, to- wards Spain and Portugal, we shall find England not wholly without excuse. The peace of Tilsit had excluded British com- merce from a'l the southern ports of the Baltic, and she na turaily wished that Sweden, and especially Denmark, who had a communication with the Continent by way of Jutland, should apen their ports to her. Several appearances indicated that it was the intention of Bonaparte to seize Denmark also after the peace of Tilsit ; and the British minister declared that he was in possession of proofs of a plan to that effect. The British Government accordingly fitted out an expedition for the purpose of preventing his designs, with an activity and a celerity such as they had never displayed in sending aid to their allies; and that difference in their conduct tended not a little to create an unfavourable opinion as to the enterprise -vhich they undertook ag^iinst Denmark in 1807. An English .^* mf 52G CHAPTER XI. ^* fleet, having an army on board, to which a Hanoveiian legion of 7000 men then in the Isle of Rugen, was afterwards added, sailed from England about the endof July or beginning of August. It was divided into two squadrons, one of which, under Commo- dore Keats, took up their station in the Great Belt, which till then had been thought inaccessible to ships of war, and thus cut oft the Isle of Zealand from the main land, where the Prince Royal with the Danish army then was. The second division, under the command of Admiral Gambler, with troops on board com- manded by Lord Cathcart, arrived oflf Copenhagen. Mr. Jack- son was sent to Kiel to demand from the Prince Royal the surrender of the Danish fleet, which they alleged it was the in- tention of Bonaparte to seize. After a fruitless negotiation, Copenhagen, after being invested by the army of Lord Cathcart on the land side, was bombarded for three daj's (Sept. 2, 3, 4,) and a great part of the city de- stroyed. At length General Peymann, the Commander-in-chief of the Danish forces, demanded an armistice to treat for a ca- pituliition. Sir Arthur Wellesley, the same ofli'^er who soon after so distinguished himself in Portugal, signed that capitula- tion on the part of Great Britain. The citadel was given up to the English. The Danes surrendered their fleet, with all the naval stores in their arsenals and dock-yards. The Eng- lish stipulated for a delay of six weeks to pvepare for departure, after which they promised to surrendei the citaael, and evacuate the Isle of Zealand. In this manner the Danish marine, consisting of eighteen ships of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five sloops of war, fell into the hands of the English. During the six weeks stipulated for, the Court of London offered Denmark the alternative either of returning to a state of neutrality, o? of form- ing an alliance with England. The Prince Regent having re- fused both of these, England declared war against him (Nov. 4 ;) but she did not violate the capitulation of Copenhagen, as the evacuation of that city and the island of Zealand took place at the ter.n specified. This event added Denmark to the French system. Her minister concluded a treaty of alliance at Fon- tainbleau, the tenor of which has not been made public ; but if wo may judge by the events which followed, it was agreed that the Danish islands should be occupied by French troops des- tined to act against Sweden. In the month of March 1808, 32,000 French, Dutch, and Spanish troops (the last brought from the kingdom of Etruria,) under the command of Marshal Bernadotte, arrived in Zealand, Funen, and the other islands of the Baltic ; but the defection of the Spanish troops, and the $1 iH* a Hanoveiian legion as afterwards added, Ir beginning of August. hich, under Commo- at Belt, which till then war, and thus cut oft here the Prince Royal econd division, under troops on board com- )enhagen. Mr. Jack- the Prince Royal the alleged it was the in- en, after being invested d side, was bombarded at part of the city de- le Commander-in-chief slice to treat for a ca- saine officer who soon il, signed that capitula- citadel was given up d their fleet, with all ock-yards. The Eng- j pvepare for departure, lie citauel, and evacuate consisting of eighteen , and twenty-five sloops 3[lish. During the six )n offered Denmark the ►f neutrality, Ojr of form- nee Regent having re* var against him (Nov. ion of Copenhagen, as I of Zealand took place Denmark to the French ity of alliance at Fon- ;n made public ; but if ved, it was agreed that by French troops des- tnonth of March 1808, )ops (the last brought t command of Marshal ind the other islands of panish troops, and the PERIOD IX, A. D. 1802—1810. 527 war with Austria, prevented the projected invasion of Sweden The English took possession of the colonics of Denmark, and ru.ned the commerce of her subjects. Frederic VI., who had succeeded his father Christian VII., (Mo'ch 13, 1808,) after having been at the head of the government ds regent since 1784, strictly executed the Continental system ; especially after the commencement of the year 1810, when the two Counts Bern- storflT had retired from the ministry. He even went so far as to arrest all the English subjects found in Denmark. The expedition of the English against Copenhagen, induced the Emperor Alexander to declare war against them (Nov. 7.) That monarch entered decidedly into the Continental system, and demanded of the King of Sweden, that agreeably to the conventions as to the armed neutrality of the North, he should enforce the principle by which the Baltic was declared a shut sea. The King of Sweden replied, that the principles establish- ed by the conventions of 1780 and 1800 had been abandoned by that of June 17, 1801 ; that circumstances were entirely changed since Denmark, on whose co-operations he had formerly reck- oned, had lost her fleet ; and since, independently of the Sound, the English had eflfected another entrance into the Baltic, through the Great Belt ; these objections, however, did not prevent him from incurring a ruinous war. A Russian army entered Finland (Feb. 21, 1808.) General Buxhowden, who had the command, announced to the inhabi- tants of that province that the Emperor Alexander had thought it necessary to occupy that country, in order to have a pledge that the King of Sweden would accept the proposals of peace which France had made to him. Although the Swedish troops in Finland were but few in number, and defended it bravely, they were compelled to yield to the superior force of the Rus- sians, and to retire into East Bothnia. Sueaborg, the bulwark of Finland, and deemed impregnable, surrendered (April 6,) after a siege of a few days by Vice-Admiral Kronstadt. A mani- festo of the Emperor Alexander (March 28,) had already decla- red the grand dutchy of Finland to be incorporated with iiis Em- pire. This une.xpected attack excited the most lively indignation in Gustavus IV., who so far forgot himself, as to cause M. d'Alo- peus, the Russian minister at his court, to be arrested. Den- mark having also declared war against him (Feb. 29,) n Swedish army of 20,000 men, under the command of Gen. Ann field, un- dertook the conquest of Norway. But this expedition was repuls- ed with loss ; and the Danes even made incursions into Sweden. Field-Marshal Count Klinspor being placed at the head of the Swedish army, then at Uleaburg began to act on the ofiensive 1\ ¥ ''^ M 538 CHAPTER XI. ^t<4 >l in the north of Finland ; while a second annVt under the com maiid of General Vegesack, disembarked at Abo (June S. The war was carried on with variable success, but with equal bra- very on both sides. At the end of the campaign, the Russians were again masters of Finland. A body of 10,000 English troops, commanded by the same General Moore who, a few months after, fell at Corunna in Spain, had arrived in the roads at Gottenburg (May 17 ;) but as the Swedish King could not come to an agreement as to the employment of these auxiliaries, nor even as to the command, he refused to permit the troops to disembark. He even ordered General Moore, who had repairer to Stockholm, to be arrested. But having soon found means to escape, Moore returned to England with his troops. Mr. Thorn- ton, the British envoy, who had remonstrated against this arbi- trary conduct of the King, was recalled. Admiral Chanikoff, with a Russian fleet of twenty-four ships of war, made an attempt to burn the Swedish fleet, commanded by Admiral NauckhofT, in Virgin Bay (Aug. 18 ;) but the ar- rival of an English fleet under Sir James Saumarez in Baltic Port where NauckhofT was, with a reinforcement of some Eng- lish ships under the command of Admiral Hood, kept th^m in blockade for nearly two months. In Finland an armistice iiad been concluded, (Sept. 1808,) on the footing of the Uti Posside- tis; but the Emperor Alexander refused to ratify it. Another was then concluded at Olkioki (Nov. 19,) by which the Swedish army engaged to evacuate Uleaburg, and to retire behind the Kemi. Towards the end of the year, the English Cabinet ad- vised the King of Sweden to make peace, which he obstinately refused, and even demanded additional supplies to continue the war with vigom The British Cabinet having declined to grant them unconditionally, Gustavus was on tne point of coming to an open rupture with that Court. But his indignation having pbated, he agreed, soon after, to conclude a n jw convention at Stockholm (March 1, 1809.) when Great Britain engaged to pay in advance 300,000/. sterling by quarterly instalments. Meantime a revolution was fermenting in Sweden, which was to change the aspect of aflfairs. The haughtiness and obstinacy of the King, had created him many enemies. The people were oppressed in a most extraordinary manner by burdens and im- posts, which Gustavus increased arbitrarily, and without regard to constitutional forms. The severity with which be punished the troops, not only when they had committed faults, out even when they were unsuccessful, had alienated the minds of the soldiers from him, and especially the guards. A conspiracy was formed, atthe head of which was Lieutenant-Colonel Adler- ''€*: riny, under the com t Abo (June S. The but with equal bra- jnpaign, the Russians of 10,000 English Moore who, a few arrived in the roads dish King could not t of these auxiliaries, » permit the troops to ore, w^ho had repairc > soon found means to s troops. Mr. Thom- ited against this arbi- t of twenty-four ships lish fleet, commanded .ug. 18;) but the ar- 3 Saumarez in Baltic cement of some Eng- I Hood, kept th'-Ti in land an armistice nad ng of the Uti Posside- to ratify it. Another by which the Swedish d to retire behind the ; English Cabinet ad- , which he obstinately ipplies to continue the iving declined to grant ne point of coming to is iridignation having a njw convention at Britain engaged to pay r instalments. in Sweden, which waa ^htiness and obstinacy es. The people were r by burdens and im- y, and without regard th which he punished rjitted faults, but even ted the minds of the jards. A conspiracy tenant-CoIonel Adler- !^. PERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 529 sparre, and Colonel Skioldebrand, and which was joined by the army of the West, or of Norway, and the troops that were sta- tioned in the Islands of Aland. Adlersparre and the army of the West marched on Stockholm. They had arrived at Orebro, when Field-Marshal Klinspor, who had been disgraced, advised the King to avert the storm by changing his conduct. On his refusal, General AcMercieutz arrested him in the name of the people (March 13.) The Duke of Sudermania, the King's un- cle, was proclaimed Regent. Gustavus was conveyed to Drott- tiingholm, and thence to f^ripsholm, where he signed a deed of abdication, which he afterwards declared on various occasions to have been voluntary. The revolution was terminated without commotion and without bloodshed. The Regent immediately assembled the Diet at Stockholm. Not content with accepting the abdication of Gustavus, such as he had given it, they excluded all his descendants from the throne of Sweden. They offered the crown to the Regent, who declared his willingness to accept it when they had revised the constitution. This revision, by which the royal authority was limited ,\vithout reducing it to a state of humiliation and depen- dence,! .laving been adopted by the Diet, the Duke of Suderma- nia was proclaimed King (June 5, 1809,) undc the title of Cl'.arlej XIII. according to the common but erroneous method of reckoning the Kings of Sweden. As the now monarch had no family, they elected as his successor to iae throne. Prince Christian Augustus of Holstein-Augustenburg, who commanded the Danish army in Norway, and who had procured the esteem even of his enemies. Gustavus and his family were permitted to leave the kingdoni ; and towards the und or the year a new .''andamental law was published, regulating the order of succes- sion to the throne. At Stockholm the people fla ., red themselves that the de- thronement of Gustavus would speedily bring peace to Sweden ; bnt it was not so. Alexander I. refused to treat with a govern- ment so insecure as a regency, and hostilities accordingly con- tinued. General Knorring who had passed the Gulf of Bothnia on the ice with 25,000 Russians, took possession of the Islands of Aland (March 17,) when the Swedish troops stationed there retired to the continent of Sweden. Knorring granted the Swedes a cessation of hostilities, to allow them time to make overtures of peace. Apprized of this arrangement, Count Bar- clay de Tolly, who haa crossed the Gulf with another body of Russinns on the side of Ynsa, and taken possession of Umea, evacuated West Bothnia, and returned to Finfeind. A third bodv of Russians, tmdcr the command of Schouvaloff, penetrated 34 "^-.i m} ^ 530 CHAPTER X:. into West Bothnia by the route of Tornea, and compelled the Swedish army of the North, which was commanded by Gripen- berg, to lay down their arms at Seiwis (March 25.) This san- guinary affair occurred entirely through ignorance ; because ih that country, lying under the 66th degree of north latitude, they were not aware of the armistice granted by Knorring. On the expiration of the truce, hostilities recommenced in the month of May, and the Russians took possession of the part of West Bothnia lying to the north of Umea. The peace between Russia and Sweden was signed at Fre- dericsham (Sept. 17.) The latter power adhered to the Con- tinental system, reserving to herself the importation of salt and such colonial produce as she could not do without. She sur- rendered Finland with the whole of East Bothnia, and a part of West Bothnia lying to the eastward of the river Tornea. The cession of these provinces which formed the granary of Sweden, and contained a population of 900,000 souls, was an irreparable loss to that kingdom, which had only 2,344,000 inhabitants left. The peace of Predericsham was speedily followed by that of Jonkoping with Denmark (Dec. 10,) and that at Paris with France (Jan. 6, 1810.) By the first, every thing was re-established on Its ancient footing between these two States. But by the peace of Paris, Sweden renoun''ed the importation of colonial produce, and only reserved the privilege of importing salt as an article of absolute necessity. It was on this condition alone that she could obtain repossession of Pomerania. The Prince Royal of Sweden having died suddenly, a Diet assembled at Orebro, and elected John Baptiste Julius Berna- dotte. Prince of Ponte Corvo, his successor to the throne (May 28.) The election was unanimous ; but out of more than one thousand of the nobility who had a right to appear at the Diet, only one hundred and forty were present. Bernadotte accepted an off*er so honourable. On his arrival at Elsinore, he professed, as his ancestors had done before him in France, his adherence to the Confession of Augsburg, which was then the established religion in Sweden. King Charles XIII. having adopted him as his son, he was proclaimed at Stockholm (Nov. 5,) eventual successor to tha throne, under the name of Charles John. Twelve days afterwards, Sweden declared war against Great Britain. In Russia, the Emperor Alexander, since hr iccession to the throne, had occupied himself incessantly in improving cverv oranch of the administration. The restrictive regulations whicb had been published under the last reign were abrogated ; by (gradual concessions, the peasantry were prepared for a libertv 1, and compelled the nmanded by Gripen- irch 25.) This san- fnorance ; because iti f north latitude, they Knorring. On the need in the month of of the part of West I was signed at Fre- adhered to the Con- nportation of salt and ) without. She sur- Bothnia, and a part of e river Tornea. The le granary of Sweden, lis, was an irreparable 14,000 inhabitants left. y followed by that of at at Paris with France ^ was re-established on es. But by the peace on of colonial produce, rting salt as an article ndition alone that she died suddenly, a Diet Baptiste Julius Berna- ior to the throne (May out of more than one ; to appear at the Diet, Bernadotte accepted Elsinore, he professed, France, his adherence as then the established [. having adopted him >lm (Nov. 6,) eventual ime of Charles John, red war against Great nee hi' iccession to the y in nnproving cverv \ ctive regulations which jn were abrogated ; by I prepared for a liberty ' TERIOD IX. A. D. 1803—1810. 531 which they had not yet enjoyed. The number of universities, and what is still more essential to civilization, the number of schools was augmented. The senate, the ministry, and the civil authorities were reorganized, and new improvements adopted, tending to abolish arbitrary power, to accelerate the despatch of business, and to promote the distribution of fail and impartial justice to all classes of society. Canals were dug, new avenues were opened for industry, and commerce flourished, especially the trade of the Black Sea. The only point in which the Government failed, was in its attempts to re- store the finances ; but the four wars of the preceding seven years in which Russia had been engaged, rendered these at- tempts unavailing. We have already related the origin, events, and termination of two of these wars, viz. that of 1806, which ended with the peace of Tilsit, and procured Russia the province of Bialystock ; and that of Sweden, which annexed the province of Finland to that Empire. The war against England continued after the peace of Fredericsham, but without furnishing any events of great importance. The two other wars were those against Per- sia and the Porte. At the beginning of his reign, Alexander had annexed Georgia to his Empire, which had till then been the prey of continual disturbances. This accession drew him into a war with Persia, which did not terminate till 1813. The principal events of that war were the defeat of the Persians at £tschmiazin,by Prince Zizianofr(.Tune 20, 1804;) the conquest of the province of Shirvan by the same Prince (Jan. 1806 ;) the taking of Derbent by the Russians (July 3 ;) and the defeat of the Persians by Paulucci, at Alkolwalaki, (Sept. 1, 1810.) Before speaking of the war between Russia and the Porte, it will be necessar to lake a brief retrospect of the Ottoman Em- pire. The cone ition of that Empire, badly organized and worse governed, wis uch, that every thing tnen presaged its ap- proaching dissolution ; or in other words, the expulsion of the Turks from Europe. Every where the authority of the Grand Seignor was disregarded. Paswan Oglou, the racha of Wid- din, was in open revolt. Ali Pacha of Janina was obedient only when it suited his convpiiicnce. The Servians had taken up arms under theii leader C/crni George, and threatened to possess themselves of Sabacz and Belgrade. Djezzar, the Pacha of Syria, without declaring himself an enemy to the Porte, enjoyed an absolute independence. The sect of the Wa- habites was in possession of Arabia. Egypt was distracted by civil wars. Selim III., who had reigned there since 1789, con- vinced that the Porte could never re-establish its authority e»- 3 If (V 532 CHAPTER XI. cept by better orgfanizing the army, had endeavoured to model it on the European system. This attempt afterwards cost him his throne. Such was the situation of the Ottoman Empire, when Bona farte, in order to prevent Alexander from sending supplies to 'russia, resolved to embroil him in a quarrel with the Porte. General Sebastian!, the French Envoy at Constantinople, con- trived to obtain so great an influence over the minds of the Divan, that for some time it was entirely under his direction. Subjects of dissension were not wanting between Russia and the Porte ; and these were of such a nature, as to furnish each partjr with plausible reasons for complaining of the infraction ol treaties. The French minister was not slow to fan the spark ot discord. He even induced the Divan to refuse to renew their treatjr of alliance with England, which was then on the point of expiring. The Emperor Alexander, foreseeing that there would be no redress to his complaints, gave orders to General Michel- son to enter Moldavia and Wallachia. The Porte then declared war against Russia (Dec. 30 ;) but deviating for the first time from a barbarous custom, he allowed M. d'ltalinski, the Russian minister, to depart unmolested. A few days after, Mr. Arbuthnot, the English minister, quit- ted Constantinople, after having repeatedly demanded the re- newal of the alliance, and the expulsion of M. Sebastiani. Within a few weeks an English fleet of nine ships of the line, three frigates, and several fire-ships, commanded by Vice- Admi- ral Duckworth, forced the passage of the Dardanelles, and ap- giared before Constantinople. Duckworth demanded of the ivan, that the forts of the Dardanelles and the Turkish fleet should be surrendered to him ; that the Porte should cede Mol- davia and Wallachia to Russia, and break ofi" alliance with Bo- naparte. But instead of profiting by the sudden panic which his appearance had created, he allowed the Turks time to pu» themselves in a posture of defence. Encouraged and instructed by Sebastiani, they made their preparations with such energy and success, that in the course of eight days the English Vice- admiral found that he could do nothing better than weigh an- chor and repass the Dardanelles. On his arrival at Malta, he took on board 5000 troops, under the command of General Era- ser, a..d conveyed them to Egypt. The English took posses- sion of Alexandria (Mar, 20;) but in the course of six months, they found themselves obliged to surrender that city by capitu- lation to the Governor of Egypt. The campaign of 1N07 was not productive of niiy very deci- sive result, as General Michelson had received orders to detach intleavoured to model (t nrterwardri cost him Empire, when Bona in sending supplies to arrel with the Porte. |t Constantinople, con- ver the minds of the ly under his direction, g between Russia and ure, as to furnish each ing of the infraction oi slow to fan the spark oi refuse to renew their ras then on the point of seeing that there would ers to General Michel- Die Porte then declared inting for the first time d'ltalinski, the Russian ! English minister, quit- itedly demanded the re- sion of M. Sebastiani. if nine ships of the line, mmandedby Vice-Admi- ;he Dardanelles, and ap- ^orlh demanded of the es and the Turkish fleet ! Porte should cede Mol- ;ak off alliance with Bo- the sudden panic which i the Turks time to pu* ncou raged and instructed rations with such energy days the English Vice- ng better than weigh an- his arrival at Malta, he jmmand of General Fra- le English took posses- he course of six months, inder that city by capitu- luctive of any very deci- received orders to detach ia>-n-^ i i J7 i 'fi.-(''->i i|> T :,Sfr*-\ii:^'i TERIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. 533 SO,nOO men to oppose the French in Poland. Czerni George lh(.' leader of the revolted Servians, took Belgrade, Sabacz, and Nissu, penetrated into Bulgaria, where he was reinforced by some Hiissinn troops, and gained divers signal advantages. General Miihclson himself was victorious near Guirdesov (March 17,) without, however, being able to get possession of that place. The war was condiirted with more success on the frontiers of the two Empires in Asia. The Seraskier of Erzerum was entirely de- feated by General Gudovitch (June 18;) and that victory was an event so much the more fortunate, as it prevented the Persians from making a bold diversion in favour of the Turks. The most important event in the campaign was the naval battle of Lemnos, where the Russian fleet, under the command of Vice-admiral Siniawin, defeated the Capitan Pacha, who had sailed from the Dardanelles after the retreat of Duckworth. When the Ottoman navy sustained this defeat, Selim III. had ceased to reign. That prmce had rendered himself odious to the troops, by the introduction of the European discipline and dress, known by the name of Nizami gedid, and by his connexion with the French Emperor. One circumstance, regarded as a fun- damental law, and according to which a Sultan who had reigned seven years without having any children was regarded as un- worthy of the throne, served as a pretext for the military to have him deposed. Selim, finding it impossible to quell or allay the revolt, abdicated voluntarily (May 29,) and placed his cousin, Mustapha IV., on the throne. In the amnesty which that prince published, he recognised the right of the Janissaries to withdraw their allegiance from the Grand Seignor who should depart from the established customs, and that of appointing his successor. The Emperor Alexander had promised, by the peace of Tilsit, to evacuate Moldavia and Wallachia, on condition, however, that the Turks should not occupy these two provinces till after the conclusion of a definitive peace. The French General Guille- minot was sent to the Turkish camp to negotiate an armistice on these terms, which in effect was signed at Slobozia (Aug. 24.) The evacuation of the two provinces stipulated by that arrange- ment never took place, as the Emperor of Russia refused to ratify the treaty, as it contained certain articles which he judged in- compatible with his dignity ; so that matters remained on their former footing. That circumstance was one of the pretexts which Bonaparte alleged for continuing to occupy Prussia. In the midst of these political quibblings, the time arrived when a new system of things took place. The Cabinets of St. Petersburg and Paris were making mutual advances ; and it is probable that the fate of the Porte, and especially of the pro- '•I! ■ > if wafcj^.^ ..jt_^ -V J»tii c^-*^'-??r'!^*ri ■"' *ifa=^ ^ ■ declare that he would retain the European discipline and dress ; but after being attacked in his place, and learning that the city was filled with carnago and conflagration, he gelded to necessity, and restored the privileges of the Janis- sanes. It is probable they would not have spared his life, but for the circumstance that he was the last scion of the race of Osman. The ministers of the Divan, whom General Sebastiani had fainedoverto the interestsof France, finding themselves entirely iscarded by the last revolution, Mr. Adair, the new English minister at Constantinople, concluded a treaty of peace (Jan. 5, 1809,) by which the Porte confirmed to England the commercial advantages which the treaty of 1675 had granted them, as well as the navigation of the Black Sea, which Mr. Spencei Smith had obtained (August 3, 1799.) n. subjects which were France lost her iiiAu* [renter into an alliance M directed the politici been hurled from the the Standardbearer, ordinary courage, and hanges introduced by !ans of preserving the ) Constantinople, with nment, and announced must resign, and make . Mustapha thought death ; but Bairactar her of Mustapha, who tar, invested with abso- Seimens, or disciplined md took vigorous mea- [» to resist the Russians. After the departure of Janissaries and the in- kt the head of a body of ided himself with cou- when he must yield to ie put to .'eath the old lad ini .gated the insur- ng place, where he had 'he Janissaries having agazine, and blew him- roung Sultan Mahmoud 1 retain the European icked in his place, and nagrj and conflagration, privileges of the Janis* ! spared his life, but for n of the race of Osman. reneral Sebastiani had ing themselves entirely dair, the new English reaiy of peace (Jan. »5, ingland the commercial granted them, as «vell ch Mr. Spencei Smith ff PBRIOD IX. A. D. 1802—1810. C35 Immediately after the return of the Emperor Alexander from Erfurt, an order was given to open negotiations with the Turks. Tile confercMice took place at Jassy ; but it was immediately broken utf, uftcr the Russian plenipotentiaries had demundi'd,us preliminary conditions, the ccs.>' k. ■530 CHACTER Xn. af the Turkish cnmn by main force (Sept. 7.) when Mouhlar csca; rtd with a small dctachmoiit. Within afiwdays after, Count St. Priest took Sczistov, -vith the whole Turkish fleet, Rudschuk and Guirdesov sun. ud' red on the same day (Sen(. 27,) and Nicnpoli and Widdin in a short time after ; so that by the end of the campaign the Russians were masters of the whole right bank of the D.m abe. The Grand Vizier had continued all this time in his siivnig camp at Shumla. The Servians, as- sisted by a body of Russians, hod taken possession of the last fortresses in their country which the Turks had still maintained, such as Cladova, Oreavn, and Praova. CHAi'TKR XII. PERIOD IX. The declirw and downfall of the Empire of Bonaparte. — a. d 1810—1816. The power of Napoleon had now attained its greatest height. The birth of a son. an event, which happened March 20, ISll, might have given stability to this power, had he known how to set bounds to his ambition. The heir to the Imperial throne received the title of King of Rome, a dignity which had been decreed in anticipation. The differences that had arisen between Bonaparte and the Head of the Church, became this year a subject of public dis- cussion. The will of a despot whom no power could resist, was made to recoil mo/e than once before the inflexible firmness of an old man, disarmed and in captivity. Ever since Bonaparte had deprived the Church of her patrimony, and had been laid under the ban of excommunication, Pius VII., faithful to his Erinciples, had refused confirmation to every bishop nominated V a man who was excluded from the Catholic communion Bonaparte thought it might be possible to dispense with the confirmation of the Pope. With this view, he assembled a na- tional council at Paris (June 17, 1811,) composed of French and Italian bishops, and in which Cardinal Fesch, the Archbishop of Lyons, presided. He soon found, however, that despotic au- thority was of little avail against religious opinions. The pre- lates, on whose compliance he had calculated with too much confidence, declared that the Council hud no power to grant that xMUHIiH >■ ,'n%WiTfflHi5Br»*is*;*i^fT^w3FW ■ 7,) ivhon Mouhlar ri a (i w day i nfler, •hole Turkish flcpl, he snine dny (Sent. 10 after ; so that by nasters of the whole izicr had continued The Servians, as- ssession of the last lad still maintained, f Bonaparte. — a. d 1 its greatest height, led March 20, ISll, id he known how to the Imperial throne ity which had been 1 Bonaparte and the lubject of public dis- iver could resist, was nflexible firmness of Iver since Bonaparte f, and had been laid VII., faithful to his iry bishop nominated /atholic communion to dispense with the ', he assembled a na- iposed of French and esch, the Archbishop ver, that despotic au- opinions. The pre- lated with too much o power to grant that IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I I! iiLi " I, 40 1.8 1-25 1.4 1.6 .« 6" ► V' Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 872-4503 pB^*'"* * '- ■' CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICiVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques i>mmam».i,t-jiMu»riL- ^ ^1^^^^^ PERIOD IX. A. D. ISIO— 1815. 537 rontirmation which was refused by the Pope ; but the arrest of three of the most refractorv prelates, who were imprisoned :it Viiiceiines (July 12,) having given rha to a negotiation, the rest adopted a modified scheme which the government had commu- nicated to them ; on condition, however, that it should be sub- mitted for the approbation of the Pope. But his Holiness, who had still remained at Savona, refused to treat with the Council, which he declared null and void, as having been convened with- out his authority. The project of Bonaparte thus completely failed ; the Council was dismissed ; and twenty of the Sees of France and Italy were left without bishops. Before proceeding to detail the grand events which overturned the dominion of Bonaparte, it will be necessary to advert to what took place in Spain and Portugal in 1811 and 1812. Sickness, and the want of provisions, had at length compelled Massena to effect his retreat (March 1,) during which he sustained con- siderable loss by the pursuit of Lord Wellington. Thus, for the third time, was Portugal released from the invasion of the French army. It would be impossible, within the narrow limits to which we are here confined, to detail the various marches and counter-marches of the Generals, or the operations in which they were engaged. We can only point out the principal actions in a detached and cursory manner. Marshal Soult retook Badajos (March 10,) while Lord Wel- lington still retained his position at Torres Vedras, which he had quitted with reluctance to go in pursuit of Massena. As the possession of that place was of importance for the English, Lord Wellington determined to besiege it ; but Marshal Marmont who had replaced Massena in the command of the army of the North, and Marshal Soult who had formed a junction with him, obliged him to discontinue the siege. He retired to Portugal, where he remained on the defensive during the rest of the cam- paign. The advantages of the campaign of 1811 belonged to General Suchet. After a destructive siege, he took Tortosa by capitulation (Jan. 1,) and Tarragona by main force (June 28.) He made himself master of Monteserrat in the same manner. (Aug. 19.) By a signal victory which he gained over General Blake (Oct. 25,) at Murviedro, the ancient Saguntum, he pre- pared the way for the conquest of Valencia, which surrendered by capitulation (Jan. 9, 1812.) At the commencement of 1812, the French forces in Spain amounted to 150,000 men. The allies consisted of 52,000 Eng- lish troops, 24,000 Portuguese, and 100,000 Spaniards, mcluding 20,000 guerillas. Lord Wellington reduced Ciudad Rodrigo (Jan. 19,) and then retired once more mto Portugal, where hs •■!■ ; ,,.. I :s m 538 CHAPTER XU. kepi on the defensive for nearly five months. He then attacked Salamanca, took that city (June 28,) and defeated Marmont in the famous battle of Areopiles, near Salamanca (July 21,) where Clause! saved the French nrmy from a complete rout. Joseph Bonaparte (juitted Madrid. Soult gave orders to raise the siege of Cadiz, which had continued for two years. He evacuated Andalusia, and joined King Joseph in Murcia. Wellington, now master of Burgos, was desirous to get possession also Oi the citadel of that place, the acquisition of which was necessary for his safety. But Souham, who had succeeded Marmont, and Soult having approached on both sides to save the town, the British General retired again into Portugal, and Joseph Bona- parte returned to Madrid (Nov. 1.) At this time the North of Europe had been the theatre ot great events. For some time, the friendship between the Courts of St. Petersburg and St. Cloud had been growing cool. The last usurpations of Bonaparte, during the course of 1810, brought about a complete rupture. The extension of the French Empire towards the Baltic, was becoming a subject of suspicion and anxiety to Alexander. The manner in which Bonaparte had taken possession of the dutchy of Oldenburg, the patrimony of his family, was an outrage against his person. The first symp- tom of discontent which he exhibited, was by abandoning the Continental system, although indirectly, by an Ukase (Dec. 13, 1810,) which permitted the importation of colonial produce, while it interdicted that of France, wine only excepted. Under pretext of organizing a force for the maintenance of these regu- lations, he raised an army of 90,000 men. A rupture with Bo- naparte appeared then unavoidable. In Sweden also there arose new subjects of quarrel. Bona- parte complained, that in that country the Continental system had not been put in execution with sufficient rigour. He demanded, that Charles XIII. should put two thousand sailors into his pay ; that he should introduce the Tariff of Trianon, and admit French revenue-officers at Gottenburg. In short, Sweden, Denmark, and the dutchy of Warsaw, were to form a confederation, under the protection of France. During these discussions, Marshal Davoust, who commanded in the north of Germany, took pos- session of Swedish Pomerania and the Isle of Rugen (Jan. 27, 1812.) Bonaparte offered, however, to surrender that province to Sweden, and to compel Alexander to restore Finland to her, if Charles XIII. would agree to furnish 30,000 troops against Russia. Sweden, on the contrary, was on terms of conciliation with that power. By an alliance, which was signed at St. Petersburg He then attacked feated Marmont in ca (July 21,) where )lete rout. Joseph rs to raise the siege :irs. He evacuated rcia. Wellington, possession also Oi 'hich was necessary ;eded Marmont, and save the town, the , and Joseph Bona- been the theatre ot between the Courts growing cool. The rse of 1810, brought the French Empire of suspicion and lich Bonaparte had g, the patrimony of m. The first symp- by abandoning the an Ukase (Dec. 13, )f colonial produce, ly excepted. Under nance of these regu- A rupture with Bo- of quarrel. Bona- itinental system had rour. He demanded, sailors into his pay ; n, and admit French Sweden, Denmark, confederation, under iscussions. Marshal jrermany, took pos- of Rugen (Jan. 27, render that province tore Finland to her, 1,000 troops against of conciliation with ed at St. Petersburg TEHIOD IX. A. D. 1810 — 1816. 539 (April 5,) Alexander promised to procure her Norway. A body of between twenty-five and thirty thousand Swedes, and be- tween fifteen and twenty thousand Russians, were then to make a diversion against France on the coasts of Germany. This arrangement was afterwards changed ; in a conference which the Emperor had at Abo (Aug. 30,) the latter consented that the Russian troops, destined to act in Norway, should be transported to Riga for the defence of Russia ; and that they should not, till a later period, undertake the conquest of Norway. Charles XIII. was also reconciled to England, while he had always pretended to be ignorant of the declaration of war of November 17, 1810. A treaty of peace was signed at Orebro (July 12,) where they agreed, though in general terms, on a defensive alliance. Bonaparte, seeing the moment approach when a rupture with Russia would take place, hesitated for some time as to the part he should take with regard to Prussia, in the very centre of which he still possessed three fortresses. He determined at last to preserve that State, and to make an ally of it, on which the principal burden of the war should fall. Four conventions were concluded at Paris, on the same day (Feb. 24,) between these two powers. By the principal treaty, an alliance purely defen- sive was established ; but according to certain secret articles, that alliance was declared ofTensive ; on such terms, however, that Prussia^was not to furnish any contingent beyond the Py- renees in Italy, or against the Turks. By the first convention, which was likewise to be kept secret, the alliance was expressly directed against Russia ; and the King of Prussia promised to furnish a body of 20,000 auxiliary troop3. Glogau, Stettin, and Custrin, were to be still occupied by the French. The two other conventions related to the sums still due by Prussia, and the sup- plies which she had to furnish. A few days after, there was also signed at Paris a defensive alliance agamst Russia, between Austria and France. The recip- rocal supplies to be furnished by each, was 30,000 men ; and the Court of Vienna was given to nope, that she might again be re- stored to the possession of the Illyrian Provinces. From that mo- ment, Bonaparte began to make the most active preparations. By a decree of the Senate, the whole male population of France, be- tween the ages of twenty and sixty years, was divided into three Bans, or bodies summoned by proclamation ; the first of these contained 100,000 men, to be placed at the disposal of the govern- ment. The princes of the confederation were to furnish their con- tingent as follows: — Bavaria 30,000 troops, Westphalia and Saxony each 20,000, Wurtemberg 14,000, and the kingdom of Italy 40,000. Negotiations were at that time in progress between ''"'•"r (■i •♦««"<. •1*1 ' ,1^ i.kii 110 CIIAriER XII. Bcinapane and Alexander, apparently with a view of adjusting their rniilual complaints. But matters had recently taken a turn, which left little reason to hope that they would come t<» any satisfactory result. These conferences were continued at Dresden where Bonaparte had gone, and where he met the Em- peror and Empress of Austria, the King of Prussia, and a great number of the princes of the Rhenish Confederation, rhis was the last moment of Bonaparte's greatness. He waited the return of Count Narbonne, whom he had sent to Wilna with his last proposals to the Emperor Alexander. Immediately af- ter the arrival of the Count, war v/as declared (June 12, 1812.) The army of Bonaparte amounted to 587,000 men, of which 73,000 were cavalry. It was separated into three grand divi- sions ; the main armv was composed of the divisions oflia- voust, Oudinol, and Ney. It contained also the troops of Wur- temberg, at the head of whom was the Prince Royal. f he second army, commanded by Eugene Beauharnais, consisted of the divisions of Junot and St. Cyr ; the Bavarians, under the command of Deroy and Wrede, made a part of it. The third army, commanded by Jerome Bonaparte, consisted of the Poles, under Prince Poniatowski, the Saxons, under Regnier, and the Westphalians under Vandamme. The Austrian auxiliaries, at the head of whom was Prince Schwartzenberg, formed the ex- treme right wing. The corps of Marshal Macdonald and the Prussians, were placed on the e.xtreme left. To oppose this immense mass, Alexander had only 260,000 men, divided into two armies, which were called the first and second armies of the West. The former, under the command of Count Barclay de Tolly, extended as far as Grodno, and communicated on the north side with Count d'Essen, Governor of Riga ; and on the south, with the second army of the West, at the head of which was Prince Bagration. But independently of these forces, there were bodies of reserve, and armies of observation, formed with all expedition, and ultimately joined with the main armies. Of the great number of battles fought during this memorable campaign, we must content ourselves with selecting the more important ; without entering into a detail of the various move- ments of either party. The inferiority of numbers which Alex- ander had to oppose to Bonaparte, seemed to render a defensive plan advisable, according to which, by destroying all the means of subsistence in the districts which they abandoned, they might allure the enemy into countries desolated and destitute of every resource. Bonaparte allowed himself to be duped by feint re- treats ; his scheme was to place himself between the two Rus- sian armies, and after having destroyed botji, to penetrate into FERIOD IX. A. D. 1810— 1S15. 541 w of adjusting ^cenlly taken u would come t«i re continued at he met the Em- isia, and a great 'erntion. This He waited the I to Wilna with [mmediately af- June 12, 1812.) ) men, of which iree grand divi- divisions of Da- j troops of Wur- e Royal. The lais, consisted of rians, under the f it. The third Bted of the Poles, Regnier, and the m auxiliaries, at , formed the ex- cdonald and the To oppose this len, divided into econd armies of f Count Barclay nunicated on the :iga ; and on the le head of which of these forces, iervation, formed the main armies. ', this memorable ecting the more le various move- aers which Alex- nder a defensive ig all the means oued, they might estitute of every ped by feint re- en the two Rus- penetrate into the inferior of the Empire, whore he reckoned on finding im- mense riches, and to dictate the terms of pence, as he had twice done at Vienna. The passage of the Niemen, by the French army, was the commencement of hostilities (June 22;) llie Russians immedi- ately began their system of retreat. Bonaparte, at first, suc- ceeded in penetrating between the two armies; but after several battles fought by Prince Bagration, more esperinlly ilml at MohilofT (July 23,) the two armies effected a junction at Smo- lensko. Jerome Bonaparte and Vandamine, to w hoin Bonaparte attributed that check, were ordered to quit the French army, while he himself advanced as far as Witcpsk. Bonaparte engaged Barclay de Tolly, and fought a bloody battle with him at Smolensko (Aug. 17.) He took possession of that city by force, after it had been set on fire by the inhabit- ants. He found no provisions in it, and scarcely a shelter to cover his sick and wounded. On the news of the progress which the French were making, a general enthirsiasm seized the Russian nation. Alexander had encouraged and e.xcited this patriotic spirit by repairing to Moscow. The nobles armed their peasantry, and prepared to fight with desperation to the last. The two armies of the West were combined into one, of which Prince KutusofT took the command. He engaged Bonaparte, and fought the famous battle of Moskwa, about twenty-five leagues from Moscow (Sept. 7.) Although 65,000 men, including Russians, French, and allies, were left dead on the field of battle, that action was by no means decisive ; but KutusofT, whose army was reduced to 70,000 men, while Bona- parte, out of 150,000, had still 120,000 left, resolved to continue his retreat, and to leave Moscow at the mercy of the enemy. The French entered that place seven days after the battle (Sept. 14.) They found that ancient capital entirely abandoned, but still containing immense wealth which the inhabitants had not been able to carry with them. Within two days, a conflagra- tion which broke out in five hundred places at once, reduced that immense city to a heap of ashes. The precautions of the incendiaries had been so well taken, that all the efforts of the French to arrest the progress of the flames proved ineffectual ; and out of 9158 houses, they could only save 2041. Thus perished irrevocably the means of subsistence, which had for a moment revived the courage of the invaders. In a short time famine began to make its appearance in the army of Bonaparte. Dissembling the real state of his aflairs, he twice offered peace. Alexander refused to treat at a time when the war was only on the eve of commencing ; and told ■^f tt'lfll Ija. ^Si ur ' ij^ flU m IP H*.