%. Ik ^#.'^' -"^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) .•r, - / 1.0 I.I Hi m m 116 M 22 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ 6" — ». %- VI A^y *^ <>, ^^ (? / /i Photographic Sciences Corporation ^ ^v fd << \ \ rv > "■« ion an lat its ecord, ecade id has i PREFACE. vn made during its long and singular oxisteuco as a dopondoucy of tho British Crown. Tho story of Newfoundland is one of tl'O most remark- able episodes in tho history of tho liritish Empire. It presents us at our worst and at our best. Strange in- stances of official tyranny blur the chronicles of the Island's rise and progress. On a smaller field Freedom has had almost as hard a battle in Newfoundland as that which was necessary to establish her supremacy at homo. Not that the islanders fought and bled for the privileges they now enjoy- They did not win their liberties with piko and gun. Tho pomp and circumstance of war flung no halo of glory about their political achievements. Toiling and suffering, they bore their many ills with a patient loyalty to tho Home Govern- ment that deserved the quick reward which it did not receive. To-day, however, no English ministry can look back upon the maladmini r.li-ation of the country, without a desire to redeem a past of cruelty and neglect, by a present con- ciliatory watchfulness over Newfoundland's future interests. The special grievances of the people, the unique position of the colony, the attempt to make it a mere fishing station and training ground for the Navy, the curious anomalies of the local and imperial laws under which tho people laboured ; all these subjects are considered and illus- trated in the following pages. In the active eff n-ts that were made, for more than a century, to su])piosj the colonisation of Newfoundland, coercive laws were supplemented by libels on its climate and soil. The English merchants, who used it as a fishing station, published it abroad as a land given o\'er to sterility and fog. Officials of the Home Government encouraged these reports. When, in spite of them, infatuated emigrants found their way thither, they were forbidden either to build on the land, or to obtain any proprietary rights in the soil. Every summer the Fishing Admirals took possession of tho Island, with incontestable power to use or to destroy any huts, stages, or buildings, which the inhabitants might have erected near the coast. In the autumn the fishing fleets sailed away. On arriving in the English ports the captairs Vlll PEEFACE. were puuisliecl if tliey did not bring homo again as many men as they had taken out. During tlio pleasant days of summer the Fishing Admirals and their crews made the country a howling wilderness. Winter found it a soli-ude and a desolation. Yet, strange to say, there were people who clung to its inhospitable shores. Such Law and Justice as existed there at all, went away every autumn, with the migratory merchants and admirals. The Freedom of Licence reigned one half the year, the Tyranny of Irresponsibility the other. Justice was held in greater respect, when Law was absent, than when ignorant and interested skippers administered it on the quarterdecks of their commercial ships. Men flying from troubles at home, unfortunate traders, exiles for conscience sake, adventurers to whom settled government means chains and shackles ; these and such like found shelter in Newfoundland. By degrees, as the laws relaxed in regard to settlement, and the tyranny of the Fishing Admirals waned, the population grew from a few hundred families to a few thousands. With the broadening of the opportunities of labour and enterprise, it. increased, from eighty thousand in 1814, to something approaching, at the present time, two hundred thousand. Little better than a mere fishing village up to the end of the last century, Newfoundland is to-day a thriving community. The time is not far distant when it may rival, in wealth and status, the most important of England's colonial possessions. Discovered thi-ee hundred years ago, Newfoundland has only, in these latter days, been explored. The result of scientific investigation proves that it is endowed with all the possibilities of mineral and agricultural wealth. The geological survey, conducted over a period of seventeen, years, dissipates the libels of those conspirators of the past who wished to keep the Island as a mere curing stage for cod. Rich in useful minerals, Newfoundland has fertile belts second to none in the New World. {Seventy years ago it was unlawful to build a house on the Island with- out Government permission. It is within quite a recent date that settling there and cultivating the soil have been PKEFACE. IX 9 many dmirals leroess, strange spitable 11, went its and lio year, '^as held ;5noraut erdecks traders, settled ad such , as tlie ■anny of !W from ^ith the ;erprlse, Qietliing lousaud. d of tlio munity. iltli and sessions. land lias jsult of with all II. The Iventeen Ihe past stage fertile ' years with- recent re been tolerated. Half a century ago there were no regularly constructed roads in the country, and hardly a house worthy of the name, from an English point of view. It is within a score of years that anything like commerce, outside the fish trade, has made a mark on the rising towns and cities ; and it is little more than a year ago that, in a journalistic capacity, I had the satisfaction of tabling from New York to London the first news of the closing of a definite agreement for providing the Island with the one great factor of commerce which her organisation required. At that time Newfoundland had no railway. As material on which to base prediction of future success, and as an example of the rapidity of modern progress, I am informed that at the date of these introductory words to an interesting historical record, forty-five miles of road are open and at work. Furthermore, it is prol)able that the time is not far distant when this hitherto neglected English colouy will bo the half- way house of ocean-travel between the Old World and the great industrial centres of the New. The resting-place of the first Atlantic cable, there is every i-eason to believe that it is destined to be the junction of sea-ti'avel and land-transit between England and America, shortening the ocean voyage to four days, and discounting the present time between England and New York by forty-eight hours. Given these probabilities and the certainties which are already historical, it will be seen that the Newfoundlandex's live on the high road to that good fortune which every intelligent traveller, uninfluenced by political interests, has promised them. As a field of emigration, more particularly for investment of labour and money in agricultural pursuits, Newfoundland has advantages which are set forth on the authority of practical surveyors, mineral and agricultural, in succeeding pages. There is no doubt as to the excellence of the soil, iu the interior, for the cultivation of agricultural products ; while the value of the grazing lands, that are scattered here and there over thousands of acres of fertile valleys, is equally beyond question. All thi^o is necessary to their development is the completion of the railway system now in course of con- struction, which will bring Newfound' and farms nearer, by PREFACE. several days to the markets of England, than any other competing districts of the American continent. The mineral prospects of Newfoundland are not behind those of agri- culture. It is already the fifth on the world's list of copper- exporting countries. Holding a foremost place among fishing industries, its coasts are the theatre of exciting adventures belonging to the garnering of the ocean harvests. Ardent sportsmen seek its forests and streams in pursuit of "fin and fur." The geologist is busy among its hills and valleys. Mining prospectors are examining the tracks of the Government surveyors. The first locomotives are running from the capital to the adjacent towns. A tide of emigration is evidently on the eve of setting in upon its shores. No complete survey of its history and condition, its physical geography, its fishing and other industries, its mineral and agricultural resources, its government, its laws, manners and customs in the past and present, its pi'ospects in the future, has ever before been attempted. The book now presented to the reader is therefore a cultivation of hitherto unoccupied ground. The result may not be in all respects satisfactory. But as a pioneer volume it is entitled to friendly consideration. Apart from studies made for it upon the spot, almost every known work, printed or in manuscript, relating to Newfoundland has been consulted in the course of its preparation for the press. These have included Parliamentary papers and Government dispatches in the archives of the British Museum and Record Office, journals of the House of Assembly and Customs returns at St. John's, newspaper records, and private letters. No source of possible information has been overlooked. To gather the facts thus collected into an interesting shape, and within reasonable compass, has been no light task ; with which suggestion of excuse for any shortcomings the authors present to the world this new history of England's oldest colony. JOSEPH HATTON. London, January, 1883. any otlier le mineral 3 of agri- of copper- e among : exciting lie ocean d streams isy among lining the icomotives s. A tide 1 upon its idition, its istries, its b, its laws, prospects The book ivation of t be in all is entitled lado for it |ted or in consulted hese have [lispatches Ird Office, s returns Iters. No ked. To hg shape, pht task ; ings the lugland's :ton. CONTENTS. part I, HISTORICAL RECORD. CHAPTER I. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND TO THE FIRST ATTEMPT AT SETTLEMENT. [U97-1583.] PAGa Discovery oE Newfoundland — The Cabots and Columbus — Un- recorded adventures — Eoyal parsimony — Sebastian Cabot's last hours — Holbein's portrait of the great navigator — Sir Humphrey Gilbert's expedition— Taking possession of the island in the name of Elizaljeth — Fatal conclusion of the enterprise — Loss of the S(inirrcl with Sir Humphrey Gilbert and all hands 1 CHAPTER 11. , EARLY STRUGGLES IN PEACE AND WAR. [1583-1697.] Famous adventures on sea and land — Raleigh and Drake — Lord Bacon declares the Fisheries to be " more valuable than all the mines of Peru " — Whitbourne's " Discourse and Dis- covery of Newfoundland " — Lord Baltimore's settlement — Curious association of a myth of the Middle Ages with the Kew World — Sir David Kirko clears the French out of Newfoundland and captures Quebec — Settling under difficulties — Barbaric laws — Struggles between the resident and floating populations — French and British rivalry — " Between two fires " 23 ili xn CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. TYRANNY BY ACT OF PARLIAMENT. [1691-1728.] PA6E A government of skippers — A colony regarded as a ship — The British Ministry advised to exclude women from the island — The baneful Act of William III. — The first sea-captain arriving at the fisheries to be iidmiral — The population increases in spite of unjust laws and venal judges — Inter- position of commanders of the Royal Navy — Appointment of the iirsfc governor — French attacks on the country and capture of St. John's — ^The Treaty of Utrecht — Supremacy of England throughout Newfoundland — Fishing rights conceded to the French- -Stauding grievances r De 41 CHAPTER IV. THE FISHERY RIGHTS OF FRANCE. [1728-1793.] Fifty years of agitation — The pioneers hold their ground — Establishment of a Court of Oyer and Terminer — "Warlike operations against the French in North America — End of the Seven Years' War — Social disorders and religious per- secution — British and French concurrent rights of fishing — The condition of Labrador — The war between England and America and its influence on Newfoundland — The Peace of 1782 — Chief Justice Reeves — Disputes over the Treaty of Versailles — Land grants and mining licences t . .53 CHAPTER V. "THROUGH TEE FIRE." [1793-1861.] The last French attack on the island — Ne-wfoundlanders not allowed to acquire land or build houses — Strange examples of the rigour of the law of ^\'illiam III. — Refugees from Ireland — Roman Catholic disabilities — Mutiny of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment — A landmark of improvement — Houses built without imperial permission — The first news- paper — The Red Indians — A ti'agical expedition — Governor Duckworth's enlightened administration — The rise of St. John's — A period of inflation — The treaty of Paris — The great fire of 1816 — Proposals of depopulation — Agitation for local legislative power — Expansion of popular ideas — Representative government conferred on the island in 1832 — Hostility between the two Chambers — Religious and political rancour — The fire of 1816 — Twelve thousand people homeless — The proposed Anglo-French Convention of 1857 — Riot and tumult — Peace and progress .... 1 I n CONTEXTS. Xlll CHAPTER VI. "AFTER DARKNESS— DAWN." [1861-1882.] PAOB Demorahsing sys ems of pauper relief-Proposed confederation of Newfoundland and Canada-Important discovery of copper ore-Geological survey of the island-Mr. Alexander fXn7f ;^«Ports-Important revelations-Opposition and defeat of the projected union with Canada-Establishment o steam communication with England-Development of mmeral and agricultural resources-Proposed railway- Sir John Glover on the possibilities of tlio country-Govern- ment charter granted to the Newfoundland E Jlway Com- pany-Turmng of the first sod and construction of the fir^fc part of the first railway in 1881-Prosperous condition of the colony-Fmal settlement of the French Fisheries Quest on -New ra. way projects, with perspective plans of incTe, 'd Slfi^;.'?"™"' ''*"°°" the Old World and the New- New fields or emigration-A country one-sixth larger than Ireland, with a population less than two hundred thousand 115 i XIV CONTENTS. part H. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I. SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS. PAGE A stepping-stono between the Old World and the New — Rank of Newfoundland among the islands of tho globe — Breeding- ground of the cod — An iron-bound shore with a fertile interior — Picturesque waterways — Long range and other mountains — The Exploits River — The Grand Falls — The Humbcr and Bay of Islands — Lakes and ponds — Grand Lake with an area of one hundred and ninety-two square miles — Great pine forests — Red Indian Lake — Virgin lands or " forests primeval " 132 CHAPTER II. ST. JOHN'S, THE CAPITAL OF NEWFOUNDLAND. The site of the city — The Narrows — Character of the local buildings — The new dock — Water supply — Protection against fire — Churches and chapels — Government offices and banks — Population and its religious denominations . 147 CHAPTER III. BAYS AND HARBOURS. St. John's — The Narrows — Round about the island — Placentia Bay — Burin and St. Pierre — Fortune Bay — The Penguin Islands — Cape Bay — On the banks of Bay St. George — — Discovery of lead and other minerals — Marble beds in the Humber — The Straits of Belle Isle— The Bay of Notre Dame and Bett's Cove— "The Beautiful Conception Bay" . .158 CONTENTS. XV JAPHY. •4E CHAPTER IV. TUE INTERIOR. liarvcsfe of the sea — The Gcograplucal Survey — Vast tracts of country still unexplored — An adventurous traveller — First impressions of a new country — Cormack's description of the new-found country — Extinction of the aboriginal Indians — Abundance of game — Beaver and venison — A para- dise for the sportsman — A vast grazing country — A friendly mountaineer — The island crossed from east to west PAOS 168 P\OE ank of eding- fertile other —The Grand square lands . 132 ; § 'A -..^ 1 local 1 Bction A offices 1 147 entia iguin ■ge— the Dame 158 CHAPTEE V. GEOLOGY. Jukes, Logan, and Murray — Eighteen years of surveying — Coal deposits — " The Quebec group " — Tiie great ancient rock systems represented in Newfoundland — More tlian half the island found to be Laurcntian, and the highest series of rocks carboniferous — Geological demonstrations of the capacity of the countrj' to sustain a large population . 178 CHAPTER VI. CLIilATE. Popular fictions — The Gulf Stream and tlie Arctic current — Fogs almost unknown in the interior — Compared with Canada and the United States — Meteorological observations — Average temperature and rainfall — " A silver tliaw " — The robustness of the people quoted by authorities in favour of the climate 188 CHAPTER VII. THE ABORIGINES. Human relics — The American Indian skull — " Survivals " — The Bethuks — Carticr on the natives of his day — Whitbourne's description of " The Natural Inhalntants " — Early expe- riences of the settlers— Invasion and retaliation — British intervention — Indians captured and taken to St. John's — Disappearance of the native tribes— Modes of sepulture — Cormack's expeditions — Wigwams and deer traps — Indian vocabulary 200 XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER Vlir. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. TAOK Two famous races — Physical and social characteristics — An orderly and amiable people — The middle and upper classes — Life among the fishermen — " Tlio credit system " — Amuse- ments and pastimes , . . 222 CHAPTER IX. ANIMAL KINGDOM. The caribou, wolf, and black bear — The "Wolf-Killing Act" — The beaver — "Newfoundland dog" — The seal tribe — Eagles, hawks, and pigeons— The American bittern — The great auk — The gigantic ccphalopod, or devil fish . . 230 Exf CHAPTER X. VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Forest trees — Evergreens — The Labrador tea-plant — Wild berries — Flowering plants and ferns — Wild flowers and vegetables 2i-i CHAPTER XL NEWFOUNDLAND AS A SPORTING COUNTRY. Pishing and shooting — The willow grouse, or ptarmigan — Opening of the season — The wild goose and black duck — Deer-stalking — Caribou shooting — Lord Dunraven on ex- ploration and sport — The moose and the caribou . . . 248 N Coll An CONTENTS. XVll FAOB -An 1 asses , ause- 1 . 222 ' 1 u Act" -■i' ibe — ''^) -The THE FISHERIES. CHAPTER I. THE HISTORY AND CONDITION INDUSTRIES. OP THE qOD.FISH 230 PASB Wild and 2M %\\ — t — ex- . 248 Export comparisons — The eai'hest fishermen on the Newfound- land coasts — Tlio West of England men — Driving out settlers — The rivalry of Fi-ance and England — French and American fishing enterprises supported by bounties — Sta- tistical records of population — The rise and progress of the cod fishery — The Great Banks — Want of organisation and scientific observation — Number of persons engaged in the staple trade — Value of the fisheries to France and England — The American catch of cod-fish on the Banks — Newfound- land and the Dominion of Canada — European cod-producing countries — The "catch" in Norway — Newfoundland com- pared with the principal sea fisheries of the world . . 259 CHAPTER II. NATURAL HISTORY OP THE COD, ITS DISTRIBUTION, MOVEMENTS, SPAWNING, AND MODE OP CURE. Cold-water seas and the Arctic current — Nature's laws of com- pensation — Food of the cod — The Labrador current — An old theory exploded — A submarine plateau — The fishing season — Caplin and squids — Process of curing the cod — Operators at work — Cod-liver oil — Fishing tackle and methods of taking the cod 280 CHAPTER III. THE SEAL INDUSTRY. Ancient methods of taking seals — Perils and hardships of the hunters — The beginning of the season — Steamers and sailing vessels — Battling with the ice — Impressive scenes — The Aurora Borealis — How a sealing ship is fitted — The hunters at work — How the seals are killed and packed for port — Converting the seals for market — Oil and leather . ! \h 295 XVlll CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SEAL. Mother and cubs — Maternal instinct — Teaching the young to swim — Tlio hood seal and tiie harp — Tiio " dog " seal under attack — Migrations of tho harps and lioods — Localities where they are found— On the march — Danger of exter- mination — Statistics of tho take of seals since 1805 fi.ae 310 I CHAPTER V. "* SALMON. Occasional ..ibnndanco of fish at St. John's — Want of efficient regulations for protecting the fisheries — Commander Knowlcs recommends active measures on tho part of the Government — The law of the salmon — Suggestions for improving tlio fisheries — Local laws and proclamations — Other " game fish " 317 CHAPTER VI. THE HERRING AND OTHER FISHERIES. Movements of *ho herring — Eait for cod — Frozen fish exported to America — Tho Labrador herring and the Shore herring — Chief seats of tho fishery — Statistics of tho average catch — Exports and annual value — Mackerel, halibut, haddock, and lobsters 323 CHAPTER VII. THE FISHERIES AS ArFECTED BY INTERNATIONAL TREATIES. Privileges of tho French — Concurrent rights — Unfounded claims — Sir William Whiteway's mission to London — Settlement of the "French Shore" question — Fishery rights still in dispute — Lord Palmerston and the French Government — England and the United States — Various intei'pretations of American rights — " The Reciprocity Treaty " and tho Treaty of Washington .329 CHAPTER VIIL LABRADOB. The Fisheries — Boundaries — History of Labrador — Climate — Population — Belle Isle — The legend of the Isle of Demons — Picturesque scenery — Immense cod-fishing grounds — Esquimaux and Indians — Berry-bearing plants — Mineral products .... ... . . 339 ■a ■f PlOB ing to under i ;alitie3 exter- 310 CONTENTS. XIX J3art m. AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. fRcicnt aandcr of the Qs for ;ions — 317 :ported ring— atch — ;k, and . 323 TREATIES. claims cnient till in lent- ous of rcaty . 329 late — mons nds — ineral . 339 CHAPTER I. THE GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. VAOB Difficulties of the past — The vagaries of Governor Milbanlco — Value of the land now under cultivation — New discoveries of fertile belts — Lands suitable for settlement — Two million nine hundred and seventy-six thousand acres awaiting cultivation 360 CHAPTER II. THE CODROY VALLEYS ON THE WESTERN COAST. A well-wooded country — Wild grass — Grazing lands — A winter in Codroy Villa — Experiences of local farming — Building I stone and minerals — Emigrants going west — A fertile oasis en route hitherto unknown 366 CHAPTER III. THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE AND THE WESTERN COUNTRY. Capabilities of the district for settlement — Mr. Murray and Mr. Jukes on the productiveness of the soil — Vast tracts of unoccupied lands — Monsignor Sears gives the result of a settler's experiences — Room for thousands of farms on " The Barrens " — Dr. Bell on the climate — The Bay of Islands and the Humber district 372 XX CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. NOTBE DAME BAY AND TUE EASTERN DISTRICTS. FAoa The future of the plain that will one day unite the Ilurabor dis- trict with Notro Dame Bay — A splendid stretch of country • — Scoi.ory cfjual to that of the English and Scotch lakes — Largo and small game — Red Indian Lake and White Bay — The fertile belts of the Gander and Gambo country — A wilderness that might be " settled " — The unpeopled, valley of the Exploits — Gander River 384 CHABTER V. ON THE PROSPECTS OF LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. Authoritative opinions and reports— Newfoundland compared with the most favoured provinces of North America — Sum- mers and winters — Newfoundland as a grazing country — "Vegetable productions — The district of St. John's — Fish as a fertiliser — Wheat, barley, and hops — Report of the Joint Committee of the Council and House of Assembly — The peninsula of Avalon — The present condition of agriculture — Customs returns — Markets for farm produce — Forest timber: pine and spruce — Area of forest lands — The lumbering regions 396 CONTENTS. |3iirt V. MINERAL RESOUliCES. CHAPTER I. PIONEER WORK AND PROSPECTS. FAOe Opening of tho first mine— Mr. C. F. Bonnet and Mr. Smith MacKay— Tilt Covo and Bett's Covo 409 CHAPTER II. METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS AND COAL AREAS. Tlio Quebec group of tho Lower Silurian series— Mr. Murray on the ore deposits of Tilt Cove— Areas of tho Serpentine series— Newfoundland as a copper-producing country- Professor Stewart's report— The auriferous rocks of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland— Mr. Selwyn's opinion— Dis- coveries of precious metals— Mr. Murray on the prospects of gold-mining— Lead, gypsum, and slate— Mr. Jukes on the coal scams of St. George's Bay and up the Codroy River— Conditions on wliich land licences are granted— Exports of copper and nickel 414 i xxu CONTENTS. POPULATION, GOVERNMENT, ETC. CHAPTEE I. POPULATION AND TRADE. PASB Statistics of 1654 — Gradual increase of population — Keligious denominations — Celtic and Saxon — Exports and imports — Charges on revenue and the Customs returns . . . 