{ pi*i ■ M r" S42 CHAPTER Xn. the Knosinn s;:onernfc, thnt he wns still resolved to rontimie his retreat, whicli coinmonced acrordingly on the l/)th October. Mnrshal Mortier, who commanded the rear-^unrd, had orders to set tiro to the Kremlin, the palace of the ancient Czars of Rus- sia. Unnaparto directed his march towatds Smolensko, through a country reduced to an entire desert. He was incessantly harassed by the Russians, whofc troops, marching at a conve- nient distance, attacked both his flanks. On arriving at Smo- lensko (Nov. 9,) after having lost 40,000 men, the army was assailed by the rigours of winter, which added to their other misfortunes. Kutusoflf having advanced before them, and tak- ing post at Kriisnoi, they were obliged to force a passage with the loss of 13,000 men, and 70 pieces of catmon. Two days after, 11,000 men of Ney's division, laid down their arms; 35,000 men, and twenty-five cannons without horses, were all that remained to the conqueror of Moscow. This exhausted and dispirited army had 50 leagues to march, before they could reach the Beresina, where other dangers awaited them. The passage of that river was occupied by the army of TchichngotT, amounting to 50,000 men, who had arrived from Moldavia. Another Russian army, under Count Witgen- stein, was marching from the north to join the former ; but Marshal Victor's body of reserve, which had arrived from Prus- sia, intercepted them for a while, without having been able to prevent their final junction. Victor, Oudinot, and Dombrowski, brought a reinforcement to Bonaparte of 35,000 men, exhaust- ed with cold and famine. The passage of the Beresina was forced with admirable bravery (Nov. 27-28 ;) but it cost France or the allies, the lives or the liberty of more than 30,000 men. At this point, the main body of the Russians ceased to pursue the unfortunate wreck of Bonaparte's army ; nevertheless, as far as Wiina, they were continually harassed by the Cossacs. There was besides a frightful deficiency of provisions and clothing, so that upwards of 2''<.00 men fell a sacrifice to these privations in their route to W.; .c. This was the first city oi town that fell in their way ; all i' c others had been completely destroyed ; the miserable remnant who reached that place (Dec. 9,) were at length supplied with provisions ; but the Cossacs did not leave them long in the enjoyment of repose. On the following day they were obliged to commence their retreat to Kowno, from which they directed their march towards the Vis- tula. Independently of the corps of Macdonald, who had the Prussians under his command, and of the auxiliary body of Austrians and Saxons, none of which took any part in that route, only 18,800 French and Italians, and about 23,000 Poles and Germans, found their way back from Russia. I i'':ii';i'i iTi .nii,»fifaig>ttiii*i''iii»m 1 to rontirme his lo 15th October. rd, had orders to nt C/ara of Kus- olensko, through was incessantly hing nt a conve- arriving at Smo- n, the army was ed lo their other re them, and tak- ;e a passage with non. Two days own their arms ; horses, were ail leagues to march, c other dangers s occupied by the I, who had arrived ?r Count Witgen- the former ; but rrived from Prus- i^ing been able to and Dombrowski, )00 men, exhaust- the Bercsina was but it cost France han 30,000 men. i ceased to pursue ; nevertheless, as by the Cossacs. f provisions and I sacrifice to these the first city oi [ been completely d that place (Dec. but the Cossacs repose. On the :e their retreat to towards the Vis- ild, who had the iiixiliary body of uiy part in that out 23.000 Poles ia. PERIOD !X. A. D. 1810—1815. Bi?, boiiapnrlo himself had taken his departure privately on the 6th December, leaving the commiirKl of the army to Murat. With such despatch had he consulted his safety, tlint on the 18th of the same month he arrived at Puris. Prince Schwartzenberg, being joined by General licynicr who commanded the Saxons, had fought several engagements with the army of TchichngofT, none of whicii had proved decisive ; and after the nflliir of the Bercsina he; lind retired towards War- saw and Pultusk. Several most sanguinary engagements, although not more decisive than tlie former, had taken place between Count Witgenstein and the left wing of the French army ; especially towards the commencement of the campaign, when Marshals Oudinot and St, Cyr had joined Macdonald. On these occasions, the Prussians had rendered very important services ; but the moment General Yorke, who roninmnded these auxiliaries, had been informed of the retreat of Bonaparte, he thought himself authorized, not from any political motives which he would never have avowed, but from the destitute con- dition in whicli he had been left, to conclude a capitulation with the Russians, by which he withdrew his whole forces from the French army (Dec. 29.) That event was of little importance in itself, although it pro- duced a very great sensation in Prussia, and served as a pretext for Bonaparte to demand new levies, without being obliged to acknowledge the whole extent of the losses he had sustained. One of his ministers, Regnault d'Angely, spoke of the event, in his official report, as the Glorious Retreat of Moscow! More- over, a decree of the Senate, issued at the commencement of the following j'ear (Jan. 11,) placed a new conscription of 350,000 men at the disposal of the government. In order to raise the necessary funds for this new armament, Bonaparte seized the revenues of all the communes in France ; their properties were sold to promote his schemes ; and he promised to make them ample reimbursements, by assigning to them annuities on the civil list. Nothing annoyed Bonaparte so much as the incessant resis- tance and opposition of Pope Pius VII. In the hope of gaining a more easy victory, by bringing that respectable old man nearer his person, he had ordered him to be conveyed to the Palace of Fontainbleau, about the middle of the year 1812. After his re- turn from Moscow, he repaired thither himself, and succeeded in extorting the Pope's consent to a new Concordat ; on condi- tion, however, that the stipulations .«hould be kept secret, until they were examined by a Consistory of Cardinals. But Bona- parte took an early opportunity of publishing this new Concof ?] ri *««•■'• .^ ^ I " Mi r mtnntm 644 CIIAPTBR Xll. dtti as a lundainctal law of ihe Statc-a circum.tttnce which inducea FiiH VH. 10 disavow it, and lo declare it null and of """USc, a new and lonnidable league wa. preparing again« Bona. rr After the .•a,npai^^n of 1812, the Kmg of taa had demanded, agreeal.iy to the convention of l'ebruar>' -Uh, that Bonaparte should reimburse him for the ninety- hriu,. mil- 1. which he had advanced in furnish.n- m.pplies to the I- reach a 1 V beyond the sum wbich he owed as his contingent lor the wT' Tie refusal of Bonaparte to pay that debt, served as a pretext for Frederic William to sbaUe oil an alliance so contrary Tthe true interests of his kingdom. An appeal which he made the nation excited a general enthusiasm ; and as every thing had been lor five years preparing m secret, in the twinkling of an eve the Prussian army, which had been reduced to 42.000 men,\vas raised to 12S,6oO. This defection o Prussia fur- ^ish;d Bonaparte with a nlea for demanding new levu^. A de- cree of the Senate (April 3, 1813,) ordered him 180.000 addi- '"'The'Trty which was signed at Kalisch and Breslau (Feb. '27 28 ) laid the foundation of an intimate alliance between Kus- sia and the King of Prussia. Alexander promised to furnish 150 000 men, a,rd Prussia 80,000, exclusive of the troops in garrisons and fortresses. Alexander moreover engaged never fo av down arms until Prussia should be restored to her sta Us- tical,- financial, and geographical position, '^""^"""'jjb' '" /^^^^ state of that monarchy, such as it had been b..fore the wa of 1806 Within a few days after, these two monarchs had an interview at Breslau, where a more intimate friendship was con traded, which subsisted between thein for a long time. Prince Kutusoflf issued a proclamation, dated from Kahscli cal wiiich he made ; and as every thing t, in the twinkling of n reduced to 42.000 :lion of Prussia fur- ig new levies. A de- d him ISO.OOO addi- h and Bresiau (Feb. nlliaiicc between Rus- proinised to furnish sive of the troops in reover engaged never restored to her statis- 1, conformably to the •en before the war of :wu inonarclis had an lie friendship was con ' a long time. 1, dated from Kaliscii he Germans that the ■th be regarded as dis- thout waiting for that icample of abandoning inselves that the King with them ; but that aithful to his system, vhose country abound- e common cause. At he half of his estates, Warsaw, which could isession. th Alexander to make ondition that he would PERIOD IX. A. D. 1910—1819. 64S ht'cure him the possession of Norway, or at least the province of that kingdom callc I the Bishopric of Drontheim. Great Bri- tain was desirous that that arrangement should be made with the consent of the Kint; of Denmark, who was offered a com- pensation on the side of Holstcin, as well as the whole of Swe- dish Poinerania. Frederi>: VI. having given an absolute refu- sal, a treaty between Great Britain and Sweden was concluded at Stockholm (March 3, 1813,) by which the latter engaged to employ a body of 30,000 troops on ihe Continent in active ser- vice against France. It was agreeil that this army should act in concert with the Russian troops placed, in consequence of other arrangements, under the command of the Prince Royal of Sweden. Great Britain promised to employ every necessary means for procuring Sweden the possession of"^ Norway, without having recourse to force ; unless the King of Denmark should refuse to accede to the alliance of the North. She promised to furnish supplies to Sweden, and ceded to her the island of Guadaloupe. After this alliance with England, Sweden entered likewise into a league offensive and defensfvuMjyth Prussia, by a treaty which was signed at Stockholm (April3!zr) Frederic William promised to despatch 27,000 troops to joir> the army which the Prince Royal commanded in Germany. Murat, to whom Bonaparte had intrusted the command of the few troops which he had brought back from Moscow, abandoned his commission, and retired to Naples. Eugene Beauhamais then assumed the command, and arrived with 16,000 men on the Elbe (March 10;) but after being joined by the French troops from Pomerania, the Bavarian!), the Saxons, and a corps which General Grenier had formed, his army by the end of the month amounted to 87,000 men ; extending along the left bank of the river from Dresden to Hamburg. In a short time, the whole disposable force of Bonaparte in Germany were again augmented to 308,000 men. The Prussian army consisted of 128,000 troops, including Sirrisons and bodies of reserve; but the three battalions of lucher, Yorke, and Bulovr, who had taken tite field, did not amount to more than 51,000 combatanU. The main army of the Russians, which, since the death of KutusoiT, had been com- manded by Count Witgenstein, amounted to 38,000 men ; al- though the whole of the Russian forces on the Vistula and the Oder, and between the Oder and the Elbe, amoanted to 166,000 men. The first action, which took place in Germany, was the battle of Lnneburg (April 2,) where the Russian Creneral Doren- berg oUiged General Morend's division, on their route from Pomoninia, to lay down their arms. 35 ■f >i#»'-i. i^lii m •J m mi 546 CHAPTBR XII. On the /5th of April, Bonnpnrto look the command of his army in person ; and on ihe ad of May wilh 115.000 men, ho rnffHn.id 169,000 Prussians and Russians, under the rommnnd ol W it- censtein. The advantaifo in ihiil aclion was on the side ol Ihe French. The loss on hoth sides was equal. The Pru.suins look 1000 prisoners, wilh 10 pieces of cannon, without them- selves losing one. The scene of this battle, so glorious for the Prussians, was in the neighbourhood of Gross-Oorschen, to which Bonaparte gave the name of Lutzen, in commejnoration ot the famous Guslavus Adolnhus. In his bulletins he rcprc sented that battle, which was by no means decisive, as a com- plete victory, because the ullies did not renew the comb.it, and next day commenced their retreat to the right bank of the Khine, to advance nearer to their reinforcements. They took up a position nt Bautzen. Their numbers there amounted to 96,000 men, who engaged 148,000 French, under the command of Bonaparte (May 21, 1813.) The Allies had determined not to expose themselves to a defeat, but to teriTiinate every battle the moment they sow it could not turn to their ad- vantage. Within five dnvs after that engagement, to which the French gave the name of the battle of Wurtchcn, Blucher gam- ed a decided advantage ot Haynau over the division of General Maison, and captured the whole of their artillery. An armis- lice was then concluded between the two parties at Poischwitz. This measure was nt the request of Bonaparte, as it was necessary for him to await the arrival of his reinforcements , especially since he found himself menaced on the North by an invasion of the Swedes. It is probable he would not have taken this step had he penetrated the views of Austria; but Count Metternich had dexterously contrived to conceal these from him, in the several interviews which he had with him at Dresden, so that the sagacity of that great commander was completely al fault. The Allies hod no wish for an armistice, which could only make them lose time, as their armaments were in a stiite of readiness ; but they consented to it at the re(iuest of Austria, who hod need of some delay to complete her preparations, although she was at first actuated by a difl'erent motive. She had still hopes to avoid the war, by inducing Bonaparte to accept those moderate conditions of peace to which the Allies had given their consent bv the treaty of June 27, of which we shall have occasion to speak immediately. At the time when the armistice was signed, Count Metternich, who had apprized Bonaparte of these conditions, had already certain information that ''^e j^)'" monarchs were not deceived in predicting that they would be refused. All hopes of peace had now vanished ; but there still iiiiiiiriMirKiM Mik llMHlMltltolllllll«l1»l*l'« r.TurTif*"^"""' •" ""'' ■■■■■'■''■•' 1 otnmand of his army 000 men, ho enjpitttjd c romnmnd of Wit- hh on the side of the nal. The Pruxsinns non, without ihein- ', so glorious for tho Oross-Oorsphen, to n, in coinmeniorntion s hullotins he rcpro- s dt'iMsive, ns a coin- •nrw the combiit, i\nd fht hunk of the Rhine, Their numbers there 18,000 French, under i;).) The Allies had efeat, but to terniinnte not turn to their nd- igeinent, to which the irtchon, Blucher gain- \e division of GenernI artillery. An arm is- parties at Poischwitz. Bonaparte, as it was of his reinforcements , »d on the North by an e would not have taken )f Austria ; but Count ■onceal these from him, ith him at Dresden, so ier was completely at armistice, which could nments were in a state the reijuest of Austria, lete her preparations, liHeront motive. She ng Bonaparte to accept I'h the Allies had given r which we shall have mo when the armistice apprized Bonaparte of brmation that the two ag that they would be mished; hut there still PRRIOD IX. A. D. 1810 — 1810. 547 remained another motive, which mode the Court of Vienna nnxious for further delay. By a convention .signed iit Dresden (Juno ?,0,) Bonaparte oc- cepled th<' rnodiiitioii of .\u^tria for a peace, either general or Conliiientnl ; and the aniiisiice, which was to expire on the 20th July, was prolonged to the 10th of August. At the request of Francis I., a sort of congress was opened at Prague. Bonaparto had no wish for t»eace, as he never supposed that Austria would declare against him. The Allies haa no wish for it, as they knew well the disposition of that power ; while Austria, the only Cabinet which had pacific views, had given up nil hope of ever bringing Bonaparte to any reasonable terms of accommodation. Such were the auspices under which the Congress of Prague was opened. They were discussing the form in which the ne- fotiations wore to proceed, when the 10th of August arrived, 'he ministers of Russia and Prussia then declared that the term of the armistice had expired, and consequently that their diplomatic powers were at an end. Within two days after, Austria declared war against Bona- parte ; and the throe monarchs who met at Prague, resolved to accompany the main army, which was under the command of Prince Sciiwartzenberg, during the whole campaign. It will not be improper here to give a summary of the treatien which constituted the sixth coalition, and procured the accession of Austria so decisive for the cause of the allies. (1.) The treaty of Reichenbach (June 14,) between Great Britain ard Prussia. The former bound herself to pay to the other, within the six months, 666,666Z. sterling, lor the maintenance of 80,000 troops ; and came under the same engagement with regard to the augmentation of Prussia, that Russia had entered mto by the treaty of Kalisch. The King of Prus.sia promised to cede to the Electorate of Hanover a certain portion of territory, inclu- ding the principality of Hildesheim, and containing a population of between Sand 400,000 souls. (2.) The treaty of Reichen- bach between Great Britain and Russia (June 15,) by which the former promi.'sed to pay to the other, before the expiration of the year, 1,333,334/. sterling, for the maintenance of 160,000 men. (3.) The treaty of Reichenbach, between Austria, Prussia, and Russia (June 27 ;) the first engaged to declare war against Bo- naparte, if at the conclusion of the armistice he had not accepted the conditions of peace which they offered him. The following are the proposals to which we have already alluded. Austria on her own behalf, demanded only the restitution of the Illyrian provinces, and the territory which she had ceded to the dutchy of Warsaw. Such were the pledges of her sincere desire for *'! "•m** 548 CHAPTER Xn. V «„» Prussia was content to obtain tne restoring peace to Europe. f'^^^^.^J^J „„d ^hat of Dantzic. restitution of her part othejme^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^. and the evacuation of the •°/;'^'''^^ bank of the Elbe, thus abandoning all her poss°Mo^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^. Moreover, they f «r'l;*k«.^^^"^„^^^^^ of his last usurpation. main, and they deprived Bonaparte omy ^^^ .^ in the north of Germany By J^P^Jf JJ,, .ejected, and war was stipulated, that »f;^««^!,^"°"T'^reJe but on condition that once begun, they should »« y^f>^';;Pf;^'^^^^ on the footing in Austria and Pmssia were to te ^ga ^^Confederation of the which they had b?en in 1805 , ^^^l' „f HoHand and Rhine should be dissolved , ^^^/"^,^E restored to the throne Italv secured : and the Ho«s gf Bou^^^^^^^^ (jrcat Bri- of Spain. (4. T^ie treaty of merswa ^^^^^^^^ to sup- tain and Russia (July 6 Ww^ch the lor ^^^^.^^ ^^ ^^^^.^ port a German legion of 1";""", „ ,%' „,:., /gcpt. 9,) between \5.) A definitive all ance signed a^^^opluz (J^ep^^ J ^^^^^ ^^ Austria, Prussia, and R^^q-J ^^J Tt ^ ag'^^'^ '° ^'=^""'''"'^' assist each other with 60,OUU me". " fo^ching as near as the Austrian nionarchy upon thejJaYPP-- ,^^^^^^ f the possible to that of l^OS , to d «s^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^„,, ^he House bhine and the kingdom of West,^hnlia. ^^ ^^^^^^^ ,; ^d at of Brunswick-Luneburg. (b.) ^ne « j Toplitz between Austr a arid Great BrUam .^_ fionaparte, on his side, ''^J^^j^'^S entered 1 Hamburg portant crisis. The Danes had alr«id>enterea ^^^^^^ Lh the ^'^"'^^'-^"^.u^rdu (MaTsS,)^^ he had got Tettenbom to evacuate that cU>,( Way ^^ ^^^^ ^^^.^^ possession of in the month of March ^n S^^^^ ^^^ ^^..^^^ kpneared ofT Copenhagen (May 31^ aM ^^^^^^ ^^^^,^_ of Norway in favour of ^^J^j^ ' enhS, by which the former was joined to that of Davoust. ^^^^^^^ ;„ Tile plan of the ^J^P^ntrg by Ae Emperor of Russia, the conference held at Iraclien^rg y ^^ ^^^^ pje,,,. the King of Prussia, the P^^^^J^^yl^^rn^^"^ forces of the potentiaries of Austria ?^J ^^^^^^'^^^^^ «««««""• fcoalition amounte to 264,000 Aus^^^'^"'''j^„^ '„„^ ^^.e than Is content to obtain the y, and that of Dantzic, upied by the French ; e left bank of the Elbe. Westphalia still to re- ef his last Uburpationa article of the treaty, it were rejected, and war ice but on condition that placed on the footing in he Confederation of the ndence of Holland and nn restored to the throne Idau between Great Bri- former undertook to sup- er the service of Russia, oplitz (Sept. 9,) between h these powers were to was agreed to reconstruct 1 approaching as near as the Confederation of the , and to restore the House reaty of alliance signed at ritain. quired an ally at this im- dy entered into Hamburg ivoust compelled General ay 30,) which he had got An English fleet having and demanded the cession King of Denmark conclu- logen, by which the former eden, Russia and Prussia, lediately after, an army of r Frederic Prince of Hesse allies had been settled in »y the Emperor of Russia, [ of Sweden, and the pleni- tritain. The forces of the strians, 249,000 Russians, edes; but not more than mpaign ; of which 192,000 zic, Zamoscz, Glogau, Cus- m were divided as follows : fEKIOD IX. A. D. 181U — 181A. 549 The Army of Bohemia, composed of Austrians, Russians, and Prussians, under the command of Prince Schwartzenberg, amounted to 237,700 men, with 698 pieces of cannon. The Army of the North, composed of Prussians, Russians, and Swedes, under the command of the Prince Royal of Swe- den, amounting to 154,000 men, with 387 pieces of cannon. The Army of Silesia, composed of Prussians and Russians, under the command of Blucher, 95,000 strong, with 356 pieces of cannon. The Austrian Army of Bavaria, commanded by Prince Reuss, containing 42,700 men, with 42 pieces of cannon. The Austrian Army in Italy, under Hiller, 50,000 strong, with 120 pieces of cannon. The Austrian Army of Reserve, stuiioned between Vienna and Presburg, under the command of Duke Ferdinand of Wur- temberg, 60,000 strong. The Russian Army of Reserve in Poland, under the command of Bennigsen, 57,000 strong, with 198 pieces of cannon. To these forces Bonaparte opposed an army of 462,000 men, including 80,000 who occupietl thirteen fortresses ; besides the army of Bavaria, which watched the movements of the Prince of Reuss, and 40,000 men which Eugene Beauharnais had in Italy. Hostilities recommenced immediately after the termination of the armistice ; Silesia, Saxony, and sometimes the frontiers, be- came the theatre of war. The Prince Royal of Sweden covered Berlin, which was threatened by Marshal Oudinot. The battle of Gross-Beeren (Aug. 23,) which was gained by the Prussian General Bulow, saved the capital. In Silesia, Blucher, pressed hard by Bonaparte, had retired as far as Jauer ; but the latter having intelligence of the march of the allies on Dresden, retraced his steps with a part of his army, while Blucher attacked Marshal Macdonald at the river Katsbach, and gained a signal victory (Aug. 26,) in which he took 10,000 prisoners, and 103 pieces of cannon. General Puthod, who commanded a detachment of 8000 men, was obliged to surrender at Plagwitz to Count Langeron (Aug. 29.) The army of Bohemia attacked Dresden a few hours after Bonaparte had arrived with his rein- forcements. The battle was bloody, and lasted two days (Aug. 26, 27.) Thirteen thousand Austrians being cut ofT on the lef^ wing, were obliged to lay down their arms ; the allies retired in good order, leaving 6000 men killed and wounded on the field of battle, and 26 pieces of cannon in the hands of the French, who had lost 18,000 men by that victory. General Moreau, who had come on the invitation of the Prince Royal of Sweden to take a part in the struggle against Napoleon, was mortally wounded. '%i\^ IH !"#'■■ 'i 1 would srceed in cutting off the \mperor Akxander f^om h« armv. The Russians fought the whole day (Aug. dV,) wun ine Sheroic determination; Count Ostermann having had h« Wt arm carried off by a shot, the command was taken by MarsZ MmoradowicJ;. At length they -- -nfo.e^ LvBrnl Austrian and Russ an armies, which the King ot rrussia had TenUoTela'sistance, and which enabled them tj main- S the r position. During the night. Barcode lolly had ;,i„„n^'this enterprise. But he sustained a complete roul ecution °f this enterprise « ^^^^^^^ . ^^^ Sners with 80 pieces of cannon, and a 1 their baggage ;rl^(STwede.T3;ey 'had be.„ able to form . u„,o„ .. %r.T,73rr™!.°n^emi had pn»eded .his g,e.,b.ul.. Kvel.1 acUoraa.Wachao.Connewm, and Lijdenau. Wm» rEe were prod.Ktire of any docsive re.ul.; b«. Btah« detached with 30,00u e encountered Count f 8000 Austrians, and , The King of Prus- sian general, that un- Vandamme, the latter r Alexander from his ay (Aug. 29,) with the nann having had his imand was taken by y were reinforced by ich the King of Prussia nabled them to main- Barclay de Tolly had ;xt day (Aug. 30,) the ch was decided by the ts of NoUeiidorf, lying e latter finding himself irced their passage, by recruits. Vandamme :h 10,000 men and 81 ) get possession of Ber- 'as charged with the ex- tained a complete rout Royal of Sweden ; and •"rench there lost 20,000 and all their baggage, parte from Dresden, and where they could unite 1 entirely to their wish, d of 125,000 men, with arate armies. But the the armies of Bohemia, army of reserve, were signal. The plains of His army there amount- irould have had 301,000, lians, 136,000 Russians, able to form a union at eceded this great battle. imia alone fought three and Lindenau. None ve result; but Blucher rSRioo u. A. 0. 1810—1815. 551 had encountered Marshal Mannont on the same day, and de- feated him at Mockern. On the following day, there were some engagements, but without any decisive result ; they were fought by the three armies of Sweden, Blucher, and Bennigsen, who were on their march to the field of battle at Leipsic. Bona- parte then began to be aware of the danger of nis position. For the first time he foresaw the possibility of a defeat, and sent General Bertrand to Weissenfels to secure the bridge over the Saal. On the 18th, at day-break, he made proposals of an armistice and peace, through the Austrian General Meerfeld, who had fallen into his hands ; but both the Oi.e and the other were disregarded. This was the first day of the battle of Leip- sic ; the French army resisted with great heroism, and it vran not till after the arrival of Blucher and the army of Sweden, that they were compelled to abandon part of their position, and to retire to the very gates of Leipsic. Several bodies of Saxons and Wurtembergers passed over on that day to the ranks of the allies. During the night, the French army effected their retreat by Leipsic to Weissenfels. Macdonald and Poniatowski had orders to defend the city. It was attacked by the allies next day. The French made a vigorous resistance. At ten o'clock in the morning, Bonaparte escaped among the fugitives, the cannon, and the equipage which encumbered the gate of Altran- stadt. The Elster, which runs by the city, had only one bridge, which they caused to be blown up n:^ soon as Bonaparte had passed. Thus Macdonald and Poniatowski found themselves fairly enclosed with their divisions. The latter was drowned in attempting to swim across the Elster. Macdonald was made prisoner, as well as the King of Saxony, who had remained at Leipsic. Bonaparte, on these two days, lost in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 70,000 men, and 300 pieces of cannon. The allies purchased that victory by the death of 50,000 of their troops. Bonaparte directed hfe flight with all haste towards Mayence, closely pursued by theVossacs, who made a great many pri- soners, besides a rich booty in cannon and baggage. When he arrived at Hanau, he found his passage intercepted by an enemy which he did not expect. Since the month of August, a nego- tiation had been set on foot with the King of Bavaria, for in- ducing him to abandon the cause of Bonaparte. To this mea- sure he at length agrf-ed, by a convention, which was signed at Ried (Oct. 8,) which secured to Bavaria the possession of ab- solute and independent sovereignty, and complete indemnity for the restitutions which she was, in that case, to make to Austria. Immediately after the signing the convention at Ried, the •t0t ' :I1T -f' 552 CHAPTER Xll. F^nch Mho in their «tre.thid .rri.ed .t Ge\„h.«.J : ihe-e. to the left bank of the Khine. iviarsnai oi. \jy , 97 nno men had left at Dresden, was obliged to capitulate with SJ-JW men. less did honour to the French general. Sweden SmiL prloners Jourdan lost the whole of his artillery. jrprBona^pTrte then abandoned the throne of Spam for over^ The activity of Marshal Suchet defeated an expedition bysea, IndertXnV Sir John Murmy against Tarragona Lord Wd- Conne. "sTu-fa^i/ tool? the ^^^^ ^i^^ ^^^ ^' reinforcements increased the army to 40,000 men. a body of between s, began their march nd ailer taking this ch he took possession He encountered the Gelnhausn ; there a uccessive days. Bo- d, and prisoners ; but L passage, and retired Cyr, whom Bonaparte late with 27,000 men. 1 Torgau with 10,000. arnais had taken the ipied the lilyrian pro- rond the Adige, before f master of the Tyrol is campaign neverthe- ice Royal of Sweden }, the former of whom )anes had retired into m, from which however ed, as they had capitu- Frederic Vl. concluded 14 ;) and Denmark en- We shall have occasion ons that were made by rk signed a peace with 10,000 men to take the in engaged to pay them ime time established be- ;y of Hanover (Feb. 8 ;) lat of Berlin (Aug. 26.) rshal Soult from Spain jton, the Generalissimo in at Vittoria (June 21, n the field of battle, and whole of his artillery, irone of Spain for ever, id an expedition by sea, Tarragona. Lord Wel- na (Aug. 31,) and com- dassoa, and to retire on land, and by means o^ ,000 men. PERIOD IX, A. rt. IfllO — 1816. 553 In Germany, the Confederation of the Rhine and the kingdom of Westphalia had both been dissolved. The Electors of Han- over and Hesse, the Dukes of Brunswick and Oldenburg, were restored to the possession of their ]iatrimonies, and joined the alliance. The King of Wurtcmberg, and the Elector of Baden, made their peace with the Allies, by means of special treaties. All the princes of the Rhenish Confederation entered into the Grand Leagu'e, except the King of Saxony, the Grand Duke of Frankfort, and the princes of Isemburg and Leyen, who were excluded from it, and their territories treated as conquered provinces. On his return to Paris, Bonaparte announced his inteniion of continuing the war, and caused the Senate to grant him a new conscription of 300,000 men. Nevertheless he appeared willing to bring to a conclusion the negotiations which the Allies on the Continent had set on foot. According to the terms agreed on at Toplitz, the Rhine was to form the frontier of France, and the kingdom of Holland was to be given to a brother of Bonaparte ; but the movements of Napoleon, and the warlike preparations which he had ordered, gave England an opportunity of changing the sentiments of these monarchs ; and they determined to adopt the scheme which Mr. Pitt had contrived in 1805. The decree of the Senate, of November 18, 1813, completed the immense number of 1,260,000 men ; all of whom, indepen- dently of the existing army, had been sacrificed to the restless ambition of Bonaparte. The forces with which the Allies in- vaded France, were divided into three armies. The Army of Bohemia, commanded by Prince Schwarlzenberg, and composed of 261,000 men, Austrians, Russians, Prussians, and Germans, was destined to enter France by way of Switzer- land. The Army of Silesia, under the command of Blucher, consist- ing of 137,000 men, Prussians, Russians, and Germans, were to pa.ss the Rhine near Mayence. The Army of the North, composed of 174,000 Prussians, Rus- sians, Germans, Swedes, Dutch and English, were to occupv Holland and the Netherlands. They were to be commanded by the Prince Royal of Sweden, and, in his absence, by the Duke of Saxe-Weimar. Independently of these three armies, the Allies had an army of reserve of 236,000 men, and the Austrians had an army of 80,000 men in Italy. About the end of December 1813, and the beginning of the year 1814, the two first armies entered France. We can only advert to the principal events of that ihort campaign. After some actions of minor importance n^ CHAM'KH XII. Blucher attacked Bonaparte at Rothiere with » superior force SK'sJitc of the vigLus resisp^^^^^^^^ B^iug enclosed by Grouchy. Blucher had to cut h.s way at the P^'C'AlUe'TCh^i'r^^^^^^^^^^^ checl«, combined Ihe ^''•^; '''"'' J?J^^^^^^ but Prince Schwartzen- took place at Soissons (March 3.) »'"'='^®' °;, ^; ^l ^ Lfeated behind the Aisne. Bonaparte havmg P^^^^^o^^^^^^^^ two bodies of Russians under Woronzoff and baken at J^raone March 7 ) and attacked Blucher at Laon (March 10.) He wa. J^^'Totaily defeated ; .and that victory -l"-f.f ^^^ ^^^^^^^^ S ^'^-r f Irt'Tu^Aubf w^r^lh b^^^^^^^^^^^ ®°""PTLtitTherwere in expectation of seeing the en- '";""' i.h S; Rh ne as weU as to draw reinforcements from rTarwls o^EoSn^a^d Alsace, and thus transfer the the- ^'lut bXe briS'the sketch of this campaign to a close, it wiU be necessary to%ake notice of the Congress of ChatUlon. whkh was opened^on the 5th February, and which was a con- i'lionof^thene^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^t^r^eXtL^cIolnJ^F^^^^^ the limUs of that king h^ ieS^lUnJtrti^olrL^^^^^^^^ hS-i: ?ec? was to giin imf . Whenever his troops had gained any idJaXrhf immediately heightened his tone; and m he ^n.^r,P of six weeks the allies broke ofT the conference. During heSting of le Congress of ChatiUon, Austria. Great Bri^n PrussTand Russia, signed the famous Quadruple Alliance at SiaumonUMarch .) thich became the basis oAhe new po h U- ca svTtem If Europe. Each of the allies engaged to maintain an army^f 5S,000^ men constantly in the field agavnst the com- mon eJemy. Great Britain promised to furnish to the three Xroow™?s a subsidy of 5,000.000^ sterling foi the year 1814. ?n such Tway, however, that she was only to pay them propor. S,^Uv unT he end of tha month m wWh the peace should { mmmmlm 'U siim''' - [vith a superior force, lich he met with, he [teen days afterwards, exercise it m futurly adopted ; but the other proposal which made, to inquire into the possibility of an immediate aboli- tion, or at least, into the period when each of the powers might be able to fix its ultimate abolition ; and a third by which he wished to obtain an immediate partial abolition of that traffic, met with the most decided resistance on tho part of the three States who had foreign colonies. As the four other powers had no right to interfere in the internal legislation of these States, the Declaration which the Congress published (Feb. 9,) proclaimed the principle recognised by them all, viz. that the determination of the period when the trade was to cease generally should be ieA to the negotiations of the contracting powers. 36 ■m. 4 4 h ii if* H .t 'iA ,/ I*! 562 CHAPTER Xn. Europe was in the enjoyment of apparent tranquillity, when Bonaparte quitted Elba, landed with a thousand adventurers on the shores of France (March 1,) invited his former friends to join him, and deceiving the inhabitants by pretending to be supported by Austria, marched towards Paris, which he entered within twenty days after his landing. The King and the Royal Family were again obliged to retire to Lille. When Louis arrived in that city, he signed an order for disbanding the army ; but the greater part of the troops had already ?worn allegiance to Napo- leon, r inding himself insecure at Lille, the King retired to Ghent (March 30.) Bonaparte published a new constitution (April 22,) under the title of The Additional Act to the Consti- tution of the Empire. One of the articles which it contained, pronounced the perpetual banishment of the Bourbons. In order to flatter the partisans of the sovereign people, this act was sub- mitted for their acceptance, and Bonaparte summoned an assem- bly of extraordinary deputies, to meet in the Champ de Mai. He likewise summoned aChamber of the Representatives, or Legis- lative Body. The meeting of the Champ de Mai was held ; and two days after, a Chamber of Peers, created by Bonaparte, and a Chamber of the Representatives of the Nation, opened their sessions. So soon as the news of the landing of Bonaparte in France was received at Vienna, the eight contracting powers published a declaration, importing, that as Bonaparte had thus broken the convention which had placed him in the Island of Elba, he had destroyed the only legal title on which his existence depended, and had thus forfeited all relations, civil and social. The allied sovereigiM refused to receive the letters by which he announced to them that he had again taken possession of the throne of France. Being of opinion, that the time was come for executing the engagements tkey had contracted at Chaumont, the four powers who were parties to that treaty, renewed their engage- ments by new treaties of allianoe (March 25.) They promised to combine all their ferces for maintaining the treaty of Paris of May 30th 1814, and to set on foot, each of them, an army of 180,000 men. By an additional convention, Great Britain un- dertook to pay to the three others, subsidies to the amount of 5,000,0002. Sterling per annum. All the princes of the Germanic Confederation* — Portiigal, Sardinia, the Netherlands, Switzer- land, and Denmark^ acceded to thie alliaDce ; and Great Bri- tain granted subsidies to them all, proportioned to the forces which they might fiend into the field. Of all the powers having plenipotentiaries at Vienna, Spain and Sweden only declined •entering into thi« ailianoe. The KilMT of S^in refused his ^i" HMMMIM £t3«^- jnt tranquillity, when usand adventurers on former friends to join jnding to he supported ch he entered within and the Royal Family Then Louis arrived in ng the army ; but the «n allegiance to Napo- !, the King retired to ed a new constitution mal Act to the ComtU les which it contained, he Bourbons. In order eople, this act was sub- e summoned an assem- he Champ de Mai. He [presentatives, or Legis- p de Mai was held ; and aied by Bonaparte, and e Nation, opened their of Bonaparte in France acting powers published irte had thus broken the : Island of Elba, he had his existence depended, 1 and social. The allied by which he announced session of the throne of was come for executing at Chaumont, the four renewed their engage- ;h 25.) They promised ng the treaty of Paris of ich of them, an army of mtion, Great Britain un- bsidios to the amount of J princes of the Germanic e Netherlands, Switzer- llt«Dce ; and Great Bri- roportioned to the forces Of all the powers having 1 Sweden only declined of Spain refused his <«<•• PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810 — 1815. 563 cession, as being contrary to his dignity ; he would have had no objections to have become a principal party, and he coH)perated as such in the war. Sweden was too much occupied with tiie conquest of Norway to take any part in the deliverance of Franco. There was still another monarch who had not joined the alli- ance of Vienna, and that was Murat. The King of France had refused to acknowledge him as King of Naples, and Lord Cas- tlereagh had declared at Vienna, that Great Britain could not treat with Murat, as he haH not fulfilled his engagements ; and, therefore, that it depended on the Congress to decide as to the fate of the kingdom of Naples. These declarations induced Murat to take arms ; nevertheless, he continued to dissemble, until he learned that Bonaparte had arrived at Lyons. Then it was that he threw oflf the mask. He marched at the head of his armv towards the Po, and issued a proclamation (March 30,) by which he proclaimed liberty to all the inhabitants of Italy. The Austrian army in that peninsula, immediately put them- selves in motion to oppose him. Being defeated at Tolentino by General Bianchi (May 2,) he retreated first to Naples, and after a short stay there, he took refuge in France. The government of Ferdinand IV. was again restored. Meantime, as the partisans of Bonaparte, and the revolution- ists every where, were at great pains to propagate and cherish doubts as to the determination of the allied sovereigns to follow up the act of the 13th March, which had been adopted at a time when it was hoped that France would have no more need of foreign aid ; the allied sovereigns deemed it necessary to make known the expression of their principles by a solemn act ; to which they gave the form of a proeis-verbal, or edict, signed by the plenipotentiaries of the eight powers. The publication of that act was equivalent to a declaration of war against Bona- parte. It opened the eyes of those credulous followers who had till then believed that Austria and Russia were on friendly terms with him. All the negotiations of the Congress of Vienna beine termi- nated by the signing of the Act of the Germanic Confederation, which took place on June 8th, the plenipotentiaries of the eight contracting powers next day signed the Act of Congress, which was a recapitulation or abstract of all their preceding regula- tions, eidier by particular treaties or by declarations and edicts, (or protocols, aa they are sometimes called at Vienna,) relative to Poland, die territorial amingements in Germany, the Ger- manic Confederation, the kingdom of the Netherlands, Switzer land, Italy, Portugal, the navigation of rivers, the rank of dip- lomatic agents, and the form of accessions and ratifications of m OBAPTEB XII. but the «n.gg>« '««'°L?3Cfoteignere»tfootonll» 200,000) »°i"»Vi:°"l ?rhSd & tat amie., vix. ,ta., under the .otttnmnd^arBtel^at^ Sch«.men "~« .-^^f * M'^iififKifr trr.'j;:i"dt' c»niiund ot BBcUy de My. inev „^,, „ „,„,e of 147,000 of the national g^ *mi^g ^hit of the north. He had divided ^^ ^J^^o « ght^^^^^^^^ ^^^ which he commanded him8eW,con«^^^ ^^^^ j^ l,y de- Bonaparte opened ^J^^^^g^bre, to attack the Prussian tochingasecondcornsacrossUieba^^ ^ the superior General Zieten. who ^„*^ "towards Fleurus. Next day strength of *« ^'^^-^Y; Ao i k^BrusseU at the head of the Duke of B™"'^^^ Russians, was killed at QuatreBrw^ 12,000 men to support the t]^«»"" ' p h, sustained a consi- Mwshal Ney, who ^^'^Zl^Z^^\^^'^^^ ««« ^^^S""^^ derahle loss ; on the same d jy Marsha ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ atLigny.but he '^^^^J.*" ^^^^^ atuck WeUington, who parte from that """Xtlrlooir Mont St. Jean. The combat Jave him battle » Waterloo, ^ra^^^^^ j„ ^in fou, 5,as continued. wUh ^'^^ 2^„'' "f General Bulow's di- o'clock. when the P^'J^^J^'in^ person, approached the vision, and '^«"^*Pff iUron the right wing of the French, field of battle. .nJ ^^ «^Wt**the whole Prussian army was while Bonaparte supposed „U had sent against them with a :nga«.d wiK Groudgr, whom ^«„^J,*Xt ^"^,5 "' W detochment of 40.000 «»"; "J^ ^ j^ ^gs General Grouchy, Prussians. Bonaparte sy^d tha^^^^^^^^ ^ marchiiig to the who after having defeated the rrus ^^^^^ ^j^ i. ^£S.SS^ h?Srh,«« W.™. BLche. hembly tenninate it* ng to invade France, s decided by about gners set foot on the jur armies, viz. ied by Lord Welling- )verians, and Bruns- ds and Nassau, ing of 140,000 PruB- inded by Schwartzen- and 124,000 German 000 strong, under the irere to be stationed be- y were unable to arrive campaign was decided 213,000 men.exchisive employed in garrison. is. That of the north, I of 108,000 men. the 16lh June, by de- ■e, to attack the Prussian ) yield to the superior rds Fleurus. Next day Brussels at the head of as killed at Quatre Braa ; rench, sustained a consi- al Blucher was defeated !8t order to Brie. Bona- attack Wellington, who t St. Jean. The combat , from morning till four r of General Bulow's di- i person, approached the right wing of the French, hole Prussian army was sent against them with a ; first appearance of the it was General Grouchy, ans, was marching to the t is, that General Thiel- hy near Wavre, Blucher ■tttf MB ff' PEUIOD IX. A. D. 1810 — 1816. 665 had sent him word to defend himself the best way he could, and did not allow himself to be diverted from his original plan of falling upon the right wing of Bonaparte. When Bonaparte at length discovered his error, he lost ail resolution. His army were panic-struck, and fled in all directions. He was himself nearly taken prisoner, having escaped with great difficulty. The Germans have given this battle the name of Belle Alliance, from the ho\i ", where Blucher and Wellington met after the action. Of 120,000 French, 60,000 were either taken or killed in the two days of the 16th and 18th June 1815 ; 64,000 Eng- lish, and 50,000 Prussians were engaged in the battle. The Encflish lost 14,000 men on the 18th, and the Prussians 33,000 in the two engagements of the 16th and 18th. Bonaparte made his escape to Paris, but the Chamber of Representatives, composed of the partisans of the Revolution of 1789, and of Republicans who had no wish to promote the in- terest of Bonaparte, except as an instrument for the execution of their own plans, determined to take advantage of the con- tempt into which he had fallen to get rid of his presence. They required him to abdicate, which he did June 22d, in favour of his son. The Chambers appointed a government commission, at the head of which they placed Fouche, who sent deputies to Heidelberg, where the head-quarters of the Allied Sovereigns then were, with a commission to treat with them on the basis of the national independence, and the inviolability of the soil of France. But as there was no mention made in the proposi- tions about the restoration of the King, the allies refused to treat until Bonaparte should first be delivered up to them. Bonaparte had demanded of Wellington and Blucher, pass- ports for quitting France ; and on being refused, the govern- ment commission conveyed him to Rochefort, where he was to embark on board a frigate and go to America. But Captain Maitland, who was cruising off that port with an English ves- sel, prevented him from leaving the place unless he would sur- render to the English, on which condition he promised to guarantee his life. The danger becoming every day more pressing, he at length saw himself compelled to submit. The Bellerophon, with Bonaparte on board, arrived in Torbay (July 24,) but the English government would not permit the General to set foot on land. By a convention signed bv the allies at Paris (Aug. 2,) England took upon herself the charge of keep- ing guard over him at St. Helena. He was accordingly trans- ported to that island, where he remained till his death, which happened May 5th, 1821. After the battle of the 18th June, Wellington and Blucher f' i'f m "^i' CHAPTBB XII. were enabled to form ^XrHe^S^S^^^-'^ '^^ ^^''' some attempte to defe'^d Jans.^^^^^^^ announced to at Sevres and Jl^X ' *[^«'^^rAris vL^ the point of surren- tr 'it^S'tf^n r: ^7 S. C Jd Umy 30 and Wrench arJ.y retired ^^f^f^^Xiy, ,„d Louis XVIII The allies occumed Pans »»^«^T^„\i7dkys after, the Allied entered on the ¥^7^"^ ^J; JgU^J^^^^ twenty Sovereigns arrived. A a«"^| °] Imworthv of their country, nine in3iv««' "^k Vlllr of B^naprt^^^^^^^^ the ban- as having sat ^V**" ^^n? NitfeeHerso^^^ "^ »»'^^i"« ishment of the Bourbons. J»«^f " P^^' ^„e remitted to the betrayed the Kmg before the pSdMarcn.wer ^^ tribunals; thirty-e.ght other '^^^'fj^egici^ Paris. These latter were m general rflaPf «^ '^f , . 'j^ iqIS. JS^L who. after having o^ed Pardo" - JSU »>ad m Ib^^^ Sgned the banishment °f ^^?J"''^f'^Je ' prTmary regicides, t^ broke his word of honour given to he^P^^^^^^^ g^^^ leave them to the remonstrances of their o^^^^ ^^^ months after (Jan. 12^ 1816) the £^^^^^ elapsed changed into a law; 7»J .J^^ J^f^oTof France. Of the in- regicides were to ^^^'^^"^XTribunals two only were executed, dividuals ar^ign^d before the triW^^^ ^, ^^ SX the^^oifr^e^^^^^^^^^^ »^ ^^« ^»« threw a veil over all other "imes. ^^^ as It was a P"^/j^*^ /^^ of the commandanU refused to re- tresses ; and t^e 5^*'f^' P*7/i length convinced, that in order ceive them. The allies were ai le g necessary to take to secure the t"^««l"»"'*yr/K\adX^ in 18l4; but it more vigorous measures than hejjiad^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ & «-y/i{^^£rrt's^'ekTnuiteS^^^^^ tween France and the Allies ^^ ""IfJ ^^de several lerri- Switzerland, and the King of Sardmia^ ^^^_ 1. I the army of Schwart* joined the fugitives : ) save his division, they too men, which made igagements took place iDavoust announced to Jn the point of surren- t. Cloud (July 3.) and uly, and Louis XVIII ro days after, the Allied July declared twenty- orthy of their country, rte, and sworn the ban- 'sons accused of having were remitted to the were ordered to quit lapsed regicides, that is, in in 1814, had, in 1816, for the King never le primary regicides, to own conscience. Some icree of July 24th was cation, that the relapsed il of France. Of the in- , two only were executed, ; a third (Lavalette,^ ? na e clemency of the King > the King ; but the war n the frontiers of France, iea to occupy all the for* namandants refused to re* I convinced, that in order it was necessary to take id done in 1814 ; but it that their plan was suf- negotiations with France, nter ; and the treaty be- ligned until the 20th No- rance made several lerri* russia, Austria, Bavaria. ay to the allies a pecuni- is of francs; that 150,000 FEBIOD IX. A. D. I8l0 — 1815. 