428 CHAPTER II. GOVERNMENT. The constitution — Execitive and public officers — The electoral districts — Salaries of officials — The judicial department — Constitution and character of the law courts . . . 443 ' CHAPTER III. ROADS, RAILWAYS, AND STEAM COMMUNICATION. The first highway — Posl.al roads and mail routes — Preliminary survey for the first railroad — Subsidy of money and lands offered by Government for construction of the road — Pro- gress of the work — Turning of the first sod, and running of the first locomotive 448 CHAPTER IV. EDUCATION. Rise and progress of educational movements — Legislative enactments — Denominational appointments — Government grants — The Colonial and Continental Church Society . 457 CHAPTER V. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. Protestant and Pioman Catholic settlers — Tho Church of England — The early missionaries and the first bishopric — Wesleyan Methodism and Congregationalism — Progress of Tresbyterianism 464 CHAPTER VI. THE POST-OFFICE, CONSTABULARY, LIGHT^HOUSES, BANKS, ETC. Tho mail service — Cost of tho postal department— The police force — Thirty-two lighthouses and beacons — The light dues — Bank statistics . . 473 re. iligious Jorts — PAOB 428 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIOI^S. ccfcoral aent — . 443 ION, ainary lands -Pro- ing of . 448 lative iment . 457 h of iric — ;S3 of 464 BANKS, olico dues . 473 Above Waterford Bridge— Four miles from St. John . Frontispiece. Section of the Mapamundi of Sebastian Cabot, 1544 . . . '"'"'7 John Cabot in London 10 Sebastian Cabot 12 Jacques Cartier 13 Sir Humphrey Gilbert Reading his Commission ... 17 Sir Humphrey Gilbert 19 Wreck of the Dch'ght . . . . . . . . .21 Sii Walter Raleigh 25 James I . 32 Heart's Content Harbour and Village 136 Rocky River Bridge I39 Wigwam Point, Exploits River 142 On the Barrens Facing p. 145 City of St. John's, Newfoundland .... ,,147 Roman Catholic Cathedral, St. John's I53 Government House, St. John's I55 Entrance to St. John's Harbour — Looking Seawards . Facing p. 158 P^acentia IgO Bett's Cove Harbour, Notre Dame Bay 154 Conception Bay. Topsail, Newfoundland. C '-:.'} and Little Belle Isle in the distance 163 M^l tU XXIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAOB Horns of the Caribou . Facing f. 230 A Newfoundland Fishing Fleet before the days of Steam . . 281 Fish-flake. Cod spread out. Boat Landing Cod . . .290 St. John's Harbour— Fish-curing .... Facing p. 291 Cod-fishing with Hook and Line 293 A Newfoundland Seal-Fishery Expedition— Hunters at "Work Facing p. 304 Lumberman's Camp in Winter ,,407 Copper Mine, Bctt's Cove 411 First Excursioxi Trip on the Newfoundland Kailway; "Train about to start " ' , ^ 453 acing p. 230 I. .281 . 290 acing p. 291 . 293 (Vork 'acing p. 304 „ 407 . 411 'Train . 453 iVrV CHURCH 167 \:;,:agc:3 Street, NEWFOUNDLAND. THE OLDEST BRITISH COLONY. HISTORICAL RECORD. CHAPTER I. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND TO THE FIRST ATTEMPT AT SETTLEMENT. [U97-1583.] Discovery of Newfonndland — TL i Cabots and Columbus — Un- recorded adventures — Royal parsimony — Sebastian Cabot's last hours — Holbein's portrait of the great navigator — Sir Humphrey Gilbert's expedition — Taking possession of the island in the name of Elizabeth — Fatal conclusion of the enterprise — Loss of the Squirrel with Sir Humphrey Gilbert and all hands. At daybreak on the 2-ith of June, 1497, the welcome cry of " Land ho ! " from the masthead of The Mathciv of Bristol proclaimed the discovery of what is to-day England's Oldest colony. The warning of the look-out was responded to by a round of British cheers from the deck below. The tight little pioneer ship, not more than two hundred tons, was manned by West- Country sailors. Her com- B NEWFOUNDLAND. [part I. mander was John Cabot. His first officer was his worthy son Sebastian. At this period Amerigo Vespucci, whose name was to give a title to the New Woi-ld, had not yet made his first voyage across the Atlantic. The importance of Cabot's discovery can hardly be overrated. It gave to England her claim to the sovereignty of a large portion of North America. It inspired her first impulse of colonisation. But for the Cabots Spain would no doubt have monopolised discovery in North as well as South America. It is worth while inquiring how they were led to this great achieve fuent. The close of tho fifteenth century was marked by the grandest event of modern times — the discovery of the New World by Columbus. The news broke on men's minds with startling effect. The noblest and the most daring spirits of Europe were stirred to their depths. The impulse to explore the wonders and the mysteries of the land, the outer curtains of which Columbus had just raised, fired thousands of brave hearts. Among those who felt this kindling impulse most keenly wei'e John Cabot and his son Sebastian. The father was born of Italian parents. Venice was probably his native city. There are those, however, who claim this honour for Bristol. At all events, he lived there for many years, and his son Sebastian was born and bred in that ancient port.* Of this great navigator, little of * " What countryman originally was John Cabofc ? As we have seen, he only becomes a Venetian citizen in 1470. Was old John Stow right in calling him a Genoese, or was he after all an Englishman, who for some service had this honour conferred upon him, even as William Gold had? For aught that appears to the contrary, he himself might have been born in Bristol; and not many years since we arc assured there were several deeds iu the muniment-chest of St. Thomas, in this city, of Henry VII.'s reign, which were attested by some of that name. Unfortunately, and though most diligent search has been made after them, it has been hitherto unsuccessful." — " Life of Sebastian Cabot" by J, F. Nicholls, City Librarian, Bristol. cn.ip. 1.] DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND. IS -wortliy !ci, whose 1 not yet iportance It gave a large t impulse no doubt as South. were led ed by the y of the on men's the most ir depths. mysteries mbus had Among nly were ither was lably his laim this there for and bred ;or, little ■k.s we have John Stow nglishmaxi, m, even as ontrary, ho years since nt-chost of Te attested st diligent uccessful." 'an, Bristol. is known beyond the fact that he was a thoughtful man. Ambition led him far beyond the mere routine of business. The maritime discoveries of the time engrossed his constant attention. His son Sebastian, Avho with his father was destined to achieve a fame second only to that of Columbus, inherited his father's predilections, and entered at an early age on a seafaring life. When the news of the famous Spaniard's great discovery flew from nation to nation, filling all Europe with wonder, it inspired the ambition of these two men with a desire to rival his achievements. Pondering the sub- ject deeply they came to the conclusion that, by taking a north-west course, instead of following the track of the great navigator, which led him to San Salvador, they would discover new lands, and perhaps find a shorter pas- sage to the Cathay of Marco Polo, one of the leading objects of maritime adventure in those romantic days. AVhen the news of Columbus's discovery reached England, Henry VII. must have been sorely chagrined to find that he had missed the proffered honour of having his name trfvusmitted to posterity, as the patron of the illustrious navigator, whose discovery would have entitled his Majesty to be proclaimed, as Spain was, master of a new world beyond the western seas. When, therefore, John Cabot and his son proposed to the king a voyage of discovery, from the port of Bristol, to regions far north of those which Columbus was then exploring, the English monarch lent a willing ear to the offer. The ambitious navigators Avere speedily granted " letters patent," sanctioning their undertaking. This legal instrument, however, shows that the parsimonious monarch left the whole expenses of the expedition to be borne by the Cabots and their Bristol connections.* Being competent to meet such a heavy * The Sir Peter Thomson MSS. in the British Museum mention B 2 I Ml NEWFOUNDLAND. [r.iKT I. expenditure is a proof that ttey were not only possessed of considerable wealth, but were ready to adventure it with their Hves for the glory of their adopted country. Early in the tnouth of May, 1497, the Cabots took their departure from the port of Bristol, turning the prow of their vessel to the north-west and traversing seas before unfurrowed by European keels. Never, perhaps, was a voyage of discovery, the consequences of which were so far-reaching, entered upon with less pomp and circumstance. The voyage of Columbus has had thrown around it a glamour of poetry and romance. History has carefully gathered into her golden urn every incident connected Avith the great undertaking, and eloquent pens have told the thrilling story in every variety of pictu- resque detail. But of the voyage of Cabot, fraught with such vast consequences, we know almost nothing. No diary was kept on board The Mathew. The records of the enterprise which have come down to us were written long afterwards, and are of the most meagre and unsatisfactory description. " The English," says Carlyle, " are a dumb people. They can do great acts but not describe I to a third son of John Cabot in connection with the first expedition. Tlie terms of the entry are as follows : "Anno 1405. Ilnd King Henry VII. Letters Patent were granted to Jolin Cabot of Venice, to Lewis, Sebastian, and Sancius, sons of the said John, and to their heirs and deputies, to sail with five ships upon their own proper cost and charges to seek out, dis- cover, and find whatsoever isles, countries, regions, or provinces of the heathen which before this time hath been unknown, to cause to set up our ensign there and reduce them to our jurisdiction." They were restricted to sail irom Bristol and only to arrive at that port (" one-fifth part of the net profits of such voyage or voyages for the King's use "), while others were prohibited from attempting such dis- coveries on forfeiture of their ships and goods, and the King's subjects and officers were commanded to give good assistance to the said Jolin Cabot and hia sons as well on land as on sea. [PABT r. cn\p. I.] DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND. jossessed 'e it with ots ling took the iing seas perhaps, of which omp and d thrown story has incident lent pens of pictu- ight with mg. No B records I us were mgre and Carlyle, describe expedition. itcnt were d Saiicius, ) f?ail with V out, dis- ovinces of o cause to Dn." They that port ges for the g such dis- the Kiug's mce to the them. Like the old Romans and some few others, their epic poem is written on the earth's surface : England, her mark." Without flourish of trumpets, Cabot and his English seamen sailed away into the unknown waste of waters. Of the difficulties and hardships which they encountered in crossing the Atlantic in much stormier latitudes than those through which Columbus's course lay, we know absolutely nothing. The commander gave to the world but little account of what took place beyond the bare results of his voyage. We do not know much more of it than may be set forth in the laconic record that on the 24th day of June following the departure from Bristol, the glad cry of " Land ho ! " was heard, and that Cabot named the headland which he saw, " Prima Vista." A Bristol manuscript, which has survived the wrecks of time, chronicles the dis- covery in the following curt terms: " Li the year 1497, the 24th of June, on St. John's Day, was Newfound- land found by Bristol men, in a ship called The Mathcw." The ancient historian does not even mention Cabot. Such ]i is fame among contemporaries ! A new continent is dis- i covered, and the chronicler of the day is careful to record i the name of the ship in which the discovery was made, I but of the commander, whose genius and courage directed i| the enterprise, he says nothing. If, An interesting inquiry here presents itself : What part M of the New World was first seen by Cabot, and named -"» by him " Prima Vista " ? The common account is that it was some part of the island of Newfoundland, most probably ;g Bonavista, now the northern cape of Trinity Bay, in --^ latitude 48" 50' N., the name " Prima Vista " having been ^ afterwards changed to " Bonavista." In confirmation of ~T this view it is stated that there is a small rocky islet called M Baccalieu off this part of the coast, and that Cabot, accord- :^ f; m NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I. ing to Peter Martyr, called the countries adjacent to tlio fishing-grounds Baccalaos, from the local abundance of codfish, for which this was said to be the native term. This, however, is now known to have been a mistake. The aborigines called codfish apage. Baccalaos was the name given to it by the Basques long afterwards. In the second chapter of " Don • Quixote " the word occurs in the following sentences : " That day happened to be Friday, and there was nothing in the house but some fish of that kind which in Castile is called ahadexo, in Andalusia baccalao, and in some parts curadillo." "The landlord produced some of his ill-soaked and worse-cooked haccalao." The old Basque name for dried cod was therefore in general use in the days of Cervantes. Another account is that the land seen by Cabot was part of the Labrador coast, and that " the island opposite to it," mentioned in an inscrip- tion on an old map, was that part of Newfoundland near the northern end of the Straits of Belle Isle. The doubt and difference of opinion regarding this point have arisen from the imperfect chai'acter of the contemporary records. Happily, however, for students of American history, all doubts on this subject have been removed by the discovei'j' a few years since of a map made by or under the direction of Sebastian Cabot, and bearing the date of 1544. This valuable chart, as will be seen by the accompanying illustration of a section of it, places the " Prima Vista '' near the eastern point of the present island of Cape Breton; and as the Gut of Canso had not then been discovered, the island on the map forms a part of the present Nova Scotia. As Sebastian Cabot was his father's companion and assistant on this voyage, and was famous for his skill in chart-making, this map must be considered as the most trustworthy of the earlier charts of the coasts. It is probable, from a letter of Lorenzo Pasqualio, a Venetian merchant then residing in 4 ,! 3^ ^ [part I. nt to tlio idanco of ive term, ike. The the name he second 3 in the e Friday, h of that Andalusia landlord haccalao." in general ^s that the ;oast, and n inscrip- land near ^he doubt lye arisen y records. Istory, all discovery 1 direction 44. This mpanying- la Vista " e Breton; rered, the va Scotia. I assistant t-making, liy of the I letter of jsiding in 8 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I. London, which contains the best account extant of Cabot's first voyage, that after passing " Prima Vista," the eastern point of Cape Breton, ho steered in a north-westerly- direction, passed through Northumberland Strait, round Prince Edward Island (which is laid down quite correctly in the map), sighting the coast near Miramachi, then turned his prow north-easterly till he fell in with the Labrador coast, passing to the north of Newfouullaud, homeward through the Straits of Belle Isle. In this map, by Cabot, Newfoundland is laid down as a group of islands, possibly from imperfect sights of its high lands obtained in foggy weather, which would make it appear to a voyager a cluster of islands rather than a single one. The fact remains, how- ever, that Cabot was the d'.scoverer of the island on his first voyage ; and also of the continent of America. On the fjvd of February, 1498, the king granted a new patent to John Cabot, authorising him to sail with six ships " to the lande and isles of late found by the said John in oure name and by oure commandement j " and ordering " all and every oure officers, ministers, and subjects to succour the said John, his deputy,^' etc. This second patent does not seem to have been designed to supersede or revoke the former in any way, but merely to have been a supplementary commission. John Cabot did not go out on the second expedition, which was entrusted to Sebastian, then but twenty-three years of age, and who from this time took the place of his father as a discoverer. According to Peter Martyr, on this second voyage he sailed along the coast of Labrador, to the latitude of 60° N., where he says he found the longest day eighteen hours. Deterred by immense masses of floating ice and by the intense cold, Sebastian turned his course to the west, refitted at the Baccalaos, or Codlands, which embraced Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Cape Breton, and coasted south to the (past r. CHAP. I.] DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND. : Cabot's 3 eastern ■westerly t, round correctlv n turned [jabrador omeward y Cabot, possibly in foggy a cluster ,ns, liow- i bis first ed a new six ships id John ordei'iug »jects to second rsede or been a out on jastian, lis time ding to oug the iere he )eterred se cold, at the ndland, to the 08th degree, whence ho returned to England. Thus, by right of discovery, this great man secured for England, on this voyrige, " a claim to the whole coast of America from the burning sands of Florida to the ice-bound shores of Hudson's Bay." In a third expedition, he is said to have sailed as far south as Cuba. Columbus gave to Spain domains ten times greater than her own ; but the voyages of the Cabots must be ranked as of equal value, as far as the interests of England were concerned. It is curious to note how the news of these discoveries of the Cabots was received in England. On their return from the first voyage the king presented John Cabot with a gratuity of ten pounds. In order that posterity might not forget his liberality, he made an entry of it in the pi'ivy-purse accounts in the following brief words : "August 10th, 1497 — To Hym that found the New Isle, lOZ." The most careful researches in the English archives have failed to bring to light any other official notice of the discovery. It is but fair to state that, in purchasing power, ten pounds were then equal to forty pounds in our day, though it must be allowed a con- ,; tinent was cheap even at that figure. In this confused world genius must usually be content with other rewards :'; than fame or money. What renders Henry's stinginess more ■ ; flagrant was the fact that in the patent he granted to the I Cabots he stipulated that the enterprise should be carried , out " upon their own proper costes and charges ; " but that I " the foresaid John and his sonnes and heirs be bounden :i of all the fruites, gaines, and commodities growing of such % navigation, to pay unto us, in wares or money, the fifth ^1 part of the capital gaine so gotten." * !; * Messrs. W. C. Bryant and S. H. Gay, in their excellent " History _ of the United States " (1876), take a more liberal view of this entry in the privy-purse expenses of the king tlian other historians; and, : I li fi .1 ■1 10 NEWFOUNDLAND. [fabt I. If Iloniy know how to drive a bargain, Ilis Majesty's subjects seem to have properly ai)preciatod Cabot's Borvices. An old letter has been brought to light in Milan, written by Lorenzo Pasriualio from London on the 23rd of August, 1197, a few days after Cabot's return to his brothers in Venice, in which the writer says : " This JOHN CABOI IN I.ONOON. Venetian of ours, who went in a ship from Bristol, in quest of new islands, is returned, and says that 700 leagues hence he discovered terra firma, which is the territory of the Great Cham. The King is much pleased with this intelligence. He has also given him money where- while we have followed the beaten track in this respect, we are inclined to think there ia much justice in the opinion that it is probable the entry does not refer to Cabot ; but that " it is quite likely the King should have sent or given with his own hand such a reward to the sailor who from his faithful watch at the masthead was the first to cry • Land ho ! ' on the coast of North America." rn.ip. 1. 1 DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND. 11 with to amuse himself, nnd ho is now in liristol with his wife, who is a Venetian woman, and with his sons. His name is Zuan Cabot, and they call him the (Jreat Admiral. Vast honour is paid him, nnd ho dresses iu silk; and these English run after him like mad people, so that he can enlist as many of them as he pleases." There is no record of John Cabot after this period. It is probable that ho did not long survivo his first famous voyage. His son Sebastian remained for a number of years in England, but at length entered the service of the King of Spain, and again engaged in maritime discoveries. Explor- ing the Plata and Paraguay rivers, he discovered Brazil. When Edward VI. ascended the throne he returned to England, and was appointed chief pilot of the kingdom. For many years he was the life and soul of British maritime enterprise. In company with others he first opened up the trade with Russia. He died in his eightieth year in London, but no man knows where his dust reposes. The only record we have of his closing hours is by his friend Richard Eden, who tells us that when bound for that country where there is " no more sea,*' " the ruling passion" was in his case "strong iu death." It would appear from Eden's narrative as if he had loved the sea so well, and played with its wild waves so long, that even in his last moments the music of the ocean was in his ears. In the wanderings of his fevered fancy ho spoke of a divine revelation to him of a new and infallible method of finding the longitude, which he Avas not permitted to disclose to any mortal. The dying seaman was again, in imagination, on his beloved ocean, over whose billows his intrepid youth had opened a pathway, and on whose mysterious secrets he had pondered for threescore years. Then he entered the quiet haven where the storms are hushed for evermore. 12 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I. No monument has ever been erected to perpetuate the memory of one of the noblest and bravest men who ever trod the deck of an English ship. He gave a continent to Enp-land ; and in all that wide region there is not a cape, headland, or harbour called by his name, except one small island off the eastern shores of Newfoundland, which, a few years ego by an act of the local government, exchanged a very vulgar name for the honoured one of Cabot's Island. The navy and commerce of England received from him their I SEUAsriAN CABOT. first onward impulse, but no one can point to the few feet of earth which, in return for all his services, England gave as a resting-place for his ashes. His maps and discoveries, never published to the world, were allowed to sink into oblivion. There is still in one of the private collections of England a portrait of Sebastian Cabot, painted for Edward VI. by Holbein. It was published some years ago by ^Ir. Nicholls, of the Bristol Library, in a tributary brochure to Cabot, and the accompanying engraving is a partial reproduction of it. CHAr. I.l DISCOVERY OF THE ISLAND. 13 For almost a century no attempts were made by Englishmen to follow up the discoveries of their country- men in Newfoundland. They did not even share in the harvests of the local seas. They were at that time engaged in a lucrative fishery on the coasts of Iceland. The Portuguese were the first to turn their iittention to the northern regions discovered by Cabot, (xasper Cortoreal ranged the coast of North America in 1500j discovered and named Conception Bay and Portugal "7 I 'a m i t JACQUES CAKTIER. Cove, in Newfoundland, and established the first regular fishery on its shores. Seven years after Cabot's dis- covery, the fishermen of Normandy, Brittany, and the Basque Provinces were engaged in the cod fishery, on the banks and along the coasts of Newfoundland. The Basque fishermen gave the name Cape Breton to the eastern pro- montory of the island, which afterwards extended to the whole. In 1517 forty sail of Portuguese, French, and Spaniards were engaged in the cod fishery. In 1527, John wmmm 14 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part I. Rut, an English captain, wrote a letter which is still extant, to Henry VIII., from the haven of St. John's, Newfound- land, in Avhich he says that he found there eleven sail of Normans, one Breton, and two Portuguese barques. In 1534, Jacques Cartier, the celebrated French navigator, whose enterprise discovered and secured Canada for France, circum- navigated Newfoundland, explored the Bay of Chaleurs, unfurled the lilies of France at Gaspe, and in a second voyage ascended the St. Lawrence v^s far as Montreal. It was on this second voyage that he ana Roberval, his assis- tant in the enterprise, met in the harbour of St. John's. In 1578, according to Hakluyt,* the number of vessels em- i * The Hakluyt MSS. in the British Museum contain the following interesting statement : " In the year 1536, 28"' of K. Hen. the 8'\ Master Hore and divers other gentlemen made a Voyage to Newfoundland their Names were as follows. " Master Wickes a Gentleman of the West Oountrey of 500 marks by the year. " Master Tucke a Gentleman of Kent. " Master Tuckfeild " Master Thomas Buts the son of Sir Will"" Buts Kn' of Norfolk w'='' is yet alive, (1589) and from whose mouth I wrote most of this relation. " Master Hardio " Master Biron " Master Carter " Master Wright " Master Eastall Serjant Rastall Brother " Master Ridley and divers others which all were in the Admiral called the Trinitie a ship of 140 Tons wliorin Master Hore himself imbarked. " In the other ship named the Minion went Master Armigil Wade a very learned Gentleman, Father to Master William Wade now clerk of the Privie Counsell. " Master Oliver Dawbeney merchant of London. " Master Joy afterwards Gentleman of the King's ChappoU. with divers other of good account. The whole number that went in the above tAvo ships, were about 120 persons, wherof 30 were gentlemen, they embarked from Graves End the End of April 1536. In about two [PAKT t. HP. r.] FIllST ATTEMPT AT SETTLEMENT. 15 plojed in the cod fishery had increased to four hundred, or which only fifty were English, the remainder being French and Spanish. Up to this time no attempt had been made to colonise Newfoundland or any of the neighbouring lands. The hardy fishermen of various nationalities, among whom Englishmen were now much more numerous than formerly, were in the habit of frequenting the shores of the island during the summer, and using the harbours and coves for the cure of their fish, returning home with the pro- ducts of their toils on the approach of winter. Eighty- six years had passed away since Cabot's discovery, and we now arrive at the year 1583, a memorable date in the his- tory of Newfoundland. On the 5th day of August in that year, there were lying in the harbour of St. John's thirty- six vessels belonging to various nations, Portuguese, Spanish, months sailing they fell in with Cape Breton — from thence they sail'd N.E' to Penguin Island w*^'' is very full of Rockos and stones and great Birds white and gray colour as big as Geese, they took some of the Birds and killed some Bear's, this Island is in the Lat of .JO d. Master Oliver Dawbeney inform'd Master Richai'd Hakluyt the follow^ particulars, that after their arrival in Newfoundland and having bene there certain days at Anchor He saw a boat with Savages, rowing towards them to gaso upon the ship and our people, they manned their ships boat in order to have taken them, but they fled to an Island in the Bay and eseaped our men — they found a fire and a side of a Bear on a Wooden spit, also a Boot garnished on the Calf as it were with raw silk, also a great Warm Mitten, whilst they lay there they were in great want of provision and that there they found small reliefe. more than that they had from the Nest of an Osprey (or Eagle) that brought hourely to her Young great plenty of divers sorts of fishes. But such was the famine amongst them lliat they were forced to eat raw herbs and Roots, which they sought for on the Maine : But the reliefe of herbs being not sufficient to satisfie their craving appetites, when in the deserts in search of herbage, the fellow killed his mate while hee stouped to take up a root, and cutting out peices of his Body whom he had murthercd, broyled the same on the coals and greedily devoured them, by this means the company decreased, and the officers knew not what was ''i\ h'\ :.^ i • 16 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part 1. Frcncli, and English, all employed iu fisliing. In addition to these there were four English war-ships, "which had arrived the day before. They wei'e the Delight, the Golden Hind, the Sivalloiv, and the 8(2iiin'el. Early on this morning boats were lowered from the Englisli ships, and the commanders and officers went on shore. Soon a goodly company had assembled on the beach, then lined by a few rough wooden huts, and " flakes " or stages for drying cod. The rough inmates of these huts gathered round the com- pany that had landed from the Englisli ships ; and the captains and officers of the other vessels were there by special summons. A very curious and motley group was that which become of tbem — tlie reason wlierof was at last discovered. Upon which the Captain made Notable Oration, containing how much these dealings offended the Almighty &c. &c. ho exhorted them to repentance and besought all the Company to Pray, that it miglit please God to look on their present miserable state, and such was the mercie of God, that the same night there arrived a French ship in that port, well furnished with Vittailo, and such was the Policie of the English, that they became masters of the same, and changing ships and Vitaling them, they set saile for England, they saw many Islands of Ice and arrived at St Ives in Cornwall the latter End of October, from thence they departed to a castle belonging to Sir John Luttrel. where M. Thomas Buts and M. Rastcall, and other Gentlemen of the voyage were very friendly intertain'd : after that they came to the Earle of Bathe, at Bathe, and thence to Bristol, so to London. M. Buts was so changed with hunger and misery that Sir AVilliam his Father and my Lady his mother did not know him. till they examined a Wart he had upon one of his knees, as he told me Ilichard Hakluyt of Oxford himself to whom I rode 200 miles to learn the Truth of his Voyage from his own mouth as being the only man alive that was in this discoverie. "The French-men complain'd to K. Hen: the 8"' in a few months after their arrival, of this affair, and the King hearing the great dis- trcsse his subjects were In. and the necessity there was to do as thoy did. paid the French-men full recorapence out of his own purse, vide pa 519. "King Edward the 6"' /or fhe great and accrptaUc service done and to he done, unto us hy our beloved servant Sebastian Cabot, settled an Annuitie or yearly revenue of £160 13s. 4d. sterling on said Sebastian Cabot, dated the fix^t of January in the 2'"' year of his Reign 1548." 1 fPABT 1. CHAP. I.] FIRST ATTEMPT AT SETTLEMENT. 17 then stood on the beach of St. John's harbour — swarthy, bronzed sailors and fishermen of Spain, Portugal, and France, in the costumes of the sixteenth century. Soon a circle formed round one commanding figure — a man of noble presence, wearing the richly slashed and laced doublet, velvet cloak, trunk-hose, and gay hat and feather .1 sin uunriiuEY uilbeki heading his commission. which constituted the dress of gentlemen in the days of Queen Elizabeth. This was no other than Sir Humphrey Gilbert, one of the gallant knights of Devonshii'e. He unrolled a pai'chment scroll, and proceeded to read the royal patent authorising him to take possession of New- iouudland, on behalf of bis royal mistress, and exercise ^Hi «^fl» ^?t 18 KEWFOUNDLAND. [PABI I. jurisdiction over it and all other possessions of the crown in the same quarter. Twig and sod were presented to him in feudal fashion, and in the name of Queen Elizabeth he solemnly annexed the island to the British Empire. The banner of England was then hoisted on a flagstaff, the I'oyal arms, cut in lead, were affixed to a wooden pillar near the water's edge, and the ceremony was com- plete. The grant gave Sir Humphrey Gilbert jurisdiction for two hundred leagues in every direction, so that the limits included Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, part of Labrador, as well as the islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward Island — a right royal principality. This Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the -first settler in New- foundland, who, with some two hundred and fifty followers from Devonshire, had arrived with the view of making the western wilderness a home for Englishmen, was a son of Sir Otho Gilbert, of Compton Castle, Toi'bay. His mother was a Champernoun of purest Norman descent, and " could probably boast of having in her veins the blood of Courtney's Emperor of Byzant." Sir Otho had three sons by this lady, John, Humphrey, and Adrian, who all proved to be men of superior abilities. They were all three knighted by Elizabeth, a distinction which, coming from the hands of the great queen, marked its recipient as a gentleman and a brave warrior. Sir Otho died, and his widow married Walter Raleigh, a gentleman of ancient blood, but impoverished, and at the time living at Hayes, a farm in the parish of East Badleigh, Devonshire. To her second husband the fair Champernoun bore a son whose fame was destined to be world-wide ; and who, in a period more prolific of great men and great events than any before or since, played a gallant part, and was also knighted, as Sir Walter Raleigh, by Queen Elizabeth. Not many women could boast of being the mother of four such sons. Thus ciiir. I.] FIRST ATTEMPT AT SETTLEMENT. 19 Sir Humplirey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh were half- brothers. Raleigh was brought up at the farmhouse of Hayes, while Gilbert and his two brothers lived in Compton Castle, near Torbay, and were trained in the simple and manly yet high-bred ways of English gentlemen. When Humphrey Gilbert grew up he embraced the profession of arms, and won high distinction in continental and Irish wars. At length, in his mature manhood, he and his dis- SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT. tinguished half-brother. Sir Walter Raleigh, formed the design of first colonising Newfoundland, and then the neighbouring islands and continent. Hence we find him on the 5th of August, 1583, standing on the beach in the harbour of St. John's. Sir Walter Raleigh had embarked on the same expedition, but a contagious disease broke out on board his ship which compelled his return. .li. '1 I lis! I M 1 «l j 1 1 '\ ■ %■ 20 NEWFOUNDLAND. [rABT I. Tho onterpviso of Sir Humphrey Gilbert was worthy of a heroic and patriotic nobleman. It was nevertheless doomed to end in disaster and death. In prosecuting further explorations one of Sir Humphi-ey's vessels was wrecked and the whole crew perished. The little fleet had struggled with contrary winds for many days. Eventually the Ddiijht, the largest vessel, drifted into the breakers on a lee shore and struck upon the rocks. She went rapidly to pieces. Seventeen of the crew got into the long boat, and, after seven days, fifteen of them reached port. But the captain, Morris Browne, refused to leave the ship. Mounting upon the highest deck, says the ancient chronicler, " he attended imminent death so unavoidable." The other vessels stood out to sea and saved themselves. As winter was approaching and provisions getting low. Sir Humphrey deemed it wise to steer for England. He had planted his flag on board the Squirrel, a little cockleshell of ten tons, and though earnestly entreated to go on board the larger vessel, the Golden Hind, he refused to abandon his brave comrades. A great storm overtook them near the Azores. The Golden Hind kept as near the Squirrel as possible, and when in the midst of the tempest the crew saw the gallant knight sitting calmly on deck with a book before him. They heard him cry to his companions, "Cheer up, lads, we are as near heaven at sea as on land ! " When the curtain of night shrouded the little barque, she and her gallant crew disappeared beneath the dark billows of the Atlantic. Thus perished Sir Humphrey Gilbert, scholar, soldier, coloniser, philosopher; one of the noblest of those brave hearts that sought to extend the dominion of England in the New World. To Newfoundland this sad loss was irreparable. Had Sir Humphrey lived to reach home, no doubt he and Sir Walter Ealeigh would have renewed their efforts at CIUP. I.l FIRST ATTEMPT AT SETTLEMENT. 21 colonisation ; and, profiting by past errors, would have settled in the island men of the right stamp. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's failure was the result of a succession of uncontrollable disasters. Fully appreciating the immense value of the fisheries of Newfoundland, he seems to have 3 ! WUECK OF THE " DKLIUUT.' been thoroughly impressed with the idea that the right way of prosecuting those fisheries was to colonise the country, and conduct them on the spot, whereby he would have established a resident population, who would have com- bined fishing with the cultivation of the soil. It was .H 22 NEWFOUNDLAND. [TABT I. a departm*e from this policy, and a determination, at the behest of selfish monopolists, to make the island a mere fishing station, that postponed for many weary years the prosperity of the colony, blighting the national enterprise, and paralysing the energies of the people. CHAPTEE II. iVU ,1 H 'I EAELY STRUGGLES IN PEACE AND WAE. [1583-1607.] Famous adventures on sea and land — Raleigli and Drake — Lord Bacon declares the Fisheries to be " more valuable than all the mines of Peru " — " Whitbourno's Discourse and Discovery of Newfoundland" — Lord Baltimore's settlement — Curious asso- ciation of a myth of the Middle Ages with the New World — Sir David Kirke clears the French out of Newfoundland and captures Quebec — " Settling " under difficulties — Barbaric laws — Struggles between the resident and floating populations — French and British rivalry — "BetAveen two fires." Undeterred by Sir Humphrey Gilbert's disaster, the in- domitable Ealeigh (who had only been prevented from sharing in his expedition by a contagious disease which broke out on board his ship and compelled his return) was soon at work with fresh undertakings.* In. 1584 he obtained a patent from Queen Elizabeth very similar to that which had been granted to Gilbert, and, having fitted out two ships, he sailed for North America, where he planted a colony, called Virginia after the maiden queen. Some twenty-five years afterwards the Pilgrim Fathers landed on Plymouth Rock, and laid the foundation of the * Set-mou by Canon Farrar on unveiling the Raleigh ivindov) presented to St. Margaret's, Westminster, by American citizens, May 14, 1882. I..I I it I: d ill i| 1 ij 24 NKWFOUNDLAND. [I'AHT I. I I i- t New England States. Thus was tlio work of colonisation, l)ogim by Sir Humphrey (Jilbert, oiiergotically carried for- ward by those who followed in his footsteps. iMassachusotts, Maryland, the Carolinas, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, and Maiue followed in duo time as seats of colonisation. Lot us see, meanwhile, bow Fortune dealt with Newfound- land. For twenty-seven years after tbo failure of the Gilbert expedition no fresh attempt was made to establish a colony in the island. Daring this interval fishermen of various nationalities continued to frequent its shores, attracted by the finny treasures of its surrounding seas. In 1581 the bold sea-rover. Sir Francis Drake, was despatched with a small squadron to Newfoundland, where lie made prizes of a number of Portuguese vessels laden with fish and oil, and carried them to England. The attention of Engli.U adventurers in connection witb the fisheries was once more directed to the island. There is a record of one Eichard Strang, of Apsham, who in 1503 fitted out two vessels for the purpose of taking walruses on the south-west coast, where at that time these animals were met with in great numbers, though they have long since dis- appeared. In 1597, or exactly the centenaiy of Cabot's discovery, we find some London merchants fitting out two armed vessels, which, after fishing for awhile on the Banks, arrived at the island of Ramea on the southern shore. Encountering here several French and Spanish vessels, they fought and took them, and carried one of them to Graves- end with a valuable cargo of fish and oil. One of the English vessels was wrecked off Cape Breton. While England was laying the foundations of the New England colonies, France was extending her sovereignty over Canada, together with the sea-bordering countries of Acadia (Nova Scotia) and Cape Breton. Newfoundland, lying in the immediate track of these French possessions. cuip. iM EARLY STRUCKJLES IN PEACE AND WAIt. or. I 1 nnd being tho first laml usually seen by vessels sailing thither, very early attracted the attention of tho French, who made many attempts to plant settlements on its shores, althou wmm 40 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part I. it, together with the neighbouring settlements, Nesmond arrived at Placentia. From thence he made a descent on the harbour and town of St. John^s. He was repulsed, and instead of going on to Boston he returned to France. A more determined effort at conquest was made later in the same year. The new expedition was under the command of Ibberville and Brouillan, the former being at the head of a Canadian force. The garrison of St. John's was weak in numbers, and, in want of military stores, could only make a feeble resistance; capitulating on easy terms, they were shipped to England. The fort and town were burned to the ground, and the victors next proceeded to destroy all the other adjacent English settlements; Car- bonier and Bona ^'ista alone proved too strong for them. The English Government at once commenced dispositions for dislodging the invaders ; but before anything was attempted, the Treaty of Ryswick was signed in 1G97. This treatyproved most unfortunate for Newfoundland. It revived in the island the same state of division between France and England which had existed at the beginning of the war. The enemy retired from the rivers of St. John's and the other settlements which they had forcibly occupied. Their claims upon Placentia and all the other positions on the south-west coast were, however, confirmed. The British inhabitants of Newfoundland wore, therefore, once more left open to French attacks should hostilities be again renewed between the rival powers. : ^ CHAPTEE III. TYRANNY BY ACT OF PARLIAMENT. [1691-1728.] A government of skippers — A colony regarded as a ship — The British Ministry advised to exclude women from the Island — The baneful Act of William III. — The first sea-captain arriving at the fisheries to be admiral — The population increases, in spite of unjust laws and venal judges — Interposit'on of commanders of the Royal Navy — Appointment of the first governor — French attacks on the country and capture of St. John's— The Treaty of Utrecht — Supremacy of England throughout Newfoundland -Fishing rights conceded to the French — Standing gi-ievances. The thirty years whicli followed the Treaty of Ryswick con- stitute the darkest and dreariest period in the annals of Newfoundland. The difficulties and sufferings of the resi- dent population were such that it seems marvellous they were not driven to settle in some more favourable region. Their miseries arose partly fx'om the Government system of rule, and partly fi'om the attacks of the French, who never ceased to harass their British neighbours in con- tinuous acts of plunder and destruction. Before referring to the various skirmishes and naval engagements of which Newfoundland was the scene at this period, we propose to glance at the internal condition of the island, and endeavour to convey to the reader some idea of the social and political struggles which characterised this season of anarchy. ! 1 1 ■ VH ' It 1 i I. I ;i i I mm 42 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PABt I. In the last chapter we touched upon the notable enact- ments of the Star Chamber in the reign of Charles I., by which it was ordained that if a person in Newfoundland killed another^ or stole to the value of forty shillings, the ofFender was to be sent to England, and, on conviction of either offence, to be hanged. Another memorable enactment oi this arbitrary tribunal was that the master of the first ship entering a harbour was to be admiral therein for the fishing season, and have judicial powers over the district. Groaning under the rule of these chance-appointed, ignorant skippers, who decided all questions regarding property and all other disputes, without any responsibility, and often for their own private benefit, the inhabitants petitioned the Home Government for the appointment of a governor and civil magistrates. The shipowners and merchants had, how- ever, sufficient influence to prevent the passing of a measure which would have been a recognition of the island as a colony and a direct encouragement to settlers. Blinded by self-interest and a short-sighted policy, these men strenuously endeavoured to keep the country in the state of an unreclaimed wilderness ; while the delusion (for such in the end it Avas discovered to be) of training seamen for the Navy by means of the Newfoundland fisheries, induced the rulers of Britain to repress colonisation by legal enactments, and to attempt to drive out by harsh and oppressive laws such as had obtained a footing in the country. Another method by which the shipowners sus- tained their monopoly was by representing the country, in regard to soil and climate, as incapable of successful cultivation. They described it as a barren rock fitted for nothing better than a depot for curing fish. In the graphic language of an Under Secretary, in his evidence before a committee of the House of Commons, at a later date: "The island of Newfoundland had been con- sidered in all former times as a great English ship, moored [pari I. cHAF.iii.l TYRANNY BY ACT OF PARLIAMENT. 