507 of the allied troops should occupy certain places in France fox 6ve years ; and that they should be paid and maintained by France. By an additional article, they engaged reciprocally to concert measures for obtaining the entire and final abolition of the slave trade. The same day, Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia, concluded an alliance for the following purposes : — (1.) The maintenance of the treaties and conventions which had just been concluded: And, (3.) The perpetual exclusion of Napoleon Bo- nai)arte and his family from the sovereignty of France ; the maintenance of tranquillity in that country ; and the suppression of revolutionary principles, so that they might never again dis- tract France, or threaten the repose of Europe. For this two- fold object, the allies agreed to furnish their contingents as de- termined by the alliance of Ghaumont; finally, they agreed to have another personal conference in the course of the year 1818. Prior to this quadruple alliance which, by securing the main- tenance of the Bourbon dynasty on the throne of France, forma one of the bases of the new political system of Europe, the Em- perors of Austria and Russia, and the King of Prussia, signed at Paris (Sept. 26,) an Act, known by the name of the Holy Alliance, which forms the second basis of the same system. The real object of this alliance was doubtless a mutual guarantee against any encroachments which might be made on their sov- ereign power ; to disguise this, it set forth their firm determina- tion to take no other rule for their conduct than the precepts of the Christian religion. They promised to continue in the in- dissoluble bonds of brotherly union, and to be ready on all occa- sions, and in all places, to succour and assist each other — to consider themselves but as members of the same Christian na- tion, and as delegated by Providence to govern three branches of the same family ; and finally, to receive into the same alliance all other powers who were willing to profess the same principles which had dictated that act. All die Christian powers in Eu- rope acceded to the treaties and conventions of the 20th Novem- ber 1815, except Sweden, who had taken no share in the war. They all entered into the Holy Alliance, except the King of Great Britain, who, while he fully sanctioned the principles set forth in that Act, was prevented from signing it, because, accord- ing to the constitutional custom of England, the Soverei|p signs nothing without the countersi^ing of a responsible minister. Here it will be necessary briefly to point out the more impor tant events which happened since 1811 in the other European States, and the changes which were produced by the Congress •f VJAnna. i»{.i« 568 CnAPTKK Xl(. Portugal seemed destined to be nothing more in future than a dependency of Brazil, in a political point of view, as she al- ready was o^ England with respect to agriculture, industry, and commerce. The latter power attached so great an importance to the abolition of the slave trade, that by a treaty signed during the conferences at Vienna, she had purchased the eflective co- operation of Portugal in this measure, by giving up all the ad- vantages which she had reserved to herself by the treaty of Rio Janeiro of February 19th 1810, which she consented to annul ; nevertheless, Portugal only prohibited her subjects conditionally from carrying on the slave trade in that part of Africa lying to the north of the Equator. In Spain, the Extraordinary Cortes then assembled at Cadiz, after having published a decree, January 1, 1811, importing that they could make no treaty with France until the King enjoyed full liberty, and that he could not be regarded as at liberty until he had taken the constitutional oath, finished the work which they alleged had been intrusted to their hands. Their constitu- tion, which was founded on the principle of the sovereignty of the people, intrusted the legislative power to a popular assembly, and the execution of the laws to a functionary with limited au- thority, decorated with the title of a King, was published on the 18th of March 1812. In violation of historic truth, it was an- nounced to the world as the genuine ancient constitution of Spain. The Cortes terminated their session on the 20th September 1813. The new or ordinary Cortes, convened in the constitu- tional form at the rate of one deputy for every 70,000 inhabitants, without distinction of fortune or estate, transferred their sitting to Madrid towards the end of the year. It was this extraordi- nary meeting of the Cortes that concluded a treaty of friendship and alliance (July 28, 1813) with the Emperor of Russia at Weliki-Louki, where he had then his head-quarters. Alexan- uu «here acknowledged the Cortes and their constitution. That acknowledgment was extremely simple. Alexander could no* treat except with the government then established. That gov- ernment acted in the name of Ferdinand VII., and their acts were to be regarded as legitimate so long as that prince had not disavowed them. The Emperor of Russia had neither the will nor the power to lend his sanction to an order of things which had not the approbation of a King, in the full enjoyment of lib- erty It was in this same sense that the King of Prussia enter- ed into an alliance with the Spanish government, by a treaty which was signed at Basle (Jan. 20, 1814.) After returning from the campaign of 1813, Bonaparte con- sidering Spain astlost, resolved to set Ferdinand VII. at liberty . more in future than It of view, as she a!> [culture, industry, and I great an importance treaty signed during lased the effective co- giving up all the ad- If by the treaty of Rio e consented to annul ; subjects conditionally part of Africa lying to en assembled at Cadiz, 1, 1811, importing that until the King enjoyed irded as at liberty until Eished the work which ands. Their constitu- of the sovereignty of r to a popular assembly, ionary with limited au- ig, was published on the listoric truth, it was an- ;nt constitution of Spain. )n the 20th September nvened in the constitu- very 70,000 inhabitants, transferred their sitting It was this extraordi- 3d a treaty of friendship Emperor of Russia at lead-quarters. Alexan- their constitution. That Alexander could no* istablished. That gov- knd VII., and their acts ; as that prince had not «ia had neither the will I order of things which le full enjoyment of lib- ! King of Prussia enter- Ifovemment, by a treaty 14.) f 1813, Bonaparte con- irdinand VII. at liberty . PBSIOD u. A. D. 1810—1815. 569 but in the hope of turning that tardy net of justice to his advan- tage by making that prince his friend, he represented Spain as overrun with Jacobinism, which was labouring to overturn the throne, and to substitute a republic in its place ; and he accused England as having favoured that project. Ferdinand VII. de- manded that a deputation of the Regency should be admitted to a personal interview with him, who might inform him as to the real state of matters. Bonaparte, who executed with despatch whatever he had once resolved, found this mode of proceeding too slow. He empowered M. de la Forfit, whom he had sent to Valencay to conclude a treaty with his captive, by which the latter was acknowledged King of Spain ; and promised, on his part, to cause the English troops to evacuate the whole of that kingdom. Ferdinand VII. sent his minister, the Duke of San Carlos, to Madrid, for the ostensible purpose of communicating that treaty to the Regency, but in reality to take cognizance of the state of affairs. The Regency refused to acknowledge the treaty of Valencay, because the King was not at liberty. Bonaparte being apprized of this difficulty, immediately released Ferdinand (Mar 7, 1814.) He set out on his return to his dominions, but per- formed his journey slowly, that he might have leisure to obtain personal information, as to the spirit which reigned among the Spaniards. He was soon convinced, that the people, attached to their religion, and to the family of their lawful prince, were very indifferent about the constitution of the Cortes, and that that assembly enjoyed very little influence or authority. Sixty members of the Cortes had even protested against an Act which, by degrading the Royal Dignity, was preparing the way for es- tablishing a democracy. On his arrival at Valencia, Ferdinand abrogated the constitution of 1812, and directed his course to- wards Madrid, which he entered on the 17th May. The people every where expressed their attachment to a prince, whose ar- rival they hailed as the return of justice and order ; though it is foreign to our purpose to narrate why that hope has not been realized. Great Britain was the power which acted the most conspicuous part during the era of which we have given the preceding his- torical sketch. The fortitude and perseverance with which she had prosecuted her system of policy, after the breaking of the peace of Amiens, was crowned with the most complete success ; and the plan conceived by Mr. Pitt, but which that great states- man had despaired ever to see carried into execution, became the corner-stone of the future policy of Europe. Great Britain was the mainspring of the alliance, which in 1813 undertook the m § m 670 CHAPTBR Xn. deliveranco of Europe. She made the most extraordinary efljrta in raising armies, and granting supplies for maintaining the troops of the Continental nations. A mental calamity, with which George III. had been afflicted towards the end of the year 1810, obliged the Parliament to establish a regency. That important charge belonged of right to the presumptive heir to the crown ; but as the ministry were apprehensive that the Prince of Wales might in some respects change the system of the existing Government, the Parliament passed an Act (Dec. 31,) which restricted the authority of the Regent to one year. The Prince Regent submitted to these modificutions. He exercised the regency at first with a limited power ; but, after the year 1812, when the prospects of his Ma* jesty's recovery were considerably diminished, he continued to exercise the Royal authority until his father's death, which hap- pened January 29, 1820, when the Prince then assumed the title of George IV. The Regent found the kingdom at war with Russia and Sweden ; but it was only in appearance, and without effective hostilities. Lord Castlereagh, who, since the year 1812, had been at the head of foreign affairs, listened with eager- ness to the first advances which these two powers made towards a mutual accommodation. Peace was signed at Orebro (July 12,) first with Sweden, and a few days after with Russia. The former, in indirect terms, abandoned the principles of the armed neutrality of the North. We shall have occasion hereafter to revert to the stipulations of the treaty signed with Russia. She was now assailed by a new enemy. A misunderstand- ing had existed for years, between Great Britain and the United States of America, in consequence of the various restrictions she had imposed upon the commerce of Neutrals, the humilia- ting conditions to which she wished to subject it, and the im- Eressment of seamen. The Government of the United States ad sought by various retaliatory measures, to operate upon her interests and induce her to abandon her system of arbitrary do- minion over the great highway of nations. From 1806 to 1812 the pacific disposition of the American Government was mani- fested by the several expedients of NoU'lmportatUm, Embargo, and Non-Intercourse, to which they had resorted, to prevent an open rupture, but as none of these resulted in an acknowledg- ment of her rights on the part of Great Britain, an appeal was made at last to the Ultima ratio Regum. On the 18tn of June, 1812, an Act of Congress was passed, declaring War against Great Britain ; the reasons for this measure, as stated in th« President's manifesto, were " The impressment of American •eamen by the British, the blockade of her enemies' ports sup |o8t extraordinary efTirtn 38 for maintaining the [e III. had been afflicted iged the Parliament to harge belonged of right >ut as the ministry were might in some respects irnment, the Parliament ed the authority of the tgent submitted to these cv at first with a limited the prospects of his Ma> inished, he continued to ither's death, which hap- rince then assumed the the kingdom at war with appearance, and without :h, who, since the year iairs, listened with eager- wo powers made towards I signed at Orebro (July after with Russia. The >e principles of the armed ave occasion hereafter to signed with Russia. 3my. A misunderstand- it Britain and the United r the various restrictions of Neutrals, the humilia- to subject it. and the im> ent of the United States ures, to operate upon her it system of arbitrary do- >n8. From 1806 to 1812 1 Qovernment was mani- a-Importation, Emiargo, id resorted, to prevent an ulted in an acknowledg- Lt Britain, an appeal was »t. On the 18th of June, 1, declaring War against aeasure, as stated in the ipressment of American her enemies' ports sup pruiod iz. a. v. 1810 — 18 lA. 571 porteil by no adequate force, in consequence of which the Ame« rican commerce had been plundered in every sea, and the Britifh Orders in Council." The remoteness of the two contending nations from each other, rendered it impossible for them to bring together great armies to meet in a general conflict. On the one side, the Ga- nadas were attacked by the Americans in many points with various success, and on the other, the cities and settlements along the coast of the Atlantic, were subjected to constant an- noyance and depredation from the British maritime forces. In acts of hostility of this kind, and in naval combats, the war was continued for nearly three years, during which abundant proofs were given that the veteran forces of Great Britain could claim no other superiority, than that of experience, either in officers or soldiers, to ."ler enemy. Many of the land, and all the sea battles were fought with great skill and bravery, and gallantry by the Americans. The last important occurrence of the war, was the battle of New Orleans, where the American forces, under the command of their heroic leader General Jack- son, gained a brilliant victory. The situation of Europe was now so entirely changed, that (he grievances of which America had complained, and for the redress of which she had fought, must naturally cease, and as neither party deemed it expedient to continue the war for ab- stract rights, a peace was settled at Ghent, between the pleni- potentiaries of the two nations, Dec. 24th, 1814, which restored friendship and amity, without settling any of the great points in dispute which had induced a resort to arms. The financial system of Great Britain underwent an essen- tial alteration, by the adoption of a plan presented by Mr. Van- sittart. Chancellor of the Exchequer, introducing certain modi- fications relative to the accumulation of the sinking fund. The expenditure of the government in 1815, amounted to 77,337,475/. sterling, of which Ireland cost 8,651,335/. sterling. The inter- est of the national debt amounted to 36,607,128/. sterling, of which 13,188,510/. were applied to the sinking fund. Great Britain paid to the States of the Continent, in 1813, 11,400,000/. sterling, under the name of subsidies ; 24,107 ships, and 105,030 seamen, were employed in commerce. In 1814, these numbers were augmented one-seventh more. At this latter pe- riod, their navy consisted of 1044 ships of war, 100,000 sailors, and 32,600 marines ; the land forces amounted to 302,490 men, including 63,000 militia. Holland, and the other powers which had anciently formed the Republic of the United Provinces, after having been for **-''* Mii jl> r.7'2 CHAPTER Xn. two years united to France, resumed once more their national independence. After the battle of Leip^ic, when the corp» ot Generals Bulow and Winzingerodc approached that country, ;he parlixans of the Prince of Orange at the Hague, with M. ae liogendurps at their head, mounted the ancient cockade, estab- lished a provisional government (Nov. 17, 1813,) and invited the heir of the last Stadtholder to return and place himself at the head of the government. The French troops, finding themselves ton weak to defend the country at once against the allies and against the inhabitants, quietly took th^ir departure. The Prince of Orange having arrived at Amsterdam (Dec. 1,) was proclaimed Sovereign Prince of the Low Countries ; but he ac- cepted that dignity, on the condition that his power should be limited by a constitution ; a plan of which he caused to be drawn up, which was adopted and sworn to in an assembly of the Representatives. During the sojourn of the allied sovereigns in England, it was agreed, that in order to oppose a barrier to Frano8, finding themselves too e against the allies and c th»»ir departure. The msterdam (Dec. 1,) was Dw Countries ; but he ac- that his power should be which he caused to be vorn to in an assembly of sovereigns in England, it barrier to Frano<^ on the im should be uniteJ under ncluded at the samt time to the Dutch all theii an- 1* the Cape of Good !iope, Accordmg to the regula- ishopric of Liege, and the the sovereign prince, on part of the Germanic Con- e received the title of King treaty of Paris, this new of territory, and a sum of icting a line of fortresses, m, with the dutchy of Lux- square miles, with a popu- e population of its colonies, r, when the allies approach- 13, that thoy would grant le allied troops had to tra- ^, in order to enter France, (self, by annulling the Act riand to France ; but this 3 future constitution of the antons, eight concluded a ich granted an equality of he union ; and to this the ice. Berne, Friburg, and rsRioD IX. A. D. ISIO — \916. 373 Underwaldcn, refused to take a part in it. The Orisons re- established their anrient form of government. The interven- tion of foreign powers quashed the civil war with which thot country was threatened ; and, after many diflictiltics, a new Con- federation of the nineteen cantons was signed at Zurich (Sep* S, 1814.) There still remained, however, several litigated points to be decided, which were settled by the Congress of Vi- enna, who declared that the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland should be acknowledged by all the other power!) ; and that the Valais, the territory of Geneva, and the principality of Neuf- chatel, should make a part of the Confederation, as three addi- tional cantons. The Swiss States having acceded 'u this de- claration (May 27, 1815,) it was renewed, confirmed, and sanctioned by the Allied Powers, in a second declaration signed at Paris (Nov. 20.) In consequence of a convention concluded at Turin with Prince Borghese, Governor-General of the French provincis beyond the Alps, Field-Marshal Bellegarde had taken posscn- sion of Piedmont in the name of the King of Sardinia. Soon after, Victor Emanuel took the reins of government into his own hands. By the first peace of Paris, he recovered Nice, and about two-thirds of Savoy. A secret article of that treaty secured him the possession of the State of Genoa, which was confirmed by the treaty of Vienna ; but he ceded to the canton of Geneva, certain districts in Savoy. The second peace of Paris restored him that part of the province which had been given to France in 1814. The Sardinian monarchy thus com- prehended an extent of 1277 German square miles, with 3,700,000 inhabitants. The convention of Fontainbleau had disposed of the dutchics of Placentia, Parma and Guastalla, in favour of the Archdutchess Maria Louisa, and her son Napoleon. This disposition was keenly opposed at Vienna by the House of Bourbon, who es- poused the interest of the young King of Etruria, the lawful heir to these estates. Nevertheless the Congress of Vienna ad- judged the States of Parma to the Archdutchess, without making mention of her son, or deciding the question as to their rever- sion ; a point which was not determined till the treaty of Paris of June 10, 1817, between Austria and Spain. After the death of the Archdutchess, the States of Parma are to pass to the Queen-Dowager of Etruria and her son. They contain about 102 German square miles, and 380,000 inhabitants. The Archduke Francis, the heir of Hercules IIL, the last Duke of Modena of the House of Est6, was restored to the dutchy of Modena and its appurtenances, about the beginning %¥ iH'! ^1 I i ^ 574 CHArriR zii. of 1814. The whole comprehends a surface of 96 Oemian ■quart) inile», with 3HR,00() inhabitants. According "i nn article of the treaty of Vienna, Lucca, uii* iter the title of u dutchy, was given up, not to the young King of Etruria, the lawful heir of the States of Parma, but to his mother, and her descendants in the male line. Besidns, the (£m|)eror and the Grand Duke of Tuscany were bound to pay her II supplementary annuity of 500,000 francs until the deatn of the Archdutchess Maria Louisa, when the Dutchess of Lucca, or her heirs, are to have the States of Parma ; and the dutchy of Lucca is to devolve to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, on con* dition of ceding to the Duke of Modena certain districts con* tiguous to his estates. The dutchv of Lucca is the most popu* lous country in Europe. It contains about 137,500 inhabitants within 19} German square miles. T-he grand dutchy of Tuscany, which Murat's troops had oc- cupied about the beginning of the year 1814, was restored to Its lawful sovereign, the Archduke Ferdinand III. (May 1,) who then gave up the Principality of Wurtzburg to the King of Biivnria. By the treaty of Vienna, that prince obtained the Stote of Presidi, part of the island of Elba, and the Imperial fiefs included in these States ; containing 395 German square miles, with a population of 1,178,000 souls. The property of Piombino was restored to the family of Buoncompagni, wnom Bonaparte had dispossessed. The Grand Duke is to succeed to the dutchy of Lucca ; but he must then give up his territo* ries in Bohemia to his brother the Emperor, which are very considerable, and destined for the young Duke of Reichstadt, son of the Archdutchess Maria Louisa. Bonaparte having found it impossible to overcome the per* severance of Pius VII., had set him at liberty about the begin* ning of the year 1814. The Sovereign Pontiff returned to his Estates amidst the general acclamations of the people, and re* stored every thing to the footing in which thev had been before the usurpation of the French. Nobody was molested on the score of his political conduct. The Order of the Jesuits, suppressed in 1772, was restored by a Bull, as a necessary barrier to oppose the doctrines of the Revolution. The Congress of Vienna re- stored to the Sovereign Pontiff the Marches and Legatines, with the exception of a portion of territory situated to the north of the Po, which was annexed to the kingdom of Venetian Lombardy. The Ecclesiastical States at present contain a sur- face of 714 German square miles, and a population of 2,424,150. The extravagant conduct of Mjint, promoted the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne of Naples. This was effected surface of 96 Oernmn of Vienna, Lucca, un- I, not to the young King lies of Parma, but to his lale line. Bcsidns, the ly were bound to pay 10 francs until the death n the Dutchess of Lucca, Parma ; and the dutchy uke of Tuscany, on con* ■na certain districts con- Lucca is the most popu* ilraut 137,600 inhabitants :h Murat's troops had oc- ar 1814, was restored to Ferdinand III. (May 1,) Wurtzburg to the King of that prince obtained the )f Elba, and the Imperial ning 396 German square I souls. The property of of Buonconipagni, whom Qrand Duke is to succeed It then give up his territo* Emperor, which are very )ung Duke of Reichstadt, sa. ible to overcome the per- at liberty about the begin* ign Pontiff returned to his ions of the people, and re- rhich they had been before y was molested on the score if the Jesuits, suppressed in scessary barrier to oppose le Congress of Vienna re- B Marches and Legatines, rritory situated to the north the kingdom of Venetian es at present contain a sur- 1 a population of 2,424,160. t, promoted the restoration Naples. This was effected PIRIOD tx. A. D. ISIO— 1816. 575 by the expedition which Austria had despatched in 1816 against Murnt, in consequence of the alliance nflfenaivc and dcfensivn which that Court had concluded at Vienna with Ferdinand IV. (April 29, 1816,) who made his entry into Naples on the 17th June. A short time after, Muraf, at the hou.l of a s.imll bond of adventurers, thought of imitating the example of his brother- in-law. He landed at Pizzo, in Calabriu (Oct. 9,) where he hoped to be welcomed by his former adherents ; but the peosanlry combined against him ; he was arrested, tried by a court-martial, and shot (Oct. 10.) The kingdom of the Two Sicilies has iiti ex- tent of a.OS-l German souare miles, and 6,600,000 inhabitants. After Ferdinand IV. had retired into Sicily, that Island was put under the protection of the English, who had there an army of 16,000 men, with a considerable fleet. T^^neral Lord Ben- tinck, who commanded the English troops, used all his influence to introduce the British constitution into thai island. The Queen, who was at the head of the opposite party, was obliged to leave her family. From that moment the English remained masters of Palermo. But after the first peace o( Paris, Ferdinand IV. resumed the reins of government ; and before embarking for Naples, he annulled the constitution of 1812. Corfu, the only one of the Ionian islands which was not yet in the power of the English, was given up to them by the Con- vention of Paris (April 23, 1814.) The fate of these islands was decided by a treaty concluded at the same place between Aus- tria and Great Britain, Prussia and Russia. They were com- bined into a free and independent State (Nov. 6,) under the name of the United States of the Ionian Islands, and placed under the immediate and exclusive protection of Great Britain. By the events of the years 1813 and 1814, the House of Aus- tria gained possession of all that belonged to her in Italy, either before or in consequence of the peace of Campo Formio. A small portion of Ferrara to the north of the Po was ceded to her, as were the Valteline, Bormio, Chinvenna, and the ancient re- public of Ragusa. The Emperor constituted all these posses- sions into a separate and particular State, under the title of the Kingdom of Venetian LombardV' Independently of these, Aus- tria recovered the Illyrian provinces, of which she also formed a distinct kingdom. By a treaty signed at Vienna with Russia, she likewise gained possession of the part of eastern Galicia which she had ceded to Alexander in 1809, and the jxclusive property of Wieliczka, which was then divided between her and the dutchy of Warsaw. The Austrian monarchy, in it& present state, contains a surface of 12,000 German square miles, ud a population of twenty-nine millions. hi,.u. ■!l>( illl I J76 CHAPTBR Zn. It was a more difficult matter to reorganize the monarchy of Prussia. We have mentioned the negotiations, in consequence of which she acquired ahout a half of the kingdom of Saxony. The Congress of Vienna restored to her not only a part of an- cient Prussia, now called the Grand Dutchy of Posnania, and all the other possessions which she had lost by the convention of Vienna, (Dec. IJ, 1805,) and the peace of Tils?t (with the ex- ception of Bialystock, Anspach, Baireuth, Westfriesland, and Hildeshcim,) but also a considerable territory on the left bank of the Rhine, the Grand Dutchy of Berg, the Dutchy of Westpha lia, Swedish Pomerania, and the sovereignty of several othei principalities and counties. These territorial arrangements were not concluded till 1819. The Prussian monarchy contains a surface of 4882 German square miles, and a population of nearly 1 1 millions. The sovereign princes and free cities of Germany were uni- ted by an Act signed at Vienna, under the name of the Germanic Confederation. All the members of the Confederacy enjoy full sovereignty, and all take part in the deliberations of the Diet in matters relating to the general interests of the Union. The thirty-nine members, however, in ordinary cases, have only seventeen votes ; eleven of the States have each a vote, while six collective votes belong lo the other twenty-eight. Never- theless, in constitutional questions, the thirty-nine members have in all seventy votes ; each State having at least one, and several of them two, three, and four votes. The members have the right of concluding every kind of alliance, provided these are not directed against the safety of the Union or of its constituent members. The equality of civil and religious rights was secured to all who professed the Christian religion. Various States, forming the Germanic Confederation, under- went certain changes in their territorial possessions; but the negotiations by which they were definitively settled did not take Silace till 1819. The kingdom of Bavaria received indemnity or the various restitutions which had been made to the Court of Vienna. Its superficial extent amounts to 1505 square miles, and 3,300.000 inhabitants. The grand dutchy of Hesse-Darm- stadt obtained considerable augmentations on the left bank of the Rhine, and has a surface of 314 German square miles, and six hundred thousand inhabitants. The Grand Duke of Olden- burg, the Duke of Saxe Cobourg, the Landgrave of Hesse- Homberg, and the House of Orange-Nassau, obtained territorial indemnities on the Rhine. The Elector of Hesse-Cassel obtained the grand dutchy of Fulda ; his dominions consisted of 200 Ger- .•iMUi<%quare miles, and 540,000 inhabitants. The King of .ni'ze the monarchy of iations, in consequence Ihe kingdom of Saxony. not only a part of an- tchy of Posnania, and lost by the convention e of Til9?t (with the ex- th, Westfriesland, and itory on the lef^ bank of the Dutchy of Westpha eignty of several othei territorial arrangements issian monarchy contains iles, and a population of of Germany were uni- te name of the Germanic the Confederacy enjoy the deliberations of the il interests of the Union, ordinary cases, have only have each a vole, while ler twenty-eight. Never- I thirty-nine members have g at least one, and several The members have the iance, provided these are Union or of its constituent ligious rights was secured igion. nic Confederation, under- }rial possessions; but the litively settled did not take ivaria received indemnity 1 been made to the Court lunts to 1505 square miles, id dutchy of Hesse-Darm- ations on the left bank of Grerman square miles, and ^he Grand Duke of Olden- the Landgrave of Hease- f assau, obtained territorial ir of Hesse-Cassel obtained lions consisted of 200 Ger- babitants. The King of r Battle of Waterloo ; contest of the 42d Regiment for the French Eagles. P. 365. BatUe of Waterloo. P. 505. - II t J ii! r "~i PERJODIX. A. D. 18I . d Norway were sealed, Tis (July 31, 1815.) By 'russia her part of Po- ermany, of which she time of Gustavus Adol- is an extent of 16,150 habitants. ing the period of which mention any event of oncerned. She was at 'ersia, when Bonaparte 11. The Russians acted rince Kutusoff, who had ?nd five divisions of his ! demolished, preserving Danube. The indolent m his camp at Schumla ! and enterprising Gene* JO men, mostly composed Y a formidable artillery arched against KutusoiT leagues from Rudschuk who were opposed to the command of Ali Pacha, Its. Two days after the enchments and dislodged iludschuk. It was chiefly ired in that battle, owing Iry, who would have cut rre of Count Langeron, of the garrison, and pro- ier advanced under the ipted three times in one Ised each time (July 9.) IS quitted Rudschuk and having got intelligence, rom carrying off all their r disease was unable lo PERIOD IX. A. D. 1810—1916. 579 orevenl the Grand Vizier from taking possession of the islands of the Danube, where they constructed bridges, by means of which they made frequent incursions into Wallachia. A body of 15,000 troops, commanded by Ismael Bey, took up the same post on the right bank, so that the Grand Vizier passed the river at the head of the main body of the forces (Aug. 3.) But the face of affairs soon changed. General Ouwaroff having brought a reinforcement of 50,000 men to Kutusoff, the latter detached Markoff, with a considerable body, who passed to the right bank of the Danube, marched in all haste against the Turkish reserve before Rudschuk, seized their camp, and thus cut off the retreat of the Grand Vizier. The latter found means to enter Rudschuk in a small bark, leaving his army in Wallachia, under the com- mand of Seraskier Tchaban-Ogfou, who was blockaded at Slo- bosia by Kutusoff, and after being reduced to 25,000 men, they were obliged to capitulate and lay down their arms (Dec. 8.) The Grand Vizier then Hemanded a suspension of arms, which was signed at Guirdt ov. Negotiations were opened at Bucharest, but the Turks refused for a long time to make the smallest cession of territory. At length the mediation of Eng- land, Swed 3n, and Russia, overcame the obstinacy of the Divan, and peace was signed (May 28, 1812.) The Porte ceded to Russia about one-third of Moldavia, as far as the Pruth, the for- tresses of Choczin and Bender, and the whole of Bessarabia, with Ismael and Kilia ; an amnesty was granted to the Servians. Although England had appeared at Bucharest as a mediating power, nevertheless her treaty of peace with Russia was not de- finitively signed, although actual hostilities had long ceased be- tween the two powers. The treaty was at length concluded at Orebro (July 18,) the stipulations of which are not all known. The peace with Persia was signed in the Russian camp, near the river Seiwa, under the mediation of England, and confirmed the following year at Teflis (Sept. 16, 1814.) Persia ceded to Russia Daghistan, Shirvan, Derbent, and in general the whole western coast of the Caspian Sea, renounced her pretensions on Georgia, Imirete, Guriel, and Mingrelia, and recognised the ex- clusive right of Russ'a to the navigation of the Caspian Sea. At the Congress o.' Vienna the Emperor of Russia had ob- tained the kingdom of Poland, as we have already noticed. In- dependently of that acquisition, the Russian Empire had an extent of 346,000 German square miles, 80,000 of which are in Europe, the population of which amounts to thirty-eight mil- lions. The population of the whole Empire is estimated at forty- six millions. A concurrence of fortunate circumstances has saved the Otto- >v i|'!j 580 CIUFTBK Zn. man Empire from that ruin with which it has mow than o«»j Ln threatened, and for which the total d'««o\"'«'» ?f "•f'" order in the provinces has along time prepared the wav. If "ill survives the«e evils, its preservation 'M«'»»?P» »° ^Xe bed to that Holy Alliance which has sometimes be." *e objm of terror to the torte, he having been persuaded that th«Ch"j;- San League was directed against IVfahometanism. I w this lurnicSTthe offspring of ignorance and weakness, which at u recJit date had Searly precipitated him into imprudent mea S; If the wisdom ofliis powerful neighbour had known, in S circumstances, to unite his own glory with the maintenance *pS?ranquillity. of which Europe stands so m«ch in need Se Porte, enlfghtened as to his true interest by Austria, Great BriSnndVs other allies, will feel that he cannot prolong his orexistence. except hy substituunp: the "'gnof J'»»'"' '^^ the principles of humanity, to despoUsm and cnMlty. "f-l i t has more than |1 dinsolution of social pared the way. If it perhaps to be ascri- times bebii the object luaded that that Chris- imetanism. It is this weakness, which at u 1 into imprudent mea - ghbour had known, m 1815, to the Revolution in Poland, A. D. 1830. France had undergone a complete change since the Revolu. tion, which the Bourbons, on their return could not understand. Their unfitness to reign over this people, was immediately per- ceived, and gave rise to a prevalent saying, that " the Bourbons, in their misfortunes, had learned nothing, and had forgotten nothing.'* The open acknowledgment, made by Louis XVIII., that he owed his throne to the Prince Regent of Bngland, was a dis- honor, and a source of deep mortification, to the pride of France ; and the country was farther humiliated, by the presence of the Allied troops, occupying two.thirds of its territory to enforce tranquillity. By the treaty of Paris,* concluded November 20th, 1816, be- tween Louis XVIII. and the three Allied powers, France was to pay 700 million francs, give up seventeen citadels for a pe- riod of three to five years, and support one hundred and fifty thousand foreign troops, within her territories ; besides satisfy- ing all public and private claims, to the countries belonging to the Allied sovereigns, and restoring the productions in the arts, and the treasures of literature, with which as spoils. Napoleon had enriched the capital. This last requisition was enforced, while the Allied troops were in possession of Paris. Richlieu, the new minister, signed this treaty in September, 1815, which occasioned great dissatisfaction to the French na- tion. The King opened the new chamber, November, 4, 1816, with a speech which diacloaed the unfavorable condition of France. February 5, 1817. The liberals and independents obtained the law of election ; and, on March 6, 1818, the recruiting law ; but were not successful in their attacks on the laws of excep. t-on, which prevented the complete operation of the- charter. The machinations of the ultras, led to troubles in OvenoMe, in * ••• pafai nSuM SM, vol. a. '»■< , ciii\i*rER xni« T ifli7 Julv 1819, their intrijruc* wore 1816. and in Lyons l^^^-, . ''"'LMThU to engage the Allies di«:ovc.red. which were. »*;i'"8 »«« t'^^/" ^he minirtry then to assist them in abolishing "'° ^Jr^;;* ^ A loan of 24 Sclined towards t)'ejibc«rals, and nat^^^^^^^^ Allied troop, million, was required toeffectth^ecva^^^^^^^ ^^ j^^^,, stationed in Franco, in »»»« *"'"7"A?x.la.Chapcllc, October 9, mined upon by the ^o"?"^ °J,,^^ elaimifor the oxjicnscs 1818; akd for the ^^'"^"i.lSSf He^ wa. a successful of the war, and «»TVlnmtv t th«« settl.menU, in the exhibition of French .J'Pl"";"^^^; ^"f tK^ matter of liquidations, the paymtm ot i ^ .^^.^^^ ^^ the treaty of 1815. ••«du«e^iXn, in payment of these 1390 postponed till ^^y«^;]jKanc /equivalent to a capital of millions, a rent of l^'O*"'""" "j This was about a seventh I pelle, to 265 million francs. ^ „..„_j :„to Uie Quadruple alii ^November 12. /'«««« ^°^J'.'"""t^^^^^ 1 ance of the great E>|">pe•"^f^J^^«'^^ ^^^ So of election, and lieu, dcclai-cd himself against the exB^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ j^^ ^^ against the operation ol ^*'«j;".f K^°"„i^;, Dccazes was vi^ ^division in the nunistry, ^^^"'^YSon, and liberal princi- torious over the ultras, m the luw ol elec^n ^ j ^^.^ pies. A new niinirtry was ""^es waTmade president of the Lee 1815. The ^^ « i^ o^rthi^Tn, Nov. 19, 1819 ; Des. ministerial ~»n«l»V*'^!*=\rdrnde™ of the charter, resigned. «,les, St. Cyr and Louis, ^e defenders ot ^^„^^^,„y ^es. Decaxes now became P""?^ ™'" '^^^^^ the cen«.rship of the pecting the construction f ^fP ^J.^"^^;^^^^ were writers Be'=U,'£tSubS'iui, an^d Ficvee for the "X session fn>m 1819 to iSiroTtle^'r^r^^^^^^^^^^^^ ofthe most violent kind; ^*»«2 "rrmnh^r *. Uecazes, pre..- ed in excluding Grogoire ^^^^^^^ ,.*;7J7„,^,rate cou dent of the 'ninistry attemiHed ^J^o..^ ,^,,,o„«, Febru- several judicious bdls. 1" ^ne "i. -..j^j^d. a new law ary 13, 1820, the Duk« ^^ "f/^JL'fp'.'^t and Decazes resign- Vaiele. ^J •tijlii^' their intriffuc* were to cngaf^e the Allina The ministry then party. A loon of 24 tion of the Allied troop* 818, which was deter> a-Chapeiie, October 9, cldima for the oxiicnsea Here wax n successful hcse setthiinents, in the le debt acknowledged by to 1390 millions was payment of these 1390 equivalent to n capital of lis was about a seventh three millions was grant- claims of British subjects. 3r reduced at Aix>la>Cha> d into tlie Quadruple alii ^he prime minister. Rich, ling mode of election, and lonal system, which led to comber, Decazcs was vie- lection, and liberal princi- y Louis XVIII. the third vas made president of the jwn, Nov. 19, 1819 ; Des- I of the charter, resigned. In the controversy res- ■ and the censorship of the d Dunoyer, were writers naU, and Fiovee for the IS one of continued conflict 5 of the royalists succeed- ;hnmher: Decazes, presi- 3w a mf tlujse agitations, Febru- (issassinuted. A new law lost, and Uticazes resign- as president was formed, illy increased their powei r 1822, to the tnlento of ■|JH A. D. 1816 — 1880. — FRANCE. 583 Attempts were made for continuing restrictions of the press, till the close of the s(>sHion of 1820, and to impose further re*, trictions, which met with decided opposition, and ended in the resignation of the ministry, December 17, 1821, when a sixth Ministry was formod in which ultra-royulism was triumphant. The censorship of the press ceased February 6, 1822. A conspiracy in favor of young Na|K)le<)n, was discovered in lS21,and the following year s«!veral revolts were projected in difTercnt garrisons. Villelc, minister of finance, displayed great adroitness in the management of ufTuirs, and was appoint- ed president of the ministry, having great influence over public opinion. The ultras were dissatisfied with his moderation ; he is represented to have perfectly scicn that France could no longer be governed by an alisolute monarchy. The most important events of the session of 1822, were re-lutive to the new tariflf, and the foreign ]Mjlioy in regard to Greece and Spain. The liberal party wercndent upon the state. The greatest eflforts were now made by the ecclesiastics, to regain for the church its former splendor, in spite of the feelings and habits of the people. They wielded their immense power, in the most arbitrary and bigoted manner; but with all their zeal, were un- able to check the diflusion of knowledge — and so far from re- Uirding the marcli of liberty, they hastened the overthrow of despotism und bigotry, and eventually brought on their own downfall. Louis XVIII. died September 16, and was succeeded by his brother, Charles X. We have now hastily sketched the events during the reign of Louis XVIII., enough to show the temper of the French people, and the obnoxious measures which tended to bring about a new revolution in France. Charles X. commenced his reign by a declaration ofhu inten- 584 CUAPTKR XIII. Uoiu of coiifirining tliu churtor. Ho uppuinUtd iia a member of the ininiatorial council, tlio Duke d'Angouleine, und suppre«ed the cenaorahip of the journals, Sept. 29. Ap|)uintud the Ck>unt do Clermont-Tonnere, minuter of war. Viliule gained the cuu> fidcnco of the King, by his prudent nieusuroM, while Chateau, briond proved, in the Journal des I)<;buts, (his paper,) a [wwer. ful and eloquent opponent. In the session of I8i25, Villele was triumphant : a bill granting 1,000,000,000 francs in rents, as an indemnification to the emigrants, proved u source of great dis- satisfaction to the nation, which became uppwMid to the course now pursued. The civil list of the King was established at 26,000,000 francs, annually, for life, tuid thut of the royal fami. ly at 7,000,000. On the 29th May, the splendid coronation of Charles X. took place ut Uheims, at which time he took the oath to govern according tu the charter. In the session of 1826, thirty .one new peers were created to strengtlicn the ministry. In August, 1824, General Lafayette landed in New York, upon an invitation of James Monroe, President of the United States, and was received with the warmest expressions of grati- tude, a nation could bestow ; and passed through the twenty, four states of the union, with more than the splendor of a tri> umphal procession. Me sailed hence, in the Brandywine, a Umted States ship, September 7, 1825, and arrived at Havre, where every demonstration of attachment and respect was shown him. The following particulars respt^cting the " Nation's (xuest," on his return to France, in 1825, cannot fail to be interesting, [t shows that the affectionate and enthusiastic welcome of him by liis countrymen, on his return to France, and portrays the sullen hatred of the Bourbons to every thing that partook of liberty. At Rouen, the " Guest of the American people," the veteran defender of liberty in the two hemispliert^, was honor- ed with a public dinner, accompanied by his family and friends. In the evening, a great concourse of citizens, among whom were many females, repaired to the house of M. Cabanon, where Lafayette appeared on the balcony, and the greatest tranquillity reigned. Notwithstanding the crowd, a serenade, given to the General, was heard with perfect silence. At this juncture there arrived, from two opposite directions, a detachment of the guard royal, and a detachment of gendarmes. The former conduct- ed itself with moderation ; the latter proceeded to dis|)erae the CoeaMe citizens, whose meeting had occasioned no distur- ce, and made a charge upon the populace, treating them as rioters ; when many were thrown down and murdered ; and thn whole assembly was put to flight, by the sabres and bayonets of the gendarmes ; and by them many were arrested. To justify inU'd UM a meniber of Ic'ine, und supprened Ap|M>intu(l tho Count 'illulu ^uinud tho cuii. lusurcs, wiiilu Chutoau. , (hia paper,) u power. in of lH'i5, Villtilo was •0 francs in ronts, as an u sourco of Kruut (lis- 3 uppoMid to tho courao in^ was established at that of tho royal fami> splendid coronation of hic^h tinie ho took the In tlio st-ssion of 1826, n^thcn the ministry, landed in New York, President of tho United lest expressions of grati< Kid through tlie twenty, iui the splendor of a tri* , in tho Brandy wino, a , and arrived at Havre, nt nnd respect was shown ig the " Nation's (iuest," lot fail to be interesting, lusiastic welcome of him ranee, and portrays tho y thing that partook of ) American people," the fiemispheres, was honor- y his family and friends. citizens, among whom »e of M. Cabanon, where I the greatest tranquillity a serenade, given to the !. Atthis juncture there detachment of the guard 8. The former conduct- )roceeded to dis|)erao the id occasioned no distur. >pulace, treating them aa I and murdered ; and the e sabres and bayonets of ere arrested. To justify A. D. 1810—1880. — FRANCK. 585 this proceeding, the Prefect at Rouen issued, in a public journali n note, in which ho said, " That the citizens groaned to see the tranquillity menaccHl by the presence of u man whose sad celeb. rity connects itself with the moat disastrous iieriod of tho Revo. lution !" On the return of Lafayette to Ln Urangi;, the villii;^i ra united in u public fi-stivul on the occasion ; und uddr his weie pre. aented although tho govfjrimient took every up|Mn after, a law against the Jesuits was at. tempted to be passed, und the liU-rty of the press was carried, April 27, 1827. Tho national guards of Paris, 45.000 in num. her, were disbanded, u measure highly obnoxious to the people. This was followed by a rigorous censorshi|> of the press, (June 24, 1827,) which tended still more to irritate tlie state of public feeling against the ministry. The iHipers of tho opposition fre- quently apiieured with wholo colunms blank. A war commenced this year with Algiers, said to have ariaen from a controversy re8|K>cting a debt for corn, purchased for tho French government in 1739. The ministry dissolved the cham. ber which had still three years to run. In the now chamber, a majority was gained by the liberals ; out of 8,000 votes in Paris, only 1114 were on the ministerial side; tho same decided result took place in the different depart/nents. This occasioned great joy in Paris, and led to some disasters : about fifty persons wore killed by the gendarmes. By nn ordinance of November 5, 1827, seventy-six new peers wore created. Of these scarcely any, Soult excepted, were entitled by services, to the honor. Three others were added, Jan. 4, 1828 — these wore Villelo, Peyronnet, and Corbiore. On opening the aeasion, Febn.Hry .5, 1828, Charles X. con- gratulated the nation on tho occasion of tlio victory of Navari- no. In 1828, tho French troops returned from Spain ; and in August, (shortly afterwards,) an expedition was fitted out for the delivery of Greece from Turkish thraldom. The command of the expedition was given to General Muison. The number of troops amounted to 14,000. {Sec Ilevolution in Greece.) The appointments announced, August 0, 1829, were the fol. lowing : Prince Jules do Polignac, minister of foreign affairs ; M. Courvoiaier, keeper of the aeala, and minister of justice ; if 8RB ciurrxR XIII. 1 Count Fldiirmont, miriwUT of war; Admiral Rifi^y, minister of mnriiio; ('omit (l<- In noiirdnnnnyn, ininiBtor of tlw interior; Haron do MorithnI, ministor of prclcniiwtioul uffuira and public inatniction ; Count ('hiihroi d»i Crouwjj, minixtfr of finnnc*'. Admiriil llij^iiy docliiifd the oHi-n-d port folio, which wns g\vin to M. d'HaUHStv/., I'rofcct of th«i (Jirondo. TliiH was an idtra. royalist iniiiintry. liourinont had Ik'ch a aoldifr under Niipo. l«!on, declared lor Louis XVIII. — njjnin took oflicn under Nn|)o> l«!on, and drsertei! hini at tin; battle of Watf-rloo, fli;d to the BourlMiuH at iliiiiit, was elevated to the peerage, and entrusted with the comniati'l of the army ofocTUpation in Hpain, after the return of the Oiikc d'Angouleme. I'riiice Poli^nar was one of the old royalists, anri was early attached to C-'hiirlos X. lie, with his brothers Armnnd, was implicated in I'ieliejrru'M t'otispiracy, and received the pardon of Napoleon. Hinec 1R2H, in- had been amimssador at the Hritish court, and his eiiviition was said to have been through Knp- linh infliunce, more especially that of the Duke of WcHinpton. lie professed a jjreat fonrlness for I'Ingland ; but how«!ver thin may be, certain if is, he was no favorite with the l''rench pec- pie. The niitiister of the interior, La Bourdonnaye, hud disfin- piiished himself for his violence, and active measures for the ul- tras. No sooner wos the ministry formed, than La Bourdonnaye was dis[K)Hed to dissolve- the cbamlKir, n« Villele had done to secure a majority ; trustiii); for success, to the activity of tl»e royalists, and the aid of the clergy. When this hazardous proposition was rejected. La Bourdonnaye resigned, and Polig- nuc was made president of the ministerial council. Baron Mont, bel was tiansfitrred to the deportment of the interior, and Count G. de Rainvillo wns made mmister of ecclesiastical affairs. An ordinance to this effect was issued on the 17th November, 1829. Such was the organization of the ministry at the end of that year. The eflbrtfl of the Bourbons to build up aristocracy and abso- lute monarchy, had failed — their measures having had on oppo- site effiHJt ; and the poverty of the nobles having impaired their former influence, they now followed instead of leading the nation. The French wcrf; now too much enlightened to suffer them- selves to be deprived of tlieir privileges. The country was, nl this time, in o state of prosperity. The struggle that followed, was for the protection of their liberties, and not the result of suffering ond want. This noble regord for the cause of free- dom, gave n«!W glory to France, ,und to liberty, a fresh impulse throughout the world. 