43 near the banks during the fishing season for the convenience of the English fishermen." The governor was regarded as the ship's captain, and all those concerned in the fishery business as his crew, and subject to naval discipline. To prevent the increase of iahabitants on the island, positive instructions were given to the governors not to make any grants of land, and to reduce the number of the people who were already settled there. A certain Major Elford, Lieutenant and Governor of St. John's, even many years after the period we are discussing, strongly recommended to the ministers of the day, "to allow no woman to land in the island, and that means should be adopted to remove those that were there." This was, indeed, going to the root of the matter. No more effectual method of averting colonisation could have entered into the fertile brain of the most rigid obstructionist. In 1G98, the British Parliament turned its attention to Newfoundland and its fisheries. The result was the passing of Acts 10 & 11 William III. c. 25. This Statute, memorable in the annals of the colony, was entitled* "An Act to encourage the trade to Newfoundland." It might, with better show of reason, have been entitled, "An Act to discourage Colonisation." All its provisions were directed to the maintenance of the island as a fishing-station. The baneful effects of this Statute of William III. were felt for neai'ly a century. It constituted the charter of the monopolists, on the authority of which they resisted every attempt to introduce any measure calculated to secure the rights and liberties of a /esident population, or to grant them the same privileges as were enjoyed by other British colonists. Every improvement had to be fought out in the teeth of this Statute; every successive amelioration in the condition of the people was bitterly opposed as being inconsistent with the principles of this oppressive law. We have seen that, previous to this 1 t 't 44 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part J, il I time, the country was ruled by a set of regulations which rested on the questionable authority of orders in Council from the Star Chamber. The effect of the Statute of William was to give the force of law to these tyrannical regulations, under which' the resident population had suffered so long, and to embody in an Act of Parliament (the Parliament of the Revolution), nearly the whole of the old barbarous code. No wonder that the monopolists, year after year, were loud in their praises of a Statute which secured for them complete ascendency over the resident population, who had no choice but to submit to their hard fate. The provisions of this Act seem to us almost incredible in the present day. The fishing admirals of Star Chamber origin were reinstated, and with almost unlimited powers. Not only was it enacted that the master of the first ship arriving at the fisheries from England should be admiral of the harbour in which he cast anchor, but the masters of the second and third following vessels were to be vice-admiral and rear-admiral, the first having the privilege of reserving to himself so much of the beach as he required for his own use. The arrangement was evidently based on the principle of ignoring a resident population, and providing merely for the fishermen who annually migrated from England. Each autumn, at the close c* the fishery, the admirals, and all under their immediate charge, disappeared. The in- habitants were left without even the semblance of law or order to pass the winter as best they could. As a clasSj these masters of fishing vessels were rude and ignorant men, utter'Iy unfitted to be the judges in matters so vitally affecting a large and important trade. Moreover, as servants of the merchants, they were themselves personally interested in the questions which arose regarding property. They were closely identified witli the capitalists who carried on the fisheries from England, and were for this and other (PAHT I, lus whicli 1 Council tatute of tyrannical tion had arliament )le of the lists, year ite which I resident ;heir hard ..lAP.ni.] TYRANNY BY ACT OF PARLIAMENT. 45 reasons utterly unqualified to dispense justice between their employers and the people born or resident in the country. Inquiries, instituted afterwards, have shown what kind of justice was meted out to the poor inhabitants, who were regarded as interlopers by these rough sea-captains. Under their rule the most frightful abuses were perpetrated, and the most tyrannical practices wore universal. The powers wiuh which they were endowed enabled them to drive the inhabitants from their houses and fishing-grounds and gardens, to make room for themselves and their friends. In their eyes, the highest misdemeanour a resident could be guilty of was the cultivation of a portion of the soil. They had no hesitation in levelling the house of any resident, or appropriating it for " the use of the fishery," whicli meant for their own use. In a representation addressed to the Home Government in 1715, by a number of residents, the following language is used : " The admirals prove generally the greatest knaves, and do most prejudice, being generally judge and party in hearing suits for debt ; and when they have served themselves, then they will do justice to others. So it will be requisite to have a civil government, and persons appointed to administer justice in the most fre- quented places, that wo may be governed as Britons, and not live like banditti or forsaken people, without law or gospel." In Chief Justice Reeves' excellent history of the government of Newfoundland, published in 1793, we have a striking picture of the condition of tho country under the fishing admirals : " It has been too often stated in the course of this historical inquiry to need repetition that the admirals were the servants of the merchants; that justice was not to be expected from them ; that a poor planter or inhabitant, who was considered little better than a law- breaker in being such, had but small chance of justice in opposition to any great West-Country merchant ; that they 11 I 1^ 46 NEWFOUNDLAND. [past I. have been in the habit of seeing that species of wickedness and anarchy ever since Newfoundland was frequented, from father to son. It was favourable to their old impressions that Newfoundland was theirs, and that all the planters wei'e to be spoiled at their pleasure." The same authority shows that the inhabitants were entirely at the mercy of the merchants and adventurers ; that these were the importers of all articles of domestic necessity, as also such as were needed for the prosecution of the fishery, and that they sold their goods on their own terms on credit to the planters, well knowing that the products of the fishery would reimburse them. When any difficulty arose about the payment of debts, it was not unusual for the agents of the merchants to seize whatever fish they could lay hands on, leaving the unfortunate fishermen without wages or any means of support, "salt provisions and craft'' being, according to existing regulations, payable before wages. The fishing admirals were not only overbearing, they were venal. Their judicial decisions were occasionally influenced by gifts. The inhabitants were, by the express terms of the Act, prohibited from taking up any beach or place until all the ships arriving from England were pi'ovided for. If any stage, cook-room, or beach had been taken possession of, they had to quit it forthwith for the use of the migratory fishermen. The light in which the unfortunate residents were regarded by the monopolists may be gathered from the cool reply of the latter to an invitation addressed to them by the Board of Trade to communicate their views regarding what could be done for the further- ance of the fishery. They suggested the appointment of justices of the peace to act in winter, during the absence of the admirals ; but they added that the best interests of the country would be promoted if a resident population were wholly dispensed with= To secure this luippy result they proposed, with disinterested benevolence, that the existing [PABT I. CBAP. lit. TYIUNNY BY ACT OF PARLIAMENT. 47 ickedness ted, from ipressions i planters authority rcy of the importers 1 as were they sold liters, well reimburse lyment of merchants , leaving iiy means according ;s. The hey were influenced terms of )lace until ided for. Dossession nigratory residents cd from ddressed ate their further- ;ment of jsence of ts of the ion were ult they existing settlers (al)out three thousand men, besides their wives and children) should be encouraged to emigrate to Nova Scotia, where inhabitants were wanted. Notwithstanding these oppressive and unjust laws, the resident population continued to increase. This fact may be taken as illustrative of the singular attractiveness of the island from a colonist's point of view. The height of prosperity Newfoundland might have achieved under the fostering care of a wise and generous government may be easily imagined. Among the early settlers who fought and ultimately won the battle against enormous and cruel odds there must have been many men of great vigour of character and solid worth. We have proof of this in the fact that, finding there was no redress of their wrongs to be expected from the home authorities, the inhabitants of St. John's organised a local parliament, composed of the more intelligent and influential of their number, including the commanders of merchant-ships and some of the merchants. In this assembly, after long debates, con- tinued through several sessions, sundry laws and regula- tions were passed " for the better discipline and good order of the people, and for correcting irregularities committed contrary to good laws." Fifteen articles were finally adopted by this voluntary assembly, which must have proved very serviceable in preserving order under the mis- rule of the fishing admirals. Doubtless, too, this attempt at local self-government was the germ of that reformatory movement which afterwards increased in volume, and finally gave to the island a settled government and just laws. In the commodores and commanders of the royal ships who periodically visited the island, the oppressed inhabitants found their best friends and helpers. These officers were unprejudiced observers of the disorder and injustice which prevailed. From time to time they made representations on the subject to the Imperial authorities, and urged the A u 15 it *W:-c 48 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PART necessity of a new system of government. The monopolists, lioweveFj having the ear of the Board of Trade, possessed sufficient influence to counteract the efforts of the naval commanders. They too preferred complaints to this Board ; but all their petitions had reference to their own interests, taking no account of the inhabitants. They complained that New England men were allowed to import rum and tobacco into Newfoundland, to the detriment of their own traffic, and asked that " none should be allowed to retail these articles but to their own servants." They asked that the commodores should not be allowed to interfere with the decisions of the fishing admirals ; they demanded that the encroachments of the inhabitants on the harbours, to the detriment of the ships from England, should be checked; and they suggested that the fishing admirals " should have power to inflict corporal punishment on all persons profaning the Lord's Day, and all common drunkards, swearers, and lewd persons ; and that a sufficient number of ministers should be sent and paid for by England to instruct the people." There was indeed no limit to the arrogance of the monopolists. At length there came the dawn of better days for the resi- dent population. In the year 1728 the commodore in charge of the station at Newfoundland was Lord Vere Beauclerk, a nobleman of considerable talent and weight of character. Strongly impressed with the evils of the system of rule in force in the island, he made such strong representations to the Board of Trade, that the Home Government were at length induced to send out a governor with a commission to establish some form of civil, government. The appoint- ment was conferred on Captain Henry Osborne, of his Majesty's ship Squirrel. Thus commenced the naval government of Newfoundland by captains and admirals of the British Navy, which was continued for many years. This was not only a social boon, but it was virtually a y 4 Ipaht 1 mopolista, possessed the naval lis Board ; interests, Dmplained ) rum and their own I to retail isked that e with the i that the irs, to the checked ; lould have profaning larers, and ministers struct the ogance of )r the resi- in charge auclerk, a character, of rule in ;ations to t were at )mmission appoint- e, of his le naval imirals of ny years. CIUP. Ill TYRANNY BY ACT OP PARLIAMENT. 49 recognition of Newfoundl.'uul as a colony of the British Empire. The change did not, it is true, for a lengthened period accomplish anything for the settlement and colonisa- tion of the country, because the obnoxious " Statute of ^Villiam III." was left unrepealed, and the governors were instructed to enforce its provisions ; but the new form of fovernraent proved to be a great improvement on that of the fishing admirals. Although these officials were not abolished, their operations were under something like con- trol. In the appointment of a governor the germ of local civil government was obtained, and, though its growth was slow, it eventually became a living power. More than sixty years elapsed from the seed being sown before the constitutional harvest was gathered. It came in the establishment of a Supreme Court of Judicature. Twenty years after that it was permissible to build houses without a special licence from the governor. So tenacious was the grasp of the monopolists on the country, and so per- tinaciously did they oppose all efforts for its colonisation, that the good intentions of the Home Government in the appointment of a governor were for a long period ren- dered almost nugatory. This arose partly from the limited character of the powers conferred on the first governor and his successors. His commission, according to Reeves, gave him authority to administer the oaths to Government officials, and to appoint justices of the peace, with other necessary officers and ministers, for the better administration of justice and keeping the peace and quiet of the island. But neither he nor the justices were to do anything contrary to the Statute 10 & 11 William III,, nor obstruct the powers therein con- ferred on the admirals of harbours or captains of the ships of war. The justices were required to be aiding and assist- ing the commodore or commanders of the ships of Avar and the fishing admirals in putting in execution the said statute. The governor was to erect a court-house and I ii I ■ ' H I! ' i^^.'f] tn I I II 50 NEWFOUNDLAND. prison. All officers, civil and military, were to aid and assist him in execntinpf this commission. Wo shall see presently the evil efFects of leaving the fishing admirals with unabated power to paralyse the action of the governors. Before closing this chapter we must revert briefly to the troubles through which Newfoundland had to pass during this period, owing to the encroachments of the French and their ceaseless endeavours to obtain entire pos- session of the island. We have seen that the Treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, left the French in possession of Placentia and various other places along the southern shore. From these points of vantage they carried on an extensive and lucrative fishery in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and around the northern shores of Newfoundland. When war between England and France broke out afresh in 1702, a squadron was sent out under Captain Leake, with orders to drive tlie French out of Newfoundland. The attack was partially successful, as various French settlements on the southern shore were destroyed, and the fortifications on the island of St. Pierre were dismantled ; but the French were still left in possession of their chief stronghold in Placentia. An unsuccessful attempt was made to reduce this fortified position in the following year. Then in their turn the French again became the aggressors. With a strong force they marched on St. John's. They were victoriously repulsed. Turning their backs on St. John's, however, they fell upon the other English settlements along the coast, destroying many of them and carrying off a large number of the inhabitants into captivity. At a later date, in 1 708, the French again assailed the capital. The garrison was taken by surprise, and the enemy obtained possession of the place. They at once proceeded to dismantle the fortifications and destroy most of the houses. Carbonier aloTie was again able to resist the French, and for several years this was the only town on the island where the flag "f [P«ET I. and assist presently . unabated briefly to I to pass ts of the (ntire pos- Treaty of Placentia I'O. From insivo and [id around br between I squadron ) drive tlic i partially 3 soufhei'ii island of still left ntia. An ! fortified turn the a strong ictoriously liowever, along the If a large ater date, garrison possession antic the Carbonic'!' or several 3 the .Mvi>. .Ill TYRANNY BY ACT OF PARLIAMENT. 5L of England was not hauled down. Newfoundland for a tiino was lost to the British Empire. In the glories of our military and naval triumphs in other parts of the world the loss was oasily forgotten. At length Louis XIV., who in the greater conflicts of the time had seen his territories gradually diminished and his strongholds flying hostile banners, was glad to accept terms of peace. The well-known Treaty of Utrecht was concluded in 1713. Certain of its provisions mark a great era in the history of Newfoundland. The whole country, with the adjacent islands, was declared to bo the ])osscssion of Great Britain. Placentia and all other places were ordered to be surrendered. Thus the exclusive sovereignty of the entire island was secured to England. A very important reservation was, however, made in favour of the French, which was destined to be a source of trouble for more than a centuiy and a half, and which prevented the J3ritish subjects of Newfoundland from settling and colonising moi'o than half the island, and this by far the better half in regard to soil, climate, and natural capa- bilities. By the Treaty of Utrecht, though the French were excluded from all territorial rights in Newfoundland, they were secured in the privilege of fishing, concurrently with the English, along more than half the coast, and also permitted to use the shore of this portion of the island, so fur as it was needed for the prosecution of their fisheries. This unfortunate concession led to endless disputes. The French persistently contended that the provisions of the treaty gave them, not a concurrent, but an exclusive right of fishing on this part of the coast, and also that the use of the shore for fishery purposes forbade the settlement of this region by British subjects. Both these interpretations were repudiated by the people of Newfoundland, and were never admitted as being correct by the Imperial authorities; "Nevertheless, successive English Governments left the |matter undecided, and refused to place this portion of the s 2 m n I I 52 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PilTl cofiRt under tlio jurisdiction of the local pfovernmont, or to sanction its settlement, so sensitive were they in guarding the treaty rights of the French. The conpequence has been that, practically, the inhabitants of Newfoundland have been excluded from half their own territory, which is still, to a great extent, a mere wilderness; and that a populatioii of " squatters," without any title to their possessions, and living outside the pale of law, was allowed to grow up there without any civilising influences. This was a standinir grievance generation after generation ; and so slow has been the march of civilisation in these latitudes, that " the squatter" has only been brought within the pale of law and order during the past few years. It was not until the year 1878 that a magistrate was appointed, with the con- currence of the home authorities, to have jurisdiction in the forlorn district just described; and it was only as late as 1881 that the local government was empowered to issue grants of land and mining licences for this same locality. I '\' (rim, lent, or tn , guarding has been land have ich is still, population salons, and (V up there 1 stnndinfj; slow has that " the alo of law t until the h. the con- jurisdiction as only as powered to this same CHAPTER IV. THE FISHERY RIGHTS OF FRANCE. [1728-179:3.] Fifty years of agitation— The pioneers hold their gronnd — Establish- ment of a Court of Oyer and Terminer- -"VVarHke operations against the French in North America — End of tlie Seven Years' "War— Social disorders and religious persecution— British and French concurrent rights of fishing— The condition of Labrador — The war between England and America and its influence on Newfoundland— The Peace of 1782— Chief Justice Reeves — Disputes over the Treaty of Versailles — Land grants and mining licences. The history of Newfoundland during tho next fifty years presents a series of constant conflicts between the new order of things introduced by tho appointment of a governor, together with the rudiments of a local civil government, on the one side, and tho old regime on the other. For many years the governors found themselves almost powerless to introduce any ameliorations owing to the notorious statute of William III., which was still in force, and tho determination of the monopolists and the fishing admirals not to recognise the newly-created authority, or to abate the exercise of their arbitrary powers. The appoint- ment of a governor and justices of the peace alarmed the monopolists, whose most strenuous efforts were now directed to prevent any lawful authority from taking root Mil i 54 NEWFOUNDLAND. Ipaht I, in the island. The conflict between these opposing forces lasted for more than half a century. Happily the British Governuicnts were now " m in their determination not to withdraw the small meiisure of civil government which had been granted to the colony, *nough the adherents of the old system never ceased their hostile representations regarding it, and their petitions to the home authorities to have it altered or extinguished. Slowly the right pre- vailed ; step by step improvements came. Meantime, the suffering people had to suffer on, under a cruel and flagrant misrule. Life was hard and bitter for the poor " toilers of the sea " struggling to obtain a footing in the ne„ land. Existing on sufferance, forbidden to cultivate the soil, prevented "yen from erecting a stage for handling their fish, until their lords and masters from England had been accommodated, they were obliged to moitgage their industry for advances of the necessaries of lifo, and bend their backs to a burden of debt. Still these sturdy pioneers held their ground and inci*eased in numbers. At the close of each fishing season, some who had come out from England were sure to remain behind, in spite of the utmost vigilance of. the captains of the fishing vessels. How the women were smuggled into the country remains a mystery. The very hardships of a Newfoundland career had possibly attractions for some of these early colonists. There was a spice of adventure in the work of the time, and no restraints of civilisation. The sense of freedom, the rich treasures from the encompassing seas from which occasionally vast prizes were drawn, the bracing climate, even the dangers which they had constantly to confront in their avocations, followed by the season of idleness and rough enjoyment in winter when their toils were ended, were romantic attractions in the eyes of many a hai'dy fellow in those early days of travel and adventure. Captain Osborn, on his arrival, set to work vigorously li! [PABT I, Qg forces e Britisli )u not to hich had ts of the ;entatioiis lorities to ght pre- time, the 1 flagrant toilers of aev, land, the soil, ing their and had age their and bend e sturdy numbers. lad come in spite e fishing country oundland ese early work of sense of eas from bracing antly to eason of leir toils of many venture. gorously CHAP. IV.] THE FISHERY RIGHTS OF FRANCE. 55 to carry out his instructions. He divided the island into districts, and appointed in each of them justices of the peace and constables, selected from the best classes of the ])Oop]e. To defray the cost of building a prison at St. John's and at Ferryland, he ordered a rate to be collected, which was assessed on the boats and ship-rooms. He erected several pair of stocks as a teri'or to the more turbulent and disorderly of the population. This was the work of one season. At its close the governor returned to j-liigland to spend the winter, a practice which was followed till the year 1818 by these naval authorities, who generally arrived in July or August, and left in the latter end of October. The presence of a governor only during two or three months annually was a serious drawback to the proper working of the new system. The magistrates, who were in many instances ignorant men, and all of them new to such duties as they had undertaken, were found to be obedient to the orders given them only so long as ;i superior was at hand. It was also speedily found that the Cf ptains of the fishing ships, the fishing admirals, and the traders were fiercely opposed to the exercise of authority by the justices, whom they regarded as usurpers of their own offices. They used their utmost efforts to bring the magistrates into contempt, and to impress the people with tlie idea that their appointment was illegal. The justices of St. John's presented a memorial to the Governor, com- plaining that they were obstructed in their duty by the iishing admirals, who, taking upon them the whole power and authority of the justices, even disputed the Governor's authority in appointing them. In this conflict, which went on for years, the West-Country merchants and captains sup- ported the fishing admirals, and the Governor stood by the justices. A fatal mistake had been made by the introduc- tion of the new system, through " an Order of the King iu Council," instead of obtaining for it the sanction of an Act 1 1 ' iP u 56 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I. of Pai-liament. The fishing admirals pointed to the Statute of William as the source of their authority ; whereas they alleged the justices were merely the creation of an Order ill Council. The home authorities being appealed to by both parties, the law officers of the Crown were called on for a decision. The opinion of the Attorney-General of the day WHS that the whole authority granted to the admirals was restrained to seeing the rules and orders contained in the statute, concerning the regulation of the fisheries, duly executed ; whereas the authority of the justices extended only to breaches of the peace ; so that there was no inter- ference with the powers given by the Act to the admirals, by those Avhich the commission conferred on the justices. Thus there was assigned to each a separate sphere of actiou. The difficulty was to define the bounds of each jurisdiction. The contest went on for a long period. At length the monopolists and the admirals became convinced that the limited civil government gi'anted to the inhabitants would not be withdrawn, and their clamour and opposition in a great measure ceased. From this time henceforth the fishing admirals gradually gave up the contest, and eventually their claims of authority fell into well-merited contempt. The year 1750 witnessed another important step in the extension of civil government. Various governors had represented to the lioard of Trade the great inconvenience resulting from sending over to England for trial all persons charged with having committed capital felonies. " In such cases," says Reeves, "the witnesses were glad to keep out of the way. The felon wf,s sent to England, without any person to prove his guilt ; a great expense was incurred ; justice was disappointed ; or, if the fact was proved, the poor witnesses were left to get back as they could, with the expense of their voyage and residence, and the certain loss of one seasou^s fishing.^' The representations of successive governors on this subject at length resulted in a change [PABT I. CHAP. IT.) THE FISHERY RIGHTS OF FRANCE. 57 for the better ; and the commission given to Captain Francis William Drake, in 1750, contained a clause empowering him to appoint Commissioners of Oyer and Terminer, before whom felons might be tried within the bounds of the colony. With what a sparing hand this measure of justice was dealt out may be estimated from the restrictions attached to the exercise of it. The Governor was prohibited from holding more than one Court of Oyer and Terminer in a year, and that only when he was resident in the island ; and from executing any sentence till report of it was made to the King. Further, the power of trying or pardoning treason was not entrusted to the Governoi', or any court appointed by him. Notwithstanding these restrictions the court was re- garded as a great advance, and it proved a valuable boon. The lirst of a series of important reforms, it inaugurated a new era of civil progress, a progress which came slowly but surely. In 1754, Lord Baltimore presented a claim to be put in possession of the southern portion of the island, known as the province of Avalon, together with all the royal jurisdictions and prerogatives belonging to it, as secured by the origiu.al grant of 1623. The claim was disallowed by the law officers of the Crown, on the ground that there had been no actual possession of the province by the Baltimore family since 1G38, and that subsecjuent legislation was inconsistent with the claim now set up. The somewhat ridiculous demands of Lord Baltimore, thus disposed of, were never I'enewed. During these years war had been raging between England and France, and at length the tide rolled near Newfoundland. The commanding genius of Pitt discerned the vast importance of striking a blow at the power of France in North America. The famous expedition of 1758 against Louisberg, then the capital of Cape Breton, and a strong fortress held by France, was completely successful. ' i' ^. Hpm 58 NEWFOUNDLAND. (I'VHl I, and the island was yielded to England. In this operation, Wolfo was second in command, and greatly distinguished himself for skill and courage. In the following year, an expedition for the conquest of Canada was organised, and the supreme command given to Wolfe, There is no brighter page in the military annals of England than that which records the capture of Quebec and the heroic death of the English general. The power of France in the New World was now entirely broken. Tlie whole of North America passed into the possession of the British Crown, Thongli the conquest of Canada was now complete, France still clung to the idea of seizing and retaining Newfoundland, The commercial value of its fisheries, and the opportunities it afforded as a training school for sea- men, were fully understood by the French authorities. It was in the year 17G2 that France made another determined effort to gain possession of the island, A naval expedition, fitted out at Brest, succeeded in eluding the British cruisers, and a strong force was landed at the Bay of Bulls, twenty miles south of St. John's. Thence, by a march overland, the enemy surprised and overpowered the garrison. They then proceeded to strengthen the fortifications of the city, and to secure themselves in their possessions. The Governor was absent during this victorious adventure of the French. On his return voyage to the island he was met by a sloop, carrying information of what had happened. By this sloop he sent despatches to the commander at Halifax, Lord Colville, who immediately sailed with a strong naval force to St. John's, and blockaded the harl)Our where the French fleet lay, Meantime the Governor, Captain Graves, landed, at Placentia, and pub the foi'tiflca- dons there in a proper condition of defence. Lord Col/ille was speedily joined by Colonel Amherst, ab the head oi eight hundred men, most of them Highlanders. Tiiese gallant troops were landed at Torbay, seven miles north of [in in I, I'jf CHAP. IV.l THE FISHERY RIGHTS OF FRANCE. 59 St. John's, o,ad had to iiglit their way through a very rugged country ia order to assail the French garrison who held the capital. But nothing could withstand the ardour of the Highlanders. 8ignal Hill, which overlooks and comraands the city, was carried by assault. The French lleet were shut in the harbour by Colville's blockading force. A storm, however, arose, which drove off the Fnglish Hhips. Favoured by a fog, the French fleet put to sea and escaped. The garrison, after a brief struggle, surrendered, on condition that they should be conveyed to France. The French were thus for the last time summarily expelled from Newfoundland. The same year which S(i,w the French both triumphant and defeated at St. John's, inaugurated negotiations for peace between the two Great Powers, and on February ICth, 1763, the Seven Years' War came to an end with the famous Treaty of Paris An opportunity was now offered for terminating the fishery prifileges conceded to the French, on a portion of the Newfoundland coast, by the Treaty of Utrecht; but unfortunate/ y, instead of securing the island to Great Britain, fi'i^e from any use of its shores by the French, the ll'reaty of Paris confirmed and extended the rights of the French granted by former treaties. The islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, on the coast of Newfoundland, were trans- ferred to Fnince, as a shelter for her fishermen, on condition that no fortifications were to be erected, and that only a guard of fifty men, for police purposes, should be maintained there. This perpetuated much of the old mi^ichief, and strengthened the hold of the French on the island, in connection with their fisheries. It is worth recording here that on board one of the vessels of Lord Colville's fleet, when it came to recapture Newfoundland from the French, was the afterwards famous Captain James Cook, who was destined to become one of i 1 ! ■ » It 1 !i I \ ; l 1 J t,.. . H 1 -J GO NEWFOUNDLAND. [PART I, England's greatest sailors. He had entered the Navy as a common sailor, and had, at this time, risen to be master of the Northumberland. Captain Graves, then Governor of Newfoundland, formed a high opinion of Cook, and secured for him the conduct of a naval survey of Newfoundland. This appointment was confirmed, in 1 VGi, under Governor Sir Hugh Palliser. As marine surveyor of Newfoundland and Labrador, Captain Cook spent three years in making charts of the coasts und the surrounding seas. These charts are found to be marvellously accurate, even when the work is done over again with the improved instruments of the present day. In this arduous service Cook won his first laurels, and proved himself an able mathematician. He left Newfoundland in 1707 to take charge of an expedition to the South Seas. His subsequent career as a coui'ageous and skilful navigator and explorer is well known. By the treaty of 1 763, Great Britain acquired a totality of empire in North America extending from Hudson's Bay to the mouths of the Mississippi. In order to establish a free fishery, open to British subjects, upon the coast of Labrador, the whole of that coast, from the River St. John's to Hudson's Straits, was placed under the care of the Governor of Newfoundland, whose title henceforth was to be, "Governor and Commander-in-Chief in and over the island of Newfoundland, in North America, and of all the coast of Labrador, from the entrance of Hudson's Straits to the Eiver St. John's." This addition conferred increased importance on the government of the colony. A census was taken at the close of the year 17G3, from which it appeared that the total population of the island was 13,112, including women and children. Of these 7,500 were constant residents in the island, and 4,795 of them were Roman Catholics, most of whom had come from Ireland. The increase in the resident population, in spite of all discouragements, was very marked. The cod fishery A [PABT I. CHiP. IV. I THE FISHERY RIGHTS OP FRANCE. 61 spite lery ■1 was in a thriving condition, 386,274 quintals of cod having been made in that year, ot which two-thirds had been caught and cured by the resident inhabitants of the island. Besides, 601 tierces of salmon and 1598 tons of train-oil were exported. Four hundred sail of vessels carried on the trade with the mother country and British America. The intercourse with Ireland at this time was considerable, and large quantities of fish were sent to Belfast, Cork, and Waterford. A whale and walrus fishery was carried on in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and upon the coast of Labrador. While the resident population was thus increasing, the civil government received some very important additions calculated to strengthen the colony. In 170]., on the representation of the Board of Trade, a collector and controller of the customs of Newfoundland was appointed; and in the following year the navigation laws were extended to the island, and it was now formally declared to be one of His Majesty's " plantations," or colonies. This was a fatal blow to the old system, by which it was kept merely as a fishing station, for the use of the fishery monopolists. Those interested in sustaining the old order of affairs made a stout resistance to this innovation, questioning its legality on the ground that it did not rest on the authority of an Act of Parliament, and was opposed to the Statute of 10 & 11 William III., which made it a free fishery. Petitions and memorials were poui'ed in by the merchants against the payment of custom-house duties ; but the Homo Government was firm, and their clamour had no effect, though it was kept up for many years. The establishment of a custom-house, and tho enforcement of the navigation laws, proved to be two important pillars added to the civil government of the island. The social condition of the resident population at this period, though somewhat modified for the better by late enactments, wa3 still deplorable, and calculated to retard im •J fi (■ i ^^ 62 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I. settlement in the country. The administration of justice, especially in the outlying places, was characterised by gross partiality, the resident magistrates being, in many cases, incompetent men, and too often open to bribery. The fishermen obtained advances in supplies of necessary articles of food and clothing at the commencement of each fishing season, the charges being so high that at the close little remained of their wages to carry them through the winter. Another source of demoralisation was that employers freely supplied their own servants with in- toxicating liquors, at a high price, taking care to reim- burse themselves out of their wages for these articles, as well as for neglect of duty which such practices i-endered extremely frequent. When accounts were balanced between masters and servants, at the close of the fishing season, the latter too often found themselves in debt to the former. Being without employment and utterly destitute, many took advantage of trading vessels from New England, to leave the island for the continent of America; whilst those who remained were often tempted by want to commit thefts or acts of violence, or obliged, if they could find masters, to hire themselves on any terms for the ensuing season, in order to obtain the means of subsistence. It was a common practice at this time to attach or stop the servants' wages in their masters' hands, at any time during the fishing season, for debts contracted to the publicans, or for balances claimed by their former employers. To these social disorders was added the bitter ingredient of religious persecution, directed against those who held the Roman Catholic faith^ and who now formed a very con- siderable proportion of the population. The intercourse with Ireland had led to the settlement in Newfoundland of numbers of Irish, who had fled from the oppression of the penal laws. To the shame and disgrace of Protestantism these exiles arrived in Newfoundland only to find that the spirit CHAP. IT.] THE FISHERY RIUHTS OP FIIANCE. 63 of persecution was rampant even in that distant colony. All Government officials, before being installed, were obliged to tign a declaration in which they abjured the distinctive tenets of Catholicism. In 1755, Governor Darrell, finding that numbers of people still continued to arrive from Ireland, issued a proclamation commanding all masters of vessels, who brought out Irish passengers, to carry them back at the close of the fishing season. A special tax was levied on Roman Catholics, and the celebration of the mass was made a penal offence. A few disguised priests had come out in fishing vessels to minister in secret among their co-religionists ; but, owing to the strict surveillance of the local government, they had no fixed abode, and could not safely remain. The severity which Roman Catholics experienced at the hands of the authorities will best bo understood by a reference to some of the legal records of the period. A CouT't was held at Harbour Main, Sep- tember 25th, 1755, at which an order was issued to the magistrates, commanding that a certain individual who had permitted a Roman Catholic priest to celebrate mass in one of his " fish-rooms or store-houses, he being present himself, which is contrary to law, and against our sovereign lord the King, should be fined in the sum of 50/., and that the fish-room in which mass was said should bo demolished, and that the owner should sell all his posses- sions and quit the harbour." Another who was present at the same celebration was fined in the sum of 201., and had his liouse and stage burned to the ground. Others who, th'^ugh not present at mass in Harbour Main, avowed thonselvos Roman Catholics, were fined 10/. each and ordered to leave the settlement. The same penalties were inflictet! elsewhere, and wherever it was known that a muss had been celebrated the place was ordered to bo burned or demolished, as though a curse clung to the very walls. We need not be surprised at these manifestations of ii i 64 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAET I. the spirit of religious persecution, wlien wo remember how little the principles of religious freedom were understood or practised in G reat Britain at the same period ; and how, under the penal laws in Ireland, Roman Catholics were prohibited from educating their children, or acquiring freehold property, and were excluded from all the liberal professions ; while, if the son of a Catholic became a Pro- testant, he could dispossess his father of the fee-simple of his estate as a reward for his conversion. Persecu- tion was the vice of the age, and was practised by all parties in turn when the opportunity offered. This licensed hostility towards Catholics in Newfoundland con- tinued for nearly half a century, and was at length ended by a royal proclamation in 1781", whereby liberty of conscience was granted, and the free exercise of modes of religious worship. But the spirit of religious intolerance did not die out at once. Six years after this proclamation, in 1790, we find Governor Milbanke making the following reply to the Rev. D. O'Donnell, who applied for leave to build a Roman Catholic chapel in an outport: "The Governor acquaints Mr. O'Donnell that, so far from being disposed to allow of an increase of places of religious worship for the Roman Catholics of the island, he very seriously intends next year to lay those established already under particular restrictions. Mr. O'Donnell must be aware that it is not the interest of Great Britain to encourage people to winter in Newfoundland, and he cannot be ignorant that many of the lower order who would now stay, would, if it were not for the convenience with which they obtain absolution here, go home for it, at least once in two or three years ; and the Governor has been misinformed if Mr. O'Donnell, instead of advising his hearers to return to Ireland, does not rather encourage them to winter in this country. — On board the Salisbury, St. John's, November 2nd, 1790." Such was the condition of society in New- rpup. IV. I THE FISHERY KKiHTS OF FRANX'E. G5 .11 r foundland only ninety-two years ago ! Settlers were still ro(»arde(l in the light of intruders, religions toleration was only beginning to dawn. The stormy ocean alone was free to the people, and on its precarious harvests they had to subsist. The wealth which their toil won from the deep did not remain in the island, but went to enrich other countries. We cannot but admire the energy of a people who, amid these discouragements and tyrannies, continued to cling to the soil, bravely pioneering the way for happier generations to come. The years following the Treaty of Paris in 1763 were marked by a decided increase in the products of the Newfoundland fisheries, which in 17G5 amounted to 4i)3,G54 quintals, being an increase in two years of 145,300 quintals of codfish. In 1 7G i, Newfoundland was fortunate enough to have appointed to the governorship, Captain, better known as Sir Hugh Palliser, who presided over its affairs for four years. A man of capacity and conscientiousness, he devoted himself earnestly to a study of the fisheries and the con- tlitiou of the inhabitants. He soon recognised the sufferings to which the resident population were subjected, and his humanity led him patiently to investigate the causes and to devise remedies for thom. His first care was to regulate the relations which existed between British and French subjects, who had a concurrent right of fishing in the waters of the same coast, the sovereignty of which belonged to Britain. While he secured