1680, March 2. The speech from the throne announced that I a nmmm liirnl Rif^ny, ministfroT liniiitor of thi! interior ; )irul afTuira iinH piihlio , minintrr of finiinc*'. folio, which wild given p. Thii) wiiH nil ultra- n soldirr under Nnpo- took oflico under NniKi- f Wut«rlnnuy(>, had distin- ictive measures for the ul- ned, than La Bourdonnaye '.r, tiH Vill<;le had done to ess, to the activity of the When this hazardous inaye resifpicd, and Polig- !rinl council. Baron Mont- of the interior, and Count 'ecclesiastical aflairs. An the 17th November, 1829. niniatry nt the end of that d up aristocracy and nbao- surcs havinp had an oppo- )ble8 hnvinp impaired their stead of londinfi; the nation, niightened to suffer them- Dfes, The country was, at rhe strupf»le that followed, rties, and not the result of fard for the cause of free- 1 to liberty, a fresh impulse n the throne announced that A. f.. 1815 — 1880. — rsANCE. 687 w»r nnd been cnrnnicrii-ed with Alf^iers, and ende«l with th^ae worda : " I'eora of l-'runee, deputiposition displayed great activity and talents, in this momentous struggle ; and it was soon seen, by men of Intel- ligence, that a change of ministry would be the result. They, however, were determined not to yield, and had the infatuation, rather to violate the charter, and expose France to civil war, than to retire. The King appears to have been blinded by a bigoted priesthood, and the ministers utterly regardless of the sacred rights of the people, expressed by their representatives. In the new chamber 270 were liberals, 145 for ministers, and 15 undecided. In consequence of this result, the ministry made a report to the King, July 20, on the dangers of a free press. In the chamber of deputies, convoked March 2d, then* were 221 members hostile to government, on which account l,he Kbg had prorogued both chambers, and had appointed the 23d of June, and third of July, for the election of now members, to assemble on the third of August. The elections were not all finished, tUI the 19th of July ; before which time, it was sufliciently appa- *»I«,«U,ON. t «I,Sr4,iro. t •8,008,030 ■(■njl, I :'!i A. D. 1630. FRANCE. 589 jd his ministry in the oruble majority in the jinied ; for though the ■ing the election, it did ity being elected. tourmont, consisting of ccd on the 10th of May, vessels, of wiiich eleven Oa the 14th of June, ''crrujii, on the African month, Algiers surren- Paris on the 9th of July, lisurc found in Algiers noncy, and 10,000,000 f sides about 25,000,000 i itly in the Journal du Bsful issue of the French V return to our narrativ« h arms in Africa, occa- it did not diven the pub- [ainst a detested ministry. I7th of May, by a royal , ; and the two chambers took place in June and it activity and talents, in loon seen, by men of intel- ild be the result. They, , and had the infatuation, pose France to civil war, have been blinded by a utterly regardless of the by their representatives. lis, 145 for ministers, and I result, the ministry made dangers of a free prem. id March 2d, therp were tn which account t,he Kmg I appointed the 23d of June, low members, to assemble IS were not all finished, till , it was sufficiently appa. t«8,0M,SM rent, how the elections would terminate. When the list was completed, tl«5 opposition, was found to have increased from 221. to 270. It will now be seen, how affairs stood in France between tno crown and the people : the ministry represented the former, and the chamber ol deputies the latter. The ministers whow auty it was to have withdrawn, resolved upon the mad project of iictting the voice of the nation, and the constitutional chartei at defiance ; in other words, of annulling the late elections. Tliis plan seems to have been arranged about the middle of July. It was subsequently stated on the trial of ministers, that these measures were concerted between the 10th and 15th of that month. M. Montbel in a pampliiet which he has published, says. the ordinances were presented to the King, in a council hold on the 21st. They were signed at the next council held on Sunday the 25th, the day previous to their public appearance. The report made to the King, signed by seven ministers and published at the same time with the ordinances, was intended to justify themselves for the course they had resolved upon. In this flimsy document they called for the suspension of the press, remarking, " At all epochs, the periodical press has only been, and from its nature must ever be, an uistrumcnt of disorder and sedition." By the first ordinance, the liberty of the press was suspended. By the second ordinance the chamber of deputies was dissolved. And a third ordinance abrogated the existing law of election itself, reducing the number of members from 430 to 258, and sweeping off three-fourths of the former constituency, abolishing the ballot and nearly extinguishing the representative system. In defiance of these ordinances, the conductors of all the liberal journals determined to publish their papers. The only papers allowed by government to appear were the Mooiteur Universal, Quotidienne, Gazette de France, and Dra- peau blanc. The seizure of the liberal journals on the morning of the 27th July, was the commencement of the revolutionary drama. These ordinances were nothing less than a determi. nation on the part of the crown to deprive the nation of its liberty, and to establish despotism. The audacious attempt however failed. Had the French ministry succeeded in silencing the pi-ess, and bringing the representation to a state of subser. viency, they might for u time perhaps have succeeded in their mad projects. Nothing shov.s more strikingly the rashness and entire want of discernment of the ministry, at the time of which we are speaking, than the issumg of orchnances ao obnoxious, without even anticipating resistance of any kind, much leM • resolution. Of j*»* '%. W""- '"Hi-)'.. i^if CHAPTEB X»l« Chautelauze, and Montbel, at the . corning. Aa nmnuscript for P^bUcation on thejo^ .Jerked, he ^enied Lavo glanced over the con en^j^M«mDe^^ ^^ L w^U " At an early hour o^/Jj'J/CnTteul and Bulletin obnoxious oi---t,;Ttc Seine -^ -tounded at seemg dc9 Lois. The prefect of tc»e ^^j^^^j^^ any thing of them, about 5 o'clock, no J'^^^J ^/ J pear to have had any the kind, nor does M^"^,^/^^^^^^^^ he received knowledge of these "[^^^^^^V Komiero^vski, one of his aids of the fatal ordinance was by ^ exclaimed that it wh le he was breakfastmg at bt- » ^^ ^^^^ was not possible the report could be ^J" ^iU his arrival he set out for Paris, not ^avng ^,^" \^^2 where he met his ?„ the city. He then w nt to tl^ ns^.^^ .. ^^''"1^1 friend M. Arago--" Well, ^J^ " the fools have driven things are proceeding «« ^ ^^"^J J^^^y [o mourn in your capa- matters to extremities, ^ou have y ^^^^ ^^^,^ ^^, dty of a citizen and a good Fj-*J ^,,1 ^haps be obliged caLhave I to lamcn , who^^J^ J ^ ^^hor, and for people irerESg^-Sestudiedonlyhowtooverwhelm Uc : this however ^^ J^ '^oJ^ment. For severa hou« read by those connected witn b^Ji , r^>^^^ class who first To unusual excitement wa^m^f^Btejl. 1^^^^ ^^^ted, that at ?elt its effects were he JO«jf;„, ^ere engaged in printing this period thirty thousand P^!f°"' wasTo throw them out T?Ir^. The «ffec^,:^tdutoro? journals repres^^cl ^^ them, they must go -"d^"fVilp?ayed great courage : seeing the oaliste, on this emf ge^^y. d«playej g ^^ ^ ^^ ordinakces would be rumous to J^e'' ° ^' publishing second Xthey fearlessly ^t them aUefianc^^^^^^ p^ ^^^^^ elitions of their P^f'^' ^^^„'^""lt five o'clock, the prefect of them more ge^^f'^^^L'^Snction to the printing offices, to police, Mangin, issued ^^^^^^^^ ^ ;„ conformity to the new „ fatal ordinancea were listers, and ut 11 P. M. initeur, received from le of the former, the [lowing morning. As il remarked, he seenM^d the King, God save e answered, "we hope rnoming the 26th, the Moniteur, and Bulletin vaa astounded at seeing prehended any thing of ippear to have had any t intimation he received irowski, one of his aids. He exclaimed that it uc. At half past seven, newspaper till his arrival (Stitute where he met his him, " you perceive that n ; the fools have driven y to mourn in your capa- uu : but how much greater ier shall perhaps be obliged Il I abhor, and for people led only how to overwhelm r in Paris, among the pub- Mraiiteur being principally iment. For several hours ;ed. That class who first It has been stated, that at were engaged in printing ices was to throw them out of journals represented to »nger any employment for jir good King. The jour- , great courage : seeing the business, and destroy their fiance, by publishing second lilernoon, m order to make five o'clock, the prefect of to the printing offices, to )t in conformity to the new [nation to ba circulated and FRENCH REVOLUTION, MONDAY, JULY 26, 1830. 591 pained on the walls with tlie penalties to the keepers of reading rooms, &c. The journalists assembled and drew up in great haste an •iddrcss to tlieir countrymen ; tliis was signed and published. It was u noble display of courage and patriotism : they stated, " as they were first called on to obey, so they ought to give the llrst example of resistance to authority, now that it had stri|>|)ed itself of tiie character of law. This day, the government lias violated all law, we are set free from obedience ;" and declared tiiuir determination to publish their journals, regardless of the ordinances. " We will do our cndoiivors, that for one day more, at least, th^jy may be circulated over all Fruiicc. It be- longs not to us to point out its duties to the chamber, which has been illegally dissolved. But we may supplicate it in the name of France, to take its stand on its manifest rights, and resist, us far as it shall have the power, the violation of the laws. Its rights are equally cei-tain, with those on which we ourselves rest. The charter (article 50,) says the King may dissolve the chamber of deputies, but for that power to be exercised, the chamber must have met and been constituted — nay, must surely have done something to warrant its dissolution. Before the chamber has met and been constituted, there is no chamber to dissolve. There are only elections to annul ; now no passage \n the charter gives the King the right of doing this. The ordi- nances which have this day appeared, do only in fact annul the elections, and are therefore illegal ; as doing that which the charter does not authorize. " We assume the attitude of resistance in so far as we are ourselves concerned ; it belongs to France to consider to what extent she will adopt the same course." This address was signed with the names of forty-four of the journalists. In the mean time, the agitation had already begun in the streets ; the crowd assembled at the Palais Royal, to hear the papers and news discussitd, was continually increasing, till their increased numbers, and violence of language, alarmed the authorities, who sent a party of gendarmes to watch over them. By 3 o'clock in the afiemoon, the crowd spread from the square of the palace, to the adjoining streets. They then began to assail the gendarmes, who kept their stations, making as yet no attempt to drive the people back. About 8 o'clock, there was a gi«at addition to the crowd about the Palais from the printing and manufacturing establish- ments. Their masters, in dismissing their hands, afler their day's work, had notified them they should have no further em- ployment for them. Here then was a great addition of nteu '"/"\2 his carriage, he was purpose to intercept ""»/. !^"' "^er the escort of two gen- Lablcd to return w.thout .njury, unde t ^^^^^^^ ^^ d^rmcs. The windows of h.s hotu ^^^^ court, the carriage assailed w,th «r«^- Aj^r^emente to set fire to his mob threatened to return withremjorce^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ hotel. During the ™g*'\'.^f,t, eSguished, and the windows did not return tUl late to St- ^'oud. ^^ ^^^.^^ ^j,^ g Tlie whole effective ^f''Pj'''J\^^ovd\mnces, was 11,550 day previous to the pfj— ^° ^J^so „en of this number, men, 8 cannon, and 4 howitzers ^^.^^^^ ^^ ^^^ p^^^s includes the guards «^d gendarmes aa.y ^^^^^ ^^^^ S the Capital, St. Cloud, ''f J»^^Vhrdlpo^We force, there- all seized'and disarmed m detail. J^ he msp ^^^ ^^^^^^^ ,^^^ fore, did not at most «''«^^«d, »'J^? ^ " , and a few artillery, three regiments of S^^rds, two ol cavairy, ^^^^^ ^^^^ 4,200, were all that ^^^^^go^iSy beR^^ besides, 1000 ««^valry, and 300 in W^ s^^^ ^^ ^ ^ Versailles, and St. Germam, buUjiese we ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^ staff officer of the g"«^'-<^«' ^t ^^^^Sken a fortnight previous, Tatedifsuitable precaution had b«e„t^enat^ ^^g^ P^.^^ ^^ that it would have ^«" ry;°^"„lfS Paris, forty thousand men, with ^^y /=^"°°;,'" x several of the jour. On the morning of th« ^.^t^ (l"«^^y j^^^ ^^re the jour- nals were printed and ^^'^^ «**,'. f^i^The ConstUtUionel ialists to discharge their duty otl^^^ K papeL by the police was prevented from the distribution rt^ts p pe J^^^ ^^^ haviSg stationed a ^^ftfj.^lJZj\TM-^ at an ear.y SSrJld^'^Si^rr ^^ wS- amig the people, and resistance, which was eople, drawn together ,ed with loud cries or down with the nunw lops were now dosed. ,pon the crowd in tne , clearing it, without ceded to the hotel of , Capuchins, who was his fact, many went on 2 his carriage, he was the escort of two gen- were broken, and his entered the court, the mente to set fire to his ™ several of the streets .ished, and the windows I these acts sufficiently aw. This day the King Mse at Ranibouillet, and ationed at Paris, the Sun- , ordinances, was !!,&&" 50 men of this number, Iv stationed at the posts aces near. These were e disposable force, there- J, and of this number, uut airy, and a few artillery, »ded upon. There were ■y, belonging to St. Cloud, e were never engaged. A ngaged during the conflict, ; taken a fortnight previous, assembled from thirty to 1, in Paris. . •sday) several of the jour- determined were the jour- public. T\ie ConstUuttonel l( its papers by the police door of the office. The „. were printed at an early ,W8 among the people, and ji' "?^ Street fighting before the Church of St. Roch, July 2Sth, 1830. Place du Chatelet, July 28, 1S30. P. 596, II FRENCH KEVOLUTION, TUESDAY, JULY 27, 1830. 693 St. Roch, P. 596, rapidly tlispcraed through the city. These papers contained the oidinances, and the noble protests of the journiilists. The autiiorities commenced their operations against tiie printing oilices that had set the ordinances at defiance, and part of lliuir printing presses were taken away, so ns to rundor tliem useless. The National distributed to the crowd 7,000 copies in less tiian an liour. Thus far the journalists hud manfully discharg(Ml tiieir duty. This day a considerable number of the newly elected members of the chamber of deputies assembled at iJ P. M. at the house of M. Casimir Perrier ; when a protest was drawn up and signed. The King this morning appointed Marshal Marmont, com- mander in chief of the forces in Paris. He immediately esta- blished his head quarters at the Tuileries. At half past four, an order was issued at the barracks for several regiments to march to difTerent stations. One battalion of guards, and two pieces of artillery, were stationed on the Boulevard des Capu- chins, in front of Polignac's hotel, the interior of which was protected with soldiers of the 5th regiment of the line. A squadron of lancers protected this part of the Boulevard. Several battalions of the line occupied the portion of the Boule- vards from the [ion-: St. Martin towards the place de la Bastilo, and also the place Vendome. Three battalions of the guard were placed in the Carrousel, and the place of the Palais Royal: and two battalions of the guards, with two cannon, were sta> tioned in the jjlace Louis XV. While these dispositions of the troops were making, the streets were filled with the multitude, as yet unarmed : they now began to supply themselves with arms from the shops of gunsmitha; and were soon in actual conflict with the military. The battalions of the regiments of the line, stationed in front of the Palais Royal, were received by the crowd with cries of, " the line forever, the line does not fire, the line is on our side." Both men and officers, were averse to firing upon the people. But the guards considered themselves obliged to remain faithful to the government. The mob had already begun in several instances to attack the soldiers with stones, and every kind of missile : these they carried to the upper stories, and roofs of houses, and hurled them on the soldiers beneath. They now began to barricade the streets, and thus sheltered, they were enabled to oppose the patroles. This night the remaining lamps were demolished, a judicious precaution p\A not proceeding from mere wantonness ; as it enabled th ,m to erect barricades during^ the night, and rendered their opeiations more secure from the vigilaoca of the nuli> 38 M: hi 504 CHa]>TER xiii. tnry. Marshal Marmont hud written to the Kin^, informing him that public tranquillity was restored, and therefore made no preparations during tho iiifjht, nor sent dispatches for more troops. He did not even guard tho great depots of arms and ammunition. During the nigiit, tho greatest activity prevailed on tlu! part of the people. 'J'lxs inhabitants were enrolled into bands, and arrangements made for supplying them with muskets, ammu- nition, tXic. The ttilegraphs had been rendered usi)8, windows, and (|uays along tho Scini,'. Tiio r(;st of the eolinnn coming up to their assistance, tho place was taken. The; guards had no sooner taken their position, than they learniMJ witii deep conster- I'Ution that a battalion of tin; IM\ light infantry station<;il along tlio(piays had revolted. The general in couimand of the guards was soon apprised of this, hy th(! filling of his men. Tlu^tiuai do Citi was lilled with sharpshooters of tin; insurgents, who pro- tccted by the presence of the ITnli regiment, k(,'pt up a continued fire upon the guards in the place. By this time tin; r»(Hh regiment, statiomsd in the morning at the Boulevards, and afterwards marched to tho place do (Jnjve, determined to lay down thcur arms : they wishinl to return to their barracks, but finding these wi;re already in |)ossession of the people, they joiiM.'d 40 cuirassiers, then departing from tho Bastile, for tlv; Hotel do Ville. Tho latter had many dillicultics to encounter, marching through back streets, and at length reached tho Motel, but the 50th regiment took no part in the fighting, by which the cuiraasiers made their way. On their arrival nt tho Hotel do Ville, the ollicer commanding the guards wasapprisetl that he could not depend on receiving the reinlurco- ment from the Bastile, as he fully expected ; and what rendered hia situation more trying, his cartridges were now about spent. Two detachments were sent in (piost of ammunition, but did not return. A message succeeded in gaining the Tuileries ; this was by a party of cuirassiers ; 200 Swiss were sent to the jilace de Grove ; when they arrived there, the guards 220 strong, had been engaged five hours, and hnd forty men hors de combat, (about 5 o'clock,) and had gained an entrance, with a part of their forces, into the Hotel de Ville. The populace having now returned, the cavalry and artillery sheltered themselves in the stable yards from the severe fire, directed against them, from the opposite bank of the river. The 50th regiment was also protected in the inner court of the Hotel. The hardest fighting yet, had been at the entry of Rue du Mouton, a street that opens into the place de Grove, from th« north. When the troops had established themselves in the place tiii^ to tlic guim, and a (If'stnictioii. Tliib idriiw ; liur wliili! so lit killi'il. Till' ciiii. is8(h1 ()V(;r and occu. till! iiortli sido of tho ittt'in|iti'il tu |)as.i the ' (ircvc, wlicri! tln;y li(ins(;-ti>i)8, windows, ic coliinm coining up TIk; i^iiiirdii had no •d with d<'c|) coiustf^r- iiitry statii»n(;d aloii^ iiiiiiand (j|'tli(!i;iiards hit) men. Tlirtiuai insui'gciits, will) i)ro- , kept up a continued (!(l in tlie morning at tho place do (Jnjvu, wished to n^turn to ady in |)o39esMion of 1 departing from tlio had many dilliciiltica reels, and at length took no part in tho lieir way. On their ninanding the gniirds cc'iving the reinl'iM-cc. ; and what rendered ;rc now about spent, imunition, but did not g the Tuileries ; tiiis were sent to the place uards 220 strong, had men horn de combat, ance, with a part of populace having now wl themselves in the d against them, from h regiment was also the entry of Rue du e de Greve, from the lemselvcs in the place ii rRKMi-H RKVOMJTUIN, WEDNESDAV, JULY 2fl, 1830. 697 do («reve, a aevert! lire wan kept up against them fron". both anglis of the street, iiinl iVom behind a liarricaile there thrown up, hut which was sokii taken an< T? 4 rm rllAHTKB XIII of thih m(S!»(ij((' to tlir ministers. The ri'|)lv of !VI. Polijnino was, It WHS iiscli'ss for liiiii to sim- tlicin. 'rliuy iiniiu'diutflv witlldnW. Iillfltti', the ehiel" Hpeuker, Saill, (he (|liestioil Could oalv he decided liy the cliiiiiee of iiniis; and h('n(;eforward, tlio deputies deterinilied to e\irt thi.'lliselves ill the rev0 — tliouj^h another stati-inent makes tlu; numher much lii;,'her, th(!8o thuy carried with them. The peojile had f;enerally lell the str(>(!t.s and windows, durin<| the nijjht. Tlu! troojis at length reached the Tuileries, without any obstruction except a barricade they had to take down, to get their cannuii along: this made aonm noise, and occasioned some shots to be fired about them. In the Boulevard St. Denis, a great crowd had assembh^d at an early hour, and among these was sc.cu the uniform of the national guard. This crowd was not generally armed with muskets. About S o'clock, n detnchrnent of cuirassiers made a charge ujioii the crowd, ut full gallop. They were then en- gaged in tearing up the pavement, and carrying the stones to the top of the Port St. Denis. TImy stood firm, aixl with long poles threw the ciiirassic^rs from th(ar saddles at the first oncoun- ter, and simzihI their arms, sufTering none to esca|)e. With these new equipments, the oirensive was now assumed by them. At 9, a guard of 20 soldiers of the lino surrendered their arms; ly of ^f. P.)li;rnno Tlicy iiniiicdiuti'ly ln' (|iicstioii r.imUl liiiicclorwiinl, tliii till- ri'voliitioimry iiiiiiid.'itioii. • |p|!ic(: i|i> (ircvi', lli'l', IiIkI till) IIIONt • •lit ju(lj,'m<'nt iif ■very (ulvaiitii;;f to • I li'iidcrx iHiMSfSHcd or did they shrink ,' <'ould In- <,'nini'd ill mind, that this 'St o|>|)rcs.siv(; hciit, trn of mnny diiriiif^ in coniincinoration, I'd in carts and lit- Morgue, uinidst tho n |>(is.si'.vsion of tho i;,' fiirthi'r reinforce. it it. 'I'hey accord, of the nii,dit, to the ween rd) and (JO — nher much lii;,'lier, ! liatl };<'iicraily loll lit. 'I'ho troops at obstruction except heir cannon along: 10 shots to bo (ircd *'(! had assembled at the uniform of tho nerally armed with uf cuirassiers made 'hey were then en- rying tho stones to firm, and with long at tlu! first )»ncoun. iscai)c. With those med by them. At ndorod their arms; r tf, I ^irrW' PRRNCII RRVOLUTION, WEDNKSPAV, JULY 28, 1830. r>09 lliir guard-house was ilemoliMhcil, and ul'the materials, a bairi* cade was consti'ucted across the liouleviird. A t'urious t'licuun- tor to(»k place with tho guards, at tho gate, wlioro stuiioH woro hurled, anil a brisk fire kept up. 'I'lie pi'ojile now coiiniK'iKU'd encting barricades on a groat scale, alon;; tlic- HouK-vard, at the suggestion of Ambrose Meno- rot, a carjienter : lor this |»urpose, tho line trees, planted by Louis tho Grand, wore levelled by tho axo. It was done with expedition /md gnsat science, luidisr the direction of Menoret, who su|ipli(!d tlieui with tools from his shop. This was a most fortunate iili;a. 'i'liesi; barriers were so numerous, as to bo insuimount'ible, and cut olf all communication with the troops, 'i'his line of barricades extended from the Hue du 'I'emple, in iho east, to the lliio do llicbelieu, west. An eminent architect, Mr. Crecy, had a large cpiantity of timbi'r, scallbld poles, pick-axes, crow. bars, iVc. carried away ; all thcso woro utlorwards returned with scrupulous exactness. From a subsequent report, it appears that during tho revo- lutiouary struggle, 405.') barricades were thrown up, consisting of trees IoUcmI, carriages of every description overturned, anil the ])avi,'ments tak(;ti up. The number of paving stoiiv's torn up, for this |nirpose', were :),r2>'3,OOU. Tho expense of paving tiic streets again, was '2.')0,0()0 francs. Paris is i)av(!d with large squari! stones. Tho gutters are in the middh; of the streets, and they flowed with blood during these sanguinary conflicts. The immeiisiv importance of these numerous barricades, thrown up with such unparalleled rapidity, will he best illus- trated by tho following details. A strong column arrived at the Bastile, and began to firo upon tho piople ; these discharges were kojjt up without intermission, and returned by the people, who were forced to retire; and were pursui-d by the troops, as far as tho Iluo do Reuilly, which meets the Rue du Faubourg, St. Antoine. Hero the troo|is W(;ro again assailed with a sharp firo, and had several barricades to overcome. Tho column remained in tho Iluo Faubourg St. Antoine, till half |)ast three, and when about to retire, were again luaailod with firing, and missiles from the houses. On the return of this body of troops to tho Bastile, tho commander, M. St. Chamans, found he could not return by tho nortlujrn Boulevards,* from tho numerous bar- •The totiil number of streets in Paris, oxolusivo of Cu/»(/e Sac, are 1142, mostly narrow. The 18 Boulevards are broad strei-ts, planted on both sides with trees, and furmini; bcautifid promenades. Those outside of tho walls are called the exterior Boulevards. The interior Boulevards are divided into tiie old, or northern, and the now, or southern, and are of great length, with ninny streets running into them.— fine. Am. Vol. IX. p 534, a work from which we have derived ;nany imjiortant facts m 600 CHAPTER XIII. ricadcs, that had risen as if by magic. The attempt to force a passage to the Hotel do Ville, by the Rue St. Antoine, also failed, from tlie same cause ; while the troops were exposed to a heavy fire from all the windows, and their ammunition was now exhausted. Under all tlicso dangers, M. St. Cliamans returned as well as he could, with his column, over the bridge of Austerlitz, and by a circuitous way to the Tuilories, by the soutiiern Boulevards. The column arrived at the place Louis XV. between 10 and 11 at night. After this, no more troopt were seen in the place de la Bastile or neigh borhood. The 28th closed with the retirement of the royal forces froir every position in which they had attempted to establish them, selves during the day. During the niglit, the citizens did not cease from their exertions, but availed themselves of this respite, to complete the erection of barricades, in every part of the city. In this great wot a, all ranks of citizens, tiie aged and the young, were alike ardently employed. These barriers were erected at about forty or fifty paces asunder, breast high, and four or five feet in thickness, the work was carried on by torch light, the lamps having been broken. The dreadful tocsin con- tinued ringing during the night. In the vicinity of the Louvre, and the Tuileries, a patrol of guards, continued to walk during the night, and fired upon all who came within reach of their muskets. Thureday, 29th, the drums beat the reveille, and the hurrying crowds as they assembled, cried, " To arms, to arms .'" Several distinguished military characters, were this day to act as lead- ers. Among them were Generals Gerard and Dubourg. The entire failure of the plans of Marmont had induced him to adopt this day a different mode of warfare. Instead of marching his troops through the streets to no purpose, he had sent for further reinforcements, and now intended to concentrate all his strength in the Tuileries, and keep up a communication with St. Cloud. The following places were in possession of the royal troops, this morning : the Tuileries, Carrousel and Garden, the Louvre, the Bank, and Palais Royal, place Vendome, the Champs Elysees, Rue St. Honore, and several streets. There was an addition to the royal forces of 6,700 men, that had arrived since yesterday, so that the total number of the guards amounted to 11 battalions of infantry, and I'S squadrons of cavalry, in all 4,300 men. The eight battalions of the line, amounting to 2,400, were of no service to the royal cause- one battalion of guards occupied the military school. It will be seen that the military were this day to be put on the defen- sive : It remained therefore with the popular forces, to make the 11 «.*-•***.. ---,-..«-. • Vmi e attempt to force a ie St. Antoine, also ps were exposed to cir ammunition was 3, M. St. Ciiamans iTin, over the bridge he Tuileries, by the 1 at the place Louis his, no more troopi ;h boriiood, le royal forces fron- I to establish them, the citizens did not jelves of this respite, I every part of the zens, the aged and These barriers were er, breast high, and carried on by torch dreadful tocsin con- inity of the Louvre, iiued to walk during ithin reach of their lie, and the hurrying , to arms .'" Several day to act as lead- and Dubourg. The induced him to adopt jad of marching his had sent for further trate all his strength tion with St. Cloud, he royal troops, this den, the Louvre, the lie Champs Elysees, I of 6,700 men, that total number of the ■y, and I'S squadrons attalions of the line, the royal cause— ;ary school. It will e put on the defen- r forces, to make the FRENCH REVOLUTION, THWRSDAV, JULY '29, 1830. GDI attack, who were this day strengthened by the students of the cclebratfid Polytechnic school, alKuit fiO of wliom scaled ih« walls, and headed the civic columns by whom tlioy were hailed witli the greatest entliusiasm. The bands from the Faubourgs had poured into the Rue St. Honore, by its east(;rn extremity, and a fioce and niurdcrous warfare was carried on, and here, tiic Poiyteciinic scholars led the citizens to tlie charge. TIk; battle began to ragn fiercely at several points near Rue St. Honore. But before any important engagement had occurred, to decide the fate of the day, tiie d<;rection of troops occupying important stations, led to important results. About half past eleven, the troops of the line, at the ))Iace Vendome, and the Palais Bourbon, negotiated witli the leaders of the populace, when new barriers rose in all directions round these stations. The 5th and 53d regiments of tlie line, stationed in the place Vendome, fraternized with tiio people : this ceremony was per- formed by taking off their bayonets, and shouldering their muskets, with the butts in the air. Marslial Marmont was immediately api)rized of the defection of tlie troO(m, and sent a battalion of Swiss guards from the Louvre, to supply their posts. By some strange oversight, the battalion was withdrawn, that defended the whole position, the Colonnade and gallery of the Louvre. The populace soon found their way into the garden, called L'Enfant, in front of the Louvre, and there meet- ing with no obstacles, entered the lower windows, and glass doors, and took immediate possession of the interior of this noble pile. From the windows of the inner court the Parisians fired upon the battalion beneath, and soon every wio cannon shot were fired on the Parisians. The Swiss iri-ni (1 af,'nin, but only to retire iuimetliately, by order of Ihe Murslia , upon St. Cloud. Thus terminated the capture ot Ihe Louv.o and tin; 'J'uilories. In tliia attack on the Louvre, tlie strongest column was com- manded i)y Ceiieral (Jcrard ; while the pupils of the Polyteciimc school served under him, advancing at the head of their respec- live f;onipani(;s. !t was one of these youths tiuit led the attack on one of its gates and drove it in, when the forces rushed ini- petiiously on tiie guards. Many interesting facts are related, allowing the courage and noble hearing of these youths, whose services w(M-e so conspicuous during the revolution. It was about 1 o'clock when the Tuileries were captured. In the famous gallery of the Louvre, the splendid coronation picture of Charles X. with another painting, was instantly destroyed. The rest of this precious collection of paintings was left im- touched. This fact reflects the highest honor on the Parisian multitude. No sooner was the palace of the Tuileries in pos- session of the populace, than every thing relating to the Hour- bons met with iiimKuliate destruction. A splendid painting of the Duke of Ilagusa, (Marmout,) was torn into a thousand pieces, and every bust and painting of the royal family destroyed with the e.\e(!i)tion of a bust of Louis XVIII., to whom France, was indebted for the charter. Upon the whole, the populace, even to the poorest of the working classes, displayed a remark able degree of forbearance from pillage when in possession of the riches of the royal pahice. The Swiss barracks, in the Rue Babylone, had been taken possession of hvs — whose interests, language, and manners, were widely opposed to the Dutch, and whoso language was disagree, able to the Belgians, who have much the habits anicki ting them to combat, and that Chlopicki was at whoever should crosa pt to raise the old pro. Such an order might havn bonn issued in respect to Pruftsian and Austrian Poland; lull not to those provinceH that had risen t<> shake olF the Rui- siiui yoke, and Lithuania, wiiere the revolt had iMigun, and whoro thousanils impatiently waitt-d the signal from old Poland, to ri»< and join tlii! struggle for liberty. 'Phis order of Chlopicki was i.gardrd by tin; patriots, not only as a scsvere ch of the Polish army woa at Biala, the right near the high road to Warsaw, the left at Lomeza on the Narew. On the advance of the Russians, the Polish corps fcll back, tho right on Warsaw, and the left on Modlin and Pul- tusk. On the 18th of February, the Russian head.quarters were csttiblishcd at Minsk, ten miles from Warsaw, and their advance pushed to Melisna, within five miles of that city. Tho Russian left rested on the \'istula al)Ove Warsaw, ami the right on the Bug near its junction with the Nurew, its centre protected with woods and artillery. On the 18th, the Polish army of 50,000 men had its right on Grokow, with Praga in the rear, and the left thrown back oppo- ■he the right wing of the enemy. \f ID i" 612 ClIAPTKR XIII. The n!CoiiiiuiiMaiic('i« uf llir IDtli iiiul 'iOtli, wero nsisU.d by the ('oica und led to ii suvi-rc battle. Accordin); tit tin; lUiMiuc Ui't'ount, tlio Ileal of tliu battle wan diiriii}{ the early part uf the duy confined to the lel\, ('omit I'ahleii'H advanced ^aiard, whieh waa attacked oa soon ua it had chared the defile iieur (irokow, und compelled to retreat two iiiilea. Tho advanced f{uai(l, (iiuiur General Uuaon, waa attacked at tin; aaine time, advaiuiiig from Okanief. On tin? arrival of Diebilseh, he miit a reinforce, iiient mider (Jeneral Toll, with aeveral lialtalioiiM and '-iOeaniion, to tho ridief of Count Pahleii. A furious eharj^i! was now iiiado iiy the KuHHiaiiH, with Diebitsrh in perHoii, which ehan^'ed the fortune of tho day, and at 1 o'clock thi; Rutisiaii v/\u\is united, when the I'oica were driven from the Held of iMittli!. Korthn^o days after thia action the lluiwiaiis made no onward iiioveiiient, but naked un armistice for tin; burial of the dead, which wn* granted. Pearly on the 25th, the Ilussians having received a reiiifoirn- ment of 25,000 men, felt i)rej)ared for action. They drew forth their whole army in front of the forest, and cominenced an attack on tho Polish left wing, near Jublonnn. (JenernI Uminaki received thia attack with great bravery, and n pulsed the enemy, taking six cannon, which he spiked, and drove tho Ruaaiana to tho forest. He then attacked the Russian eeiitro with dreaufu! slaughter, and drove them from their position. Diebitach had calculated, with the great strength of his N-ft wing, to crush the Polish right, situatid near tJrokow, under the command of Chlopicki and Skrzynecki. The Ilussians made six tremendous charges, and were as often repulsed with great loss ; a seventh charg*; made against a new regiment, put it in disorder, and caused it partially to retreat. Two regiments of cuirns8i(!re were then sent against the faltering regiments : the latter l)eing aided witli the Polish Inncers, rallied, rushed on the regiments of cuirassiers, and cut them to pieces, of which only forty escnjKjd, twenty prisoners only being taken, mostly officers, and among them the commander of one of these regiments. Thia aflair decided the day, when the Russians wr-re obliged to withdraw from the field of battle into their strong holds in tho foreat of Milosna. This battle waa fought with great fury. General Chlopicki, who was in the centre, had two horses killed under him, and was wounded. Forty thounand Poles here withstood the shock of one hundred and fifty thou- sand of their enemy ; and at the close of the battle, nearly 15,000 Russians lay weltering on the plain, and several thouaand prisoners were taken. After the battle. Prince Radzvil gave up the command of the Ill, wi;ro rcsiated by idill^' to tin- UU!«IUK le curly imil of tlie iincnl j{uaril, wliinh le(il<' iK-'ir (irukow, u advanced ){imi'(■ -vt-i^ii if- m- REVOLUTION IN POLAND. 617 ous battle of Ostro- of Ostrolenka waa y over the Ruasmns en. ill, died suddenly a>. quarters of the Run- )rt time previous to listinguishcd himself lerwards, the Arch e campaign against fictitious celebrity ; ime by a handful of itoward war against ided to posterity as a the laughing stock lussia has since been in the height of her ;ngth, was about to breaking out of the employment nearer ' the revolution, had iment, and possessed it soldiers, the over- lia might have been ! of 8,000 men into i for a time success- iina, and forced to of the corps of Giel- , passed over into the vas shot by a Polish mia at Olitta, about he insurgents. The to retreat — he forced i safely in Warsaw, eralship. dmely discovered in loners, thirteen thou- ted officers attempted or the Russians. It isoners having been jlied with arms ; and vas to be blown up, when a general attack was to be made on the citizens and national guard. General Janowski, one of tlie traitors, to save himself, made the discovery of this horrid conspiracy just in time to save Warsaw. • On the 14th July, General Ghrzanski was attacked by Gene- ral Rudigor's coii)s. on this side of Minsk, live miles from War- saw ; when the Russians were defeated and forced to retreat, iiaving 3,000 men killed, 900 prisoners taken, and 1000 muskets. On tiic 12th, tlic main army of Puskcwitcli was encamped be- tween Sisno and Kikal, and on the same day a great part of it passed the Vistula between Warsaw and tiie Prussian frontier, having received from Thorn a great number of barges and materials for bridges. The Prussians, to facilitate the passing of th^ Russians, had constructed a bridge over the Vistula at Drewenca. On the 13th of August, General Skryznecki resigned the command of the army to General Dembinski, compelled, by the force of circumstances, to do so, in order that faction might have no further pretext to injure his country. His letter of resignation on this occasion, is full of generous devotion to the cause of his country. The patriotic club, irritated with the measures of government and dissatisfied at not seeing General Janowski condemned, determined to take violent measures. To these acts they were instigated by the base Krukowiecki On the 15th August, at 8 A. M. the club foimally demanded that Skryznecki should be ordered to Warsaw. They then pro- ceeded to the castle, that was protected by 200 of the national guard, who made scarcely any resistance. On the same day, the patriotic club demanded the death of Janowski ; and on the 16th, the state prisoners concerned in the conspiracy for a counter-revolution, were murdered in their rooms by the clubists. Thirty-five persoas were thus put to death without ceremony ; among them were Generals Janowski, Bulkowski, Hurtig, Salacki, and Benthouski, the Russian chamberlain, Fus- liane, &c. During the night. General Krukowiecki was appomted governor of the city. He sent for a reinforcement, and his first measures were to put a stop to these horrors. August 17th, the government was dissolved, and Krukowiecki was placed at the head of the new government, with very extended powers. He caused the arrest of the president and ten of the club, and appointed General Prondzynski to the chief command m the army. From the time that Krukowiecki came into power, he took measures to deliver Warsaw to the Russians, and made every 618 ■'I.^Th CHAPTEK Xtll. attempt to induce the diet to demand an amnesty, and sent the main part of the Polish urmy to the ri^ht side of tiie Vistula, when the tiiunder of the Russian artillery was breaking over the devoted cil^. The proposals of Krukowiecki were repelled by the diet with indignation, who declared to the suspicious deputies, " rather will we die here in our places than stain the honor ot our country." The traitor was deposed at midnight d a new governor of the city named, which gave new vigor ir the famt- in? defenders of Warsaw. On the 6th of S(3ptemher, at daybreak, the Russian army of 100,000 men and 300 pieces of cannon, advanced to storm War- saw, which was defended with great heroism. On the 8tli, aftei two days hard fighting, it surrendered to Field Marshal Paske- witch. The Russians had 20,000 slain in storming Waraaw. The Poles lost about half that number in its defence. The government and the most distinguished citizens retired with the main body of the army, under the new commander in chief, Rybinski, upon Modlin and Plozk. The army, however, kept in three divisions instead of uniting, which could thus offer but a feeble resistance to the Russian forces. As a last resource, the Poles crossed the frontiers into the Austrian and Prussian dominions. Up« ards of 1500 of the most distinguished leaders of the Polish revolution were arrested and imprisoned at War- saw ; and to c. .nplcte the measures of oppression and vengeance, the Russian troops fired upon the prisoners confined in one of the wings of the prison, under the pretence of a revolt among the prisoners, though it was knowi. that three-fourths of these were imprisoned for political offences. Of twenty-two Polish generals that became, in a manner, pn aoners under the amnesty, the greater part were sent to distant n- ts of the Russian empire, and but four returned to Poland. T ne soldiers were marched by thousands to Siberian exile, linked together by the wrists to bars of iron. The nobles were treated in the same ignominious manner, with their hllfl 620 I CHAPTER XIV. commencement of hostilities the patriots of Greece founded in 1814, an association called the Fletaria. There was u society established at Vienna the same year, of which Count Capo d'Istrias was one of the first members ; but it did not publicly avow any political desifins. The head-quarters of this society were at St. Petcrsburif, whither many of the most distinfjuished (Jrecks repaired under the pretext of having commercial busi- ness to transact. Tiie Gre(!ks it appears had, at different times, been called upon by Russia to shake off the Turkish yoke, namely, in the years 1769, 1786, and 1800 ; and a society, avowedly for the lilxiration of Greece, was formed in Paris in 1809. It was found that the beginning mo'lT in 1814, was too early to insure suc- cess. A people who iiad long been kept in an abject state of slavery, needed first a due preparation and a general diffusion of knowledge ; and the plans for such a weighty undertaking required to be well matured. The intercourse kept up with France, was of great conse- quence in forwarding the cause of liberty in Greece ; and the revival of literature and the spread of science, brought with it an ardent desire for their country's freedom. This was further promoted by giving them the works of Goldsmith, Franklin's Poor Richard, Fenelon, and Montesquieu, which were translated into modern (Jreek at Athens, Saloniki, Smyrna, &c. ; and schools were established, that were subsequently swept away by the war. The Hetaria, or society of friends, kept up an active corres- pondence with the Greeks in different parts of Europe, who hastened to join it ; while some men of the highest standing visited St. Petersburg to further their designs, and even looked to Russia for aid. When this hope was found to be fallacious, the Greeks resolved to begin themselves. The first movement was made by Czemi George, in 1817, an exiled chief of Servia, who was suddenly to appear in Servia, his native province, while Galati, and other Grecian chiefs, were to raise the stan dard in the south of Greece, and the Morea. Czemi George, the Servian, was treacherously betrayed and murdered on his way by Milosh, a relative and former friend, and his head sent to Constantinople. Count Galati retired to Bucharest, and there shortly afterwards died. The next attempt was arranged for 1826. In the mean time some chiefs, burning with desire for the glorious cause of freedom, began the revolution. These were M. Suzzo, hospodar of Moldavia, one of the Hetarists ; Alexan- der Ypsilanti, a major general in the {lussian army, and Pnnce if Greece foundpi!, in 'J'here was u society f which Count Cupo »ut it (lid not publicly larters of tiiis society the most distinfiuisiied ing commcrciul busi- nt times, been called yoke, namely, in the ety, avowedly for the n 1809. It was found early to insure sue- in an abject state of id a general diffusion weighty undertaking was of great conse- in Greece ; and the ;ience, brought with it )m. This was further Goldsmith, Franklin's , which were translated i, Smyrna, &c. ; and sequently swept away it up an active corres- parts of Europe, who if the highest standing iigns, and even looked found to be fallacious. The first movement 1 exiled chief of Servia, a, his native province, were to raise the stan orea. Czemi George, 1 and murdered on liia friend, and his head stired to Bucharest, and t attempt was arranged ig with desire for the evolution. These were the Hetarists ; Alcxan- issian army, and Pnnce GREEK REVOLUTION. 