the French in the exercise of all the rights and privileges acquired by the Treaties of Utrecht and Paris, and ordered that they were to be allowed to prosecute the fishery, within the limits assigned them, without molestation, he also clearly recognised that within these limits they had no superiority over British fishermen, and no exclusive right whatever. He successfully regu- lated the salmon fishery, which subsequently increased greatly in extent and value. The condition of Labrador ;l' { ti ^^K i . ' t ' ' ^^^^u ■' 'i ft i ■ ' ^^^■l ' iji'B! ' ■H t'i\ I't' \ 1 ; j H' ' ll' PP' i t r-'^ i [ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) « CHiP. IV.] THE FISHERY RIGHTS OF FRANCE. G9 mercial intercourse threatened the colony with absolute famine. To meet the difficulty, vessels were at once detached from the fishery and sent to Ireland, in ballast, to procure provisions. Gloom and despondency prevailed throughout the island, coupled for a time with scarcity and want. American privateers appeared ofE the coasts, and, entering the harbours, destroyed a great deal of valuable property. They were eventually held in check by the English cruisers, which captured or burnt not a few of them ; but the war nevertheless inflicted great hardship and inconvenience upon Newfoundland. To add to the trials of the people, in 1755 one of the most severe storms ever known in those latitudes swept over the island. Hundreds of fishing-boats were destroyed, many great ships went by the board, and not fewer than three hundred men perished. The sea suddenly rose twenty feet above its usual level, causing immense destruction on land, as well as in the harbours. To this distress, arising from natural causes, were added suffer- ings from the want of supplies which had been cut off by the war. The attention of successive governors was mainly taken up in providing for the safety of the capital, and the protection of the country genei'ally. In this they were loyally aided and supported by the great majority of the people. At various points which were specially exposed, they constructed batteries, mounted guns and .nanned them. The defences of 8t. John's were greatly strengthened. A new fort, called Fort Townshend, was erected on a height commanding the harbour from its north-western side. The garrison consisted of 459 regular soldiers and 200 volunteers, and 1,500 stand of arms were sent out from England, and distributed in the various harbours, so as to enable the people to defend themselves. Ships of war were kept constantly cruising around the coast. When, >:] i I f t s , . k n^ f f r:M I i^ i ro NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAiir It in 1778, France joined the United States, and agreed to support them in their struggle for independence, Eear- Admiral Montague, then Governor of Newfoundland, captured the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, and sent 1,932 of the French inhabitants home to their native country. The unhappy war between England and her Nortli American colonies terminated in the peace of 1782, and the acknowledgment of the independence of the United States. This introduced n change for the better in New- foundland. Its trade and industries revived. The popula- tion were no longer harassed by privateers and the dread of invasion. Vice-Admiral John Campbell was appointed Governor. He proved to be a man of an enlightened and of a liberal spirit. To him the people were indebted for terminatiug religious intolerance and persecution. In 178J', he issued an order, addressed to the magistrates througL- out the island, which left no room for doubt or cavil. " Pursuant to the King's instructions to me," ran this manifesto, "you are to allow all persons inhabiting this island to have full liberty of conscience, and the free exercise of all such modes of religious worship as are not prohibited by law, provided they be content with a quiet and peaceable enjoyment of the same, not giving offence or scandal to Government." The year which saw this happy change, brought the Rev. Dr. O'Donnell, a Roman Catholic clergyman, to the island, with full liberty to perform all the rites and ceremonies of his Church. For a number of years he was the only Prefect Apostolic, that is, a priest exercising episcopal jurisdiction in New- foundland; and it was not till 1796 that Dr. O'Donnell was consecrated Vicar Apostolic of the island and Bishop of Thyatira i)i ■partlhus. He was the Rrst regular authorised Roman Catholic missioner in the island after it became a purely British settlement. cn.ii'. IV. I THE FISHERY RIGHTS OF FRANCE. 71 In 178G, Rear- Admiral Elliot was appointed Governor of the island, and in the same year His Royal Higlmoss Prince William Henry, afterwards King William IV., visited Xewfoundland in His Majesty's ship Pegasus, of which he was captain, and which lay for some time in the harbour of Placentia. The expenses of the civil government of the island at this time were very moderate, amounting to no more than 1182Z. per annum, of which 5001. was appro- priated as the Governor's salary. The fisheries meantime were increasing, the return for 1785 showing that 501,270 quintals of dried codfish were shipped to foreign markets. Commercial intercourse with the United States of America was resumed at this time, and an Act was passecj permitting the importation of bread, corn, and live stock from the States, but only in British vessels. We have seen how the authority of the fishing admirals gradually came to an end ; the commanders of the King's ships, who visited the island in summer, assuming the administration of justice, and holding courts in which all causes uf complaints were determined. The Governor gave to these commanders the title of Surrogates, their office implying that they had been legally deputed by the Governor to act as his deputies. Under this character the authority of the Governor was beneficially exercised. The Courts of Session, composed of the justices of the peace for the several districts, administered justice in the absence of the commanders during the winter season. The Vice- Admiralty Court, established in 1705, had been gradually extending its jurisdiction, till it assumed the right to adjudicate in matters of debt and others of a civil nature. A new Act was now passed (20 George III. c. 20), con- tinuing the bounties on the fisheries for ten years, and abridging the powers of the Court of Vice-Admiralty. To the latter arrangement a bold and pertinacious resistance was made j and at length it was found necessary to put au i II, ; 1i I J :'i i -i A^ ; I P I E: ) I' fW I ■Hi 72 NEWFOUNDLAND. 1 1" MIT I. it Iffllli end to the whole of the judicature of Surrogates, Courts of Session, and Vice- Admiralty, which rested on very weak foundations. After a variety of imperfect attempts, an Act was passed in 1792, creating a Supreme Court of Judicature of the Island of Newfoundland, with full power to hold plea of all crimes and misdemeanours, and to determine suits and complaints of a civil naturo, according to the law of England, as far as it was applicable. This Court was to be under a Chief Justice appointed by His Majesty. Power was also given by the same Act to the Governor to constitute Courts of civil jurisdiction, to be called Surrogate Courts, in other parts of the island. Chief Justice Reeves, a man of sound legal knowledge and extensive acquirements, was sent out to open the Supreme Court. He was instructed to report to the British Government on the condition of the country, so as to furnish facts and figures which might be useful in future legislation. He published a work under the title of "A History of the Government of Newfoundland," which is, as far as it goes, the ablest and most trustworthy book on the country. The outcome of his reports was another Act of Parliament, passed in 1793, by which the Supreme Court was established, and in 1809 was made perpetual, together with the Courts of Judicature instituted under it. The constitution of a Supreme Court marked a new era in Newfoundland, and terminated that confusion and continual contention which had previously marked the administration of justice, and been productive of innumer- able evils. Among the benefactors of Newfoundland, Chief Justice Reeves deserves to hold a foremost place. In his masterly history of the Government he faithfully and fearlessly laid bare the causes of the evils which afflicted the country. He proved, with conclusive logic and apt illustrations, that the ascendency so long maintained by a mercantile monopoly, for narrow and selfish purposes, CHAP. IV.] THE FISHERY RIGHTS OF FRANCE. bad prevented the settlement of the country, the develop- ment of its resources, and the establishment of a proper system for the administration of justice. No other British colony had ever been dealt with on the cruel lines laid down for Newfoundland. Chief Justice Reeves exhibited that fact in strong colours. He showed also that the administration of its internal affairs had been of the most inefficient description, because the merchant adventurers wished to keep all power in their own hands, and to exclude all competition from without or within. The changes Chief Justice Reeves effected in the administration of justice were most beneficial ; but custom is so difficult to charge that it "viis not till 182 l- that an Act was passed, completely abolishing the old anomalous Surrogate and Sessions Courts, and appointing two judges to assist the Chief Justice. The island was then divided into three districts, in each of which a Court was appointed to be held every year. Before passing on from this period it is important to recall the fact that the Treaty of Versailles, concluded iu 1783, effected an important change in the boundaries of that portion of the coast of Newfoundland on which the French possessed certain fishery privileges, by virtue of the Treaty of Utrecht. All the stipulations of the latter agreement were confirmed with one exception, namely, that the King of France renounced the right of fishing from Cape Bonavista to Cape St, John, granted him by the Treaty of Utrecht, so as to prevent quarrels which had hitherto arisen between the two nations of France and England ; and agreed that henceforth the French fishery should commence at the said Cape St. John, situated on the eastern coast of Newfoundland, in about fifty degrees of north latitude, and going round to the north, and down the western coast of Newfoundland, should have for boundary the place called Cape Ray, situated in forty-seven degrees V NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AKi fifteen minutes of north latitude. By tho same treaty permission was given to the citizens of the United States to fish on tho coasts of Newfoundland, on the former footing- ; but they were allowed to cure and dry only "in the unsettled bays, harbours, and creeks of Nova Scotia, the Magdalen Islands, and Labrador/' So far as Newfoundland was concf'inod, the Treaty of Versailles, by clearly defining the limits within which the French were to exercise their privileges, rnmoved a source of contention arising from uncertainty of boundaries, and ended the incessant quarrels which had been going on regarding this point. Unfortunately, however, the ambiguity of the lauyuage used in another part of the treaty gave rise to oven more serious misunderstandings, which continue to this very hour, and have been the source of constant contentions between the French and Newfoundlanders, The stipulation referred to ran as follows : " And that tLe fishermen of the two nations may not give cause for daily quarrels, His Britannic Majesty was pleased to engage that he would take the most positive measures for preventing his subjects from interrupting in any manner, by their competition, the fishing of the French during the temporary exercise thereof, >vhich is granted to them upon the coasts of the Island of Newfoundland, and that he would for that purpose cause the permanent settlements which should be formed there to be removed, and that he would give orders that the French fishermen should not be incommoded in the cutting of wood necessary for the repair of their scaffolds, huts, and fishing-boats." This is the celebrated section of the Treaty of Ver- sailles, over which volumes of diplomatic correspondence have been written, and countless battles fought without any satisfactory result. The French hold that, from the phraseology employed, the treaty gave them an exten- sion of their former privileges, by securing to them an • h^ I IMP. IV.) THK FISHERY RIGHTS OF FRANCE. 75 exclusive riglifc over the coasts and waters in question. Bat neither by any British Government, nor by any government or legishituro in Newfountlhmd, hrs this claim been allowed. The Crown law officers of pjngland, when the matter was referred to them, declared as their inter- pretation of the language of the treaty, " *hat if there bo room in these districts for the fishermen of both nations to fish, without interfering with each other, this country is not bound to prevent her subjects fishing there." The French have clung to their treaty rights with deathlike pertinacity. England, while maintaining that her subjects liavo a right to fish concurrently with the French in these waters, has always held this right in abeyance, and discouraged the exercise of it; and, until 1881, refused to recognise settlers on that portion of the coast as subjects entitled to the protection of law and representation in the local legislature. Happily this policy is now reverst 1. Territorial jurisdiction over the Avhole island is conceded to the Government of Newfoundland; the power rjf making land grants and issuing miniug licences is accorded, and representation of tlie inhabitants in the local Parliament is secured, the French fishery rights being, of course, strictly recognised. It now remains for diplomacy to close, in an equally satisfactory manner, the conflicting claims to exclusive and concurrent rights of fishing. In 1785 the estimated resident population of New- foundland was 10,214, of whom about 1,000 were resident in St. John's. This shows an increase of 2,711 over the previous twenty-two years. In 1787 a bishop of the Church of England was appointed for Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland was attached to his see. The administration at this time was of so primitive a cliaracter that the Governor regulated the price of food, and fixed it by proclamation. The trader who disregarded .it m ill \y ^f 70 NEWFOUNDLAND. iPAKr I, the official tariff was liable to the infliction of a heavy fine. Newfonndland, even when it had power to act other- wise, elected to pass through T.iany of the curious stages which the mother country had trave'=;od during her own slow but glorious march of constitutional liberty. ( 1 ' CHAPTER V. "THEOUGH THE FIRE." [1798-1861] The last French attack on tho island— Ncwfoundlandirs not allowed to ac(iuire land or build houses — Stranpjo examples of tlie rigour of tho law of William III. — Eofugecs from Ireland — Roman Catholic disabilities — Mutiny of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment — ^A landmark of improvement — Houst-s built without Imperial permission — Tho first newspaper — The Red Indians — A tragical expedition— Governor Duckworth's enlightened administration— Tho rise of St. John's — A period of inflation — The Treaty of Paris — The great fire of 1816 — Proposals of de- population — Agitation for local legislative power — Expansion of popular ideas — Representative government conferred on the island in 18'{2 — Hostility between the two Cliambors — Religious aiid political rancour — The fire of 1846 — Twelve thousand people homeless— Tho proposed Anglo-French Convention of 18o7 — Riot and tumult — Peace and progress. The French Revolution culminating in a declaration of war against England, made tho year 1703 one o£ especial im- puitance to Newfoundland. Preparations were again active in anticipation of a descent upon the island. Admiral Wallace, the newly-appointed Governor, maintained the small force under his command at St. John's in the liighest state of efficiency. The forts were strengthened, the batteries made ready for action. Volunteers flocked to the national standard. A spirit of loyalty manifested itself on all hands. In addition to the forma- )>[ ii 1 I w i i i \r W I r i '\- ■ 78 NEWFOUNDLAND. [P.un ;, tion of a volunteer force, the Governor was authorised to raise a Newfoundland corps of six hundred men, a step which was attended with great success. In September, 179G, a French squadron appeared off the harbour of St. John's. The fortifications were manned, the gunners at their posts awaited the expected assault, the British flag flew defiantly over the town. More than once in its previous history St. John's had proved to the French a difficult nut to crack. On this last occasion of theii" hostile survey of the place they passed on without even challenging a shot. The settlement at Bay of Bulls, a short distance south of the capital, however, felt the power of the enemy. They burnt the defenceless place and plundered the vessels that lay at anchor off the coast. Satisfied witli this small exploit, the squadron put to sea and disappeared. Notwithstanding the gigantic struggle between the mother country and France, that went on for many years after this incident, Newfoundland was left at peace ever afterwards. No other force hostile to England has since these exciting days fired the warlike ardour of the isle, or threatened the repose of its rising settlements. Admiral Waldegrave became Governor in 179G. He proved to be a very humane and enlightened ruler. Finding many of the people in very poor circumstances, he organised a plan for relieving their wants by means of a voluntary annual subscription among the wealthier in- habitants. There was a turbulent spirit as well as mucli undeserved poverty in the island, the result of a lax govern- ment, which was more particularly weak during the winter months. An order was therefore obtained for the Chief Justice to winter in the island. With the Governor, this high functionary was in the habit of spending the winter in England. The times were everywhere troublous, and the Governor felt the necessity of vigilance on the part of the civil power in the proper administration of justice and the tliis er in I the f the I the f HAP. v.] "through the fire." 79 preservation of order. At the same time he showed a keen sympathy for the- local fishermen, whose condition was at this time very deplorable. In one of his despatches he speaks of the conduct of the merchants at Burin, who had complained to him of the emigration of some of the in- habitants to Nova Scotia,- in terms which demonstrate only too clearly the social state of the people. " One point seems clear," he says, " and this is, that unless these poor wretches emigrate they must starve; for how can it be otherwise while the merchant has the power of setting his own price on the supplies issued to the fishermen, and on the fish which these people catch for him ? Thus we see a set of unfortunate beings worked like slaves and hazarding their lives, when at the expiration of their term (however successful their exertions) they find themselves not only without gain, but so deeply indebted as forces them to emigrate, or drives them to despair." He further relates how the merchants refused to allow a tax o^^ sixpence per gallon on rum, to help to defray adminis- trative expenses; and he describes them as "opposed to every measure of government which a Governor may think proper to propose for the general benefit of the island." It seems strange that it did not occur to the governors that the right way to relieve the fishermen from their poverty and serfdom, was to encourage the resident population to cultivate the soil, as a means of adding to their comforts, and securing their independence. It must be remembered, however, that the governors were naval men, Avho were inclined natui'ally to sustain the old theory, that the island was to be preserved as a fishing-station and training-port for seamen, not as a home fo ■ a civilised community. Even under Waldegrave all grants of land were sternly refused. The shores were declared to be for the use of the migratory fishermen who i •;|l| '1 ' ? I ill ' 'l I ^^^■p 80 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part I. came from England, and no local appropriations could therefore be allowed. This policy, enforced by lav, and cordially approved by the merchant class, was carried out by successive naval governors, with the sternest quarterdeck discipline. Two instances may be quoted by way of illustration. In 1790 Governor Milbanke discovered that a certain Alexander Long had, without permission, erected a house. He immediately wrote to the magistrate declaring that "it must and shall come down." In vain did the builder plead that " it was only a covering for his potato cellar." The sharp-eyed Governor surveyed the structure, and found, he declares, that " it had a complete chimney, if not two, and lodging for at least six or eight dieters ; " so that it was clearly intended for a human habitation, and must be pulled down by the sheriff. To remove all doubt upon the matter, he announced, in the same letter, that if in future any building should be erected, except for the salting and curing of fish, " it must unavoidably be taken down and removed." He added : " It may not be amiss at the same time to inform you I am also directed not to allow any possession as private property to be taken of, or any right of private property whatever to be acknow- ledged in, any land whatever, which is not actually employed in the fishery, in terms of the aforementioned Act, 10 & 11 William III., whether possessed by pretended grants from former governors, or from any other (no matter what) unwarrantable pretences. The sheriff will have directions about the removal of the house above- mentioned, which you will no doubt assist him in executing." No less ligorous was Admiral Waldegrave, who was Governor for three years ending 1799. He had issued orders to the sheriff prohibiting any erections during his absence in the winter. Finding on his return that a Mrs. Gill had audaciously erected a fence, on the plea that she CHiP. T.] "through 1 .A FIRE." 81 had received a grant from a former governor of a piece of irround, and that two other Individuals had built " sheds," he sharply rebuked the sheriff, and ordered the sheds to be taken down ; and at the same time he prohibited chimneys, or even the lighting of fires in sheds, and threatened the sheriff with dismissal if such deeds were repeated. ^Vhen about to take his departure, he put on record, for the benefit of his successor, that he had made no promise of any grant of land, sav3 one to the officer com- manding the troops, which was not to be held by any other person. These restrictions pressed so hardly on the people, now considerably increased in numbers, that even the merchants began at last to see that it would be for their advantage to have a resident population, instead of bringing out fisher- men from Britain each year. They petitioned Governor Waldegrave for a relaxation c5 the rule requiring the departure of all fishermen at the end of each season. They even went so far as to suggest that, in some cases, the inclosure of portions of unoccupied land might be permitted with advantage. The Governor did not respond to their representations. It is evident, how- ever, that new ideas were fermenting in the minds of men, when such sweeping changes and daring innova- tions were advocated by the conservative class. The memory of Governor Waldegrave, in spite of his eccen- tricities, was long deservedly respected. The first to institute charitable societies, he fostered education, and secured the erection of 9, new church in St. John's. Not- withstanding the conflict raging between England and France, Newfoundland went on increasing in population and wealth. All competitors in the fisheries were swept from the seas. The fish markets of Europe were ex- clusively in the hands of the merchants of this country, so that fish rose to an unprecedented price. When Governor o / t Uii It; i W !.- I \ ^ _^fe 82 NEWFOUNDLAND. [past I. Waldegrave took his departure in 1799, there were four hundred vessels engaged in the trade of the country, and about two thousand boats. The export of codfish reached half a million of quintals. The capital invested in the fishery of cod, salmon, and seals was not less th ,n a million and a half pounds sterling. This degree of prosperity was reached, although settlement was prohibited, and those who remaiijed in winter were chiefly persons connected with the trade of the country, or those who were too poor to make the annual voyage home. The vast wealth realised by the fisheries all went to enrich other lands. None of it was spent in the improvement of Newfoundland, or in the promotion of civilisation among the resident population. When the social disadvantages under which the popu- lation was gradually forming are taken into account, it is not wonderful that disorder, immorality, and crime should have prevailed more or less. Indeed, all things considered, the wonder is to find such a degree of order and respect for law, and for the rules of morality, among a people for whom so little was done in the way of education and religious instruction. In many of the smaller and more remote settlements, successive generations lived and died without education or religious teaching of any kind. The lives of the people were rendered hard and often miserable for the express purpose of driving them away. The governore of those days considered that loyalty to England rendered it imperative on them to depopulate Newfoundland. In the face of all these severe discouragements the settlers held their ground, increased in numbers, and im- proved their social condition. However slow their pro- gress, that they advanced at all furnishes abundant proof that among these hardy pioneers there were men of the right stamp for building up a new community, men of moral worth and force of character, who saw, in the midst of n, cruv. V.) "theough the fire." 83 their rougli surroundings, that here was a spot which might one day be made into a desirable home for themselves and their children. No doubt, along with this robust element thei-o was a baser intermixture of people from the old land — spendthrifts and criminals flying from the consequences of their misdeeds to a country where they were safe from the arm of the laAV. Debt, want, and oppression drove many to emigrate in those troubled times. They carried with them the embittered memories of their wrongs. Many from Ireland, especially after the troubles of 1798, found a refuge among their kindred or countrymen on the shores of Newfoundland. The Saxon strentrth of the settlements was supplied from England, numbers of those who came out to prosecute the fishery remaining behind at the close of each fishing season. The advancing prosperity of the colony, and the increased value of tlie fishery products, tended to attract other classes of emigrants. As population increased the attention of the Churches was drawn to the spiritual destitution of the people. The Church of England, acting thi'ough the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, endeavoured to pro- vide for the wants of her scattered children. Clergymen left the old country, and laboured faithfully in St. John's, Harbour Grace, Trinity, and other places. As early as 178G Wesleyan Methodism Avas introduced, and gradu- ally attained a vigorous growth. Religious toleration being proclaimed, many priests of the Church of Eome appeared in the island. They toiled with commendable devotion among their flocks, loyally battling with hard- ships and privations. Secular and Sunday schools were opened for the education of the young, in connection with the different churches. These influences gradually effected a change for the better among this long-neglected people. G 2 iiji h\\ 'i^ 84 NEWFOUNDLAND. [past t. Such was the condition of things when, in the year 1800, a serious alarm was created by the discovery of a mutinous plot among the soldiers stationed in St. John's composiug the Royal Newfoundland Regi' ont, which had been enlisted chiefly from among the populace. The conspirators appear to have had sympathisers and adherents among the more turbulent and ignorant of the lower classes, who were prepared to act in concert with the mutineers. It was believed that a secret society was at the root of the mischief. The plan of the mutineers was to desert with their arms, and, being joined by their friends outside, to plunder St. John's, and afterwards escape to the United States. Had the conspiracy not been detected in time serious results must have followed, involving robbery and assassination, not alone in St. John's but throughout the island, wherever disaffection spread. The discovery of the plot was made by the Roman Catholic bishop, Dr. O'Donnell, who promptly informed the commanding officer, Major-General Skerret, of the impending peril. This loyal prelate had already exerted his influence among his own flock to counteract the evil influences that had been at work, and to prevent an outbreak. The commanding officer acted with great promptitude and decision in dealing with the soldiers, some of whom were tried by court-martial and executed. The regi- ment was relieved by another from Halifax, and the alarm speedily subsided. All classes felt and acknowledged the debt of gratitude due to Bishop O'Donnell for his conduct on this occasion. During the whole time of his residence in Newfoundland this excellent man laboured to advance the best interests of the people, to promote harmony and kindly feeling between Protestants and Catholics, and to counteract sectarian animosities. To mark their sense of his patriotic services the British Government bestowed on Bishop O'Donnell a pension of I ^1 cinr. v.] "through the firf." 85 oOl. per annum — a more niunificent gift than that bestowed by James on " bim that found the island," it is true, but inadequate as a reward for distinguished service, and hardly worthy of the dignity of a British Government. Admiral Gambier was appointed Governor in 1802. At this date the population of St. John's was •'3,420, of whom 1,139 were Protestants and 2,281 Catholics. Governor Gambier endeared himself to the colony through his benevolent efforts to ameliorate the condition of the people, by the introduction of sanitary arrangements in St. John's, and the promotion of charitable institutions for the relief of the poor. He worked hard to increase the number of tho clergy, and the establishment of charity schools. During his administration, for the tirst time one of the native Indians was brought to St. John's. This was an Indian woman who had been captured by a fisherman. She is described as having been of rt copper colour, with black eyes, and hair like that of a European. After spending a winter in St. John's, and being treated with great kindness, she was sent back to her tribe in charge of her captor, with conciliatory presents of various kinds; but nothing more was heard of her. It appears from a proclamation issued in 17G9 that great cruelties had been practised on the aborigines by the rude fishermen of those days, who often destroyed them without provocation or excuse. A proclamation denounced these barbarities, and threatened heavy penalties on any who should be guilty of such crimes. Strenuous efforts were made afterwards to open communications with the natives, but without result. It is significant, regarding the system which still pre- vailed, to find that on his return to England Governor Gambier had to ask indemnity for granting a lease of eighty acres of waste ground for pasturage for sheep and cattle for the convenience of the people of St. John's. He was m i 111 ifi I it i; I'll iJK 8G NEWFOUNDLAND. [r.vm I. succeeded in 180i by Sir Erasmus Gower, during whose administration a most important work was carried out. Ho found that the waterside premises in the harbour of St. John's, designated ships' fishing-rooms, to the distance of two hundred yards from high-water mark, were nominally reserved for fishery purposes, but that the principal buildings of the town had literally been huddled into this space; there being no permission to erect permanent houses else- where. He succeeded in obtaining the consent of the British ministry to a new arrangement, by which the ground contiguous to the water was reserved for the pur- poses of a mercantile port, and the land higher up was sold in small lots for the erection of houses; A new road was laid down parallel with the harbour, at a distance of two hundred yards. It was not, however, until seven years afterwards, in 1811, that ships' fishing-rooms, now utterly disused for the original purposes, were finally abolished, and let for building pui'poses. The annual rent of the ground thus disposed of by public auction, on leases of thirty years, amounted to l,GOOZ. — a proof of the increasing wealth of St. John's. Thus the old system of prohibiting the erection of houses without a written permission from the governor at last received its death-blow. The improvement of the town dates from this event. Previously, owing to the instructions against building, and the irregularity in erecting some kind of shelter for the racidly increasing population, the wooden huts were huddled together in such a way as to present a continual danger of fire. With the exception of one house the town was built entirely of wood. The principal thoroughfare was in one place not more than six feet wide. All the streets were narrow, unpaved, and unlighted. It is noteworthy to find the merchants of St. John's, in a memorial presented to His Royal Highness the Prince Eegent, expressing their CHVP. v., tl THROUGH THE FIRE. 87 % .' 4 cn.vp T.I "through the fire." 93 charged for small patches of land, let on short leases. Every improvement was accomplished by the hard toil of tbt3 poor settlers themselves, not only without assistance, but in opposition to the wretched policy of the Government. Their labour rendered the lands valuable, and in return they were obliged to pay a rent, and wei'e liable to be dispossessed of the soil reclaimed by their industry, at the termination of their leases, which could only be renewed on payment of a heavy fine. This cruelly obstructive policy was continued for many years, notwithstanding the representations of successive governors, and was only effectually ended Avhen the colony obtained a legislature and the privilege of local self-govern- ment. Governor Keats, in one of his despatches, told the parent Government that St. John's had now grown into a large commercial town of ten thousand inhabitants ; that the operations of the farmer and gardener were greatly needed, and were extending in spite of all restraints ; that a thousand acres around the town were under cultivation, and many more inclosed, and that crops of hay, potatoes, and vegetables of all kinds were raised, " The environs of the town," he added, "the natural beauties of which are very striking, present to view several neat, well-cultivated, and productive little farms." Another delusion that had long possessed the minds of British statesmen received at this time a complete extinction. The old theory, on which the preservation of the island as a fishing station had been urged, was that these fisheries were an invaluable nursery for British seamen. Now it was discovered that, in the case of ships of war visiting the island, the desertions of the seamen were more numerous than at any other place ; and at the same time the immunity from impressment was a temptation to men in the United Kingdom, who dreaded such a measure, to transfer themselves to Newfoundland, where they were safe. Thus, so far H ! 1 ■ i 1 : \ ill ! H 1 ? 11 ' ■ i-" Wi!" 94 NEWFOUNDLAND. t»A«II. from being a, nursery for men to take service in the royal navy, the island was discovered to be a refuge for those who were unwilling to serve. While these changes were slowly working their way, and these improvements taking root, Newfoundland was enjoying a period of unexampled prosperity. During the long wars which followed the French Revolution, the Newfoundland merchants were relieved — first from the competition of the French, and then from that of the Americans, One after another the Continental markets opened to them a complete monopoly. The fishing seasons, too, were generally favourable. At the same time fish rose to three times its usual price, reaching at length forty-five shillings per quintal. The wages of tLe fishermen increased, and in consequence largo numbers of emigrants, many of them from Ireland, sought a home in Newfoundland. In 1814 seven thousand arrived, and in the following year, when a crash was impending, there came four thousand more. Fi'om 1812 to 1816 St. John's doubled its population, though there was not a pi'opor- tionate increase of houses for the accommodation of the new inhabitants. Princely fortunes were made by the capitalists engaged in the fisheries, some of them securing from 20,000/. to 40,000/. profits in a year. The value of the exports rose to 2,900,000/. per annum. But if wages were high the necessaries of life reached an enormous price. Flour was 8/. per barrel and pork 12/. per barrel. The fishermen spent their earnings lavishly at the stores of the merchants, never dreaming that the good times were near their close. Of all the great accumulation of capital at this time no part went to the permanent improvement of the country. When the capitalists had realised their fortunes they retired to enjoy them in other lands, and the country was no richer than before. No effort was made to open up roads or extend agriculture. Everybody was striving to ciiir. v.| "through the fire," 95 make money out of the fislieries. A large population liad accumulated in a few years, and these were wholly dependent on an industry which now enjoyed an excep- tional and artificial prosperity. All these circumstances prepared the way for the collapse which followed the termi- nation of the war, and for two or three years of disaster and suffering through which the colony had now to pass. The Treaty of Paris, 1814, which ended the long European conflict, followed by a treaty of peace with America, brought to an abrupt termination the abnormal prosperity which had attended the prosecution of the Newfoundland fisheries. By one of the provisions of that treaty, the French right of fishery on the banks of Newfoundland and on the coast of the island was replaced upon the footing on which it stood in 1792. Even greater privileges of fishing in British waters were conceded to the Americans. Thoroughly impressed with the importance of the fisheries, both the French and Americans at once established a system of bounties for their (Hicouragement, and at the same time secured to tlieir own fishermen a monopoly of their markets, by a prohibitory duty on the import of foreign fish. The result was a rapid development of the French and American fisheries on the Banks, and on the part of the coast con- ceded to them. Those who had been reaping rich harvests year after year now found themselves competing, on unequal terras, with foreigners who were sustained by bounties, and whose pi'oducts met theirs in all fish-consuming countries. No provision had been made in prospect of such a change during the prosperous years which preceded it. The crash came at the close of 1815, bringing ruin and bank- ruptcy to a large proportion of the merchants and planters. The price of fish fell from forty-five to twelve shillings per quintal. Numbers of large mercantile firms became hopelessly involved. Others realised whatever property m r ■ H »!• 'I '■ I i I I ( I- ym\ if! n _ i ■ i ' . m- - ■ -r i- - t ' \} 1 i. ^ ; T'^^P 9G NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I. remained and retired from the country. Only a few managed to weather the storm. The system of credit on which business Avas conducted added to the disaster. No less than nine hundred cases arising out of exten- sive failures came before the civil courts. It was estimated that bills to the value of a million sterling were returned protested in the disastrous years of 1815 and 1817, occasioned by the insolvency of houses engaged in the fisheries. The working and middle classes suffered with the rest. Supplies for the fisheries wei'e suddenly cut off or curtailed. Multitudes were thus deprived of the means of earning their bread; while many, by the insolvency of their employers, failed to receive tbe wages earned during the summer. Nor was this all. The planters and fishermen had been in the habit of leaving their savings, during prosperous years, in the hands of the merchants. The greater part of this hardly-won money was swept away by the insolvency of their bankers. It is estimated that the working class lost a sum little short of 400,000/. sterling. The large popula- tion, attracted by the exceptional prosperity of pre- vious years, could not now, in their present depressed condition, be sustained by the fisheries. Large numbers wei'e left unemployed, dependent on the charity of their neighbours. It became absolutely necessary to remove some of them. At the public expense many of the most destitute were shipped to Ireland, and over a thousand were sent to Halifax. Had the policy of colonisation been followed in preceding years, and a portion of the vast profits realised from the fisheries spent on the encouragement of agriculture, the disasters would have been greatly mitigated. The bitter fruits of the old restrictive system were now to be gathered, and the innocent had to suffer with the guilty. CHAT, v.] "through the fire." 97 One calamity now followed close on another. In February, 1810, a terrible fire broke out in St. John's, which destroyed one hundred and twenty houses, and left fifteen hundred persons without a home. The loss of property was estimated at 100,00OZ. The distress oc- casioned by this disaster was augmented by the inclement season in which it occurred. The fishery of the following summer was very poor, and the price of fish low. The spring seal fishery of 1817 was a failure, and the summer one of the gloomiest ever known, as regarded the business of the country. In November of the same year came what seemed to be the crowning calamities of the colony. On the 7th of that month another terrible fire in St. John's swept away one hundred and thirty houses, besides stores and wharves, destroying property to the value of half a million pounds sterling. This was followed by a third great fire on the 21st November, which destroyed a considerable part of the business portion of the city spared by the former con- flagrations, and seemed to complete the misery of the in- habitants. Scenes of heartrending distress followed. Two thousand persons were left without a home, many of them having lost all they possessed. An appeal for help met with a liberal response. Provisions were dispatched from Halifax to save the inhabitants from starvation. The people of Boston loaded a vessel with a large cargo of food of various kinds, an act of generosity which is still gratefully remembered in Newfoundland. The British Government sent prompt and liberal aid. The Governor, the merchants, and the wealthier classes exerted themselves to the utmost to relieve the wants oE the inhabitants. Though there were some disturbances caused by want and misery during this trying season, yet, on the whole, the people met their calamities with fortitude and patience. It was not long before the dark hour passed away. The year 1818 witnessed the commencement of a reviving prosperity. The fisheries i m i^ i'l !■ !l I i 1 1 i I ^t ill PB 98 NEWFOUNDLAND. Ipabt I. were remarkably successful, and the prices of fish in foreign markets were considerably enhanced. A favour- able change was experienced all over the commercial world. The courage of the Newfoundlanders revived, and industrial activity was everywhere visible. St. John's was speedily rebuilt on an improved plan, and pi'ecautions were taken to prevent a recurrence of fire. The streets were widened, and solid and substantial buildings replaced the crowded wooden erections which had furnished fuel to former conflagrations. Admiral Pickmore had been Governor during these calamitous years. He was the first resident Governor ; the practice formerly being that the governors arrived in July or August, and left for England in October or November. Henceforward they were required to reside constantly in the island. Governor Pickmore died in St. John's, in February, 1818, and his remains were sent to England. He was succeeded, in July of the same year, by Sir Charles Hamilton. During the darkest year of this period of distress the merchants applied for aid to the British Government ; and through their earnest solicitations a Select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed to " inquire into the state of trade in Newfoundland and into the situation of that settlement." The Committee met in June, 1817. The merchants proposed two modes by which aid might be given. One was the granting of a bounty, to enable them to compete with the French and Americans, who were sustained by bounties ; the other was the transportation of the principal part of the inhabitants, now numbering 70,000, to the neighbouring colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, or Canada. True to their traditions, the mer- chants attributed the present depressed state of the fisheries mainly to the increase of the population and the settlement of the country. This was not the first time they had pro- i ,4 CBAP. v.] "through the fire." 99 posed the deportation of the inhabitants. In 1670, "the merchants, owners, and masters of ships, and the inhabitants of the western part of the kingdom, adventurers to New- foundland, petitioned the king (Charles II.) that the resident inhabitants and their families, then amounting to 3,171, should be removed to Jamaica, St. Christopher, or some other of His Majesty's plantations." Now, in 1817, the population being 70,000, they actually proposed their removal as the means of their own relief. Their traditional attachment to their old monopoly blinded them to all other considerations. The Com nittee of the House of Commons, naturally enough, inquired whether, as the fisheries were insufficient for their support, a portion of the inhabitants could not find profitable occupation in the cultivation of the soil. The reply made by witness after witness was that the agricultural improvement of Newfoundland was utterly impracticable, and only one merchant urged encourage- ment of agriculture as a remedy for the poverty of the people. The result was that no effort was made to open the country for agricultural settlements, and things were left to right themselves as best they could. It is satis- factory, however, to find that the merchants failed to obtain bounties — the thing they were really aiming at. At the very time that they were thus trying to depopulate the country, the local authorities in Massachusetts were giving a bounty for each Newfoundland fisherman brought into tlie State. How utterly unfounded were their representa- tions regarding the sterility of the soil and the severity of the climate appears from the fact that eighteen years after- wards, in 1836, notwithstanding the restrictions on the cultivation of the soil, the census gave the value of the aunual produce at 191,'234L for the land then under cul- tivation. In the census of 181'5 the estimated value of land in cultivation and of agricultural stock is given at 077,01:0^ In fact, wherever ordinary skill and industry H :j P (if ill \^ 1 1 \ ■ v V ' ■ '^ f j 1 ^ • il 1 li If f'l *' h j i 1 ^i; '1 i ! : i! 