621 Catacuzene. Ypsiianti was to begin hostilities beyond the Danube, while nil (Jrceco was to be summoned with a procla- mation ; and to rondor their measures more certain, im explosion was to take place at Constantinople. Ypsiianti begun before Moldavia wrut prepared to co-operate. His proclamation wuh energetic, and called on all Greece to shake off the Turkish yoke. It roused the Moldavians, and Y[isilnnti took possession of Hucliarest, the cnjiital of Wulucliin. containing 80,000 inhabitants. But Russia diacliiimcd all parti- cipation in a manifesto which she publislu d. Suz/.o gave up the command in Moldavia, and the plot at Constantinople was frustrated. A chieftain who joined Ypsiianti, wiis suspicted of treachery. He was arrestc'd and beheaded. This was Vladi- miresco ; and the price of his correspondence with the Porte was, that he was to be made hospodar. Ypsiianti was now forced to retire from Bucharest before 10,000 men, who entered the city without firing a shot. The Hetarists who fell into the hands of the Turks were impaled alive, and numbers of children hung up by their feet along the roads. The monasteries were entered, and the inmates butch- ered. Prince Ypsiianti retreated to Tergovist, followed by the Turks. A battle was fought at the monastery of Dragachan, on the morning of June 17th. The Turkish infantry charged with loud shouts, but were repulsed with the bayonet. A second charge was repelled with equal firmness. At this juncture, the cowardice and treason of Caravia, an ollicer of cavalry, changed the fate of the patriot army. He turned round and fled, and immediately the whole army was in confusion. Gior- gaki, with his corps, displayed great firmness during the route. The sacred band of about 400 or 500 young Greeks stood firm, while the rest fled and crossed the Oltau ; these sustained the shock of 1500 Turkish cavalry. They sold their lives nobly, determined to fall rather than yield. The disparity in numbers was too great for success, when about 400 fell. Such an exam- pie of patriotism had a most salutary ufft-ct on the Greeks. The arn;y of Prince Ypsiianti being annihilated, he repaired to T' ipste, intending to rejoin his countrymen in the Morea. The Austrian government seized him, and imprisoned him at the castle of Montgatz, in Hungary. When the intelligence of the insurrection in Moldavia reached Constantinople, the Sultan issued immediate orders to disarm all the Greeks in the empire, and a war of extermination at the capital commenced. The Greek patriarch, Gregorius, was mur- dered on the 22d April, the day of the greatest festival of the Greek church, and his body dragged by Jews through the streeta •«-l«., 1t|,T hK A iM.ti ■»' 'I 622 CHAPTER XIV. of Constantinople. Scvornl other occlesiustics slmrcd the aatne fatn, anil a nuiiibor of Greek chnrclies were destroyed, whicli exusperatinl tlie Lireeks to a degree of desperation, who saw that notliinj;; short of externiimition awaited them. The priests in the islands of tlx; Morea, from the atrocious acts nt Constan- tinople, saw tliemselv(,'s (hnimed to certain destruction. They therefore exerted themselves strenuously, to inspire the people to resistance and venfjeance. Hy the 1st of April, the excitement became general. The inhabitants of Patras wore disaffected by the exorbitant levies of the Turks. Mutual distrust began between Greeks and Turks— each prepared for the worst. Hostilities were first o|)ened by the inhabitants of Suda, a large village near Gala- vrita, in the northern part of Arcadia. At I'litras, the Greeks refused to give up tlujir arms, when the Turks fired with cannon U|)on the place from the fortress, and soon took possession of it. Germanos, archbishop of Patras, assembled an army of 4,000 peasants, and took the city from the Turks. Tiie scene that followed ended in the destruction of three hundred houses and pillage. In the islands of Hydra, Spczzia, and Ipsara, the greatest activity was displayed in fitting out ships of war, the united force of which was eighty or ninety vessels of 10 or 12 guns each; and fifty or sixty smaller vessels were supplied by other islands. The flag hoisted liy the Greeks, consisted of eight blue and white horizontal stripes. The superior activity of the Greek navy was soon shown. The first Turkish fleet left the Dardanelles on the 19th of -May, and was followed by the Greek fire-ships. On the 8th of June, they burned a ship of the line, ashore near Tenedos — compelling the Turkish fleet to put back to the Dardanelles. The Ipsariots landed on the coast of Asia Minor, and took possession of Cydinia, which was soon after retaken by the Turks, and the inhabitants murdered and driven away to the number of 35,000. It must be kept in mind during this strug- gle, that the islanders displayed higher traits of patriotism and valor than the Moreots ; m which the women took part in this struggle for liberty. The Turks next disarmed Candia, and executed the archbishop and several clergymen. The peo/iants in the mountains and suburbs of Candia would not give up their arms : they united and succeeded in driving the Turks back into the towns, though they were thousands strong. In the month of November, the island of Cyprus was disarmed, and nearly all the inhabitants of Lamica murdered. The pea- santry for uniting in their defence, had, in the month of Auguat, iistics simrcd the same vore ilt'stroyod, which (ksperution, who saw (I tlioiii. Tlic prioats )cioua nets at Conatan- II dostruction. Tliey , to inspire the people became general. The r the exorbitant levies between Greeks and Hostilities were first rgc village near Gala- At Putras, the Greeks 'urka fired with cannon n took possession of it. led an army of 4,000 urks. The scene that e hundred liouses and d Ipsara, the greatest of war, the united force f 10 or 12 guns each ; ijiplied by other islands. istcd of eight blue and r activity of the Greek inellcs on the 10th of e-sliips. On the 8th of ashore near Tenedos — to the Dardanelles. ' Asia Minor, and took 1 afler retaken by the nd driven away to the mind during this strug- traits of pacriotism and ^omen took part in this disarmed Candia, and rgymen. The peiutants would not give up their \ring the Turks back into strong. )f Cyprus was disarmed, a murdered. The pea- in the month of Augiut, OKKEK REVOLUTIOit. 623 1922, their villages, sixty-two in number, bunied. In the mean time the great Turkish fleet supplied tlieir garrisons iu the Mo- rea with arms, ammunition, &c. The cause of Greece received a new impulse by the arrival of Deni(>trius Ypsilaiiti. and Prince Alexander Cantanizenp. After some diliiculty, Ypsilanli was appointeil communder in chief, July 24, 1821, of the Peloponnesus, the Archipdiigo, and all the liberated provinces. There was at this tinu; dissensions amongst the Greek leaders. Tripolizza, the chief fortress of the Turks, was besieged by Demetrius Ypsilanti, and 8,()()() 'I'urks perished. It was in this fortress the Greeks obtained tiieir first hefivy cannon ; and it became the seat of govciniiient till it was> transferr'id to Argos. In Thessaly, Ulysses with several other leaders orcapitani, defeated near Tliermopyhi', a Turkish army which had advanced from Macedonia. Prince Mavroeordato received the chief command of the Albanian forces ; when the government began to acquire some form, after much difiiculty and dissention. Prince Mavroeordato succeeded, Jan. 13, (Jan. 1,) 1822, in establishing an approximation to a federative con- stitution at Epidaurus, until the second national assijmbly in Astro, March 14, 1823. At this convention more tiian (JO depu- tics attended. The western part of Greece, Arcania, jEtolia, and Epirus, sent 30 deputies to Missilonghi, who, under the presidency of Alexander Mavroeordato, formed a govenmiert consisting of ten members. The eastern part of the main land sent 33 deputies to Salona, under the presidency of Theodore Negris, forming the Areopa- gus of 14 members, November 16 ; and the Morca, or Pelopon- nesus, with the islands of Hydra, Ipsara, Spezzia, &c. sent to Argos 60 deputies, who assembled, December 1st, under the presidency of Prince Demetrius, and established the Peloponne- sian Gerousia of 20 members. These three governments, Missilonghi, Salona, and Argos, were to prepare a permanent constitution. With this view, 67 deputies from all the (ireek provinces, formed the first national assembly in Epidaurus, Jan. 10, 1822, under the presidency of Mavroeordato; and on the 13th, proclaimed the constitution, (which was provisionary) and on the 27th, the congress of Epi- daurus issued a maniSato, in which they pronounced the union of the Greeks, under an indejjcndent federative government The central government was fixed at Corinth, and some time after at Argos. We are obliged to pass over many of the movements, till the arrival of the great Turkish fleet, April 11, when 15,000 m m: 024 CHAPTER XIV. barbnriiin A.siiitic troops wore Innditd nt Scio : nnd soon thin (ioli;^'litrii'. Mtid flourishing iHlaiul was chan^rcd into ii ncciio of liio (iiid blood. Down to Miiy y.^tli, tlio 'I'lukrt, lu'cording to I heir own lists, sold into sluvry, 41,000 Hciots, mostly women and r^jiildrcn. 'i'lio (^a|iudan I'ucha wns next prcparid to desolate I|)Hnrn. Tine;, iiiid Smnos ; but flic Ipsariots, with 70 small vcH.sels anil fini-HliipH, bovert'd round the Turkish fleet, and in tli»«>*«»' 8»«« ; -^i^ %*> / IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I |50 "^ 1^ 1^ 2.5 12.2 I. ■mUu 1.8 1.25 1.4 w •• 6" - ► '/ Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 \ >v •SJ \\ & '•-rSS9S^W??^!|^«S»?!«!'^f"i'T*;'?^'»-S»(B55«S^ /> ^^ ^6 >i CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques v^ OBEEK REVOLUTION. 629 that held the Isthmus and the Acrocorintlius, that were SOOQ after di«)er8ed and destroyed. The Turkish fleet left the Gulf of Lepanto, where it had failed against Missiionghi. It was unable to break the line of 57 Greek ships blockading Romania, and at last came to anchor off Tene. dos. Nov. 10, a small number of Ipsariots carried fire-shipa among the fleet, and fired the ships of the admiral and the capi. tan Bey. The latter was blown up witli 1800 men. Three frigates were wrecked on the coast of Asia, and a vessel of 36 guns captured. Of 35 vessels, 18 only returned much injured to the Dardanelles. The 17 Ipsariots who had done these exploits, arrived in safety at Ipsara, and Kanaris and Mniauly were rewarded, by the Euphori, with naval crowns. Again the Greeks were masters of the sea : it enabled them to blockade the Turkish forts, which was acknowledged by Great Britain. The change of ministry in England was most fortunate for Greece. With Canning as premier, and Maitland lord commis. sioner of the Ionian Isles, they had less hostility directed against them. Omar Vrione was repulsed by Mavrocordato and Bot- zaris, before Missiionghi, where he lost his cannon. Napoli di Romania was taken from the Turks Dec. 12, (new style.) A proclamation to the European powers was issued April 15, 1822, wliich the Holy Alliance considered incompatible with their views on legitimacy, though disposed to be lenient towards the suflering state of Greece. The dissensions among the Greek leaders, had an unfavorable influence on their cause with the European cabinets. Coloctroni meditated a division of the Morea into hereditary principalities. The central government called a second national assembly at Astro, Jan. 1823, which averted a civil war ; while the judicious measures of Mavrocordato tended to bring about concord. When the national assembly opened, March 14, at Astro, it consisted of 100 members. Mavromichalis was elected president ; Theo. dore Negris, secretary ; and the perfidious and avaricious Coloc- troni submitted to the assembly. Condurioti was chosen president of the legislative, and Petro Mavromichalis, Bey of Maina, of the executive council. Both legislative bodies resolved to raise about 50,000,000 piasters, to levy and equip 50,000 men, and 100 large men of war. The French military code was adopted. This assembly proclaimed the new constitution of Astro, April 23d, 1823. Several changra took place in the ministry. Mavrocordato was made president, and Coloctroni, vice president. This year the Sultan had determined upon exterminating the Buffering Greeks. Mavrocordato was placed at the heiui ct 40 ill rf^j'i ■f ^ 626 CHAPTER XrV. the army, and Orlandi, a Hydriot, organized the navy, now consS of 403 sail, with cannon. The largest su,, earned 2b guns^and Miaulis wa^ admiral ; M. Tumbasis of Hydra beorge Etracci, of Spezzia, and Nicholas Apostoles of Ipsa a, v^^radmirals. The financial department met with much d.f- ficulty In March, the f.cet had gained a victory over the Egypdan flotilla, des'tined for the invasion of Cand.a, though it waJ unsuccessful in its attempt to prevent the landing of lurk- '"''m Bot;aris,the Suliot, now commanded the forces in western, and Uhios in eastern Greece. The battles ^^ft during Uus year were not less fierce and sanguinary than those m 1822. SlloTzaris surprised the Turkish camp at ^ arpmiss. u -^ night, with 500 Suliots, and penetrated to the tent ot the lacia Kelvino; but in the moment of victory received a -^^^^^ wound. The victory, however, was, completed by his biotlier Constttine. The noble Botzaris - '- ,f l^?;^ S;;^" oH^ " How sweet it is to die for one's country." 1 he detuat ol tne Turks wl comjlte, all their baggage and artillery being taken. and the Pacha made prisoner. . , T le members of government wer. at Argos, in November 1823. About this time the campaign was fin.slied, though a partizan warfare continued in Thessaly and Ep.rus SocietK« in England aided the Greek cause by means of loans, and by "tits poet, Lord Byron, took a deep interest in the struggle made by the Greeks to throw off the Mohammedan v^kf fiis zeal led him to offer his personal and pecuniary aid L their cause. He embarked August, 1823, with five or six Fnlhsh iViends in an English vessel he had purposely hired. Sii ed h Gree^ at the beginning of the third campaign where he was received with marked distinction. On his arrival rCcphalonia, where he first established himself, he addressed a letter toThe Greek government, and was induced by the mfor- mat on he received, to^advance 12,000Z. for the relief of Missi- r^, where he afterw^ds >Ui C^J^^^H^-k an^^d ^-^"STZtl^^^s^:^- He alsotookaOO an emnized bv a general mourning of twenty-one days. " TrTurks'b^gL the campaign of 1824 with ^-h more vigor than it had previously been carried on. Peace being concluded %mattmm GREEK RBVOLVTiON. 627 the navy, now ship carried 26 lydra, George C3, of Ipsara, witli much dif> ictory over the mdia, though it uding of Turk- rces in western, jglit during tliis those in 1822. rpinissi, ut mid. nt of the Pacha ceived a mortal by liis brother •cd, exclaimed — 'ho defeat of the iery being taken, s, in November, nishcd, though a pirus. Societies of loans, and by ;p interest in the lie Mohammedan ind pecuniary aid with five or six purposely hired, i tl)ird campaign, • On his arrival self, he addressed uced by the infer- le relief of Missi- po, took an active mself established lie also took 500 actory and unwil- unto. This preyed amo dang(!rously His death was one days. 1 much more vigor c being concluded with Persia, July 28th, 1823, ond a rebellious Pacha of St. Jean d'Acre, having yielded voluntary submission to the Porte, it wa» enabled to send forces from Asia, and those that had been 8ta> tioned in Moldavia and Walachia now evacuated. The preceding carni)aign nad taught the Turks, that the de. struction of the Greek navy was their only means of succeeding in subduing Greece. The Capudan Pacha, Khosru, sailed from Mitylenc, July 3d, with two ships of the line, eight frigates, four corvettes, forty brigs, and smaller vessels to the amount of 200. Among the latter were a number of neutral transport ships, belonging to the Russians, Austrians, and others, hired by the Capudan Pucha, that sailed from the Dardanelles, April 28th. Thf! Russians were now on the most friendly terms with the Grand Seignior, and aided the Turks with transport ships. There weie besides, Austrian, Italian, and Spanish vessels, en- gaged against tlie liberties of Greece. To oppose the armament of the Capudan Pacha, the Ipsa- riots had 2,r)()() men, the entire male population, and a corps of Albanians and fugitive Sciots, about 1,500 in number, divided into four companicjs. Their forces were provided with batte- ries, ammunition, &c. The Turks landed silently in the night, in spite of the vigilance of the islanders, and advanced in three columns. One advanced upon the town, and two proceeded to the batteries, taking them in the rear, when the most horrible butchery was perjietrated. Five hundred Albanians shut themselves up in fort St. Nicholas, which defended the town. Wretched and afflicted mothers first flung their children from high precipices, and then cast themselves into the sea. The Albanians in the fort barricaded the gates, and killed half of the first assailants. The Turks concentrated their forces to reduce the fort, and during the night made a dreadful assault upon the Christians, who in defence performed prodigies of valor ; but unable longer to withstand the overwhelming force of the barbarians, they threw open the gates, suffered 2,000 men to rush into the fort, till it was entirely filled, and on a concerted signal, in an instant all were blown up, and buried amidst its ruins. This took place on the fourth of July. By the disasters of Ipsara, 4,000 Christians perished, besides the total destruction of all property ; with 100 vessels of different sizes, belonging to the islanders. Admiral Miaulis, with the Greek fleet, arrived before Ipsara, on the 8th of July, when the Turks immediately put to sea, and numbers were captured. The Greeks, on landing at Ipsara, found nothing but ruins and heaps of putrid corpses ; but the i^ii #-;'!'^ ti m f**^ ^ 628 CHAPTER XtV. dreadful stench obliged them to retire from this scene of horror SatroiiesV '^^ ^P"*^"^ by the barbar.ans. at onoe roused UP all the energies of Greece with dire revenge. The next attempt of the Capudun Pacha, was upon Samoa. Kemaris tlie brave^Ipsariot. with a Hre-slup destroyed a 40 gun frSc under s'ui • and several transports shared a similar fate. SeVi TunSan brig of war, and I large Tripolitan curvet^. fLthoVlst another fleet of transports destined for bamos, S^redspersrand^^^^^ The fo"owi"g Jay^the Turkish fleet attempted to make the passage from Cape Tro- Suuri to the oppoJte shore; but f^c appearance of two or Sree fire-ships caused such terror m the Ottoman fleet, as to . dr^e itin d^grace on the Asiatic coast. Some time after, a bnction took place between the Egyptian vessels and Aoie of L Capudan Pacha, intending to return to Samos tS skill and boldness of the Greeks destroyed a number of theL wi h their fire-ships, and thus astounded the Turks with S deeds of valor, who were glad to effect a retreat to the ^Yn November, the Egyptians sustained ^^-^^-age ^rom their enemy on the northern coast of Candia. Ihe to ces ol he G?eeks successfully repelled their barbarian invaders by iand i that the campaign of 1824 was glorious for Greece, and SpXc^ more chLring than had appeared at anj time pn. vio^. This gladdening prospect continued up to the beginnmg °^S government of Greece now began to assume harmony and rtrenih, and commerce revived. Their army was attempted o be oreanized after the European tactics ; justice was regularly adSeret and freedom fthe press a"owec^^ In J^- ong^^^ four newspapers were issued twice a week. In ^^e midst ot these cheering irospects for Greece, an Egyptian fleet which had been delayXme months, sailed on the 19th July, from Alexandra, conistinnf nine fr gates, four corvettes, forty brigs and ga - UrS 18,000 troops in 240 transports. This armament nder Ibrahim Pacha, was designed to subdue and desolate the ZreaT™ Egyptian and Turkish fleets united in the gulf of B^roun Sept^'lth, where a naval action ensued Kanans Wpw iiD a 44 Bun Egypt an frigate and a brig. J he fleets tnen i^^Ir^d-th^e Turkish fleet returned to Constantinople, and Zwmt'fllet to the gulf of Bodroun Soon f er f mus attacked it off Candia, and destroyed a ^"^^'^^"^ r^l^^^'. .nH T4 transDorts: when he retired to Rhodes, lurtnerweaK ::VbyrTfa%e on board hU ships, and frustrated m h» plain of conquering the Morea. ^■MiiiiiMM ' y^'jjly,, GREEK REVOLUTION. 629 one of liorrof ians, at onoe onge. upon Samoa. fed a 40 gun similar fute. itan corvette. 5d for Sunios, wing day, the im Cape Tro- ICC of two or (111 fleet, as to ne time after, 1 vessels and irn to Samoa. a number of he Turks with retreat to the damage front The forces of in invaders by for Greece, and t any time pre- a the beginning le harmony and 'as attempted to ! was regularly In Missilonghi le midst of these which had been •om Alexandria, brigs and gnl- This armament, nd desolate the ited in the gulf isucd. Kanaris The fleets then stantinople, and II after, Miaulis 10 small vessels. 9, further weak- frustrated in hu Notwithstanding the critical situation in which Greece wan now placed by tiie power of Kgypt being exerted against her, we find the peninsula in the most distracted state by the diasen> sioiis and broils of tiio capatani. In October, the election for the third term commenced. The executive council at Napoli di Romania, consisted of 03 members. The president, Mavrocor- dato, resigne i ' * G30 CHAPTER XIV. and children slaves to Egypt, und desolated every place within his reach. . , n .1 Missilonghi, defended by Nolo Botzans, the first among the bruve, was now closely besieged by the Turks, having before it 35,000 land forces, and 4,000 by sea. After a severe contest of several days they were totally defeated, August 2d, 1825. The Turks lost 9,000 men. During this siege the brave and active Miaulis arrived with his fleet, and burned several of the enemy's ships, and forced tlie rest to retire. The siege of Mw- silonghi was raised October 2d, 1825, four months and a half from its commencement. In the mean time, Ibrahim was carrying terror with his arms, and desolating the Morea more widely ; and the government was in great danger, having entirely lost the confidence of the auxiliary societies in England, whose loans had been improperly laid out. At last the Greeks sent deputies to England, resolved to throw themselves on the protection of Great Britain. Before the arrival of their deputies, the English government had issued (Sept. 30,) a declaration of neutrality. But the alliance of the powers of Europe prevented the interference of any single power in behalf of Greece. Sir Stratford Canning, the English ambassador to Constanti. nople, set out in January, 1826, and on his way had a long inter- view at Hydra with Muvrocordato, and other Greek statesmen, with a view to inform iiimself respecting the state of Greece. He then proceeded to Constantinople, where he arrived the last of February. About the same time, (March,) the affairs of Greece were discussed at St. Petersburg, by Lord Strangford, the British resident minister there, und who had formerly been minister to Constantinople, and the Duke of Wellington, envoy extraordinary, who had been sent thither by Canning. A hope now began to be cherished, that the independence of Greece would be acknowledged by the Christian powers of Europe. The Pacha fully bent on reducing Missilonghi, had landed more troops in the Morea, in order to carry on a winter cam- paign. The affairs of Greece were, at this time, in the most gloomy state, having scarcely 6,000 men under arms to with- stand this rapacious foe ; while the money furnished by the friends of Greece for the equipment of the army, was squandered by the capitani. The French, at this time, were busy intriguing against the English agents, to the great injury of ^reoxe. In the midst of all these disasters, the Greeks succeeded, Novem- ber 24th, in throwing into Missilonghi, besieged for the fourth time, a supply of ammunition and provisions for this garrison, which had so gallantly repulsed an attack, both by sea and land liitl ■MMiMMM -HIM place within It among the |having btifore severe contest ust 2d, 1825. _the brave and leveral of the siege of Mis* lis and a half with his arms, le government ifidence of the 3en improperly gland, resolved ritain. Before nent had issued alliance of the ny single power >r to Constanti. lad a long inter- reek statesmen, tate of Greece, irrivcd the last the affairs of 3rd Strangford, 1 formerly been llington, envoy ming. A hope ,'nce of Greece of Europe, jhi, had landed 1 a winter cam- ne, in the most r arms to with« rnished by the was squandered busy intriguing of Greece. In eeded, Novem. 1 for the fourth r this garrison, )y sea and land OREEK BSVOLUTION. 631 A body of troops sent by Ibrahim against Corinth, was destroyed by Niketas. In December, the Greeks fitted out another naval equipment At Hydra, for tlie safety of Missilonghi ; where Miaulis, January 6th, put to flight the Capudan Paclia'a fleet ; wiiich some timo af\er returned, when anotlier attomnt made to throw supplies into the place, tailed. On the 28th, Missilonghi was rondy for action. Tl.o Turco-EKyntian fleet WM 3ra;ru,riu ho form of a croscmt , their h.rg. n^s pru«>nted a CmSde. aud h.tw...» tlus,, sn.all v-hsoIs uUervm-d. I he AlliT ulron was lod by the Asia, tho »lu,. o A.hn.ral Cod. Ainu 8.1 > 1 ,.,,„^j,, i.ytl.e Grnoa and Albion, and an- dS^ ;.btS ^^i tb^ lin., i>.ana« ti. ««« ofCapitana I V a. h largo doul,l...banl<.d IVi^at., ; wluio Moharem hoy, K. laudor'of tl,o l-'.^yi'ti'- nflame the pas. Inrof the Moslems. In December, the ministers of the three Zers left Constantinople, when the Porte adopted conc.hatory me3e8 In tho mean time, all the Moslems from the age of wT 50 had been called to arms. On the 30th, the Sultan Mai lud ioard that Persian Armenia had fallen into the iK.wer of Russia, where Puskewitch had achieved a senes of splendid victories. '^ii"rtriMnfttfiff'iii>tf''v'^'"'''^^' [t! fiUlmi'^' - ,|{yptinn fleet waa ships prc'sontttd iittTvonod. The if Adiniriil Cod« Albion, itml an. flii^ uf Capituna Muliuruin Hey, tlio otiier siilo of 11, by killing two ning furiously fur till! Moorish of the Greeks, lud been a prey to ision of hostilities, to infest the seas, (puidroii, to send a icil of the Greeks, upon the oflenders, itil the British had 1 Candia, February St degree, with the rthwith seized lUid nstantinople, where Jovember 19 ; and listers of the Allied for the destruction ' his rage, prepared to inflame the pas- inisters of the three idopted conciliatory us from the age of he 30th, the Sultan iillen into the power a series of splendid ORBKK RBVOU'TION. 635 By this time, Capo d'Istria, thu president of rirccce, had appointed the able Tricoupi his wcretury ot' statu ; and hud uHlublished u high national council, calli'd I'anhellenion. Feb. 4tli, ut Napoli (li lloniunia, he also established a bank, and re.or* gaiiized the military. I"' ranee and Russia each lent (1,000,000 francs to aid the new state. In consequence cl" the death of Canning and a changt; of the Mnglish ministry, the battle of Navarino was ealled an untoward (;vont. The I'orte continued to reject eve-ry proposal for settle. niont with Greece, and during this time, Ibrahim was carrying away the Greeks into slavery. A war broke out, March, 1828, between Uussia and Turk(;y, so that thu I'ortu hud, with this power alone, (|uite business enough to attend to. The French cabinet, in concert with England, now sent an army to thu Morea, under the command of General Maison, which arrived August 20th, in the bay of Coron, near Petalidi ; and Admiral Codrington coucludtid a treaty with the viceroy of Egypt, Aug. Otii, for thu evacuation of the Monu by Ibrahim Pacha, ami for the liberation of the Greek prisoners, while those who had boon carried away, wore to bo freed or ransomed. Gctober 4th, Ibrahim sailed from Navarino with 21,000 men, for Alexandria, with tho wreck of his fleet, leaving 2,.'j00 in the Messinian fortn-sses. The French took undisputed possession of Navarino, and attacked and took tlie fortresses in Messina, so that Navarino, Modon, and Coron, were soon in tlieir possession. I'atras, with 3,000 men, capitulated October 5th, and the flags of the throe Allied powers, with the national flag of Greece, waved undis. puted over these cities. Admiral Rigny convoyed the Turks to Smyrna. To defend the Morea from any new attacks of tho Turks, a manifesto was issued by tho ministers of tho throe powers, Nov. 16, 1828, declaring — " That they should place the Morea and the Cycladea under their protection, till the time when a definitive arrangement should decide tho fate of the provinces, which the Allies had taken possession of; and that they should consider the entrance of any military force into this country, as an attack upon themselves." A French agent carried this note to Constantinople, to which an immediate answer from the Porte was required. But during this time, the Greeks continued active hostilities. Demetrius Ypsilanti, having under him Coloctroni and several leaders, and 5,000 men, marched into Livadia, and defeated the Turks, Nov. 2d, at Lomotico, and Dec. 3d, took Salona ; then in succession, Lepanto, Livadia, and Vonizza. The Greeks commenced fitting out a great number of privateers ■I," JUi. ~,1 636 CHAPTER XIV. In consequence of these measures, tl.e Sultan banished 25,000 ^ persons, Cireeks and Armenians, not born there, from the city of Constantinople ; and the Sultan still dechned to recall his , barbarous edict of extermination. ^ „, . ^ , „„„ i Throucrh the energetic measures of Capo d'Istr.a, Greece began to recover hersei f ailer a long period of distraction. He divided the states of Greece into 13 d.-partments, seven of these formed the Peloponnesus, with 280,000 inhabitants, and 8,543 square miles; the eighth, the Northern Sporades, 6^00 mhabitan ts 106 square miks ; the ninth, the Eastern Sporades, 58,800 inhabitants, 318 square miles ; the tenth, the Western bporadcs, with 40,000 inhabitants, 169 square miles ; the elf vcnth, twemh, and thirteenth, the Cyclades, (north, central, and south ) 91, .500 inhabitants, 1176 square miles. Total inhabitants, 476,500, square miles, 10,312. j *• i ,„ ,u„ The Brititsh plenipotentiary presented his credentials to the president of Greece, Nov. 19, 1828; and Colonel t abler, after his return from France, took upon him the organization of the Greek armv. On the delivery, at Constantinople, of the protocol of the three powers, in January, 1829, a verbal answer was given by the Reis EfTendi, that the Porte wished for peace.^ In July, Sir Robert Gordon, the British ambassador, and Count GuiUimont, from France, arrived at Constantinople. Ihe sue- cesses of Diebitsch, who had crossed the Balkan mountains, and was on his way towards Constantinople, compelled the lurkisti plenipotentiaries to sign a treaty, which recognized fornially, in the sixth article, the treaty of July 6, 1827. Peace between Russia and the Porte was signed at Adrianople, Sept. 14, l»x!», and was ratified by the latter, six days afterwards. Haviner 9th, 1831, as the president was going to attend ser- vice at the church, he was assassinated by two men, who had repaired purposely to Napoii di Romania. Uiic lired a pistol at the head of Capo d'latria, and the other stabbed him with a Turkish dagger, when he fell dead on the spot. Tiiose persona were George the son, and Constantine the brother of Mavromi- chnlia, who had been imprisoned since January. Constantine was immediately killed by the guards of the president, and George was detained in custody. In 1832, the three powers obtained from the Grand Seignior a much more advantageous northern boundary line for Greece, than had been granted in 1830. The line is to run from the gulf of Volo, in the iEgian Sea, along a range of mountains, to the gulf of Arta, in the Adriatic. By this arrangement, Acarnania and iGtolia, chiefly inhabited by Greeks, are included in the kingdom of Greece — an acquisition of great importance, as it adds nearly 100,000, inhabitants, and almost 3,000 square miles to the new state. Besides the frontier line is more strongly marked, and will be easier of defence. This accession to Greece was obtained from the Grand Seignior for 50,000,000 of Turkish piasters ; which are to be deducted from the sum he had undertaken to pay to Russia. The present population of Greece is estimated at from 635,000 to 900,000 souls. Its territory, including Acarnania, jEtolia, and the islands, is about 18,000 square miles, equal to about two* fifths of the state of New York, and about equal to it in popula* tiou. The Morea, or Peloponnesus, comprises 7,227 square miles, and nearly equivalent in extent to the state of Massachu- setts. The same treaty which fixed the boundary line, raised Otho, a Bavarian youth of seventeen years of age, to tiie throne of Greece ; who carried with him 3,500 Bavarian soldiers, when, as stipulated, the French troops were to be witlidrawn. In the maintenance and aid of the new government, England, France, and Russia, have provided, and become responsible for, a loan of $3,750,000 ; and have further agreed to furnish, at two instalments, an equal amount, should it be required for the good of the country. This loan is to be refunded in due time, and the payment of the interest is provided for. King Otho, the new monarch of Greece, arrived at Napoii *]tl:i H.,- t-J. ■•hi .5*..., III f'-i" di Romania, Fob. 6, 1B33. There were, at this t™e. !" ^I^^ ,>ort of Na,.oli di Ron.unin, several sh.ps of war belonging lo Kneland, France, and Russia. On the following da>, King OthoTssued a proclamation, declaring his good mtenfons and well wishes for his adopted country, and engaging to protect the religion of the Greeks. War between Russia and Turkey. HnsTiUTiEs between Russia and Turkey commenced at a most ror"uir;SJt the safety of Greece The Port, breathing vengeance, and intent on exterminating ^^e entire Greek popu- hitioii, would listen to no terms of accommodation offered by the "^''flt'^rttle'of Navarino had, for the present, paralyzed the operations of Ibral.im Pacha; and after such a s'gn^l jhw jse- n ent of the infidels by the Allied powers, they could not honor- ably withdraw their ft.ture protection to the Greeks, who had so long been left to contend alone against their cruel oppressors "t'i" PorTwas led to consider that Russia secretly favored the Greek cause, and therefore took possession of Moldavia and Walachia, and put restrictions u,)on its mar'timc commerce. Thi wTan open violation of the peaceof Bucharest on which, after an excha'nge of notes, the Russian "^'"-ter M ^oi^mn. tinople; but through the exertions of the ministers of Austria and^England, and the desire of the Emperor Alexander to p e- serve peace, the commencement of hostiities was avoided. St n Uie Porte refused to give any satisfaction to the Russian court ThinpUaLd in this state lill the Emperor Nicholas issued hi, ulUmatum, May 14, 1926, when the P"':^^ /™"f^^ °," J,'^^ demands of the court of Russia and promised Jat Moldavia and Walachia (where the Porte had derived, m three years, a revenue of 37,000,000 of piasters, to aid the pn«ecut,on of the war against Greece,) should be restored. October 6j, 1826 «t Ackerman,the Russian ultimatum was «c.<=«Pt«d. The Porte also surrendered all the fortresses in Asia to Russia. lh« n^eStaTMahmoud'h^'U nis hands full of other business ' Having detelined to reform his army, he began by extermmat. ms the corps of Janisaries, which he effected after a oU^y battle in JuTe, 1826 ; when he formed his army on the Euro- nAtJWif*'*'" ' .^MM^MiiHMMHl^'^ ' this time, in the war belonging to lowing (lay, King ;ood intentions and aging to protect tlie rkey. jommenced at a most riie Porte breathing entire Greek jiopu- Jation offered by the aent, paralyzed the ;h a signal chastise- liey could not honor- ! Greeks, who had so leir cruel oppressors »ia secretly favored sion of Moldavia and maptimc commerce. Bucharest, on which, [ninister left Constan- ministers of Austria or Alexander to pre- 3S was avoided. Still to the Russian court leror Nicholas issued orte granted all the mised that Moldavia 'cd, in three years, a he prosecution of the October 6, 1826, at cceptcd. The Porte sia to Russia. This full of other business, began by exterminat- fected after a bloody is army on the Euro- WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND TUHKEY. 639 ,wan system. The Sultan himself wore the European dress, and prohibited, throughout his cnipiro, tlio cnliing of Christians, •' dogs." Tliis new system of reform led to a violen/ insurrec- tion, and the loss of 6,000 houses in Constantinople. In June, 1827, the Porte refused the intervention of Hussia, France, and Eupland, for the settlement of Greece ; and seemed to bid defiance to the jiowers of Europe, by attempting to rally together all his subjects for war. Russia declared war against Turkey, April 26, 1828. In that document the emperor declared, that he would not Iny down his arms till he had obtained the following results, namely : the paym«mt of all the expenses of the war ; the acknowledgment of past treaties ; inviolable liberty of the commerce of th ^'^ Tnd "S October 15. Silistria was besieged m Scptembe and ra,^^^^^ November 10th. The heavy artillery ot the Russians was whole pachalic of Ikjasid, as far as the banks of the Luphra es. was conquered. The approach of wmter put an end to ^is campaign, in winch the Russians lost "'^"^y^^" ^y ^^^^'l^ wanl of supplies. The loss of horses was great. Th« 'csuha of the camuairrns in Kurope and Asia, were, two lurkish prin- dpahti^rS, three pac'halics, fourteen ortre^c. a^ thre castles. Notwithstanding these ««««%°*^ f'^ ^/j^^'J^^^^^ refused the terms of accommodation offfr^^;. b«fo'« ^™ J^^.'J^^g this campaign, by the Emperor Nicholas, throg fhe B"tmh 1 ambas»ador,\ord Heytesbury, viz. '"'^^^'^'^^ "^^^^^^^^ 1 p,,.nse of the war, and security against future injuries and viola- I tions of treaties. . r'„„r,r(.l n^phitsrh The Sultan prepared for a new campaign. General U.ebUscn ' was anSttd coLiander in chief of the Russian forces, Feb. 211829 The siege of Silistria was renewed on the opening of tin campa^^, under the direction of Diebitsch, May 17th. The TuSi army, commanded by the Grand \ izier, a acked S Ru^h^ns posted near the village of Eski An.aoutlar, at t..TZ Lrning.^ The battle l-te^ till 8 in tlie evening when the Turks retired with the loss of 2,000 killed, un ine mo June, a great battle was fought at Koulevtcha. near Shumla-the TuVks commanded by the Grand V.zier, and fheTlLians by Diebitsch. The battle -a» f-ght Jith gre^t obstinacy; when European tactics prevailed over lurkisU em. S The Turks loLt 5,900 killed, a great number of pn- s^S. 43 pieces of cannon, 6 standards, all their ammunition "CSfStS^urrendered to the R"~nt?5:S son consisted of 8,000 men, and the armed '"'^^J'^^^J Jf-^JX^^ made prisoners of war ; 220 pieces of cannon, 80 stand of colora, and 2 three-tailed pachas, were also taken, besides the whole ot ^'llSel^ithe surrender of the J^ress of ^ij; IHebitsch commenced preparations to paas the river KamtclucK r .^nnj ... laV«;iiS*#'-''t. "^ ' " er Field Marsha) iiumla, while llie irand Vizier cau- before Shunila. ick from Shumla, nbcr, and raiaed le Russians was (f forward, Gene- I, was advancing y, and liad gained if September, the of tlie Euphrates, It an end to ilus m by disease and iat. The results iwo Turkish prin- tresses, and three ! Turks, the Porte )efore and during rough the British cation for the ex- injuries and viola- General Diebitsch issian forces, Feb. ■ed on the opening bitsch, May 17th. id Vizier, attacked ski Aniaoutlar, at 1 8 in tlie evening, )0 killed. On the ; Koulevtcha, near Grand Vizier, and I fought with great iled over Turkish ■eat number of pri- ll their ammunition ssians. The garri- ihabitants that wece 1,80 stand of colors, jesides the whole of fortress of Silistria, he river Kamtcluck \\ >■«.<■,! i| ''•ill m M's Mawacre of the Greeks. P. 636. ^- - .. BatUe of Navarino. P. 036. ''■A 836. G36. WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND TURKEY. 641 •nd tho Balkan mountains. On the 17th of July, tho camp before Shumla was Icil, and by the 22d, Diebitsch had attained the summit of the Balkan. In descending these mountains, the Russians encountered n Turkish force of about 7,000 men, under the Semskier Abduhl Rahman, and defeated him, takmg 4U0 prisoners, 12 cannon, and 7 standards. On the 28d, Mesom- bria was captured, with 20 standards, 15 cannon, and 2,000 pri- soners ; and on the same day Achioli was captured, containing 14 piuces of cannon, ammunition, &c. when tho Russian army readied the shores of the Black Sea, it was able to co-operate with the fleet under Admiral Greig. Ou the 24th of June, Bourgas was taken, with ten pieces of cannon, and abundance of military stores. On the 25th, Aidos was captured, with the whole Turkish camp, 600 tents, 500 barrels of gunpowder, 4 standards, &c. August 19th, the Russians approached Adrianople, and the next day took unresisted possession of the place, where nego- ciations commenced. Sept. 14, a treaty of peace was signed. Russia agreed to the restoration of Moldavia and Walachia, and all the towns occupied by them in Bulgaria and Rumclia. Mol- davia was to have an independent administration and free trade ; and the Russians freedom of commerce throughout the Ottoman empire, agreeably to former treaties ; and free commerce and navigation of the Black Sea, to all nations at peace with Tur- key. The Porte stipulated to pay as an indemnification to Russia, 1,500,000 ducats of Holland, for the losses of Russian subjects : and a further sum, as should be agreed upon, as an indemnity for the expenses incurred in the war. And tho Porte acceded to the terms of Russia, Great Britain, and France, for the settlement of the afioirs in Greece. The indemnity for the expenses of the war, was arranged in a subsequent act, to be paid in instalments. On the fiist pay- ment, the Russian troops were to retire from Adrianople ; on the second, to repass the Balkan ; and on the third, to repass the Danube ; and on the fourth payment to evacuate the Turkish territory. So far, the Emperor Nicholas fulfilled his declara- tion and pledges to the Allies, on the commencement of the war — after having gained the objects for which it was undertaken. In this campaign, it has been stated, that the Russians lost 200,000 men and 20,000 horses. It was stated in the papers at the time, that the Russian forces, at the commencement of the present campaign, amounted to 541,731 regular troops, and 146,601 irregulars, making a total of 688,833. 41 ii -..-'■v, ''i ' 642 CHAPTER XIV. England, from A. D. 1816. to the passing of the Reform P^' A' "• 1""*- The courae of policy pursued bv the British caWnet^;;jj;'Ij broucht about the restoration of Louis XVIII. to the tfro"^ " Fr3e Its accomplishment loaded England wi h an cnor. ^n^:ZcKas mueiri^ opposition to the wishes of the -jn^^^^ of Englishmen, as the restoration of he B«Y„t Jt ^^^^^^^ , trarv to the desire of the French nation. Smce that evem, the Fench have expelled the Bourbons; and the people of j kXland have succeed, after an «f-- «|-/Sjf '^S, J^ | overthrow of toryism, or more properly speaking, of military ''Te'lring corruptions in the representation and the abuses j which existed in the » rotten-borough system," had long ago , TeefcSrW shown, by writer of great political knowledge ; and many of England's best and purest patriots had labored to eorrect the abuses which existed i^n their representation The liberal ioumnlists exerted themselves incessantly to cflect this obP, auH was repeatedly urged in pariiament with great force "^TheTcce'ssion of William IV. who soon became the most populL monrrch that had reigned in Eng'""^' P-^^ D^^f Ltho cause of liberty. After the overthrow ot the Uuke oi WdlinX and his cabinet, William called a whig n>'n>stry, wi^ Earl Grey at its head; and this eminent statesman, with his coHeagTe! Brougham, carried through the long and ardenly SeS reform, thich, eradicating the " rotten boroughs pro- vXd for the free and equal representation of the people of Eng ^-^.;:'mtrrrof the English ^governm-t ha^^^^^^^^^^^^ i^qSV^ttluTatLHi^^^^^^ British statesmen, more especially of those who have so essen- Sy a£ tTe n^w and more enlarged line of policy, m accord^ inee with the spirit of the age, and opposed to the " slavish and despotic monarchies of Europe. , In the 1820, George III. died, January 29th, at the age ot 82 after a reign of threescore years, the longest m the Bt.tish Snr;^hen'(^,eorge IV. who had been regent si nce^tcbn 8, 1811, succeeded to the throne of GreajBrita.^ wd of the p^l ^U nominated by the P™^^ /egent fiij loni ol U^e treasury, Jan. 9, 1812. and continued in office till 1837. His ENOLAND. 643 the Reform BiU, cabinet, mainly to the throne of d with an enor- of the majority urbons was con- Since that event, ul the people of struggle, in the iking, of military n, and the abuses n," had long ago itical knowledge ; 3t8 had labored to resentation. The ntly to effect this int with great force became the most 1, proved favorable w of the Duke of whig ministry, with tatcsmon, with his long and ardently in boroughs," pro- the peoole of Eng nt having a nios> ■ Europe, it will be public measures of ^ho have so essen- »f policy, in accord, to the " slavish and 9th, at the age o( ngest in tho British rent since February •itain. Earl L'ver- , first lord of the ice till 1837. His prudence and moderation at home, were strikingly contracted with till! course |)ursuod by Custlereagh, minister of the foreign department. This luttor minister destroyed himself by sui- cide, August 12, 1822. On his interment in Westminster Abbey, po|)ular indignation against his memory was strongly exiiibitod. And that this Wfis not without reason, will appear by a rcl'orcncc to his many unfeeling and tyrannical measures, and his violations of the constitution. We are Ihtc constrained to offer a passing remark, on the public character of this minis, ter, whose true reputation is not generally known in this coun- try. Custlereagh was hated for his tyranny ; he was the dupe of courts, and the betrayer of the people. The part he took in the congress of Vienna, in parcelling out and trafficking away tho rights of weaker states, to build up a military despot, ism throughout Europe, loaded him with the execrations of all those people whom he had so basely sold. His death was con- sidercd in England as a hapjty event for the cause of liberty, which his measures had for so many years crushed. It will be seen, that the foreign policy of England underwent a complete change aflcr his death. In 1816, the income tax was taken off from personal estate, capital, and colonial possession. This was but shifting the bur- den of taxation from landholders to the working classes, those great consumers of the necessories of life ; who were now reduced to the greatest state of suffering. England for a time, surmounted all these diflicultics, and even greatly increased her foreign trade. This k' ept the manufacturing districts quiet, aa long as they wore weil employed. In the month of August, 1816, a British squadron of five sail of the line and five frigates, under the command of liord Ex- mouth, bombarded Algiers, and destroyed the Algerine shipping, batteries, and magazines : when the Dcy agreed to the total abolition of Christian slavery, and the release of all Christian captives in his dominions. A few months afler this defeat the Dey was strangled, when piracy again flourished, till the French afterwards conquered this piratical city. The distresses in England led the populace to offer public insult, and assail the prince regent, in 1817, on his return from parliament to Carlton House. February 3, a royal message and accompanying documents were communicated to parlia. ment, giving information of the existence of societies, combi- nations, &c. in the metropolis, and throughout the kingdom, dangerous to the constitution ; and that insurrections had been planned. In consequence of this information, which was greatly exaggerated, the ministry took a high-handed course. Lord \M m , 1 it Ltt i iiftiiiip 644 CHAPTER XIV. S.dn,outh introduced a bill -nto « «; Ho-;J ^ - ^^ «- 1 pc.«iou of the hubcu. corpvm ": l^^ «;''J ^^ Ir.HS .k-buting r-Tfort-nSg, witl. -v-ity. uU attc.npt^ to corrupt the "S^ fSt. M.y mK a^.in brought ^--[^^y- r-r^-tbf^^^r^riis^^^^^^^ Lament, ^^ '^'^J^'^^^^l^Z^, .uB,.onHi..n uct, accompun.ed hLdod act Sir «-"-i.,f T^^ , ' r Uibaed the righU reading of the >'wJ«'""ty,J^ "' , Z'JL^ froui thorn; who had of individuals, and took -" '^'g'^Vuncons it t^^^ exerc.He of Buffered by an irresponsible and unconsmuuon ^"^'"'^^^It 1819 there was a meeting at Mmichester, to di». samo wretches '''Tiifmeeting at Manchester was of a peace, of the minis ry.hmmeer.ng ^^^^^^^ .^^^^^^^^^ able -''"'-'; ;.^;^;rofrpetitioner.. There was no ap- ?S. 77r,Z"r^T^ UL, uA «™. of co.^ "°E"rHSy, to the hou» of lord., moved for .n "f^. Ik. iuS if the Miuicheaer maparMc, but «a» defe'ted, ss^ofir/^^r^^ of"Th»'.t -.^" to,^ M«UJ .' i)U.l)i i !IJIJU ' Mi"Wi- ' '-." ' ords, fur the sum into u luw ; and i|i|)rti88 (luLiiting third bill was it8 to corrupt the )r\varii the qiios- was aided by Sir votes being 265 • opening of par- of the people, by net, aoconipuniod H for such ti high* il, on the aecond liihited the rights 0111 tho8(! who had tionol exercise of Vliinchesler, to dis- ll sliould here be ernnient, hiid gone a people ; and these cl behind the power t(!r was of a peace- 100 souls, including There was no up. re any arms among during his speech, ind many lives were 'his nefarious trans- sh populace. The uring districts, were tinuance of twenty. )00,000,000 pounds. public discussions. It a scene of conflict 1 for an inquiry into I, but was defeated ; se of commons, and was renewed before guardians of public ;rant outrage on the the ministers intro- RNOLAND. 645 duced several bills that became Inws, to bo continued five years. These have; gone by the designation of the six acts. They were : Ist, a bill to take away the right of traversing, in cases of misdemeanors. '2d, for piiniHiiing any person found guilty, on a seeoiul <'onvictioii of IiIk'I, by fine, imprisonment, or banishment for lifi;. 'M\, for preventing seditious meetings. 4tii. to prevent private military trainings. M\, the application of the severe stamp system to pamphlets under two sheets, and a more rigorous punishment of IIIk-Is and seditious writings. 6th, a bill giving magistrates the power of entering hoiiw.>s by night, or by day, for the purpose of seizing arms believed to be collected for unlawful purpos(!S. 1820. The death of (jeorge III. this year, protluced no dif- ference in th(! public measures ; although the aspect of ('England was quite changed by the great increase of trade, and the dimi- nution of taxes, and by better harvests. The renewal of specie payments, and the increasing value of paper currency, was highly favorable to manufactures. The countiy was now rwco- vering from the heavy burden of war, in which she had so long been engaged. A daring conspiracy to assassinate ministers, called the Cato street conspiracy, was detected, for which Thistlewood and four of his companions paid the forfeit of their lives, and four others concerned were transported for life to Botany Buv July 19, 1821. The splendid coronation of George IV. took place at Westminster Abbey. On the death of the Marquis of Londorderry, better known as Lord Costlereagh, Mr. Canning was called to the cabinet, as secretary of foreign affairs, Sept. 16th, 18iI2. One of the first measures of Canning, was to check the fanatic influence of the French in Spain. In 1823, England allowed her subjects to aid the Greeks, and even acknowledged their right of blockade. With the republics of South America, she formed treaties of alliance ; and in 1825, formally acknowledged the independence of the South American states. In the years 1825 and 1826, the commercial diflSculties were great, occasioned by the speculation in foreign loans, and in the most costly undertakings, which led to bankruptcies, and gave an unusual shock to men of business. " Bankruptcies spread like a vast fog over England, America, France, and Germany, at the same moment. But the vigor of England is mcalculable."* Seventy-five banks broke in the same number of days ; and 255 joint-stock companies, that, a week before, * Crol/i Life of George IV. ?< VK 64G CHAPTER Xiy. wcio in hi«l» credit, oiul ready for vu-- undortakiogi, were in « u.r v.. r conlidcncn was r.M,8tal.ii8luMl, c-,„Mn..rr.> revived tS\:!^;: butl w.u.t forward wi.l. reuow.l actm.y and ^"lir^unerous iuiUues of bank,. tl.-O^'^ ;J;^^;;^-ij5 X Thus rLtres^ of the country wa- in a great .m-asure "'KaO, \pril 4th. England united with the court of St. Peters- bug to compel the Porte to cease hostilit.eBW.th the C,rj..eks. Mr. Canning was appointe.! prin.e mnuster Apr. 12th l^J^ .v^ died in the month of August of the same year. His policy was crown..d b X recognition of the South American states The maSnanS of the indeiH^ndenco of Portugal, and the treaty stnedarCulon. July mil. fur the settlement of the war m Greece which treaty led to the battle of Navarmo.* TordGodcrich succeeded as first lord of the treasury. Ho ret n-d from office January 8th. when the Duke of Wellington wts made premier, alihough the duke had declared in parliumen , The year before, his entire unfitness for high c.v.l ofhce. In Apnl. a Catholic relief bill was passed. George IV. King of Great Britain, died June 26th, jsaO, and was succeeded by his second brother, the Duke of Cbrence Tder^hrtitle of Villiam IV. The ^^^^XTZ/.tJ^^^ of Wellington was overthrown. November 16th, and a «w days after, a nfw ministry was formed, with Earl Grey at lU head. nrS'^orwXS overthrow was ascrilyd to his JsSnce of retrenchme'nt. and his "PPf;--- "J ^ ^ riots and opposition to parliamentary reform. Ihe political oSiacy o??rDuke arLe out of his ignorance and contempt of the people, and a blind confidence in his own supremacy and J^wer.Tnd a thorough oisregard of public opinion, while . Mr. Brougham .aid of Mr. Canning, in the British h°»»« "J^'J"^^;;?; 10 be hoped, that the efforts he made, crowned as they were wim succeia, might be followed up." i I i!! BHU,-Jim... ' H-"J<*""-'^'-'m ' '-""'" Irtakint^ were lA lli'soliitioii, ffi all- Ldirirrri; rtivived, Iwid uctivity and rird tliu littxirini o ciirrnicy ncnt itniiu'diutcly l(>8.sil)l(3 (l<;8imtcll. ) a iluy, nnu Hiip- i)f tlio mint on this giiH pt-r (lay wcro rnrily, two pound n a groat tnt^oaure :ourt of St. Peters, s with thn Greeks. April 12th, 1827, year. His policy I Americnn states, igal, and the treaty ont of tlie war in variiio.* tlio treasury. He uke of Wellington lared in parliament, vil office. In April, me 26th, 1830, and Duke of Clarence, tration of the Duke kh, and a few days I Grey at its head, as ascribed to his lension of popular 'm. The political ■once and contempt >wn supremacy and }lic opinion, while sh house of commons, ature sacrifice to his of policy ; and it was ey were with success. ENOLAlfD. 647 events at home and abroad ptirplexed him. The continental inouurcliH of the Holy Alliunce had looked to the tory ministry, ' wit!) Wellington at itH head, for security and protection. What 'niii.'|K)rl the reform bill,* '/'liix ministr^ took upon them a gr(uit task — an arduous res{/«jii» try, 209 against it. The King dissolved the parliament in person, on the 22d of April. In the speech delivered on that occusujii, William said, " I have been induced to resort to this nieuiiure for the purpose of ascertaining the sense of my people," &ic. The new parliament, of which a largo number v/m pledged to support reform, assembled June 14th, 1831, and was opened by the King, who recommended the question of a reform in the representation, to their earliest and most attentive conxtdera- tion. On the 24th, the reform bill was again brought forward by Lord John Russell, in the house of commons, and puwed its second reading July 6th, by a vote of 367 to 235, and to a third reading Sept. 22d, by a vote of 349 to 236. The bill was car- ried up to the house of lords, and on October 8th, rejected by a vote of 109 to 158. Parliament was prorogued on the 20th of the same month. The rejection of the reform bill in the house of lords, on the 8th, led to strong manifestations of popular fury against the nobility, especially those who had voted against the bill. At Nottingham and Derby, as well as other parts of the kingdom^ riots commenced soon as intelligence of the defeat of the bill * In 1797, Lord Grey made a motion for reform. Its failure caused that great statesman, Fox, to withdraw from parliament, which was by soma jadged to be a dereliction of duty. *i/,i( iu, " 648 CHAPTER XIT. was received. Oa the 29th, 30th, and Slat, dreadrul riota took place at Bristol — many of the public buildings and an immense amount of property were destroyed ; ninety persons were k-lled and wounded at that time ; afterwards five were executed, and many were sentenced to transportation. The total damage done, during this riot at Bristol, was estimated at 300,000 pounds sterling. Parliament was opened again, December 6th, by the King ; and on the 12th, Lord John Russell, (a third time,) introduced a new bill for reform, very similar to the former, and declared to be " equally efficient." It was read the second time, on the 16th, by a vote of 324 to 162. On March 23d, it was brought up for a third reading, and passed by a vote of 355 to 239. The bill passed to a second reading, in the house of lords, April 13th, by a vote of 184 to 175. An amendment to defeat the bill was introduced by Lord Lyndhurst, which passed May 8th, by a vote of 151 to 116 ; and on May 12th it was lost by a majority of 40. Earl Grey advised the King to create a sufli. cient number of new peers to secure the success of the bill, ten- dering his resignation as the alternative, which was accepted. On the resignation of ministers, great public excitement followed. The political unions, organized throughout the country, deter, mined to refuse the payment of taxes, and demanded that the ministers should be reinstated. Earl Grey had stated, that he would stand or fall by this bill ; and that nothing less efficient should be supported by him. The excitement was so great in Birmingham, that 100,000 persons assembled suddenly and spontaneously, and forwarded an immediate express to London. There was a firm determina. tion to have the reform bill carried, or pay no taxes ; and this determination was echoed from every part of the kingdom. There was no riot ; the people had risen in their collective strength, to assert their just rights. Bursts of indignant feel- ings were directed against the bishops and nobility. The Duke of Wellington failed in his attempts to form a ministry ; when Earl Grey and his colleagues were reinstated in office May 18th, with the assurance from the King, of having a suffi- cient number of peers created, to secure the passing of the bill. When the lords were apprized of this fact, they resolved to let it pass. June 14th, the bill passed a third reading, by a vole of 106 to 22, and the royal assent was given by commission, on the 17th of the same month. It is worthy of remtwk, that not one of the bishops was present on the final passage of the bill. In answer, iog the forebKodings and objections made to it by the lords, Eaii eadful riota touk and an immcnae [irsons were k-lled 3re executed, and The total damage It 300,000 pounds Ith, by the King ; time,) introduced ncr, and declared cond time, on the 3d, it was brought e of 355 to 239. use of lords, April lent to defeat the Ih passed May Stli, h it was lost by a g to create a suiii. [ess of the bill, ten- nich was accepted. xcitement followed. the country, deter. lemanded that the lad stated, that he thing less efficient :ham, that 100,000 sly, and forwarded 8 a firm determina. lo taxes ; and this : of the kingdom, in their collective of indignant feel, nd nobility. The D form a ministry ; reinstated in office , of having a suffi. passing of the bill, ley resolved to let , by a vote of 106 nission, on the 17th that not one of the le bill. In answer, by the lords, Eaii BNOLAND. 649 Grey said — " That the peace, power, and prosperity of England would all be increased by the reform." By it, 22 new boroughs, in England, are to send two new members each ; 19 new boroughs, one each ; 62 new members are added to the English county members ; three to the county members, and two to the borougli members of Wales ; five to the Scotch members ; and five to the Irish members. By this reform bill, 56 of the old boroughs, cullcfl rotten or decayed boroughs, have been wiiolly disfranchised ; and 30 boroughs, tiint before sent two members each, are to send but one. The united borough of Weymouth and Mclcombe Regis, which before sent four members, is to send but two. County members under the reform act. — Formerly, each county sent two members, except Yorkshire, which returned four — total 82. The counties in Wales, one each — total 12. By the reform act, the number of the county members of England is raised to 144 ; those of Wales to 15. And 26 English counties are divided, and return four members each ; 7 counties three each ; the ridings of Yorkshire, two each ; and the six remain- ing counties, two each ; and the Isle of Wight, one. Of the 12 Welch counties, three send two members each ; the remaining nine, one each. The reform act also extends to the right of voting, in the elec tion of members for cities and boroughs, to every male person of full age, not subject to any legal incapacity, who occupies, as owner or tenant, any house, warehouse, shop or building, of not less than ten pounds yearly value : provided such person pa)rs assessed taxes and poor rates. And in the election of county members, the elective franchise extends to every male person who shall be in actual occupation of a freehold for life, or of lands or tenements of copyhold, of the clear yearly value of not less than ten pounds. In England, a county member of parlia- ment must possess real property to the amount of 600 pounds Gr annum ; and a borough member, 300 pounds. But in Scot- id, no such qualification is requisite. Lord John Russell, in his speech on introducing the first reform bill, (March 1, 1831,) made the following statement respecting the number of voters that would be added by that bill : number added in towns and boroughs in England already sending members, 1 10,000 ; electors of towns in England sending mem- bers for the first time, 50,000 ; electors in London, who will obtain the right of voting, 95,000 ; increase of electors in Scot- land, 60,000 ; in Ireland, perhaps 40,000 ; increase in the coun- ties of England, 100,000. « It is my opinion, therefore," said Lord Russell, " that the whole measure will add to the constitu- CHAPTEK XIV. ^, of ,he common ho«» of p«rU.n,enU "J»"' ^f; "J'ijJ nliSLtu'STof 'boo,l,s an. >o W P«^P»-^» "••'.ft polUnn .'- '"? ^S houm on U.e b7"vi;rrH,t„r„f:r.™-t:L.ep>opo„.a» the English house ol lords ; and o the dwin oi u ''T»'p...in« of .he reform hill »" Mo««'l !H »£"!"! cr°Vhrry^:^^».r^H;XK^. re^/fi^^^reissts^hivrxra .«'. i-- ihem with complete hberlv. parliament, and The cond.tio» ol 'j'j f/^J^^^^^^^^^ investing in connection with the Irish coercion , session of the executive wUh ^''[.^^"'tl'^Cirfo^^^^^^^^^^ disturbances, various bills «« « '""f "•^^j, „„ ^f one of these, of the grievances of that country. ^J;f°'"r'^2 Protestont which had for it« object ^^e reform ^^f the Ijish^r^^^^ ^^ Church, involved the appropriation of l"f ^'^'^^^^^ ^ -' vision for the Protestant Clergy, to the general put purposes ot |)ut half a million property of the and deeply into- ured, so that not iipartmcnt. The .aaive days only ; orht hours on the be kept open later a third reading in )f tiie same month, I house of lords, was read a third On the 16th of ogued to the 16th irliament has been wisdom, and stem or many years, the nmons, — a firm and 3crats and leagued owed by a general dry. The first ses- thu king, in person, session, the charters I. The former was of the British terri- le East India Com- >wn open to British 1 memorable by the slavery in the VVest nted to the proprie- BS were placed in a (pired and invested fore parliament, and I measure investing - the suppression of for the amelioration lion of one of these, he Irish Protestant titles, after due pro- general purposes of ENGLAND. 651 education. In the session of 1831, the Irish coercion bill, which was to have expired in August, was renewed, and ren- dered more stringent, Init before it was passed, the administra- tion of Earl (Jrey was dissolved. Upon the resignation of Mr. Littleton, the Irish secretary. Lord Althorp and Earl Grey, Lord Melbourne became premier, all the other members of the cabinet retaining office. One act was carried by the .Melbourne admin- islnation, which has proved of great importance to all classes. This act had for its object the entire re-organization of the poor laws. Great difference of opinion exists, regarding its merits, but it is clear that it has relieved the owners and occupiers of lands from heavy burdens, and raised the moral character of the English peasantry. Under the old poor-laws, they unblushingly sought the pittance of charity : now they are mainly sohcitous to subsist by honest industry. The rule of the Melbourne administration was brief. Before the prorogation of parliament, its weakness had been apparent, and its want of intrinsic power had rendered it dependent on O'Connell and his party. At the same time, the public press denounced its incapacity to carry on government on any fixed principles. Certain of its members gave high offence to the king, who availed himself of an opportunity, aflbrded him by the death of Earl Spencer, to dismiss the whole ministry from his service. To Sir Robert Peel was committed the task of form- ing a new cabinet, which was accomplished towards the close of the year. This change in the administration was followed, in 1 835, by a general election. In England the new government obtained a majority in the elections, but in Ireland and Scotland, public opinion was decidedly against them. When parliament assem- bled, they were left in the minority, in the first subject of debate, that of the choice of a speaker. Upoki several subsequent divi- sions they were equally unsuccessful, and on being defeated in a measure, concerning the appropriation of the surplus of the revenues of the Irish church. Sir Robert Peel resigned. The Melbourne cabinet, with the exception of Lord Brougham, were now recalled, and during this session they succeeded in passing bills for the reform of the English corporations, and for the solemnization of the marriages of dissenters in their own chapels. These measures were followed in the session of 1836, by laws for the better registration of births, marriages and deaths ; for the commutation of English tithes, and the nearer equalization of episcopal sees. Upon Irish questions, the house of lords was still opposed to the views of the cabinet, and the majority of the house of commons. The lords refused •H\i m^ Hi M Wit "! •/ 652 CHAPTER XIV. if to nass an Irish tilhe bill with the aprropriation clause, and the ^oJimons rliecting the measure without U. there was once more '^ '^Z^ZS^l^C^^^^^ forced themselves At this tune, ine a ,pj^ y^^^^^ ^i assembly m o„ 4, 19th of June, h.8 majesty "P''t*J"°°°' fV^b- Few tiKTOreh. of K„gl«nd ...r po>».8.ed the lo.e of thetr WB- jeete in s grentcr degree then Wllham IV. AUxandrina Victoria. 1 n laiT tieiandrlna Victoria, who now succeeded to wu hailed with mote than ordinary enthnsiaam. One eltect oi 1? descent of the crown to a female, wa. the .eparatton from * of Ha!».°r, after a onion of more than a oenlory. The '"Cia",::!"' c^p^^'te^r fS °S»> ... p-* di.» at .£ao»of .H. ^t™ofT..?rM" S ZiSToHh; S.".. l»d been 'declining, but the clause, and the was once more reed themselves of assembly in on to the mother An attempt at ution of cominis- les of the British ractory 8i)irit dis- rd Durham was as, with the most evolt, the amelio- the institutions of :'s health had, in lent spring, symp- sing rapidly, until, ithout a struggle, love of their sub- now succeeded to late duke of Kent, as 18 years of age, im. One effect of he separation from I a century. The irer. I with all possible ts dissolved. The terfect tranquillity, declining, but the lity to their power. I educated by her id her countenance ernment and make roclaimed that she andidates traversed loyalty to her 9ir ENGLAND. majesty by supporting her ministers. This appeal to the people failed to accomplish its object, the triumphs of the political parties, after a keen trial of their strength, being nearly balanced. In the autumn of this year, the corporation of London distin- guished itself by a demonstration of its loyalty to the queen, in a magnificent entertainment given to her in Guildhall, on the 9ih of November. The utmost enthusiasm prevailed on this occa- sion. The queen opened the new parliament on the 20th of November. The motions relative to vote by ballot, and slavery, which occupied their attenticm during this session, were nega- tived. A bill which had for its object the education of the people, without reference to creed, was brought in by Lord Brougham, but the difHculties it encountered were insurmountable. A disaffection arose among the working classes in the manu- facturing districts, during the autumn of this year, excited by the poor laws and the price of provisions, but. by the exertions of government, order was restored. In the session of 1839, a bill was passed for the regulation of municipal corporations in Ireland. At this time disputes existed between the British government and the Jamaica legislature, arising from an act, which empowered her majesty in council to make rules for the government of the West India prisons, to appoint inspectors, and to regulate other matters of discipline. This was resisted by the Jamaica assembly, as a violation of their rights ; resolutions condemnatory of the act were adopted, and the members resolved to forego the exercise of their legisla- tive functions, until it was repealed. In consequence of this, a bill was brought into parliament for the suspension of the exist- ing constitution of Jamaica, for five years. Before this the minis- try had lost some of their supporters, and others now voting against them, the result of the debate brought about their resignation. Sir Robert Peel having failed to form a new cabinet, the Mel- bourne administration again resumed office, and measures were taken by them for the advancement of education, not, however, commensurate with the wants of the people. Every section of the religious community opposed each other on this question, which rendered it diflicult for ministers to adopt any enlarged or enlightened educational measure. A bill, for the healing of the breach between the British parliament and the Jamaica assembly, was passed, which had the desired effect. Acts were passed for the better ordering of prisons, for the suppression of the Portuguese slave trade, and for the disposal of waste lands in the colonies ; but this session was particularly signalized by the reduction of the rates of postage, a measure, promotive of the . interests of trade and commerce, and of individur* bennfit. I ffll CIIAITER XIV. A mntion to take into consiJeration a '«Nalional Petition," ? asses domandiMK universal 8uflrn«c, vole by ballot, annual narliaments and remuneration of members for their attendance f„ the n anS the abolition of the property qual.ficat.ons, was rol. tPd Its rciectiou was c-otemporaneous with various riots at'mrlgl am iSng out of the pToceedmgs of the chartists, Su twh 1. wer^ suppressed by the action of parharnent. An announcement was made, at the opening of the se s.on of 1840 that her majesty was about to be married to Albert, ln.o of ?ixe Cohura and (iotha. A bill was consequently rglttr;pa:sed,''for the -J-'^ j"-^ ^i^T^it an nnn npr annum, was a so voted him, out ol tne con SitefS rcZmence on the day of l.is marriage wuh her majesty, and to continue during life. The marriage tooK place on the 1 0th of February. , . \ bill was this year brouaht into parliamenl and passed, lor the urn, o the t Jo Canadas. During the last year, a serious coUrJio. took place between the Chinese authorities, and the cannon wrested'^from the emperor of that vast empire a portion This dominions. The policy «f f -^'-if^^,;? S" con- the affairs of China, was made the subject of a series ol con demnSlry ^Lolutioi'is, and they were only negatived by a small ""iT'this period Sir Robert Peel moved a resolution, to the eflect that Ter majesty's ministers did not possess the confidence «r.hV house sufficiently to enable them to carry any measure o essenS imjorunce'^lo the public welfare, and that their Ire mSLty unfavorable to the administration. An amend- ment to*he address from the throne, representing to her majesty ri c ssitv ia her ministers should enjoy the confidence of I atioiml Petition," of the working y ballot, annual their attendance ualifications, was ith various riots of the chartists, arliitrnent. ing of the session married to Albert, was consequently of his royal high- m, out of the con- his marriage with ^he marriage took !iit and passed, for iist year, a serious ulhorities, and the (vcrnment had pro- r country, and an ry particle of this be delivered to the s was refused, and the British govern- he Chinese empire, first time, British ist empire a portion t, with reference to Df a series of con- egatived by a small I resolution, to the isess the confidence carry any measure ire, and that their !ee, was at variance dution was adopted, Hras dissolved, and : general election, his occasion, but at ilts of the elections ration. An amend- iting to her majesty y the confidence of ENGLAND. 6SS the country, and that it was not possossed by the present admin* istrntiun, was carried against them by a large majority. In reply, her majesty stated tliat she would take measures lor the formation of a new cabinet, and Sir Robert Peel was charged with the task, in executing which, he was successful. The principal members of the new .idministration were ihe Duke of Wellington, the Duke of Buckingham, the Karl of Haddington, Sir James Graham, Lords Ellcnborongh, Stanley, Wharnclifle, Lowthor, and Lyndhurst; the Honorable H. Goulburn, Sir E. Knatchbull, and Sir H. Hardingo. The only measures of importance, brought forward by the new ministry, were bills for the belter administration of justice in the court of chancery, and for the continuance of the new poor law commission. This year, the differences which had arisen between the courts of Great Britain and the Chinese empire, were, for a time, adjusted. After the forts, surrounding Canton, were cop- lured, the Chinese emperor purchased peace by indemnification. The island and harbor of Hong Kong were ceded to the British crown ; an indemnity of 6,UOO,000 dollars was to i)c paid to the British government, and the trade and commerce between the two countries renewed. Further important concessions were made by the Chinese empire, and the result of the war was highly favorable to Great Britain. It must bo mentioned, to the honor of the British nation, that great exertions have been made, and are still making, for the Christianizing of the Chinese people. An important treaty was this year signed between France, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain, whereby the former powers agreed to adopt the English laws relative to the slave trade. Several important measures were passed by parliament in the session of 1842 : one of these was a new corn-law, on the principle of a graduated scale, to which great opposition was made, but which finally passed, in its original state. The next important measure was an income tax bill, by which all persons, having an income of more than jCidO per annum, were subjected to a tax of seven pence in the pound : personal property was also taxed to the same amount. The passing of this measure was followed by extensive alterations in the tariff, or customs' duties. The duties on numerous articles of trade and commerce were either greatly reduced, or wholly repealed by a bill, enti- tled the "Customs' Act." The repeal of the corn-laws was demanded, but still opposed by government. .Another bill was passed, by the exertions of Lord Ashley, which had for its object the restraining of the employment of children in mines and collieries, which had been a cause of great moral degrada- ! ! ■Junilifr"'- 656 CHAPTER XIV. A bill was also passed, renew ng ^!»« "'"' '^ ^f education, five years, and forming 'l'«'"S\^, "'„ ^^eSrof the session with various minor matters j,'"P~S view of its opera- EoTh partiel and which gave "-;».--;- ^twed. but in this Hostilities with China had recenijy been rene . ^^ year the war was fi^-^^y^rifj^nese now engaged to pay ■the :-6ih of Augtist. ^y ^^^^^^Jj^^j^^^ ^ now JJ ,„ 21.000,000 dollars, and ! ^ f [".dsof ClLan and Kolang-soo '''' "lo'tS by he B iih UU the money payments were were to be heW ny lao "» „_,,:„„ ,i^e ports completed, made and arrangements '"-^ «1 ^"'"f "^^l this year, in a war The British arms were also ^^J'-^f "^^S,, commencement with the Aflghans, m the East "^rcd several reverses, but of this war. the British ^^^^^ .i^^^„' "^'yeveral fortresses they were now every where ^'f «™- -n^ j^g .lu^t, while were stormed, and some of them levelled wUi U^e t , ^^^^^^ thousands of the Affghan f 7«,. ^^^i- fJh "roo ' , devastated, country, in the line of ■"''^^^^wttuH"! b^e""'!! .« the The Affghans had for «-- ^»^-£"j:i,i',i troops evacuated created great disquietude and anxiel>.l^^ was a con- and industry there .^"^f, f ^«f .^^JP^^rp customs, and taxes, siderable decrease in the e''"««>J3r ^^me suggested the To remedy the «lif'«f jj^f/lotted remigrftln, as the repeal of the corn-laws, and «'^^^" P°'";* ^yje. \ lengthened only means to relieve the ^/J^^f J/^ J^^^^^^ government, to debate took place on a Pl/"' ^'^""gf, "!*"i was the animosity promote the education of the P«oj ^-J^ ^.j^ , i,, i„, displayed against ^^v^^'' -orirSe" and the augmentation for the endowment of ^^dmona^ f ^^^^^^^^ ^^i}^^ f^/s for these of small livings, was .""^"^^^^'^J^^^^^^^^ Anne's bounty purposes were to be «1«"^«'^' '"f''''^ bishoprics, cathedrals, Ld in part from the revenue otcermn bishop .^ ^^^ and other ecclesiastical ^^^^^^^^^'^^^^^hich materially altered relating to defamation and hbel. la. W'JHr ' * ' ! ENOLAND. 657 having been made [amed Dean, a bill perfect unanimity, law commission for )se8 of education, Ings of the session re viewof itsopera- s been adopted by renewed, but in this eaty was . signed on low engaged to pay orts were opened to iHan and Kolang-soo mey payments were ts completed. this year, in a war t the commencement several reverses, but Several fortresses with the dust, while lain, and the whole )h troops, devastated. been adverse to the lish troops evacuated le which still inspires jpect of public aflairs every branch of trade There was a con- , customs, and taxes. , some suggested the 1 to emigration, as the isure. A lengthened ird by government, to ich was the animosity id. A bill brought in, and the augmentation The funds for these Queen Anne's bounty bishoprics, cathedrals, Several reforms in the lich materially altered iveral changes in that Great commotions took place this year in Ireland. A loud cry fur the repeal of the union, was heard throughout the coun* try. Mr. O'Connell and his coadjutors were arrested on charges of coiLspiracy, sedition, and unlawful assemblage. Their trial occurred in 1844, when they were fined and sentenced to be imprisoned for twelve months, but parliament soon after reversed their suiitcnce, and they were liberated. There was some com- motion also, at this time, in South Wales. A war was raised against the turnpike system, arising from the vexatious tolls to which the peasantry were subjected. The toll-gales were every where demolished, and no sooner were they re-erected than tiiey were again destroyed. In order to quell these disturb- ances, government sent a large body of troops and many of the London police, into Wales. In a short time, some of the most active in these tumults were captured, and towards the close of the year Wales became more quiet. This year witnessed another war in the East Indies. It was discovered that the ameers of Sinde were preparing to attack tlie British, and Sir Charles Napier was sent against them. A great battle was fought at Meeanee, the result of which was that the six ameers who governed that country were captured, and that the whole of Sinde was annexed to the British domin- ions in the East. The Sindian population every where expressed their satisfaction at the change of masters. Sir Charles Napier was appointed Governor of Sinde, and was empowered to take such measures as might appear best calculated to suppress the slave trade, which had long existed in that country, and to abolish all duties of transit, which had been imposed by the ameers. In the course of this year the British troops gained two decisive victories over the Mahratta forces. In the Autumn, queen Victoria, accompanied by Prince Albert, visited Louis Phillippe, late king of France, in his own dominr ions. This was an interesting event, as it tended to increase the harmony existing between the two countries. After receiv- ing a most cordial reception from his majesty, the queen and; prince Albert proceeded on their voyage to Ostend. In the session of 1844, were passed several important acts; one having for its object the regulation of railways ; another, containing salutary provisions for the regulation of joint-stock companies, and a third, entirely remodelling the system of turn- pike-road management in South Wales. A further alteration was made in the Poor Law Amendment Act, having for its chief object the preservation of morality among the poor. Another act permitted sugar, not being the produce of slave labor, to be imported into the country at diminished duties. A 42 » i \ ^ 658 ciiatteh xrv. 1 .-,.1 f.ir i>in iiboliiion of a number of penal acU, bill was al«o passcj for the '^'»» " „y obsolete. The retained in the I'-'^)^ «ta «tc »«ok ^^^ g«"« l^ ,,^„ , „,„^i„„ 'TuT r:r?nind a.7the aZiniHtrution of hanking con- :i;!:;i;:^ir«vatpnncip.^fu..^^^ ::;rde.and. -/»S;Zvirr ;:d1:2i5:!^-^ny year, at Dunng th.H y«"' ^J' .; 2,,; of the East India Company. wa« Macao, as c»»'«f-»"P''""'" , " \,°' " cent acqnisitionH in China. I The income tax *7,„^» ^ ;\l';ii;hc" and expectations of the ingof P»-^»i«™^'"''J°"^'7Su^rple.l, wilh^great opposition, I l>eople, was renewed^ A hm « as p , y^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ,.^_^ for improving "^f '"".JJ«";^ ^alhoiic priesthood. Other acta the education ol the '^«"'*". '^''"'""^lieh had previously been relieved the Jews from <=«««;" ".J;™' „ ,„„V,icipal oftices ; , required from ^^^'JP"" '^j";; ^rwoks provided for the regulated Juvende labor - - ^ P^^^ J,,^ ,, sLtland and Ire- , better care of l«"""".' [.^ l" .i.„,e ol the bank charter of Sa„°J, E fS-"'lh'e ISSe o, c„»,.»n. in E„g,.nd left bank of the ^""^'J' 7.^ , r J^aj declaration of war, '^'^" ""TAa^: Ts Sat MooS in which the British and a terrible batt e was lougni » , gj^^ j,o had "'"'"1.LX' ttV -i'recrS t^Vtlei escaped '^^ ^^-^jf J*,' J°* British followed them and pressed the year ^ ^46, the vtcwrious ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ forward to Lahore. T«'"?' "^^iJ!" dment of the Sikh army, of the stipulations 7" %«/(^3eTNaWr was employed in Earlier in the year 1845, Sir ^'»»"f * 7' ^^e rMit bank military operations agrainsUhe monn.am .r^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ completely success u; the ^wer o^ ^^^^^^^ had been long a '"^'"^I'^J^Tm important than the phy- s^frdett\3rthr;o7eo^ -j^t5:^:q^eaiof^^^^^^^^ S rtg-s otXt harS:. sent^to every part of the TC V !r of penal acts, obAolotn. The ir tho ri-gulation Jof l)unkiiig coii- |ill concerned the makers of )>roin- umld bo uhlo to )ld. ul niiiny years at ia Company, was isiiionN in China, ■rnment of India, cesser. but on the mect- xpectations of the 1 great opposition, ■nooth college, for lood. Other acts ,d previously been niiiiicipul ofHces ; ; provided for the Scotland and Ire- bank charter of unions in England I dominions on the ded by tho Sikhs. Icclaration of war, I which the British a Sikhs who had iitlej ; and early in them, and pressed igreed on, and one if the Sikh army, r was employed in B on the right bank ! operations he was ibber tribes, which ;rly broken. The rtant than the phy- de the power of the lad been demanded, le had been set on > every part of tho r 659 country, to enlighten the |i«of»le on this qnesiion. Hitherto, Sir Robert Peel hiid been decidedly opposed to such a repeal, but the utter failure of the potato crop, which had created great diNtreM<4 throughout the tJiiite/l no properly tiiiaii* fication to eligibility. For thi mirpone of mnkiiig n (lornoimtra- tion of their strength, ami oi jiromotiniK tlu> ohJpctD of their asHociation, the chartinta proifost d a gciii'ral incutini; in Loiulon, on 'ho 10th of April, 'i'heir nunili«>r having liccn much exag- gerated, the go/ernmcnt tortilied the public building!*, tMilarged the civil force to an unpnx-cdcnti'd extent, and took every pre- caution against the conHtruction of bnrricadi'H. On the day appointed, about tun thouHand iiMsombled in Fitzruy Square, marched quietly to Hlacklriar's liridgc, which they were permitted to cross, and thence to Kensington Common, their place of rendo/vuus for the day. The number of chartists and spectators hero was not far from fiiVy thousand. They again crossed the Thames, delivered their monster petition to parlia- ment, and dispersed. The result of this affair aflbrded to the friends of the Constitution and of order an evidence of their own strength, and of the weakness of the chartists. Of late the chartists have renewed their assemblages with increased ardor, but they seem to create no alarm. On the Gth of July last, six of their number were convicted of sedition, and sentenced to two years imprisonment. In Ireland, sympathy with the French in freeing their nation from the shackles of monarchy, stimulated the friends of repeal to renewed and greatly augmented efforts, and inspired in many hearts the hope that the day of the desired separation from Great Britain was at hand. Clubs were extensively formed, and rebellion against the authority of government was openly counselled and vindicated by their leaders. In May last, John Mitchell, a prominent agitator, and editor of the " United Irishman," was arrested and convicted on a charge of treason. The types of his paper were seized by the government, and Mitchell was sentenced to transportation for fourteen years. A new journal, entitled the " Irish Felon," was immediately issued, the editor of which, Mr. Martin, was arrested on a charge of treason, in July, and sent to Newgate. O'Brien, Meagher, Dillon and Doherry, engaged most actively in organizing and inspiring the clubs, preparing, meanwhile, for an active resistance. Fearing that a crisis was at hand, the government adopted the most vigorous measures. Viscount Hardinge was sent into Ireland to take connnand of the troops. Every available soldier was despatched from England to Ireland, and largo rewards were offered for the arrest of the leaders of the insurgents. On the 25th of July, parliament passed a bill. authorizing the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to apprehend and detain until the arlia- iled to the f their own lages with On the 6th edition, and their nation U of repeal red in many iration from oly formed, was openly r, and editor victed on a eized by the portation for immediately i on a charge n, Meagher, ^anizing and re resistance, t adopted the as sent into liable soldier irgo rewards iirgents. ithorizing the ain until the TC FRANri. 661 lit of MaTfti, 1810, iiny pc-rson HUH|)ect6d of conspiracy against her MitjoHty'ii xu^'riiinoiit. He accordingly proclaimed the cities III' Diililin, Cork, Wntcrford, and the town of Drogheda, to be uiiil«-r tlio act, iiiNtruitiiig the [mlico to search fur arms, and to take into cuittody nil persons found to bo in the possession of them without ii licuimu. On the 2!Hh of July, the insurgents came in conflict with the police of Miillingarry, in the county of Tippuriiry. They were armed with muskets and pikes, and commanded by Smith O'Urit'ii, but were ilispcrst-d after u short fight. Seven were killed. O'lirinii, Meagher, and others, fled from the officers of justice, but they, with the principal leaders, were subsequently arrested. At present, the agitiitors of Ireland seem to have yielded to the formidable preparations and energetic forces of the govern- ment, and that unhappy country is, for the time, in a slate of tranquillity. On the 5tli of September, the queen prorogued parliament in person, by a speech from the throne, recapitulating the most important tivents of the session, and immediately after, took her departure lor Scotland. The French Revolution of February^ 1848. The revolution accomplished in Paris, on the 24th of Febru- ary, 1848, is without a parallel in history. At once the most bloodless and the most complete of modem times, it was the spontaneous, unpremeditated act of the unarmed people of Paris. No long-matured and widely-ramified conspiracy preceded the outbreak, as in 1830. The whole work was accompUshed by the people in the brief space of three days. A general feeling of discontent with the measures and policy of the government, suggested the holding of political reform ban- quets throughout France. No fewer than sixty-two of these were held in different towns, and attended by th« leading oppo- sitionists. The omission of the King's health from the list of toasts, on almost all these occasions, was a circumstance that gave pecu- liar poignancy to the irritation with which such displays were regarded by the government. It having been announced that reform banquets were to be held throughout France on the 22d n i ii I 662 CHAPTER XIV. of February, the birth-day of Washington, the administration determined to put down that which was to take place in Paris. Military preparations were made on an extensive scale ; guns were mounted on the fortresses around the city ; large stores of ammunition were provided, and nothing seemed wanting to enable the government to crush any attempt at insurrection. On the evening preceding the '22d, proclamations were posted about the streets by the police, announcing that no banquet or procession would be permitted, and cautioning the public against tumultuous assemblages in the streets. In the Chamber of Deputies, an intimation to the same effect was received during the early part of the sitting, and at once put an end to the discussion of all other business. Some differ- ence of opinion arose among the members of the banquet com- mittee and the deputies of the opposition, whether the procla- mation of the government should be obeyed. A minority were inclined to form the procession at all hazards ; but it was finally agreed that the meeting should be given up; that the public should be urged to maintain a peaceable attitude, and that the late discussion of the question in the chambers should be renewed in a form that would lead either to a dissolution, and so bring it before the electors, or to a change of cabinet. Articles of impeachment were therefore to be moved against the ministry by Mr. Odillon Barrot. In the morning a formal announcement that the banquet was deferred appeared in all the opposition papers, and the orders to the troops of the line to occupy the ground, and all the avenues leading to the place of meeting, were countermanded. Picquets only were stationed in places where crowds might be expected to assemble, sufficient, it was presumed, to disperse the mob ; but no serious disturbance was anticipated, either by the minis- try or its opponents. The proclamations, however, of the prefect of the police, and the announcement of the opposition journals, came too late. At an early hour, the Place de la Madeline, the Place de la Con- corde, and the Champ Elysees, were thronged by the working classes. At noon, the multitude around the Church of the Made- line, whence the banquet procession was to have set out, became formidable in numbers, though manifesting no symptoms of dis- order, and at one time could not have numbered less than thirty thousand persons. The regiment, which had arrived, was drawn up in line along the railing of the church. Soon after, several squadrons of the municipal cavalry arrived, and the popu- lace were desired to disperse. This order being disregarded, the charge was sounded, and the dragoons rushed on the people. I "fl FRANCE. 663 iinistration e in Paris, cale ; guns e stores of g to enable On the d about the procession tumultuous lame effect nd at once >onie difier- nquet com- the procla- nority were was finally the public ind that the should be lion, and so t. Articles the ministry banquet was he orders to he avenues I. Picquets be expected >e the mob ; r the minis- police, and K> late. At de la Con- [he working )!' the Made- out, became toms of dis- i than thirty rrived, was Soon after, nd the popu- ilisregarded, 1 the people. At first an effort was made to disperse the crowd by the mere force of the horses, without the use of arms, and the dragoons did not draw. This, however, proving ineffectual, several charges with drawn swords were made, the flat of the sword only being used. By these means, the mu'.atude was at length dispersed without any loss of life, or other serious casualties. At one o'clock the main thoroughfares were clear. During the remainder of the day, the principal streets were patrolled by cavalry of the municipal guard, the infantry of the line keeping clear the footways. At the Chamber of Deputies, three impeachments against the cabinet were handed to the president, who, without reading them, ordered that they should be taken into consideration on Thursday. One of the impeachments was presented on the part of M. Odillon Barrot, and signed by fifty-three deputies ; another on the part of M. Duvergier d' Hauranne ; the third on the part of M. de Genoude, deputy for Toulouse. In the evening, the disturbances were renewed, and now began to wear a threatening aspect. Gunsmiths' shops were broken open ; barricades were formed in the neighborhood of the principal markets ; lamps were extinguished ; posts of the municipal guards were attacked ; the streets were filled with troops ; and at night, anxiety for the result of the sanguinary contest on the morrow, which had become inevitable, spread throughout Paris. At an early hour on Wednesday, February 23d, crowds began to assemble and to busy themselves in the formation of new bar- ricades. These were attacked and partially destroyed as fast as formed, by the municipal guard, or the troops. The morning passed in skirmishes, in which some were killed, and success was generally on the side of the authorities ; the people, how- ever, when dispersed in one place, assembled instantly in another, and rapidly increased in numbers. Considerable bodies of the National Guards appeared in the streets, but although at first wavering as to the course they would follow, it soon became evident that they would yield to the contagion of popular enthu- siasm, and act with, rather than against, the movement. About one o'clock, a portion of the National Guards having declared for reform, their officers held a council, and agreed to depute their Colonel to the King, to acquaint his Majesty with their wishes. Their requests being signified to Louis Phillippe at the Tuileries, through General Jacqueminot, they were at once acceded to. Reform and the dismissal of the Guizot cabinet were promised, and Count Mol6 was entrusted with the charge of forming a new ministry. The news of this change ,t ' I 664 CHAPTER XIV. was immediately carried to the Chamber of Deputies by M. Guizot himself, which soon after rose in great agitation. The dismissal of the ministry produced a momentary calna. But the streets continued to be crowded with rioters, who, as e ven- ine drew on, compelled the inhabitants to illuminate, and when- ever they found themselves in sufficient force, attacked the piquets of the municipal guard, and often succeeded in disarming them. Between ten and eleven, the somewhat subdued excitement of the populace was changed into rage. A crowd passing the Hotel of Foreign Affairs, which, as the residence of M. Ouizot, had been repeatedly threatened, and was now occupied by the 14th regiment of the line, was suddenly fired upon by the troops with fatal effect. Many fell, some dead, others desperately wounded. The people fled in consternation, but fear soon gave way to indignation, and thirst for vengeance. The cry then burst forth from every lip—" To arms ! Down with the assas- sins ! Down with Louis Phillippe ! Down with all his race ! Barricades, barricades !" and these cries were speedily rc-echood through all the streets of Paris. The attempt to establish a MoW administration having failed, the King sent, late at night, for M. Thiers to the Palace of the Tuileries, and asked him to form a ministry. M. Thiers under- took to do so, provided he might be permitted to join with him, as one of his colleagues, M. Odillon Barrot. To this the King acceded. Marshal Bugaud was, during the night, apjwinted Commander-in-Chief of the National Guard, but finding he was not to have a carte blanche, he resigne. almost as soon as ap- pointed, and the appointment was given to General I,amorici«re. During the night the egress of the mails had been stopped, and the railways around Paris had been damaged or destroyed at every point at which troops were expected to arrive. Early in the morning of Thursday, Feb. 24th, a placard was posted about the streets to the effect that, at 3 o'clock, A. M., M. Thiers and Odillon Barrot had been appointed ministers. Subse- quently, the following proclamation was posted at the Bourse : " Orders have been given to cease firing every where. " We have just been charged by the King to form a new ™'" The Chamber will be dissolved, and an appeal made to the *^ ""oeneral Lamorici6re has been appointed commandant of the National Guards. " Thiers, " Odillon Barrot, ' " DUVEROIER Dk HaWBANNE, •• Lamorigieke." nitics by M. ition. lentary calm, who, as oven- e, and when- 3(1 the piquets arming them, d excitcnicn't 1 passing the >r M. Guizot, ;upied by the by the troops desperately ear soon gave rhe cry then ith the assas- atl his race ! dily rc-echood having failed, Palace of the Thiers under- join with him, » this the King ght, appointed finding he was IS soon as ap- il Lamoriciire. n stopped, and >r destroyed at ive. , a placard was lock, A. M., M. listers. Subse- t the Bourse : where, to form a new ';,'■ FRANCE. 665 The orders issued to the troops were, it appears, not only to cease firiri", but to retire to their quarters. Accordingly, about 11 o'clock, the trumpets sounded a retreat, and most ot the important positions which, up to that hour, had been occupied by the infantry, cavalry, and arlilleiy, were abandoned to the people anil the National Guard. Marshal Bugeaud protested against the orders given, and resigned. Whole regiments marched to their barracks, and allowed themselves to be quietly disarmed by the mob. 1 here was now no want of arms among the insurgents, and the number of working men and others engaged in eflorls to expel the royal family, exclusive of the National Guards, was swelled to an estimated force of twenty thousand men. Between eleven and twelve o'clock, this army directed Us course to the Palais Royal and the Tuileries. At the Palais Royal, some severe fighting look place between the people and a company of the Hih regiment of the line m charge of the state apartments, who refused to surrender their arms, and main- tained a contest of nearly two hours before they were finally overcome. The noise of the firing was heard in the 1 uileries, and combined with the unfavorable reports reaching the court from every part of the city, produced a panic among the inmates of the chateau, and all there assembled. In the court yard of the Tuileries were 3,000 infantry with six pieces of cannon and two squadrons of dragoons. These might have swept the space before them (the Place du Carrousel,) clear of combatants but it would have been of little avail, for they were surrounded by an armed populace and six legions of the National Guard, demanding the abdication of the king, and ready to c bse in upon them, if rendered desperate by their position. It was represented to Louis Phillippe, that abdication would alone secure the interests of his family, and that his disposal of the crown in favor of his grandscm, the young Comte de Pans, with the appointment of his mother, the Duchess of Orleans, as Regent, would satisfy all parties— few voices having, as yet, been openly raised for a republic. In the ourse of this day, the king signed an act of abdication, presented to him by hmile de Girardin, but before this fact could be known in Pans, he troops of the line were summoned to quit the court-yard ot the Tuileries. Not knowing whom to obey, the commander-in- chief having resigned, and the government having been dissolved, they agreetl to yield their post. The Chateau was to be pro- tected by the National Guards, but the armed populace rushed by them and entered in triumph. Bonfires were made of the royal carriages and furniture, at the Palais Royal and imlenes. Li < ( MB 666 CHAPTER XIV. The throne of the slate reception room wus carried in triumph through the streets, and finally burned in the I'lace de la Bas- tille. The plunder and destruction of property was chiefly con- fined to the insignia of royally, and speedily checked. Sentinels were placed at the entrance of the Tuileries by the leaders ot the people, and no person allowed to leave the Chateau, with- out a vigorous search. xMeanwhile, the ex-King and Queen had passed out at a private door into the gardens, and demanded an escort ol the National Guards through the crowd beyond. A troop ot National Guards on horseback, and about thirty persons in difTerent uniforms attended them, to ensure their safety. 1 he Queen walked with a firm step, casting around looks of mingled assurance and anger. She was dressed in full mourning : the King wore a black coat, with a common round hat. Arriving at the Place de la Concorde, they drove oft' to St. Cloud with so much rapidity that the coach appeared carried rather thau driven away. They pursued their way to Versailles, and thence to Dreux, where they passed the night with a friend, who procured disguises for the royal fugitives. That of the king was a green blouse, with a sailor's frock coat over it, a red and while comforter and a casquette, or peasant's cap. I he queen concealed her former dress by a woollen cloak of black and white plaid. From Ureux they proceeded to Honfleur, where they remained concealed for some days, the boisterous weather not allowin.r their embarkation until Thursday of the next week, when they were conveyed in a French fishing boat to Havre, thence sailing for England, and arriving at New Haven that ^'^ About half past one of the day on which the Royal pair left Paris, it was rumored in the Chamber of Deputies that the Duchess of Orleans, and the two young princes, her sons, were about to arrive. Shortly after, the Duchess and her sons entered, followed by the Due de Nemours and the Due de Montpensier. The Comte de Paris, led by one of the Deputies, entered first, his way being made with difficulty through the crowd of officers and soldiers of the National Guard. His presence and that ot the rest of the royal party, created a great sensation. A moment afterwards, the Duchess of Orleans seated herself in an arm- chair, with her sons on either side of her. Immediately every vacant place was filed with such of the populace as had suc- ceeded in crowding themselves in with the National Guard, a number of men forcing their way under tl\e tribune. 1 he Duchess then arose and retired with the young princes, to one of the upper benches of the Centre, and opposite to the f resi- li^^ -_* ...A*.—-—— ' FRANCE. 667 in triumph c (le la Bas- chiofly con- Sentincls 10 leaders of lateau, with- 9C(1 out at a escort of the A troop of persons in safety. The ws of mingled ourning : the lat. Arriving Jloud with so rather than ersailles, and a friend, who t of the king it, a red and . The queen of black and inflcur, where erous weather he next week, oat to Havre, V Haven that loyal pair left jties that the ler sons, were : sons entered, Montpensier. entered first, iwd of officers ;e and that of [\. A moment If in an arm- ediately every e as had sue- onal Guard, a ribune. The irinces, to one J to the Presi- dent's bureau. 1'he Due do Nemours and the Due de Mont- pensier placed thetnselvtifi in the lust line of seats, directly behind the princess and her sons. The greatest agitation prevailed. M. Dupin then ascended the tribune, and, amid deep silence, said, that in the present situation uf the capitol, it had been found necessary to re-assemble the Chamber without loss of time. The King had abdicated the crown in favur of his grand- son, and devolved the regency on the Duchess of Orleans. This announcement was greeted with applause from all the benches of the centre, and from some of the public tribunes. Disapprobation was expressed on the benches of the left, and one voice was heard, exclaiming, " It is too late." The scene of confusion that ensued, it is impossible to describe. A num- ber of deputies and the National Guards hastened to surround the royal family. M. Marie then ascended the tribune, and after silence was restored, reminding the Chambers that a law existed giving the regency to the Due do Nemours, and which could not be abro- gated by an act of the King in favor of another, demanded the nomination of a provisional government. M. Cremieux and the Abb6 de Genoude, supported the proposition. Odilion Rarrot then declared himself in favor of the regency of the Duchess of Orleans, a ministry of tried liberal opinions, and an appeal to the country. The Duchess then arose and addressed some words to the Chamber, but was advised by those about her to be seated. Odilion Barrot resumed his discourse, appealing to all parties to defend the crown of July, now committed to the custody of a chiM and a woman, as the only means of averting a civil war. A majority of the deputies signified their assent, but their tokens of approbation were drowned in murmurs from the galleries, and cries of " Vive la Hepublique." M. Cheval- lier, editor of the " Bibliotheque Historie," ascended the tribune, amidst cries of " you are not a deputy," " you have no right to be there." He cautioned the Chamber against proclaiming the Comte de Paris, without the consent of the people, into whose hands the real sovereignty had again fallen. The Marquis de Larochejaquclin rose to speak, but hac' only uttered a few words when a crowd rushed into the Chamber, some armed with swords, lances, muskets, spears, and tri-colored flags; others unarmed, in blouses, with dragoons' helmets on their heads, or with cross belts and infantry caps. These persons it once seized on such deputies' seats as were unoccupied, several ascending the tribune and stationing themselves there. A number of the deputies, appearing to consider their position 668 CIIAITER XIV. '■'. perilous, bcgnn to withdraw, and as they abandoned their places, the crowd took thoni. The tumult was tremendous, and many deputies looked with anxiety towards the Duchess of Orleans and her children, but she sat calm amidst the uproar. After M. Ledru Kollin and M. Lamartine had succeeded in making themselves hoard for a few moments, a violent and imperative knocking arose at the door of one of the tribunes. It being opened, a crowd of armed men rushed in. Several of them forced their way to the front seats, and pointed their muskets at the deputies below. Some of these weapons were turned in the direction of the royal party. Immediately the persons near the Duchess of Orleans seemed to address her energetically, and at once, with her sons and the two princes, she quitted the Chamber by a door on the extreme left. M. Sauzet left the chair, and a great number of deputies^ rose from their places. The greatest disorder was visible. Shortly after, silence being somewhat restored, M. Ledru Rollin said, "According ns I read out the names, you will say * Yes,' or 'No,' just as they please you ; and in order to act officially, 1 call on the reporters of the public press to take down the names and the manner in which they are received, that France may know what has been done here." The honorable deputy then read the names of M. M. Dupont (de I' Eure) Arago, De Lamartine, Ledru Hollin, Gamier Pages, Marie and Cr^niieux, all of which were received with acclamations. Cries of " To the Hotel de Ville," here arose, followed by a cry of " No civil list," and another of " No King !" Some one having directed the attention of the crowd to the picture of liouis Phillippe swearing obedienco to the charter, cries of " Tear it down !" arose. A workman, with a double-barrelled fowling piece, who was standing in the same circle, cried out, " Just wait until I have a shot at Louis Phillippe!" and at the same moment both barrels were discharged. Great confusion ensued, amidst which, two men jumped on the chairs behind the Presi* dent's seat, and prepared to cut the picture to pieces with their sabres. Another workman ran up the steps of the tribune and exclaimed, " Respect public monuments ! respect property ! why destroy the pictures with balls ? We have shown that the peo- ple will not allow itself to be ill-govemed : let us now show that it knows how to conduct itself after victory." (Great applause.) The next instant, M. Dupont (de I' Eure) was placed in the chair. M. de Lamartine and Ledru Rollip attempted to obtain a hearing, but were unsuccessful. Several of the guards and some of the people made a similar vain eflbrt. A cry then andoned their mcndous, and Duchess of 8t the uproar. succeeded in a violent and le tribunes. It n. Several of pointed their weapons were Orleans seemed er sons and the on the extreme ber of deputies^ or was visible. ^f . Ledru Rollin will say ' Yes,' to act officially, take down the ved, that France honorable deputy 5ure) Arago, De e and Cr6inieux, ie, followed by a ig !" Some one I picture of Jiouis :ries of " Tear it )arrelled fowling cried out, " Just and at the same :onfusion ensued, lehind the Presi- pieces with their f the tribune and ict property! why >wn that the peo- et us now show victory." (Great as placed in the tempted to obtain f the guards and >rt. A cry then rnANcB. 609 arose in one of the tribunes, " Let I^amurtine speak ;" and " Larnartine" resounded from all quarters. M. dc Lamarline. " .\ provisional government is about to be proclaimed." (Cries of Vive Lamartino I " Nsimcs, nnmcs !") The noise not ceasing, the names were written on a slip of faper, and carried round the chamber on the lop of a musket, n the midst of shouts Ledru HoUin road the names. Nearly all the deputies had, by this time, departed, and the N'atiomil (luards and the people had the chamber to themselves. .VI. Rollin continued, " We are obliged to close the sitting in order to pro- ceed to the seat of governnKMil." (From all sides shouts, "To the Hotel de VjIIo!" " Vive la R6publique !") The crowd then dispersed at four o'clock. Another terrible scene now took place at the Hotel de Ville, where, on adjourning from the chamber, the members of the provisional government sat to decide upon the course to be adopted. Suddenly the doors of the Salle de Conseil were violently shaken, and the people loudly demanded the commu- nication of the first act of the government. The great majority of the members wore opposed to the establishment of an unmiti- gated democracy, but the populace were resolved that a purely democratic Republic should be formed, and that every male above a certain age should be eligible to the National Guard, and empowered to carry arms. Every attempt to oppose this was the signal of renewed shouts. In vain it was attempted to adjourn the question till minds should become calm. The popu- lar will prevailed, and resolutions were passed in accordance with it. The provisional government at once issued the following proclamation : " TO THE FRENCH PEOPLE. " A retrograde and oligarchic government has been overturned by the heroism of the people of Paris. This government has fled, leaving behind it traces of blood which will forever forbid its return. The blood of the people has flowed as in July, but happily, it will not have been in vain. It has secured a national and popular government, in accordance with the rights, the pro- gress, and the will of this great and generous people. A Provi- sional Government, chosen by the acclamation and at the call of the people, and some of the Deputies of the departments in the sitting of the 24th of February, is for the moment invested with the care of organizing and securing the national victory. It is composed of MM. Dupont (de I'Eure,) Larnartine, Cr^mieux, Arago (de I'lnstitut,) Ledru Rollin, and Gamier Pages. The m~ CHAPTER XIV. .crrcarirs to tl.U fiovcrnmnU are MM. ^™d ^arra«^ e.litor of the ' National ;' \.o\m iUnnc, iMTdinaml Hocoii, tclitor ol ino /i L.nr • and AlLert. Th.-nr ctti/.cns have not hrH.latr.l for an i /s r o a"l ho patriotic mission whic-h ha« been .mpoHed J Wv th.: urLMM cv of the ocea«io.i. When iho rapitai ol Fni i-n^nJer n^ .Kt^.m of the i-ron«ional t;overnment Jj hTo ,m c saf.tv. All Franco will understand this, and w.ll t:^:1^^of its patriotism. , Under ^^^V^l^^' men* now nrorluimed l)V the Hrovisional C.overnmont, . very "^enir a' magistrate.' Frenchtnen. «-e U, the wodd^ t^^^^^ ^Ls which vrare abont to be called upon to R.ve y.o«"elve»^ S- Provisional C;ov..rn.nont desires a Hepnbhc, H'-bject to the r/Z nent dVsiro\o"ufsth their opinion for tho opin.on- ^'ItrScns at large, upon '»'•;''{:''" tl'r '^'rSrS^ which the national Hovercignty ^Imll proclaim^ 1 Uc """[ »' The nation, formed henceforth of all ^l"-- "'.V^^^^/'^^X and pass-word to be ' 1 tie J « opie , ^u „hirh our Boveniment which France owes to herself, and which our E will assure to her. St.ch are the first acts of the Pro- vi8i.mal Government. Lamartine, Ledru Rollin, bI'XmIJSJ^^^I Arai. Bcthmont. Marie. Canto, "^"X^S^S oSS is disbanded. The protection c^ cityofrurins Confided to the National Guard, under the orders of M. Courtais." This proclamation was Allowed by another appointing a Pro- ernor of Algeria. To these decrees succeeded . "The Municipal Guard is dissolved. M. Gamier Pages is VI arrant, editor I, t'ditor of the ir(«ilatP(l for nn been iinpo«e(l the capital of (iovornment is this, and will ()opiilar govern- eriiment, every the world the lare yourselves, n Htrong institu- nivo yourselves. c, subject to the ho inimedialcly the Provisional for tho opinions > of Kovcrninenl Tlic unity of he people which y itself; liberty, national device i the democratic and which our nets of the Pro- 5, Ledru RoUin, It, Marie, Camot, protection of the under the orders appointing a Pro- le I'Eure,) Presi- inariinc, Minister uslice ; M. Ledru ioudechaux, Min- ster of Marine; Vlinisterof Public ter of Commerce ; ('avaignac, Gov- 1: Qarnier Pag^s is TRANCK. 671 named Mayor of Paris, and to him are given as mljoints, MM. Guinard and Keeiirt, M. I'liilard is niiined Sccntary-uoni'ial. All the other Mayors of Paris are provisionally maintained. The Pr^leciuro of Police is under the drpciidi'iice of the Mayor of Paris. In tho name of France, the Provisional (ioverninent decides that the Chamber of iJeputios is dissolved, 'I'ho ex-Chamber of Peers is forbidden to meet. A Nalional .\ssem- bly will be convoked as soon as the Provisional (iovertimeiit shall have regulated the necessary measures of order and police." Further appointnionis followed in rapid succession. General Siibervie was substituted for (Joneral Hedean, as Minister of War ; Cieneral lledeau taking command of the first military division ; Admiral llaiidin was appointed ('ominander of the Fleet; the Police department was entrusted to the citizens Caussidiere and Sobrier ; and M. Arago was appointed to the Direction-General of the Post-oHico. A notice also advised the bukers, or furnishers of provisions of Paris, to keep their shops open to all those who might have occasion fur them. The people were expressly recommeiuled not to quit their arms, their positions, or their revolutionary attitude. It was further announced that the liberation of all who had been imprisoned on political grounds had been effected ; but, at the same time, all who had been convicted of crimes against persons and prop- erty were detained. The revolution was now consummated ; royalty had vanished like a dissolving view, and its place was already filled by a now and totally diflerent spectacle. The day after tho battle was one of strange, tumultuous ex- citement, but passed without any infraction of the peace. The streets were crowded, during the whole of Friday, with men and women, and wore the appearance of a festival. The people had not dismissed from their minds all apprehen- sion of an attempt to rally on the |iart of those favoring the claims of the DuchesB of Orleans and her son, and maintained a jeal- ous attitude towards the soldiers of the line, who were still in arms. Yet they displayed the moat frank and generous forgive- ness towards their vaiupiishcd foes. Disarmed Municipal Guards and soldiers of the regiment, who had fired on the people, were seen walking about the streets, and no one insulted or molested them. Among the scenes of the late conflict, none attracted more painful curiosity than the space before the Hotel of the Minister of Foreign Aflfairs, where the fatal volley had been tired on the u r- I 072 OIUPTKR XIV. niifht III the '^3il. Pools of l)loud, fil'ty pacnn long, HtitKnatod horribly on tin* unpliultu |mvuiiiont. The lioiili-vunlit preitoiitfil u terrible proof of that reckless- iii'S8 of iii'Htructioii coiiiinoii to ull kinds of battle. The trees, which wiTu tlu) ortiiiiiiciit of tliu splendid stroots, were all cut down. Till V W(>rt' Nttvered about three feet from the ground, and formed ii line of posiH, neither useful nor ornamental. The mu- tilated Htuiii|ii4 rumiiinud Btandin)( for some days, when they were rcuujveii by u liirjjo body of laburors. All tlif tlt'tacUitil {Hists around i'uris surrendered this day with- out rosiiit incu. A lari^u body of the National Guardt, and of the crowd, had marched against the fort of Vinconnes, but their presence proved unnecessary, for the soldiers of the line had tacitly joined the revolt. liy l-'riday evening, order was to a great extent restored ; one proof wiLi the rc-opuning of the Bunk of France, which was chiefly due to the admirable conduct of l\u> National Guard, and the intrepidity, energy and good sense of the Provisional Gov- ernment. To M. Lamarlinu especially belongs the renown of having, that day, saved his country from the most bloody an- orchy. Among the earliest resolutions adopted by the Provisional Government, were the abolition of capital punishment for politi- cal od'ences, and the re-adoption of the tri-colorod flag. lioth these measures were proposed by M. Lamartine, and owed their success to his extraordinary eloquence and courage. Five times on Friday, he addressed the [teople, still tierce with ex- citement, assembled under the windows of the Hotel de Ville. On Saturday, the restoration of order was complete. The public departments resumed their duties, and among them the department of Finance. It was (mly on the previous Monday tliat the notice to pay the city taxes had been issued. The whole of the coming year's taxes, derived from per-centage on rents of the apartments and shop keepers' licences, would thus fall into the hands of the new Ciovernmenl— an enormous fund with which to begin. The million a month had already been confiscated, or, us the ordonnance has it, "restored to the people," a handsome addition to the fund applicable to the relief of dis- tress. The streets being partially cleared of the barricades, under the scientific direction of the students of the "Ecole Polytech- nique," in such a way as not to compromise the security against a surprise afforded by these popular fortiftcations, the country people were enabled to bring in their provisions, of which there wa9 an abundant supply. The vast number of cabmen and ihat recklew lo. The treea, In, were ull cul ihc ground, nixA iiittl. The mu- wheii they were . this day with- Guardb and of lennes, but ihoir f iho line had nt restored ; one , which was „ial Guard, and rovisional Gov- tho renown of most bloody an- r the Provisional ishmvnt for politi- lorcd flag. Both ue, and owed their J courage. Five ill fierce with ox- Hotel de Ville. M complete. The 1 among them the previous Monday een issued. The >m per-centage on ;e»ces, would thus -an enormous fund I had already been lorod to the people," to the relief of dis- te barricades, under B "Ecole Polytech- ihe security against cations, the country ions, of which there iber of cabmen and i 9 t 1 Ijil FRANCE. 673 coachmen were thus allowed to resume their occupation. The law-courts again connnnnced their sittings ; the shops were opened, and every thing was done to calm apprehension. On this day, Lamartine declared the Republic. He presented himself, with the other members of the Government, on the steps of the Hotel de Ville, and thus addressed the multitude : ■' Citizens ! The Provisional Government of the Republic has called upon the people to witness its gratitude for the mag- nificent national co-operation, which has just accepted these new institutions. . " The Provisional Government of the Republic has only joy- ful intelligence to announce to the people here assembled. Royalty is abolished. The Republic is proclaimed. The peo- ple' will exercise their political rights. National workshops are open for those who are without work. " The army is being re-organized. The Nation'/i Guard in- dissolubly unites itself with the people, so as to promptly re- store order with the same hand that had only the preceding mo- ment conquered our liberty. " Finally, gentlemen, the Provisional Government is anxious to be itself the bearer to you of th^ last decree it has resolved on and signed in this memorable sitting ; that is, the abolition of the penalty of death for political matters. This is the noblest decree, irentlemen, that has ever issued from the mouths of a people, the day after their victory, ii is the character of the French nation, which escapes in one spontaneous cry from the soul of Government. We have brought it with us, and I will now read it to you. There is not a more becoming homage to a people, than the spectacle of its own magnanimity." He then read the following noble proclamation: " The Provisional Government, convinced that greatness of Boul is the highest degree of policy, and that each resolution, effected by the French people, owes to the world the consecra- tion of an additional philosophical truth ; considering that there is no more sublime principle than the inviolability of huniaa life ; considering that in the memorable days in which we live, the Provisional Government has remarked, with pride, that not a single cry for vengeance or for death has dropped from the mouths of the people, declares— That, in its opinion, the pun- ishment of death for political offences is abolished, and that it will present that wish to the definitive ratification of the National Assembly. The Provisional Goyemment has sc^ firm a con- viction of the truth, that it proclaims, in the name of the French people, that, if the guilty men who have just ca«sed the blood of France to be spilt, were ia tbe hands «rf the people, it would, 4» 11-^ *'■ 674 CHAITER XIV. .„.Wropinion,bea.o.e exemplary Chastisement to ae,r^^^ cal offences tended, "^7,^^=^" Siv „f the entire nation, m to produce the unparalleled unammuy .^ ^,j^ j. accepting the new men. as the "«^«««;'X ,, ,,eU as all the die classes in Pans ''"d^" J?" Ctatio-^to t^e Government press, yielded >-?^°«\rrrtof the army, and the Archbishop Slarshal B^^^'^'rof Kergy gave in their adhesion to the of Paris, on the part of the ciergy, b new Republic. . ^^e barricades had all been Sunday was a high festival, in ^,^,„^k, the removedfand the streets we e thronged.^ ^^^ ^ody of National Provisional Governmen '«"«75 '" „„ ^^.^ steps of which, Guards, before the Column of July, on .^^^ \^^ ^ „ the celebrated astronomer, ^J^go, P Comtais, with his amidst the >vildest enthus^^m General ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ,,hite her. "-covered, harangued every grj ^^^^^^^^^ I Bouleva.a. the Foreign Office, re<.om . i,iu„,inated. quillity. • " ' «ning, the «^P'^-^^ j^, ,^^ t^-color transpa- Venetian! ,, ' ' «l/«P°«^«.f ^^'" ^Boulevards were exceed- rent, were --"«^"^*y ,T wTndows and under .he lamps, were ingly gay. People at all t^e -"f"^^^^^^^^ „„ every body to devouring the journals. HawRers ^^^^^^ ^^ j „„. purchase little tri-colored cockades tU^^^ ^ guish it from the red, ,^^»*^» 'f/ ' °"' ^inst private persons and was the capital freer from "V '*8«« l^gj'^^ ^ i^^j^n, b„t it properly, than during the wild turn^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^, must not be ^nPP^i'^^'^^trn Paris who thought they saw m weredesperate male ac^rsm Pans ^.^.^^ ^^^^ ,apine, but struction of Property. The ex King ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^re was burned on S=;turday; but most o ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ carefully removed, and sent to the pumic - j j^^^^ ^aved, of conflagration began. Among th^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^ K^ ^,^^y were two volumes of 'l^^ "^"^^ ^'^^^ of the Con- terminating at t^ F""J r^Stc ?n presence of the armies of the Bulatc proclaimed the R"?"'^ "= '"^J y^^nds of the new Govern- enemy' There '^l-P-;:J;7,he ex-King, among which was ment, various pnvate P-^P*-" °' '" < ^^,J^^ Men I am sure of. lent to degrade ileath for politi- le Government, ntire nation, in ime. The mid- well as all '.He the Government, the Archbishop r adhesion to the ides had all been two o'clock, the Ijody of National steps of which, id the Republic, omtais, with his he met, along the ng order and tran- iantly illuminated. [ tri-color transpa- rds were cxceed- er the lamps, were g on every body to lal color, to distin- lad adopted. Never rivatc persons and B Revolution, but it committed. There lought they saw in ties for rapine, but id punished by the is much wanton de- jI chateau at Neuilly luable contents were ,ury, before the work cresting items saved, s of Louis Phillippe, ssioners of the Con- > of the armies of the of the new Govern- jr, among which was "Men 1 am sure of." child was burned on T' FllAXfE. 675 Sunday, under the imprcsNion that it belonged to the King. The greatest destruction was that committed on the Northern Railway, the damage done to which amounted to no less than jC400,000. Repairs were quickly made, sutFicient to render the line practicable to a certain extent ; hut the effect of the mis- chief was not confined to the heavy loss of capital ; three fourths of the traffic of the line were annihilated. ^ ^ 'I'he Revolution of February, 1848, in Paris, is, in some respects, a continuation of the Revolution of July, 1830, while in other points, it is entirely new. The old principle combined with the new to overturn the throne of Louis I'hillippe, and to proclaim the republic, but as soon as the monarchy was abolished, the old and new principles commenced a war againsl each other. The old principle included the right of self-government, and civil and religious liberty, and merely attempted what the American people have realized under a republic. Louis Phil- lippc invaded this principle, and fell. The new principle, which aided in his overthrow, went much further, insisting not merely U|>on civil and religious liberty, and upon a share in government, through the suffrage, for the adult male population, but upon the establishment of new social relations between wealth and labor. It was in fact Socialism, or Communism ; and affirmed that the State collectively can and must supply food and labor for the whole population. The one principle was purely political and philosophical ; the other was social and unpliilosophical. Both were active in France during the reign of ].iOuis Fhillippe ; both desired a change ; the one, that France might become a great republic like the United States — the other, that France might work the mighty problem of Communism, and show to the world, by a new distribution of wealth, and by the destruction of individualism, that every man might have more than enough for his wants, and poverty and crime be altogether banished from society. The first acts and proclamations of the Provisional Govern- ment were looked to with great interest throughout Europe. It was announced that the constituent National Assembly was con- voked for the 20th of April, a dale afterwards postponed to the 4th of May. It was decreed that the electoral colleges should meet on the 9th of April, and that every Frenchman, without respect to property, being of the age of twenty-one years, should have a vote, under the protection of the ballot — the Assembly, 80 elected, to consist of 900 members, or one member to every 40,000 of population, each member to be twenty-five years of age, or upwards. The principle of the payment of members was affirmed, and the indemnity for each was fixed at 25 francs a day during the session. if 676 CHAPTER XIV- „f i>ifi revolution was the first The interment of the v^'^'uns of .he e « ^ ^,,^,„,,i,,, .„ great ceremony of the J^'a.cS er of the people, U was fts general aspect as suited tlu-c^^ ^^^^.,^i returns gave nevertheless grand and ^f.^'X fiihting, but it was believed 150 killed, and 500 ^"""f.f";;^ larger- All the members of that the number was '•«^'»"y T" eeremony of interment, excep Ihe mimstry -"^.P^frbsence was accounted for on the ground M Lamartine. whose absence w of excessive fatigue. revolution, the people were For the first few ^^««^« ^^^^'i^ed tree« of liberty to amuse kept in good humor, ^^'".l^eet to street with uprooted thLselvL, and -arched from ^rect^ .^^ ^,,^^ ,„ p, ,^em^ poplars, seeking vacant P>°^« «'^^i^ banners flying, and with a Jrhey marched in Pf^^'I'f' °"\J ".ees in the name of bod, and priest at their head, to ^ess the tree^ ...nusement and S the cause of liberty. ..^^oX theatres, the people did favored with gratuitous '^?;jf '"^^^^^^nt, taking a lesson from not think of mischiet. l ne go» . ;,„,„,i its irorgeous ffete, ana r £y of the fi--«,rs'rb"; r 7^^ brought large -^^^^J'^^^f ^J^.J^ an^ banners, the firmg ol artil- , the republic with spears, sworas,j^^jjgg ^ lerv and the shouting of enthusiastic m ^^^ j,„t j The "People." however ^^ f^^Sient and necessary to |, occasion npoi. which ^^^^^^-"f^IueTof uniform among the , show their P«r''XoTers orone favorite division insisted National Guard. 1 jY^^hnlnt' which the working classes | upon a distinctuia «/. '^^''''"""f.Ue principle of '' equality. Zked upon as an infringement c,^ ,}'&,) the emissaries of Early on Friday morning (nth of M^^^^,.^^ the clubs proceeded to all the 8»o«rD , ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ,„ endlvous on difi-frent I»intB, an«i ^^ ^,^^^^^,^,, laborers bodies to the Hotel de Vile. About e ^^^ ^^^.^ j Zired down in massea tnt«.^^^„"^?.v' ^e who assembled in the P:;rire working, to pin the- 1 ho-; p^„^ ,,^,,„l, «as Champs Elysees exceeded 30,OU covered. , , . .,, ^^^ the crowd remained on the From twelve o'clock t}" '^°'. '".^^Is raising the chorus of Place, cheering and shouting, ^J^ j"^^^^ their drums. There 5 e« Marseillaise." or beatmg ^he ^JP «' „f f^,,, , the was no sign of oppo^tt^o" »o 'h>„^ J^^^ ^^^„ ^,^,x. Towards guard on duty was e^en l«f ""I" though very slowly, fio o'clock, the crowd began ^"f^ffjjumphoveran attempted ^^The demonstration was con-^^^^ those who. U « I was the first iiit theatrical in people, it was 1 returns gave it was bcUeveJ the members of iterment, except >r on the ground the people were liberty to amuse !t with uprooted ch to plant them. yring, and with a ame of tiod, and anmsement, and es, the people did ng a lesson from rorgeous f6te, and ther to inaugurate , the firing of artil- es. times. The first It and necessary to iniform among the le division insisted B working classes )ie of " equality." ) the emissaries of vite the laborers to Bed from thence in o'clock the laborers J all their comrades ^o assembled in the Pont d'Arcole was d remained on the iising the chorus of their drums. There ,tion of feeling ; the m usual. Towards lough very slowly, ph over an attempted ver those who, it is republic. FRANCE. 677 The succeeding night passed in perfect tranquillity, though the ileiiiDiistr.-ition continued to a late hour. Hodies of men, marcliiiig nine and ten abreast, continued to defile along the Boulevards fnnn four till seven o'clock. As night fell, crowds collecteil in diflVrcnt spots, but principally about the Porte St. Denis and Porte St. Martin. The inhabitants in this quarter illuminated their houses, and about eight o'clock an immense body of the people began to move slowly along the Boulevards in the direction of the .Madeleine, singing and calling on the shopkeepers to light up ; the citizens were taken by surprise, and whenever a delay occurred, cries of " Des lampions .'" were raised : as soon as lamps were fixed to the balconies, the crowd gave a round of applause, and marched on. In this way they advanced in comparative darkness, leaving a blaze of light behind them. They were in a very good humor, and not the slightest damage was done : not a single pane of glass was broken, nor did the shopkeepers exhibit any alarm, though neither police nor military were to be seen. By ten o'clock the throng began to diminish, and by midnight everything was quiet again. The Minister of War addressed a circular to all the chiefs of corps, directing them to present in future for promotion none but candidates entitled to it by their military service. .\fter their demonstration at the Hotel de Ville, the workmen of Paris proceeded to the ministry of the interior to salute M. Ledru Hollin personally, and the different trades succeeded each other without interruption from four to seven o'clock, P. M. Not less than 100,000 men presented themselves at the Hotel during that interval, and M. Ledru Rollin stood constantly under the porch receiving addresses and replying to them. The position of the armed force of France, in relation to the people, was singular. The army, notwithstanding many re- assurances, had not recovered from the disgrace inflicted by the general disarming ; the public were not sufficienily reassured of its disposition to permit the introduction even of two regiments into Paris without a nmrmur. The National Guard was tainted with anti-revolutionary tendencies ; the Garde Mobile was imperfectly armed and quite undisciplined, and the military and political systems seemed alike disorganized. The Mint was encumbered with an enormous mass of silver plate, brought there to be coined into pieces of five francs each. A number of silversmiths, despairing of selling their second- hand articles, resorted to this expedient to render their dead stock available: others announced a reduction of 10 percent, on their goods, in order to ensure such a sale as might keep their workmen employed. i.t f I 678 CHAPTER XIV. . „f thfi newly enrolled Garde The arming and «a"!Pr";,:L rapidity.^ A decree in the Mobile was urged on ,^'"V . ITf War to issue from the stores ELeur au Jrized U.e M.n. e o War^to^^ ^^^^^^ ^. ^^^^ ^„. of the army such clothing, i-c, convenience to the ^^''"W,^..^^smeT^i, the Government was In the face of financial ^n'^arrassme , ^.i.eady too compelled to find the ."--^-"^ "^^^J^^^^ Jf the country- The large for the necessities or '^^^J^ „f ^^e republic the young Sa'rde Mobile enl^,^ - ^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^.^ higher rate than the men of the "people paid them a .^ ^^^ ^ „f jis- troops of the line, and bor« ' W ^j they formed the greatest cipline. As it afterwards appeared y^^^^ bulwarks against f "^^^y.^^'p^Ji^jroni 20 to 55 years of age All able bodied men in fans, i ^ ■ j Guard. The ^ere invited to f "r«»,tTrm them all, to provide clothing at Government undertook « """JJ^'^ere not able to equip them- the public expense, fo^. ^^°r„„7o° Sens were enrolled m the selves, and in a sl^^^^^^f^tf A d scount office, under the guard of Pans and "« J "^i Traders," was directed to be title of " Endowment f^^/^'jf > „\ facilities for pecuniary established for thmr ''^^^JgJ^^\f ,tamp duties on journals accommodation rhe suppressto^^^^ Another decree, and other perio^U-al pi^UcaUon^was a ^^ ^^^^^.^^ dated 3d March, ordered that the a ^^ ^^^ ^ ^ Paris and in the «ubur s shouW be^h^^^^ . ^ ^^^ ^,^ r,,„,h for all professions, blavery w ^ i colonies and possessions. Provisional Govern- The French " people" no soone' «J^^« ^^ ^ manifest , niont installed at the Hotel dej^l^^^ t^^n J^ uf transfom into the hopes which they ^^VfZ^ll Liaginary, was laid at the realities. Every grievance jea^ or ' fj Arago. with a view feet of Messrs. De Lamartine Marras , B ^^.^^^^^ ^^^p. , to a remedy. Carpenters, buddersslu,^^^^^^^^ ^hoe-cleaners, stresses, purse-knitters, .l«T"'„"'ery maids, formed deputations, grooms, waiters, ^ookB,^^A iHrocLrion through the streets to day after day, and marched in P™J^J^' .^ey suffered in their delail to the government ^« ^"XP^.ong were dwellers in Respective callings. ^^•"fl^^^Ja Workers ^and head-workers ; the town and in the <=««""y : ^^^^^^^^^^ wants of society and those who administered to ^h« '^g'J-^ j^ ^^j Englishmen, those who flourished on Its vices tren ^^ j, Swiss, Poles. Germans Italians tHj^^^,^^^^^^^ SutatrtS rlSr, tli: Owenite, all ranks, classes and degrees of men. Inrolled Garde decree in the [from the stores Ved without in- jvernment was :my already too country. The ublic the young er rate than the manner of dia- led the greatest have raised. )5 years of age, lal Guard. The >vide clothing at le to equip thein- e enrolled in the office, under the iis directed to be les for pecuniary luties on journals Another decree, effective labor in ten hours a day, n all the French rovisional Govern- began to manifest n to transform into y, was laid at the irago, with a view ters, tailors, semp- srs, shoe-cleaners, }rmed deputations, jugh the streets to r suffered in their were dwellers in ind head-workers ; :it8 of society, and n and Englishmen, rs of slavery, the t, the patriotic, the ranks, classes and FRANCE. They sought relief in every form, possible or impossible ; fewer hours of labor, better wages, and more holidays. All these were but a small portion of the tasks it was expected that the Government would accomplish in behalf of " th*' people." In the way of business, things continued deplorable. Money became scarce, misery increased, and anxiety as regarded the present, alarm as regarded the future, did not diminish. The rich families who left Paris during the revolution, did not return, and the few who remained continued to emigrate. The elections for the National Assembly caused great ex- citement throughout all France, ami there was, or appeared to be, reason to believe that in the Provinces the Republic was not quite so popular as in Paris. The danger here, the Provisional Government deemed fit to provide against ; for it was justly felt that if by any combination of circumstances, an assembly should be elected, f;ontaining a majority of anti-republicans, a state of anarchy and bloodshed would most probably be the con- sequence. The Republicans, if proved to be in a minority, would show themselves a continual source of alarm and mischief, a minor- ity that never would submit, and that would change itself into a majority, by dint of its zeal, energy, and strength of conviction. To prevent this renewal of a struggle, of which the only possi- ble result could be the triumph, at a somewhat later period, of republican principles, iM. Ledru Rollin and M. Carnot issued cir- culars to their agents, which excited much indignant remark. That of M. Ledru Rollin was the most bold, and attracted the greatest blame. It expressly declared that the agents of the Government should use all means at their command to secure or forward the return of Republican candidates. The circular of M. Carnot took the same ground, and insisted that it was better to choose an uneducated Republican from the ranks of the peas- antry or the workmen, than an educated Royalist, however great his reputation, or pure his character. The object of this procla- mation was somewhat misunderstood, as meaning, that in all cases an uneducated was better than an educated representative. This, however, he never stated ; but, on the contrary, appealed to the teachers in the public schools throughout the country to offer themselves as candidates, showing them the career that was opened to talent and learning by the Republic, and merely insisting that Republicanism was the first requisite for a seat in the Assembly. Republicanism with education, J'" possible — but on no account education without Republicanisn. This was his meaning ; and, his advice was generally acted upon. Can- didates were found in sufficient numbers combining both rcqui- I I u CHAPTER XIV. rapid and f -'"^ a rat*,^^^^^^^^^^ ^f he tcpe-e of paying ihem come reaUy useful and productive Communist On Saturday, the I5th of AP"!; "» j extensive, gave clubs, whose organization ^"^^ ^^^Pj^'^^d Jloustration uiH,n orders to the working classes for a grand dcm ^^^^^l^^ the following day. ?\S""S;^'Sg groups of workmen curred. From an early hour in the morning, ^o i ^^^ ^ ^^^^ assembled in the Champ de Mars wh«r« t Ja* ^^^^^^ the elections of the Captains of the Stan ottn ^^ ^^^^ destined to 'eF««''"S% ^l^"^eir' but it soon became These elections passed ofT ^'"^^'y ^"Sm„„ ^t, and other men known that the party of B anqin th« Comrn «ist ^^^^^^^ ^^ of extreme opinions, ^•'^^"'^"^^Vwh.ch caused the greatest make a demonstration in ^^^^J^^^'.^, „ "^e most extravagant alarm among the middle «^''^««^«' ^"''"'VrediL by reasonable reports. Although these rumors ve « not ^^^^^^^^^ Ouard should people, it was deemed P-^^f-^^^J'^'^^J^.rrs beaten in every be called out. Accordingly, ^^.^J''JJ''',;„e closed, and the quarter ; and, in a ew m.nutes af r ho s weje^.^^^^;^ National Guard might be ^^^""""y' ^4^3 por some lime the of rendezvous of their respective companies !< ^^^^^ ^^^^ town presented the appearance of t^ ^J^^^^ ^,„„j ,, S/r^^^aSSsS^^-J;^;"^^^^ were no barricades. rhamo de Mars continued to Meanwhile, the crowd on the Champ ae ^^,,„,ati„ns, increase, and it soon a^oume-^;- "/^^^^^^ ^ ™ ^^^^^ ^^^. „„ to one hundred '^^'^^^.^^Zo^^^ the different trades was nearly as great. ^<^'f/'*'^„r^„ they made a collection had elected their respective officer^^^^^^^^ le scandal that been elected increased at so )ne month they of paying them nd even Louis le Government ■nied should be- lus Communist extensive, gave onstration u^ton irst outbreak oc- ups of workmen been tixed that National Guard, ere to be held. I it soon became It, and otlier men the workmen to lused the greatest most extravagant ited by reasonable nal Guard should beaten in every re closed, and the 5 different places For some time the le day of the 24th I children stood at lurried to and fro, ere was one great Revolution — there lars continued to most calculations, iltitude looking on he different trades nade a collection patriotic gift to the lotel de Ville. the Garde Mobile icipal places — the FRANCE. 681 Place dc la Bourse, the Place du Carrousal, tht Place de la Con- corde, <^c. Patrols of theni al^o Iraversfd tliu stri-ct.'s. 'I'he manner in which the Natiunal (iuanl acted, excited un- bounded admiration among the middle and ros|)oct:il)lu classes of society, struck the Communist piirlies with dismay, and great- ly strengthened the moderHtc soctiun of the Provisional (lovern- nieiit. This section, tliougli forming the majority, was continu- ally kept in check by the dread of the immense ph) sical power which it was supposed that the minority — Ledru Uollin, Flocon, Albert, and Louis Diane — had at their connnand ; but this dem- onstration proved that the real physical power of I'aris, consist- ing of the National (iuard, the Garde Nationale Mobile, and other forces, were not only in favor of the moderate party, but ready and even anxious to crush their enemies, who were also the en- emies of law and order. To this force the moderate section of the Government could have added from 20,000 to 30,000 regu- lar troops, who were stationed within easy reach of Paris. On Tuesday morning, the 1 Hth, at six o'clock, the rappel for the assembling of the National Guards was beaten in all quarters of Paris, in consequence of information that the Communists, and most violent of the ('lubs, had determined on another attempt to overthrow the Provisional (Jovernment, to establish a commit- tee of public safety, and to attack the Hotel de Ville. During the night, great numbers of the Connnunists assem- bled in the neighborhood of the Motel de Ville and the Tuil- eries, uttering threats against the moderate members of the Gov- ernment. The intentions of the " people" being made somewhat clear by these events ; and the danger to society being somewhat more manifest than before, the Government became anxious to dis- cover whether it could with safety resort to a step so bold as the re-introduction of the troops of the line to Paris. The National Guard was worn out and harassed, and would hail the return of the troops as the greatest boon that could be offered them. But the working classes and Communists might be mistrustful. To inquiries, made both openly and secretly by the emissaries or employes of the Government, a satisfactory reply was obtained, and at length it was decided that the troops should be recalled. It was not wise, however, to allow the real secret of their recall to be promulgated ; and a scheme was adopted to throw the peo- ple off their guard, and flatter their national and proverbial love of grand spectacles, by one which should cast into the shade by its magnidcence all the previous spectacles of the Revolution. The Grand Festival of Fraternity was devised, and passed off in the most brilliant manner. As early as five o'clock on the fi! ,i. 682 CIIAI'TKR XIV. 'Li 1" morning of thu 2Utli of April, the druniM wt-re beat for the aii8em« blin){ul the iliflcrtint legions of tlu; Nutioiial (iuards ; hy uighl, all I'aria suimiumI to havi! pourrd down into the Htrout. 'I'lii- day wim dull, drizzly, and drviiry, hut llu- ardor neither of the actors in the mighty show, nor of the (-rovvda of spoctators, was to be damped. Countlesis thron(>H jioured along the ('hanipn Elyaeus to the chief point of interest. The immi UHC estnule erected beneath and l)efor« tho Arch of Triumph, with its ascending galleries and tribunes, and decora- tions of Koman and Cirocian uttribules, was not without a cer- tain grandeur of etfect. lJ|ion this eslnulr. were assembled all the generals, the courts, and the tribunals, the wounded of the days of February, delegates from the schools, the commissions and associations of the working classes, and from the clubs. On either side, and in the galleries behind, was a crowd of priv- ileged spectators and ladies, adtnitted by tickets. The ceremonies were announced to commence at nine o'clock ; at eight the tribunes had been tilled, but it was past ten before the main body of the members of the Provisional Government made their appearance. An address to the armed force was read by M. Arago, as Minister at War. About eleven o'clock l)egan the display. Nothing could be more imposing than the flood uf bay- oneis, as it poured up the long avenue of the Champs Elysees, towards tho Arch of 'rrium|)h. Tlie dilferent troops were min- gled in the order of their approach — now a legion of the Garde Mobile, now a regiment of the line ; a legion of the National Guards, the schools, the associations of artisans, then cavalry and infantry. Across the Place de la Concorde, down the ex- Rue Koyale (now called the Rue Nationale,) and along the line of the Boulevards, the scene was the same. The ferment of the returning troops, and the swarming crowds, continued until long after midnight. The whole city was brilliantly illuminated. It was expected that during the night, when all tho Naticmal Guards were exhausted by fatigue, a fresh attempt would be made by the Ultras ; but nothing of the kind took place. The number of men under arms during the day amounted to 400,000. At night the illumination in the Champs £lysees presented a fairylike scene. Lights, festooned from tree to tree, were hung from the Place de la Concorde all the way to the magniticent trium- phal arch, and then the vista was terminated by a splendid display of various colored lamps. All the public buildings, of course, shone resplendent ; and the Chamber of Deputies, and the noble edifices on the Place de la Concorde glared with lights, and added to the glories of the scene. In the midst of all this, hosts of FKANCE. (JS3 or tli«i assem- ,rd» ; liy oiKht, ml. 'I'll*' liay of the actors tors, wa8 to be lumps Elyseus ore the Arch of 08, iiiul dccora- t withuiil a cor- aHstMiibled all wounded of the he coininisHioiis from the clubs, a crowd of priv- at nine o'clock ; H8l ten before the overninenl made irce wa8 read by D'dock began the 1 the Hood of bay- Champs Klysces, troops were min- ion of the Garde n of tl»e National aiis, then cavalry do, down the ex- Eind along the line The ferment of Is, continued until iantly illuminated. all the National npt would be made ace. The number to 400,000. lysees presented a to tree, were hung I magnificent triuni- r a splendid display lildings, of course, ilies, and the noble th lights, and added f all this, hosts of Republicans, male and female, sang their songs, with that light- heartedneHS peculiar to the I'ariNiaii. In thi> meautiuie, the elections for the Assembly hiid com- menced, and were conducted for the iuonI part with great tran- quillity, regularity and order. It WHS remarked as a singular thing in Paris that not more than one third of all the persons entitled to vote exercised the fran- chise, The working classes hung back — a fact greatly lament- ed, it proved that the French, though skilled in ellectiiig rev- oluti(ms, were so little alive to the vahie of liberty, as to be indif- ferent to the right to vote, the great privilege of the freeman ; and, on the other hand, it created the apprehension that it was not by peaceful constitutional means, but by actual violence, that the working classes wt^re disposed tocause their wishes to prevail. Lntc on Monday night, the 2 lih of April, the ballot-boxes were closed, and the elections terminated. The general examination of the votes was fixed for Friday, the 28tli of April, by an order of the Mayor of Paris, who also laid down the regulations to be followed on the occasion. Candidates, who obtained more than '20UU votes, according to the order of sulFrages given to them, were proclaimed " representatives of the people" by the Mayor. The elections throughout France, generally, showed a liirgo majority in favor of the moderate party. Some Monarchists, but few, found their way to tlie Chamber. The Assembly mot on the day appointed, and an immense multitude assembled on the Place de la Concorde, on the liridgo, and in all the places commanding u view of the National Palace, as the building formerly known as the C'hambor of Deputies was called. On the demand of General Courtais, the Commander (if the National Guard, the Assembly showed itself bodily to the people upon the peristyle of the building ; and the "Republic" was proclaimed, amid the waving of innumerable banners, the firing of artillery, and the shouts of the delighted multitude. All the preliminaries having been gone through, [lowers veri- fied, a president (M. Buchez,) and vice-presidents, secretaries, &c., appointed, the members of the Government proceeded to lay before the Assembly an account of their ministries since the es- tablishment of the Republic. On Saturday, May 6, .Vlinister Lamartine ascended the tri- bune, and read a document, which purported to be a report of the acts of the Provisional Government in the restoration of order, the organization of the National Guard, Mobile Garde, the army, &c., enumerating what had been done in the midst of two months of a crisis during which not a drop of blood had been shed. Many portions of this report were much applauded. i> III m " The Mini.u-r «i •'"'""^•' ^^ " ,3 < his official .ut^u. trihun.-. .n.l pro.-o.l.- to ;;,,,,,r ',;,,,, to the uanunis- bunc vvu« M. Louis y^^'-^^-;^^^^;::^^ "i ich'he Hui.l the i„ favor of his "^>.""".-' '""'', ' o^ ;« to the people asncn.. blo.l before the Hotel .le \ lie th« "J ^.^^^^^^ ^,,^ ^,,„. His oration was r.-ceived with ^"l""" "« , , ,,„a ^as suc- ister ..f l'«hlie I"'''"'^'"" ^'m rr^M om^ who laid ceedcd by M. »-'"""" l''*:,,^';^ d part.nent. onthe finaucial ^^^^;l^^Su'-^-^, and M. Marie, M. Arago, the ^ " f "^^^^ ^.^^ ,e«cnted the sUimtion of the Minister o( Public ^\ 'j^;; " ,;.j hy M. Lanmrl.nc, Mm- their departments ^ J'^^X to ok a slu.rl'^ review of the aspect -f ^-TTS^n^^-^^^^^ poet. J"nt;rrea" pSrLs.read; but the Assembly unant- Sly fefused to aecepuhe resignation ^^ ^ ^^^^.^ A stormy f ''"^^f ,£ Assembrto the Provisional Govern- offerinjj the thanks of \''" ^T'"°'Jmini8tration of affairs, and ntent for theu «^»».tl;"fi;eLctra Government «J m^.r,.., nominating a committee of five to act as ^^^^ ^^^^^,. until the P«'^'"''""^"\^""3S was mSdby the withdrawal tuted. Subsequently,the motion was mo ,^^^^^^^ p^^^^. „„„ld,ooc..ion 'l'"»''>«"Ji„,tSs W been ..nt .0 the signal. \ Tn N FEANCR. 685 iili Jer of thn Inlo- liiintralion, with imrfindtid the otficinl nets, ill to the iidniiniH- imeiit for polili- iccntU'd ihc iri- tcmjiore oration ich ho miitl the people asMem- the Hevoliitioii. Jarnot, the Min- i\, and was suc- rnerce, wlio laid ent. eluded his report p, and M. Marie, I the sitimtioii of Lamarline, Min- iew of the aspect ne of his remarks »le8 of his address ranee, •ranger, the poet, Assembly unani- ion of M. Domds, rovisional Govern- in of affairs, and rnment ad interim, y had been consti- by the withdrawal 3d that the Provi- ountry. The vote ez, the President, ult of this sitting was stationed in been sent to the narch at the first On the following Wednesday, the appointment of an Kxeeu- tive Ciiuunittet', in lieu of the I'roviHiuiiul (Jovornmeiit, wun annomiied. The result of the ballot wun — Arnno, .... 7'i& (iarnier I'agds, . . 715 Mario, 70'.i Lamartine, ..... 643 Ledru Kollin 598 Those five nieml)crs having; obtained the re(|iiired niiijurily, were procliiinied iiiemliers of the Kxeciilive (."oiiimittee. M. Louis Hlanc, M. .Mbert, and .M. i'locon wen entirely exclinlfid; a fart which the " people" and the " Communists" clieriMhed in vindictive remembrance. .M. Ledrii Uolliii, whose violence had alarmed the majority, was at the bottom of the list ; and M. dc l/imartine, who had lent his hi^h name ami <.;reiit popularity to Mupport M. Ledru U<»llin, was placed next lowest — all beiii^ most siijniticant facts to show the spirit of the .\ssembly, anil the probable policy to be hereafter exploded from it. VVhilo these scenes had been takiiiK place al Paris, the work- ing classes in Uouen, Kllxi-uf, and otluT mitnufacturinf( towns, alarmed that the revolution would not take up the (luestions of Socialism and (\)mmunism, and decree labor and food to every man — whethttr idle or industrious, skilled or unskilled — hud been in considerable agitation. On Monday, the 15th of May, Paris was the scene of another revolutionary struggle. The National Assemltly was surrounded and entered by thousands of the population, led by Uarl)es, Ulaii- (|ui, Hubert, and others, who drove the deputies I'roni their seats, and, amid a scene of indescribaule tumult, assumed the functions of Government. General Courtais, Commander of the National Guard, had treasonably opened the gates of the Assembly to the mob, and the Prefect of Police, M. Caussidiere, was sup|)osed to be another of the conspirators. Louis Ulanc was also impli- cated in the plot ; and thus organized and supported, the insur- rection manifested itself. Having forced their way into the National Assembly, the conspirators were not slow to announce their objects and intentions. With a drawn sworil in his hand, Barbes addressed the Assembly, and proclaimed that a contribu- tion of a thousand millions of francs should bo levied on the rich for the benefit of the poor, — that a tax of another thousand millions should be paid by the rich for the aid of Poland, — that the National Assembly should be dissolved, and an Executive Government, composed of Barbes, Albert, Louis Ulanc, Flocon, Blanqui, Raspail, and Cabet, be immediately appointed. He concluded his proposals by demanding the re-establishment of f ii «'! ) 5 '4fi' '^'' 686 CHAPTER XIV. :v.' '"it, 'Am the guillotine! The members of the Assembly withdrew, leav iiig the hall in possession of the mob. As soon as the fact of the erime committed against the National Assembly was known in Paris, about four o'clock, the rappel was beaten in all the legions. The National Guard immediately assembled with admirable ardour, to cries of " Vive I'Assemhlee Nativnalc .'" The 10th and 3d legions went towards the National Assembly to protect it. Several representatives joined their ranks, asking for arms. The other legions, detach- ments of the Garde Mobile, detachments of infantry and cavalry, and a battery of artillery, went to the Hotel de Ville, to possess themselves of the two or three Provisional Governments who had installed themselves therein. M. de Lamartine and M. Ledru Rollin were on horseback, side by side, in the ranks of the 2d legion. Ev irywhere on their passage they were received with acclamation, i nd by the cry of *' Vive I'Assemblee Na- tionale .'" On arriving at the Hotel de Ville, they entered it without resistance. They found about a hundred individuals assembled, the greatest number of whom were arrested, the rest escaping. No act of violence had to be deplored. M. de Lamartine and M. Ledru Rollin left the Hotel de Ville at 7 o'clock, (they were both on horseback,) and proceeded to the National Assembly. The immense and compact crowd scarcely allowed their horses to advance ; they were almost borne by thousands of arms. Unanimous cries broke out on their passage. M. de Lamartine, with his arms extended, and shaking hands with thousands, with tears in his eyes, addressed thanks to the multitude of devoted citizens. This demonstration accompanied him to the Palace of the National Assembly. Between six and seven o'clock, the legions of the banlieue entered Paris, by all the barriers, to oiler their support to the National Assembly, and their co-operation to the executive commission. At six o'clock, Barbes was at the Hotel de Ville, drawing up a proclamation, which was to be printed, and by which the dif- ferent administrations were distributed among his friends, when two captains, and about ten National Guards of the 3d and 6th legions, entered the salle. " Barbes ! Where is Barbes ? We must have him !" was their first cry. " No, no ! To arms !" cried some men with red belts. " You shall march over our dead bodies sooner than have him !" A greater number of National Guards then entered, and endeavored to go into the salle occupied by three members of the Provisional Govern- ment. The sentinels posted by Barbes offered great resistance. A deputy-mayor of Paris then came up. There were cries of " Vive Lamartine .'" M. Lamartine having then arrived ; and t iHiAMfeili i I withdrew, leav led against the our o'clock, the ^'ational Guard ( cries of " Vive [18 went towards representatives legions, detach- ilry and cavalry, Ville, to possess Dvernments who inartine and M. , in the ranks of ey were received I'AssembUe Na- , they entered it idred individuals arrested, the rest leplored. M. de icl de Ville at 7 proceeded to the ,ct crowd scarcely almost borne by X on their passage, nd shaking hands ssed thanks to the ation accompanied Between six and ered Paris, by all »nal Assembly, and n. ! Ville, drawing up 1 by which the dif- g his friends, when i of the 3d and 6th re is Barbds ? We 0, no ! To arms !" lall march over our greater number of ored to go into the 'rovisional Govern- red great resistance, rhere were cries of f then arrived; and -J FRANCE. 687 he was borne in triumph into the Hotel de Ville, and could only sav a few words, which were received with noisy acclamations. The 5th and 7th batteries of the artillery of the National Guard, headed by their chefd' cscailron, made a line in the passage lead- ing to the piace occupied by Barbes, Albert, Thore, and others. Shortly after seven o'clock the following was issued :— " The Hotel do Ville is delivered. The Provisional Govern- ment is leaving it amidst the acclamations of the people. The conspirators have been arrested. Citizen Bois Lecomte, bearer of the present proclamation, is charged to read and cause it to be placarded in all the mairies of Paris. " Flottard, " Secretary-General of the Marie of Paris. " May 15. — Seven o'clock in the evening." At eight o'clock the following proclamation was issued from the Hotel de Ville : — "French Rkpublic. » Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. "The National Assembly is not dissolved. The President, yielding to the tumult, declared the sitting at an end. The brave citizens of Paris are called on to maintain the respect due to the National Assembly, which was elected by universal suf- frage To attack the National Assembly, is to attack the republic conquered in February, and proclaimed by the Assem- bly. • Vive VAssembUe Nationale ." ' Vive la Republtque ! " Armand Marrast, " Representative of the People, Mayor of Paris." Thus the fidelity of the Guards, and the firmness of the Gov- ernment, averted the crisis. The plot was widely ramified, and parties high in oflice were implicated. The Government did not deem it prudent to proceed against all the delinquents, but most of the leading desperadoes were committed prisoners to the Castle of Vincennes, among whom were M. Barbes, a man of fortune, and highly educated; M. Raspail, a distinguished chemist ; and M. Blanqui, a gentleman of ancient family, and of high acquiiements and talents. Paris had scarcely subsided into c Jiet after these terrible commotions and alarms, when the inhabitants were summoned by the Government to a great National F&te of Concord, which took place on Sunday, the 21st of May. A procession was formed from the Place de la Concorde to the Champ de Mars. In the evening all Paris was brilliantly illuminated. The Champ de Mars, Champs Elys^es and the Tuileries, were lighted by half a million of lamps, aided by ten thousand Lhi- II if M CHAPTER XIV. at a cost of upwards of two hundedm^^^^^^^ ^^^ 1 Immediately after ^^^.^^V'^fuislation and oratory. On the Assembly resumed Us ^"^"'^ji 5 Banishment Bill, ^h'^^^.^^J 24th of May the <^^1«^"^^,^^,"'",7j unanimously approved of by been referred to a ^omm tlee a" ^^^^ read from the them, was brought up. J^'^^^^J .'^nd the Duke de Nemours, Duke d'.\umale, Prmce *!'; "'"^^^^'prancsois, Henry, and Louis (denominated i" ^he Proceedings as ^J^S a declaration was ^'Orleans,) against the decree oban^shm ^^^ .„^^^„,,i ^o the unanimously adopted by the Assemoy, .^^^^^^l compact Executive «"v«"r"'' Ins n ction o a„ independent and tree with Germany ; the '^^construction o ^^ ,^^^^ ^^^^ ^ j rt Etcr™C=:Sn "^^^^ the clubs of which |, bUbs and Blanqui were p^f-;'-^^.^^ ,,, „,anifested \\ An unusual display «f ""^'^e line of the quays on the : around the Chamber. J he entire Un ^^ ^^ f «outh bank, adjoimng the CjKimber ^^ ^^^ opposite sue troops, (horse and foot.) ^ '"l^^j^-gction, were occupied by Sding from the l>"« l'"^^*^' ^' nrtanrprenarations were taken on in the court. These »"iP°f ''."^ J^taly and Poland, the topics account of the debate aPP«'"^f J^the outr^^^^^ of ^^^ ^th. . Sh had served as a P-^-^^^^^if^.t^of another popular mani- "" The reports which «'«'^?, "XTof the Assembly to transfer Testation determined ^^^^ ^'^^ J^-^^^^f War, the full command ^^KSli whole w.ek ^i -Si^^S^f t^* was found absolutely necessary, horn n ^^ ^^^ ^,i finances, to put a ^^op j^emP «y ng ^^^^^ alarmed the expense, and the !f«X^%"SS Government. To abolish workmen, and excited them agamst ^^ ^jble and inhu- evil. •••■I ■ FRANCE. 689 (verywhoe \re- slivily. 1 -vas [ia the f6te, and ited among the was estimated ancs. e, the National )ratory. On the Bill, which had y approved of by re read from the ukc de Nemours, Henry, and Louis A declaration was instruction to the i'raternal compact Rpendent and free crecs were signed le clubs of which n was manifested the quays on the :upied by bodies of the opposite side, I, were occupied by cts of the legislative isliug of infantry of y-men stood reae*/ mmunition-waggons »ns were taken on d Poland, the topics re of the 5th. lOther popular mani- \s8embly to transfer r, the full command ut the palace of the a state of alarm. It )ndition of the public borers at the public hat end, alarmed the ernuient. To abolish impossible and inhu- ssity of stopping the The Minister of Public Works issued a proclamation, in which he dislinctly stated that the Government was occupied in preparing for the organization of the national workshops At an early hour of Monday, the 29th, the rappel was beaten in live or six arrondissements, and great numbers of the National Guard immediately turned out in arms. By eight o'clock several thousand of them were assembled at the different ren- dezvous. They were then marched to the National Assembly, the Garden of the Tuileries, the Luxembourg, the Hotel de Ville, and other places. The different ministries were also strongly guarded. At the National Assembly the force was immense, not only of National Guards, but of troops of the line. The quays, the Pont de la Concorde, and, in fact, all the approaches to the Assembly, were strongly guarded. The occasion of this overwhelming display of bayonets, was the fear of a threatening demonstration against the Assembly and the Executive Government. Affairs continued in this state for many days, when the election of Louis Napoleon, as represen- tative of Paris, for a vacancy caused by the double returns of the original elections, led to a demonstration of a more serious kind. His popularity seemed great, and he was not only elected for Paris, but for three departments wherein vacancies had occurred from a similar cause. On the following Sunday his name was to be heard in all the assemblies of the holyday people of the lower class, outside the barriers of Paris. On Monday morning, a new journal appeared entitled, Le Napoleonien, the advocate of the Prince, and its first number displaying considerable ability. Crowds collected in the quarters leading to the National Assem- bly ; troops and National Guards were called out, and amid much excitement, because M. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was expected to take his seat in the National Assembly. During the day a placard appeared, bearing an address of General Piat, Colonel of the Fourth Legion of National Guards, (he who had taken possession of the Hotel de Yille on the 24th February,) in which he, as an avowed friend of Prince Louis Napoleon, disclaimed for him any ambitious project. Other friends of the Prince, in the country, were not, however^ equally discreet. They carried their ballot in front of their hats, on which was inscribed, in large characters, "Louis Napoleon ! Vive VEmpereur ! A bos la Republique .'" About five o'clock in the evening, the Government ordered strong measures against the crowds assembled in the Place de la Revolution. Regiments of infantry and cavalry, and large bodies of National Guards immediately crossed the bridge in front of the Palace of the Assembly, and forming a junction with 44 ^ CHAPTER XIV. oyu 0.0.0 already on the P^ee^^it. ^I^rlr.^^^ of the immense ^^^'^"^^^^'^f'^^^^.^ry violence on the part of Complaints were made of unnecess >^^ ^^ ^^^ government, the armed fo^'^^^^^f^l^^ter of War, under whose eye the conveyed through '^« .^l'^'^','^ ^ers had come to something £"rSs!lTstt2' was" allowed when the command " Withdraw"' was issued. ^^^^^ gOOO Gardes Having cleared tt'«/\"jl"'^ ' JeRi^"*'' *"^ ^""'"""^ Mobiles wheeled up to the Rue de K ^ ,^^^^^ ^^^ twenty abreast. Fhe «^J" J'^^^^j ^^ double quick time along beat a charge, and the «/«'"" TJ^, R^es Castiglione and La the Rue de Rivoh, and Ij^^^fJjJ,^;^, ^hey proceeded n the Paix Having reached the »o"'®^*' ' u^^ \ ^f the Ministry r.mi order an'd at the «-« P/^^d in the tanwhile. the ! ' for Foreign Affairs ^"^/^fp^t de la Revolution, by the R«e dragoons advanced from the ^''J^« "j ^^^ did not comply , I Royale, driving the people hefore^^^^^^^^^^^^ , sileW. f«^ <^T "^ Ifthem vigl^^^^^^ The Boulevard | ' /,„„ -" were shouted b> .^^^™. 3,:.:o,/ The whole of the i cTeared, the dragoons remained^^n^^^^^^^^^ Access to the Rue Roy ale was filled with ^^^"O" ^^^. This con- 1 l> Uca d^ la Revolution was re «^ed^ to j^ery^bo^J ^^ .^^^^^ ^^^^ tinned for an hour or two "^"^^ ^ater in the evening, I venting their displeasure >« «^«»»"^'' ^,,, dispersed withou j :S tS f^^^e Asrei? itsdf the greatest excitement I prevailed. o^vant-iire of the panic, and proposed P M. de }^--^-^rx8TSmi!iorhm^g the entry o the that the laws of ^^16 an^ J« ^ ^^ ^^,.^^^^^ ^ ,he l::S::. %";i& - rU^ived amid deafening shouts of ^n returning to their companions they d Ir teV M. .Mario's expression, and said that they had been clled ''s avos." The mob then cried, "Down with Marie ! 'S'otn w.Ih the Executive Committee!" "Down with the ""tt "^^^y stationed themselves in the Place de la Rastile and at the Harriere du' Trone. , n . c, Barrlcaies were formed at the Porte St. Denis and Porte St. '^Theenvirons of the Hotel de Ville, of the Luxembourg the Boul vardl, and the quarters of St. Martin, St. Denis, and Le Temple, w;re all thronge.l with multitudes of operatives. Atei^ht o'clock the square of the Panth6on was filled with se eral1housands,whom\rched with banners to the Faubourg du Temple, wher^ they were joined by large bodies of working '" Measures of precaution were taken during the evening. The NaUonT Guard were called out. Numerous detachments of ™ were stationed at the Luxembourg. At ten o^clock a sauadron of dragoons and several companies of the troops of the r bivouacked on the Place de I'Hotel de V.Ik. At eleven I o'clock a battalion of the line took possession of the court of he Prefecture of Police. The peristyle of the Palais de Jus ce Vas guarded by the Garde Mobile. The Assembly was filled with uoops Everywhere the armed force was very numerous^ The "nsurgents, in the course of Friday morning, threw up barricades U. various quarters on both banks of the Seme, and at i"o" was to be seen^i all directions the formidable nature of "he preparations which they had made for the coming contes. Spfr nKn disDlaved great strategic skill and correct judgment. TtHn r^S e^^ on the^right bank from the Faubourg Poissonniere to the Seine, embracing thus the whole Faubourg St Antoine • on the left bank it occupied the Faubourg St. Marcel, StTcto'r, and the lower part of the Quarlier St. Jacques ; these two pSns were connected by the occupation of many pojn^. such^as the church of S^^'er-is, a part o the Quartierdu Tem- ple, the approaches of Notre Dame, and the Pont St. M chel The church of St. Severin served as head quarters, and the Faubourg St. Antoine as a magazine. This plan was ingeni. onsly conceived, for the insurgetits were thus master of an immense semicircle, which formed nearly one-halt of Pans. In ['A: 'li 692 CUAl'TKR XIV. ■m success, ii. was easy <«[. '^"^ " '"^'" „ ' s and Boulevards, and occupv the important lines of he qu.>s yin^^hich would thoTcoul'l «""«""•! '^.y •^'''^'^r % on e masters of that and the ha/ebeen thus i" ^^^^'/^ '.n'.HsS their government. Jrefecture. they could have e^n^bl^^^^^^^^^ ^ „„^ber P The measures »''''«" ^^f^^^ inevitable, from the savage of lives; but that sad .'^'^''""_'^,^*;_L,ded themselves, energy with which the "-urger^ cMe -le^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ Across the boulevard, and ^^J^ ^^^^ „, five omnibuaes, i was an immense barricade t^''^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^en from several carriages a huge w-g^--^^"^ PonsiLral.le distance on the streets, which were torn "P '«; ^ ^^^^^^ was another both sides. A little beyo"dt^^^^^^^^^^ ^ barricade, as formidable as Ae first an |^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ same miscellaneous '"f ";;i«t;,;iV not quite so large as the Porte St. Mfinwas a ^irl^"'^^,,^.! jefence against a coup first, but stiU sufficient to be a po ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^j de mam. The end of \^«^^f "f. '^ Vhich prevented the approach closed up with a huge Jamcade whicn p^ ^^^ .^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^. of troops from the outskirts U e ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^,^^^ ^ ^ut. leneuve Bourbon, the ^"^„^'fJ,e conspirators, were similarly ting on the spot in P««««««„V" ^m ' were industriously working defended, and thousa^ids of g«m.«s w ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^.^^^ ^^ ^^^ with pikes and spades, tearin^ v defences. j<.fpnd>'d by some hundreds of the peo- The barr cades were aelend>-a oy ^^^j ^^,1 pie in 6Jo«se., of whom "l-y ^^^^r^S:? 'of tri-colored flags Show their arms. TJey ^^^ ^^ , with the words •' Atehers stuck upon the top of the bamcaae^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^.^ Nation^x" in^^^^^'l^P"" 'Sors was decorated with a black was in the hands of the conspira jrs ^^ paving-stones flag, and on the top "f »t were arra g ^^^ ^^^^ f apparently for the purpose o^h^ng ^^^^ J^.^^ ^^^^ ^^n^j those who might attack U. 1 je u ^ ^^ commenced u^on, without effect, to ^urren^^^, the e^^^^ ^^ ^^^ mfantry the aSd lasted twenty ""^""^^^^^ /j^nSt only from the barricades, rioters responded with a sharp fire, no y ^^^ ^^^ but from the neighboring streets. |^ g loss, [he Jaken, but not until the "oo^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ was mortally wounded commanding officer of the Natumai^^^^^^^ ^^^.^^ ^^^ ^^^^„ and many men and otticerB o army were killed. ( narrow streets he troops, and reat : in case of mcing a little, to Boulevards, and lie, which would rs of that and the )vernment. I a great number from the savage smselves. : Porto St. Denis, )r five omnibuses, stones taken from arable distance on lenis was another posed of much the ler on towards the lite so large as the i\ce against a coup St. Denis was also ented the approach Denis, the Hue Vil- > other streets abut- itors, were similarly dustriously working is and adding to the lundreds of the peo- Bd, or at least did not er of tri-colored flags the words " Ateliers wte St. Denis, which ecorated with a black aps of paving-stones, )d upon the heads ol ts having been called lagcment commenced >ns of the infantry the ly from the barricades, ;th the barricades were Jd a severe loss. The was mortally wounded, le Mobile and regular FaXNCB. Disrhartres of n.uskctry were heard throughout the night, and noth ;g3d exceed thJalarn. everywhere pr-a^ng. Abou n oVlock on Saturday, notice was given by the National A sem ly Lt Paris was'in a state of siege, and Gen. Cavaignac tZ declared commander of the whole military force Il'.^r h s decree was passed, .he Executive Counc. ad- dressed the following com'.nunication to the President of the Assembly : safety of the Republic. .. u„,ht.ne, " Araoo, " Ledro Rolun, " Garnier Pages, «' Marie, Members of the Executive Committee. ..24th June. .'Paonerre. Secretary. OnP of the first orders of General Cavaignac, after the capital twd gS'he «,eeu, prevent .!« .s.en.bh"g o c.owJ., and carrying ball cartridges in their l'^«''«'^«-. , ^^^J". fT^ifh gun- break on Saturday mormng, the se/^^««\'""|'' one o'clock, 1J^^?S^5S^I^." e S=e I^^iadecon- i i m\ CHAPTER XIV. tor took place. At the «an.e hour ho^^fTf ^^ ^„„ ^^u the ^^'I'Vr^"\1w°p'rthe fnsurgem. were drive,, to the At half-past three, 1 . M., ine ni b desDeralely, and Pantheon and ^here surrounded ;t^^^^^^^ :l: rnHt^ttvS'th^tL^^^ was recovered fro. them 'after three — -^^f ^^SV )'™^^^^^ "^ ^^^ In the cour«eo the day (baurda^,)^ .^^ ^l.^ ^^^^^ received a wound m the 8^0"'.'™"' Cavaiiinac to go on a The venerable priest having offered Gtn. V^^^^ ^ ^^^ ^^^^ accepted and three membrs ot ^^^^^^^^ ,o,„.,teered to Larabit, Gait Caxa et «, j^^. „ t^e Faubourg accompany hm^ Arrhb shorand his companions advanced to St. Antoine, the Arch')t8hop ara^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^^^^ 1 speak to them. ^/^J^p^^^^^J'^'^hen unfortunately the beat of at the entrance to the t aubourg, wiie .jigp^arged on both a drum alarmed the msurgents Shots were m3 g the ^'^^^^'^^'.''^"''i'ZonS^U nigbt was still very alarm- The situation of Pans on ^'''"^^y "'8^^' f their position ing; thot.gh^\«»-:f":f„e^l wS quite on the lef^bank of the Seine and Itiatp^^^^ ^^^7 ^^^.^^^^ free from them, being held ''^ ^"^""g P^ ^j^^ g^eat force at Guards, and Molnles, J;«yj'',;^XhX troops had been occurred. ,'t*3fir 'J pieces of can- ihe insurgents, )dtMl in forcing ) n o'clock this j iloody ciicoun- 1 Is of'the Fau- | iiclion with the i en o'clock was 1 that after that j resumed. Shot ;entre of whose 'he battle raged and thousands, e driven to the lesperately, and Bvoted to a just recovered from hbishop of Paris d in his death, ignac to go on a iflor was tit once Assembly, MM. volunteered to to the Faubourg ons advanced to lidable barricade lately the beat of ischarged on both the Archbishop, Its went immedi- , who was carried gents denied that is still very alarm- rom their position the city was quite »f troops, National ith great force at 16 troops had been most vigorous and great loss of life FKANCB. .r„e K-K,,,,. si„rT'r: '::E:':hSKr.t the east, and the tlos St. l.a^.iro, on u formed their strong holds in th>^ -^•rc^^ »"^ commenced. At ».n early hour on Sunday, »'»;™o to erect barricades on r.uring the Ji^y --.""^'"C, Zy Trei^^untly destroyed by the Ivft bank of the Seine, Dui imy we the National Guard and tl'« ^^^P^dispe ed wi"th Z exception the insurgents here were «""^'y fS^J^^'J^, ,no«t remote of a few isolated parties, who ^'^1 h«»d ""^ 'J ;\„ ^^^ij have part of the great Faubourg St. '^''/V^^"' '^" ,„„„„ them that no Surrendered before, but ^^aj - --^^i^^*^^^^^^^^^^ however, quarter was to be given. In '^'^/J^'^ "' ' ^ „ot the slightest the danger was at an end, ^"^ t^«^" ^i'^i^^a ^f St. Louis, appearance of a fresh insurrection Tj^ ';'^"°^° insurgents, Jl'nchhad been for ™ -« ^.Vtant t^^^^^^^^^ r e^t^SruSbi^^i^ st^i^j-.;^ :-^:rz struggle, in which ^J^^^^^^^ll^^.^Z^Zus which they both -'I-. -;^X/l ASlicTn^ the'streets between the D de Yi 1 the basin of the Canal St. Martin^ " The National Guard and the troops """J-^if ^^t^^^^^^ line of the canal from the Place de la Ba^.le U, t ^^ ^ called the Chapelle St. Denis, ^^ich last place wa late hour, after a murderous ^'f "gf V^^^ who ^^^^^^^ formed a junction -f ^^enenil La'^^^^^^^ .„ ^^, '"r'^WSr?irl The "action was thus driven S;tSl:^t^ I^'whichith^^ l^UTshrSrirS h^oS^X^en concealed behind X to this period of the conflict, U was es^^^^^^^^^^ number of troops. National Guards and Gar^eJ ,^^. ^^^ and wounded, was upwards of IS.UUU. v^u ^urJL the casualties were -t so X^-- ,heu the insur- On Monday mormng an "'">«»'^Vsurrender on the condition gents sent a deputation to propose a f""«nj^' ""^^is proposal fhat they should ^e aUowe to ret.„ the r m ^V^ P„ ^„ was at once rejected by general v^amgnd , ^-n t^n unconditional surrender, and allowed the "'^^^S^^ -^ ^,, o'clock to determine what they «h«"»d do At that hou thought that ihe terms proposed were agreed to, but i 696 (•IIAITIIll XIV, goviTiimpnt troops ImviiiK n'.it within the linos of tho inniirgpnts, wtru I'lrod at, and a uron nuinhor of tliiNii wxrr killetl. Ilostiii- tieH inuni^liatfly recommciiL-cd, which, at'icr a Hhurt cuntost, was l)rou|irht to an end by the unconditional surrundcr of tlio insurgent!*, who thornselves assisted in pulling down their barricades. During the conflict on Sunday and Monday, it should be mentioned, the National Guards from the departments near Paris, particularly Kouen, Amiens, Orleans, &c., fought gal- lantly by tho side of their i'aris brethren. Monday night passed without the slightest disturbance or appoariince of an intention on the part of the insurgents to renew the contest. After one o'clock in the day there was no fight- ing, but it was not till twenty-rive minutes to ten o'clock at nii^'lit that M. S6nard, the President of the National Assembly, an- nounced that all was terminated, that tho barricades had been taken down, and that nothing remained excepting that agitation which was inseparable from such events. A great number of the insurgents had laid down their arms, but by far the greater number of them had taken refuge in the country between Vincennes and St. Denis, where they were pursued by several regiments of cavalry and infantry. In tho course of Monday evening 1500 took up their quarters in the cemetery of Pere la ("haise ; but on an alarm that the tro«)ps were coming, they retreated to the neighborhood of Uoinain- ville. The total number who had fled to the country amounted to several thousands. The number of prisoners already made was very great. Tho prisons were filled with them, and every hour added to the number. On Monday night 300 prisoners, who had surrendered in the Faubourg du Temple, were marched along the Boulevard, strongly guarded by infantry, and carried to one of the detached forts in the neighborhood of Paris. They consisted principally of ouvriers, but several of them were dressed in the uniform of National Guards, and a considerable number in that of the Garde R6publicaine ; and on the same even- ing the whole of the city was illuminated, not so much as a token of rejoicing for the victory gained, as to enable the sen- tries to distinguish each other, and to prevent any further attempt upon the part of the insurgents. The insurgents had resolved to defend themselves to the last, and had posted up a printed proclamation in the streets, declar- ing that they would bury themselves under the ruins rather than surrender, except on their own terms. They had cannon of large dimensions, from which they poured a murderous fire upon ^yiH BIII>l«Wll 10 insiirgpnts, led. llostili- Nhorl contest, rcmltT of 'ho down thoir it should be artmitnts near fou|{ht gal- iisturbance or gents to renew was no lii^ht- )'cluck at night Assembly, an- ados had been { that agitation )wn their arms, n refuge in the tiere they were ifantry. In the quarters in the that the troops ood of Uomain- try amounted to ready made was , and every hour I prisoners, who , were marched ■y, and carried to of Paris. They 1 of them were d a considerable )n the same even- jt so much as a ) enable the sen- t\y further attempt selves to the last, le streets, declar- ruins rather than ly had cannon of urderous fire upon m^Si VI - 11 raxNcM. 697 the froop^t. nn.l tlioy only irnvo way wlin. thry found ihnl the howiizt'rs wore rapidly tliiiiiiiii« tli.'ir riiiiks. 'I licy thou l..'«an to (ly in tnery diri'ilioii, many "f ihcni iihanilnninK ihoir niimk.'ts ; l.ut the (•xiisperiuion of ih(^ troops of the hue, and tho nrlillery of the National (iimrd was fundi that it was impossible to prevetit ii consiehirabh; ntassiicre anions tin- insnrKents. A ureat number, however, were iiuuhf prisoners ; and ilie armed fujiitives, who in their ni«ht fre.pieiilly turned round to conlinuo tho attack, were pursued by a division of the artillery of tho National CJuard to a consideral)lo distance. Thi^ iiisurreelioii was by far the most terrible that has over des(d!.ti;! Paris. The number of killed and wounded will probably never bo known, but certainly amounts to many thousands. Many calculate the numb.T as IukIi as 20,000, and none estimate it below 10,000. The troops of the line suth-red greatly, and of the Oarde Mobile nearly one-third were either killed or wounded. r u- i .u (!en. Cavai<,nmc, having fulfilled the purpose for whicli the dictatorial power had been confided to him, resigned it to the Assembly, and issued the following proclamation to the National Guard and the army : .. , ,, ,,• i " Citizens, soldiers :— Tho sacred cause ot the Republic has triumphed; your devotedness and unshakeable courage have balllcd guilty projects, and done justice on fatal errors. I" "'» name of tho country, in the name of all humanity, be thanked for your efforts— be blessed for this necessary triumph. 1 his morning the emotion of the struggle was legitimate, inevitable. But at present, be as great in calm as you have just been m the combat In Paris I see victors and vanquished, but may my name be accursed if I should consent to see victims. Justice will take its course— let it act— that is your wish, and it is mine also. Ready to return to the rank of simple citi/en, I will carry in the midst of you the remembrance of having, in these grave trials, only taken from liberty what the salety of tht Republic itself demanded, and of leaving an example to whoever may be in his turn called on to fuUill such great duties.' The Assembly then passed a vote of thanks to him and Mi» associates, and unanimously yielded to him the chief executive authority, with the power of electing his ministers. The council, formed accordingly, was ultimately composed of the following members : General Cavaignac, President. M. Marie, Minister of Justice. M. Bastide, Minister of Foreign Affairs. M. Senard, Minister of the Interior. .: (syifi! CHAPTER XIV. General Lamoriciere, Minister of War. M de Verninhac, Minister of Marine. M. Goodchaux, Minister oil- inance. M Recurt, Minister of Public Works. M Tourct, Minister of Couimevce. U Vaulabelle, Minister of Public Construction^ General Chargarnier was appointed Commander of the Wa '^"S:Ss^^?^r the most part. ^^^^^ ^S talents and character ^"«P"« I««P^,^ ' ,„^tX„es' tmambitious self is considered a ^^^'^^^^ZwlTiCnuZ^^^^^ oi and able man-one who will «f .^^^ ^"J^^^^J^ ^1^^^^^ personal the affairs of his country, not ^^P'^^J"^ advance the public aggrandizement, or private -ter-ts. but ,. ad^vance^^ ^^ p ^^^_ tion thus far has been distingmshed by judgment, energy resolution. Revolutions in Germany in 1848. The large number of independent states, of ^Jj^^^f f^^";';,^, ConLeraLn is formed, renders a ^^^--^^^X" of S^^ .evolutions that have taken pUcen them a ™aU.r^«'^^. J federalempire, hasexisteainme 11 .,. . ^ f ^he great triotic men in Germany ; and ^';\;f;X^r^^^^^^ •/olverein. or Customs Union, was hailed wiin joy, a» mill,. The ...11 r" "P^tok Tihese ™..»r,, .»d very ■Of' ler of the Na^ of men whose ^avaignac him- !St, unambitious mpled crisis of own personal ance the public jnt of the van- his administra- ent, energy and 8. which the United ! count of the great liter of difficulty, them being very ernment, and only ionate contingent langer. For hun- lany into one great earts of many pa- nent of the great I joy, as one of the •lished. With the and Mecklenburg- immediately join- r had been making ig the employment on of factories and opulation, with its 3 matters, and very t their Government GERMANY. 699 increased their evils, without attempting to alleviate them. They recognized in the government of Austria an open despotism ; they saw through the pretexts of constitutional liberty with which Frederick William of Prussia soug^ht to hide the despotic ten- dencies of his mind ; they learned to despise the disgraceful profligacy of King Ludwig of Bavaria ; they discovered the petty tyrannies practiced by the smaller Princes and Electors of Germany ; and their minds awakened to a just sense of their rights and privileges as men, as well as subjects. Silently, these impressions were circulated throughout the diflerent * \rBaden, M. M. Welcker and Basserman openly called for a constitutional government, and freedom of the press. The time for action was approaching ; men understood that it was neces- sary, and were beginning to measure their strength, when sud- d^iiilv the fire of the French Revolution of February, 1848, in- flamed all Europe ; its sparks flying in all directions, kindled the train in preparation throughout Germany, and immed(ately the .hole country was in a blaze. Popular commotions took pla - in all the large cities, and the cry was for a political con- stitution, which should give the people a share m legislation, establish the liberty of the press, abolish odious restrictions, re- form the judicial system, nnd otherwise extend popular rights. On the 29th of February, 1 ^-18, at Carlsruhe, in Baden, depu- tations from every town in the Grand Duchy besieged the Grand Duke, demanding liberty of tlie prr.s, mal b' jury, extended sufFrage, constitutional Government, institution of a burgher giiard, right of public meeting, and amended ^fepreseniation of the Ger- man nations in the Diet at Frankfort. On the 2nd o March, the Grand Duke yielded to the demands of his people, dismissed his obnoxious ministers, and called to his council M. W elcker, for many years the firm and consistent opponent of all the des- potic proceedings of the Government. , . , r • i Great popular demonstrations were made in favor of similar concessions at Mayence.in Hesse Darmstadt ; Hanau,in Hesse Cassel; Wiesbaden, in Nassau; Stuttgardt, in Wutomburg ; and many smaller towns in those neighborhoods. On the 3rd of March, «.t Cologne, the people proceeded in a ' body to the town-house, where the Council were sitting, and required of the Prussian authorities their sanction to similar pe- titions. A riot ensued, the town-house was stormed and the authorities made prisimers. The intervention of the military re- leased them, and the Governor of the Rhine Provinces prom-sed to forward the petitions of the inhabitants to Berlm. <-''<"»« sameday the inhabitants of Frnnklort met together, and added %. m^ \. I sS 700 CHAI'TEri XIV. their voices to the almost universal shout for reform, express- ing their discontent with the meagre concessions which the Diet had that day made. The Diet had abandoned the idc . of a universal law of the press for all Germany, and resolved to allow each stale to exercise its own judgment in the matter, sub- ject to certain guarantees. The 4th of the month witnessed the bloodless revolution of Munich. On that day the people of Mu- nich assembled together in large numbers in the streets in the neighborhood of the palace, and demanded reform. In the ex- citement of the moment they stormed the arsenal, possessed themselves of the arms it contained, and thus equipped, uncheck- ed by the military, proceeded to the palace, and forced from King IjuJwig those concessions which he had refused to make. A week had thus elapsed since the occurrences at Paris, and we find that at its close the demands of the inhabitants of the king- dom of Bavaria, the dukedom of Baden, the kingdom of Wirtem- burg, the dukedom of Nassau, and the electorate of Hesse Darm- stadt, had been conceded by the ruling powers. At Hanau, in Hesse Cassel, an insurrection, with barricades, and conflicts be- tween a portion of the people and the soldiery, were needed be- fore the Elector would yield. At the united Diet at Frankfort, they agreed that their rulers ought to cease to be alone represented at the Diet, and demand- ed that the people should have their representatives at its sittings. On the 5th of March, fifty-one representatives of different coun- tries of Prussia, Bavaria, Wirtemburg, Baden, Hesse Cassel, Nassau, and Hesse Darmstadt, met together at Heidelberg to consult on the state of Germany, and the steps necessary to be adopted in such a crisis. They unanimously adopted a series of resolutions, embodying the following plans : — That no war of intervention should be made against the new order of things ; that no attempts should be made to deprive other nations of the liberty and independence which they had earned as a right ; that a representative assembly should be convened for all German states, to avert internal and external dangers, and to develop the energy and prosperity of the country ; that a body of volunteer representatives should be organized to offer their assistance to Government in this matter ; and that all Germany should unite to defend the country against foreign aggression. The Diet, then sitting at Frankfort, on the fallowing day declared its conviction of the necessity of reforming ihe Federal Diet, and invoked the different (Jerman states to send immediately to Frankfort men enjoying the confidence of their countrymen, to assist in the de- Uberalions necessary for anew constitution of the Diet. During this first week of March, matters remained tranquil in the north form, express- jiis which the [led the idc . of nd resolved to he matter, sub- i witnessed the 5 people of Mu- streets in the m. In the ex- inal, possessed ipped, uncheck- Kced from King >d to make. A t Paris, and we mts of the king- ;dom ofWirtem- of Hesse Darm- At Hanau, in and conflicts be- were needed be- ;hat their rulers iet, and deniand- ves at its sittings. of diff"erent coun- >, Hesse Cassel, at Heidelberg to J necessary to be adopted a series : — That no war ' order of things ; ler nations of the arned as a right ; led for all German Mid to develop the body of volunteer their assistance to nany should unite 1. The Diet, then aredits conviction t, and invoked the ' to Frankfort men , to assist in the de- the Diet. During ranquil in the north GERMAN V. 701 and south of Germany, though the uneasiness felt by the royal heads and their councillors had very much increased. The agi- tation of the sturdy inhabitants of the Rhine provinces, and slight symptoms of the same near the capital, induced Prince Fred- erick William of Prussia, on the fith, \.o promisr. that he would grant to the assembled States the right conferred by the law of the 3d of February on the assembled Committees of the States, to meet periodically, at fixed times ; and he promised to confirm the privileges of the Committees in a corresponding manner. No time, however, was fixed. On the same day the Prince of Prussia was appointed Governor-General of the lihine Provinces. He did not, however, leave Berlin. Largo bodies of troops were moving all this time from the eastern provinces of Prussia to the neigh- borhood of the Rhine. On the 10th of the month the King of Prussia issued a decree declarin;,' himself dissatisfied with the resolution of the Diet with respect to the freedom of the press, and announced that, unless the Diet granted substantively the freedonri of the press for the whole Confederation, he would take the initiative for the Prussian kingdom at the next meeting. We may here state that on the 14th he issued another decree, an- nouncing that, in conjunction with Austria and Saxony, he had accepted the invitation of the Diet to send deputies to Frankfort, for the purpose of deliberating on the re-construction of the Fed- eral Diet on a more extended basis, and in order that, fundament- ally united by strengthened free institutions, Germany might once more become one great country, and re-assume its ancient grand- eur and proper rank in Europe. While King Frederick William was thus engaged in Pnissia, his ally in Saxony was nndergoinp the process of compulsory concession. Dresden and Leipsic pronounced in favor of the universal progress, and compelled the King to grant their request King Ernest Augustus of Hanover, after much tempo- rising and great delays, which, if prolonged another day, might have cost him his throne, was compelled on the 16f.h to grant the demands of the Hanoverians. Long held to be the moet politi- cally careless race in Germany, their city, one of the most pleas- ant in Europe for the resort of foreigners, renowned for its varied attractions, musical, theatrical, and scientific, but regarded as dead to all else, the Viennese nevertheless preceded Berlin in the attainment of the Constitutional Government. On the 1 3th March, the session of the Diet of Lower Austria was opened. An immense concourse of the inhabitants assem- bled in the neighborhood of the church, headed by the students. They drew up a petition in favor of constitutional Government, freedom of the press, national armament, trial by jury, and re- I t ll CHAPTER XIV. ,i,ious freedom. Having P"-"-^, tral\in'« ^e sU,de^ Assembly, ^^^^'^X^^^^A Notwithstanding this as- that their demands should lie gr^nt^' • ' . j ^omxA- suranee of the A-h «k. n^^^^^^^^^^^ - ^one ,^ ^Jhdra^n^ithin gating freedom o the V^^^^^2\vere then refused. Angry and half an hour, and f '«'i'^ ^^^'^'f ' ^^ents rushed upon the arsenal, excited, the populace and ^"^'^f "'^"^^^^^^ who were or- obtained arms, and advanced to meet the sow^ ^ ^^^^_ dered to suppress the not n J^^l^^^^h^'night of the 13th, cades were built an cnfl^ee.^^^^^^^ „o^„p.ession on and <"°'^"'"g°V^W Government, finding the neighboring coun- the rioters ; and the '^overnmenw b insurrectionists, trymen were flock ng ^"^VllU were also leivfng the ranks, felt and a^at portion of Oie soldiery wer^^ resigned the themselves compelled to ^^uccu ino ^yiUiam, retired, the unpopular Archdukes, Albert, >'"'i '^ '^'«* ^^'^^j^ i„3talled, feller :=^^^^ , 3i; l50willberoumUobenearjhetr.h^^ ^^^^.^^^ | One of the results o ^^^^ cliange was^ h^Mi^^^g^ y^^^ ^._ ^ , a national government. ^^ "ungar^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ I ously remonstrated verv s^ron y ^ ^ f ^^ Austrian author- Metternich, and had 'l«'"*f ^f '7^^7,'/, „ ^^ places. i,ies, and the substitution "f^^XmeeUng was held in Berlin, On the I3th of March, a "i«"^;^;";^3 j,, other countries, to petition the K ng for the ^«^«7; ^^^^^^^^^ "i^s dispersed by The meeting, which was raherj^mulu^^^^^^^ ^^^^P^^^ ^^ the soldiery; blood was ^^^'^'.^.i^^^Vee, which were put the 14th aiid I5th, simdar -- -ff^tiCday the students of down in the same way. On the lol o g y .^ ^^^.^ Berlin, united with those "J »;f ^^^^^^^ peUtbns were granted, titions, and threatened to arm, un ess their p ^t^Herlin, On the 17th the R.«volu"0" ".Vienna becan^e K ^^^^ ^^^^^^ and, on the morning «f . ^J« f ^^i^d "^ge union of the whole markable decree, in which he dema^^e^ confederation, the German Enripire, the i;*-"^?;^ ^"J.^"^^^ common army, and a institution of a •=«""^°" ^ '1^2 nly intimated his willing- common customs union, and very plain ^^ ^^ ^.j^ nes8 to ascend th>, Imperial throne ^^l^" ^^^^jf %, had been ■"Ml ■'. . or.RMANy. 703 8 of the Hall of uring the students hstanding this as- i decree, promul- ftfithdrawn within ised. Angry and upon the arsenal, ers, who were or- f the town barri- nightof the 13th, no impression on neighboring coun- le insurrectionists, ring the ranks, felt ich resigned, the 'illiam, retired, the ■ ministry installed, the 15th of March, as burnt. The ac- two days vary very Hungary obtained hamber had pr n- s policy pursued by the Austrian author- leir places. was held in Berlin, in other countries. , was dispersed by ivr" .vere lost. On ,ce, which were put day the students of le people in their pe- ilitions were granted, me known at Berlin, r issued that most re- [e union of the whole ts confederation, the 3ommon army, and a intimated his willing- wledging, as he did, ceeding, he had been Vienna. Tliough the nds of his people he was necessary to the attainment of his object, to grant some, at least, of the required concessions. lie granted liberty of tbe press, subject to the penal laws for libel,