'i ■ ; r ■% 1 i ■ ^S" li 100 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAIlt I, have been exercised in the clearance and cultivation of tlie soil, it has never failed to repay the labour expended on it, The agricultural populations of Newfoundland are more comfortable and independent than those exclusively engaged in the fisheries. Though the colony had begun to recover from the revere blows inflicted on its prosperity by the events referred to, yet the effects of those three years of adversity were felt long afterwards. The heavy losses sustained by the working classes impoverished large numbers of them, and the pre- carious returns of the fisheries kept them in a state of poverty. During each winter season many were dependent on charity. The evil, however, did not fail to spread, until many had fallen into a state of chronic pauperism, needing relief every recurring winter. The recklessness and im- providence, generated by dependence on public charity among this class, proved to be one of the greatest diffi- culties that the governing powers had to contend with. It is not wonderful, however, that such a condition of things should exist, when we remember how an artificial prosperity had attracted emigrants in large numbers, and that a sudden collapse plunged the country into almost universal bank- ruptcy, tlisarranging its entire business from one end of the island to the other. This was followed, as we have already seen, by destructive fires, which devastated the capital. The pauperism created by these calamities was long a heavy burden on the resources of the country. It is impossible indeed to withhold our admiration at the fortitude and patience with which such severe sufferings were borne by the people, and at the energy and spirit they displayed iu surmounting the difficulties they had to encounter. The grievances which still pressed on the colonists, and the imperfect administration of the laws, began at length to suggest to them the necessity of seeking for the acquisition of institutions for the self-government of the country. An (Hif. v.] "THROUGH THE FIllE." 101 agitation for local legislative power was commenced in 1821, but it took more than ten years to wring from the British (rovernment the concession of a representative government. The reply to petitions from the inhabitants was that the colony was not yet ripe for it; that the revenue was insufficient ; that trouble and disorder were likely to arise l)y the outcome of the changes that were asked for. The supporters of the old despotic system, as a matter of course, were on the side of the English ministers ; and it was only ■when the pressure of public opinion became overwhelming that the much-needed legislative power was granted to the colony. The year 1824 witnessed the introduction of a very important measure for the better administration of justice in the island, the defects of the existing incongruous system heing very great. Disorderly practices had crept into the courts, and loud complaints of the decisions of the surrogates especially were made. To remedy this an Act was passed by the British Parliament providing that the Supreme Court should be held by the chief judge and two assistant-judges, and that the colony should be divided into three districts, in each of which a Circuit Court should he held annually by one of the three judges, an appeal from the decisions of which was permitted to the Supreme Court. The same Act gave the Governor power to institute a Court of Civil Jurisdiction on the coast of Labrador. This Act, with the royal charter issued in consequence of it, has formed the basis of an excellent system of jurisprudence in the colony, and secured for the people the greatest of blessings — the pure administration of justice, on the principles of English law. The commission given to Sir Thomas Cochrane as Governor, in 1825, ordered that a Council should divide with him the responsibility of his government, former governors having been autocrats, acting on their own i 4 h!i 1 ^^1 'jtf f i , 1 M i ! 1 ')f i ^ i! ii ! ; IP .- 4 ■ '• ■• il ! ii . M 1:^1 Mi' I (!a fi f 102 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I, discretion. This Council, nominated by the Crown, con- sisted of the Chief Justice, the two ussistant-judges, and the commander of the troops stationed in St. John's. It may bo regarded as the first step towards a representative government. Sir Thomas Cochrane proved to be an energetic governor, deeply interested in promoting im- provements, and specially anxious to encourage the culti- vation of the soil. He was much more liberal in making grants of land than his predecessors, though even his leases were still clogged with unwise restrictions. He saw the necessity of roads, if agriculture was to make progress, and his government was rendered for ever memorable by the construction of the first roads ever made in the island. One of these extended to Portugal Cove, nine miles distant from the capital ; another to Torbay ; and another to Waterford Bridge. Along these highways settlements and cultivation crept steadily, and neat farmhouses were erected. A foundation was thus laid for future impi'ove- ments. Up to this date, though the country had been inhabited for centuries, the construction of roads had never been attempted, as it was considered that for fishing stations the sea furnished sufficient means of intercommuni- cation, and the settlement of the country was not contemplated. Governor Cochrane also commenced and completed the erection of a new Government House, on such a grand scale that it cost the British Government 30,OOOL The ideas of the people began to expand, and the desire for representative institutions now extended to all classes. Public meetings were held ; petitions to the Imperial Parliament poured in, and at length the pressure became irresistible. In 1832 the great boon of representative government was conferred on Newfoundland. The island was divided into nine electoral districts, each of Avliicli was to have one or more representatives, according to the population ; and every man twenty-one years of age, who riivr. V. "through thk fire." 103 liad occupied a dwolling-house for one year immediately preceding the day of election, was entitled to a vote. The first local legislature was opened, with all due pomp and ceremony, by the Governor, on the first day of the year 18''};3, which marked a new era in the history of the colony. The people had now obtained the power of regulating their own affairs, expending the revenue, making all internal arrangements, and enacting laws. Their destiny was in their own hands, and such a power, once conferred, could never be permanently withdrawn. It was certain ultimately to secure responsible government, with all its rights and privileges. Sixteen years had now elapsed since the troubles and losses of 1816-17 had brought down the fortunes of the colony. These dark days were now forgotten. Trade was once more in a flourishing condition. Nothing is more striking in regard to the business of the country than its elasticity. In 1834 the value of the exports was 82G;059L ; the value of the imports was 618,757/. No less than 888 British vessels, carrying 105,570 tons, and 20 Spanish and American vessels, carrying 2,979 tons, were employed in the trade. Tho spring seal fishery had now attained large dimensions, and employed nearly 3,000 men from the port of St. John's alone, and 1 25 vessels. Conception Bay sent out 218 ships, manned by 4,891 men; and many other out- harbours sent large contingents to this lucrative though dangerous industry. The population of the island was now about 75,000, and that of St. John's 15,000. The years which followed the introduction of representative govern- ment were anything but halcyon days. Political conflicts arose, and were carried on with much virulence for many years. In the heat of party passion men forgot the ordi- nary courtesies and amenities of life. Rancour, hatred, and all the selfish passions had full swing, and the press teemed with fierce and unscrupulous manifestoes. Unhappily, >. ;!■ \l i» \ ti '« « iff; 11 HI i i 1 ' ( I ^1 I I) ui mn «ir ^'1 ^ 11 104 NEWFOUNDLAND. TAIT I. religious animositios mingled in the strife, and added the bitterest ingredient to the contest. From the very first the legislative machinery was found to be defective, as there was no arrangement for securing a harmonious co-operation between the two Chamberti, The House of Assembly was composed of representatives of the people, who naturally supported popular rights, and claimed to exercise the same functions as those of the British House of Commons. The Council was composed of nominees of the Crown, selected exclusively from the merchant class, who exercised all executive functions, and held the principal offices of emolument among them- selves. The House of Assembly, in which the executive was not represented, found tliomselves to possess powers of debating, passing measures, and voting moneys ; but the Council could throw out all their measures, and were irresponsible to the people. Assembly and Council were at once found to be in antagonism, the one passing bills, the other swamping them ; so that the new constitution was out of gear from the first. Harmonious action under such an arrangement was almost impossible. To these elements of discord were now unhappily added animosities arising from religious and sectarian divisions, which ushered in a dark and troubled period in the history of the colony. When the religious clement is allowed to mingle in political strife it is sure to take a rancorous form, and bring countless evils in its train. The population at this time was composed of one-half Pro- testants and the other Roman Catholics, the latter being Irish or of Irish descent. Hitherto they had lived in harmony and mutual good-will. The Catholics had at one time been harshly persecuted, but perfect freedom of worship had been conceded in 178J', and in 1829 they were finally relieved of all civil disabilities. The introduction of representative government proved to be the apple of CUP. T,| THROUGH THK FIUK. 105 discord among tho Cliiircliea. Old jealousios and distrusts were revived. Tho nioinory of ancient wrongs and griov- iiucos awoke. Each Hoct dreaded tho ])olitical ascendency of tho other, and strove to gain tho controlling power. Protestants and Catholics were arrayed against one another in the political arena. The press stimulated the strife by violent and vituperative attacks on individuals. 'IMie worst passions were evoked. Politics destroyed even the peace of social and commercial life. In two instances outrages of a revr a character wore per lotrated, which added fuel to the me. Violent scenes uL elections were common, and ular commotions had to be held in check by the troops. The agitation extended all over the country, and continued, though in a mitigated form, for some years. Over this period of political and religious rancour it is best to draw a veil, aud to consign the memory of it to oblivion. It produced only evil results, which retarded the improvement of tho colony, and wasted energies which should have been devoted to the social interests of the people. Happily tho strife has long since ended, and both parties have learned tho bitter but wholesome lesson that there is no good, and may be much harm, in bringing purely religious questions into political conflicts. The height to which the political fever ran will be under- stood when it is seen that even the Chief Justice became involved in party conflicts. Chief Justice Boulton was charged before the Privy Council by the House of Assembly with being a political partisan, a corrupter of justice, and a magistrate who endangered the constitution and peace of the community. The Privy Council acquitted him of these charges, but recommended las removal for having indis- creetly permitted himself " so much to participate in the strong feelings which appeared unfortunately to have influenced the different parties iu the colony." 'ji r ' i ' ! .1 !. ll ■ \ ; ! H 1 ■ ':■ i ; , i '■i ' 1 ; ■ '1 \\i ■tl ^ ' '! J 1 pp 106 NEWFOUNDLAND. [FAST I. Notwithstanding the antagonism between the House of Assembly and the Council, the benefits o£ self-government soon became appai'ent in the passing of many exceedingly useful measures such as were impossible under the old regime. Acts were passed for the erection of lighthouses at various points along the coast. An Education Bill sanctioned an annual vote of money for the promotion of education. Boards were appointed to carry out its provisions in each district. Another measure provided for the establishment of an academy in St. John's for the promotion of higher education. Sir Thomas Cochrane was succeeded, in 1834, by Captain Prescott as Governor. He made liberal grants of land to hundreds of poor families, and encouraged agri- culture so effectually that during his term of ofiice large v^uantities of land were reclaimed from the wilderness. The House of Assembly appropria^ i 30,000Z. for roads and bridges, and wherever these roado were opened persons were soon found to settle upon the adjacent lands. In 1811 Sir John Harvey assumed the government. Having resided long in the neighbouring colonies, he had a perfect knowledge of their soil and climate. Setting himself the task of acquiring accurate information regarding the agricultural capabilities of Newfoundland, he was soon able to pronounce the local soil and climate not inferior to thoso of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, or Canada. He used the most strenuous efforts to improve and extend agriculture and promote the settlement of the country. He founded an agricultural society, and opened its proceedings with a speech which went far to dispel existing prejudices. In his speech before the legislature, after having resided a year in the country, he said : " Both as respects climate and agricultural capabilities Newfoundland, in many respects, need not shrink from a comparison with the most favoured provinces of British North America. Its summers, though short, enjoy an extraordinary degree of vegetative power, lbap. v.) "through the fire." 107 whicli only requires to be duly taken advantage of ; its winters are neither unusually long nor severe; and its autumnal seasons are as open and fine as those of any of the surrounding colonies. In point of rich natural grasses no part of Br ish North America produces greater abundance. Newfoundland, in fact, appears to me to be calculated to become essentially a rich grazing country, and its varied agricultural resources appear only to require roads and settle- ments to force them into highly remunerative development." He also urged the construction of highways into the fertile belts of the interior, in order to promote settlement. In response to his recommendation the legislature voted ■iOfiOOl. for roads and bridges, a proof of the wonderful revolution men's ideas had undergone in regard to the character of the country. The value of land rapidly increased under Sir John Harvey's administration, particularly in the neighbourhood of the capital and around other populous settlements. A most important measure was passed during his government, by which it was enacted that all Crown hinds should bo sold by auction at a moderate upset pi'ice, in lots of not more than a hundred acres, and the proceeds applied to the internal improvement of the island. This was one of the greatest boons yet obtained for the settle- ment of the colony. In consequence of the discord which still prevailed between the two Chambers, the Imperial Parliament, in 1812, passed an "Act for Amending the Constitution of Newfoundland." The amendment consisted in the abo- lition of the Council as a distinct branch of the legislature, and in authorising its members to sit and vote in the House of Assembly, where they constituted two-fifths of the whole. Thus was formed what was known as " The Amalgamated Assembly," which continued till 1819, when the Constitution was restored. It is but right to state, lest undue importance should be t 108 NEWFOUNDLAND. [past I. attached to these political commotions, that it was chiefly at the period of each quadrennial election that scenes of confusion took place, and that the stox-my passions then engendered subsided as quickly as they arose. There was no tendency manifested to serious crime or chronic social disorder among either of the two opposing parties. Sir Richard Bonnycastle, in his excellent and impartial work on the colony, tells us that " scarcely anything worth mentioning in the way of riot or breach of the peace has ever occurred at any of these elections, excepting once, at Car- bonear, in 1840, although, at the last election in the capital it was deemed requisite to keep the troops on the alert.". . . *' The Irish are an excitable race, which they themselves do not affect to deny: they are easily led, but difficult to drive. But the good qualities of the Irish peasant abroad are very prominent.". . . "A more peaceable, respectable, loyal, or a kinder-hearted race than the Newfoundland English and Irish, whether emigrant or native-born, I never met with ; all they want, now that temperance has so beneficially operated upon them, is education, agriculture, roads, and the quiet which a firm, decided, and impartial Government promises to have in store for them.'' When it is remem- bered that, at this time, half the population were Irish or of Irish descent, among whom it might be expected memories of old-world strifes, wrongs, and oppressions would be rife ; and that the other half were Protestant and of English descent, accustomed for years to hold the ascend- ency, and headed by the wealthy mercantocracy, who were not inclined to give up their time-honoured claim to rule, it would not have been wonderful to find, in such a society, atrocities and crimes abounding in a country where the arm of the law was felt but feebly. " So far was this from being the case," says Sir Richard Bonnycastle, " there has not been a capital punishment for years : the people are very orderly and respectful to their superiors ; temperance has cii.u'. r.] "THROUGH THE FIRE." 109 enrolled under its banners the greater proportion, and housebreaking and serious crimes are actually unknown ; .and it is universally admitted that there is no country in the civilised world, where greater simplicity of manners or less crime exists, than in Newfoundland." The foregoing statement in regard to the peaceable character of the people is as true to-day as when it was made by Bonnycastle forty y^ars ago. Now that the memory of the political conflicts of bygone years is fading away, the people seem to have learned this great lesson, that the country must not be governed in the interests of a class or party, but for the benefit of the whole ; that offices of trust and emolument must be equally open to all, without resard to roliffious or other distinctions : and that the ascendency of any one section, whether denominational, mercantile, or national, to sway the destinies of the country, cannot be tolerated. The baneful effects of religious animosities in the past lead all intelligent and patriotic men to resist their introduction into future political contests. Under the progressive government of Sir John Harvey tlio colony advanced greatly. Agriculture made con- siderable strides, and the staple industry of the fisheries also extended. Postal communication was improved. In 1810 a mail sailing-packet was appointed to ply fort- nightly between St. John\s and Halifax; and in 181 1- this was followed by the first steam-packet bearing a mail for Newfoundland. It was in 181G, the last year of Sir John Harvey's administration, that St. John's passed through perhaps the most terrible trial to which it had yet been subjected. On the Dth of June a fire broke out in the western end of the city, which swept everything before it, and before night closed in three-fourths of this wealthy and populous city were a smoking mass of ruins. The rapidity of the terrible i if i J'> ' ^^^mm 1 .1 1 1 1: 1 ■: 110 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT I. conflagration was owing in part to a high wind which pre- vailed at the time, and which hurled the blazing brands far and wide, and also to the fact that the greater part of the houses were wooden. Even the mercantile establishments, built substantially of stone and brick, presented no impedi- ment to the progress of the fierce conflagration, and, with a single exception, they were totally destroyed. Nearly all the public buildings, except Government House, perished. The Post Ofiice, Savings Bank, Bank of British North America, Custom House, Police Office, Exchange Buildings, Ordnance Store, and several others were burnt to the ground. To add to the terrors of the scene, while the red tongues of flame were leaping from street to street, the huge oil-vats on the side of the harbour took fire. Liquid flames spread over the whole surface of the water and set fire to a number of vessels. Before the day closed twelve thousand people were homeless, and property valued at a million pounds sterling was destroyed. Still there was no abject despair among the people. Vessels were at once despatched for provisions. When news of the terrible calamity reached England a sum of 5000L was sent for immediate relief, and Parliament voted 25,000L more. To this Avas added a very large sum collected in the churches, under the sanction of a letter from the Queen to the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. The neighbour- ing colonies sent liberal contributions. Cheered by this generous sympathy, the inhabitants at once set to work to rebuild their city. A law was enacted prohibiting wooden houses in the business part of the town, and enforcing increased width of the streets. Some years afterwards an abundant supply of water was introduced, so that now St. John's is as secure against fire as any other city of the New World. A recurrence of such a terrible conflagration as that of June 9th, 1 8 10, may be regarded as impossible. cn.iP. v.] "through the fire." Ill Yet another calamity was destined to mai'k that memor- able year. On the 19th September a storm of unexampled severity swept over the island, causing an immense destruc- tion of shipping, houses, fishing stages and flakes, fences and bridges, and engulfing in many instances the fruits of the fishermen's toils during the previous summer. These two calamities in a single year were a disastrous drawback to the prosperity of the colony for a long time. In 18i7 Sir Gaspard le Marchant was appointed Governor. Previous to his arrival a strong agitation had sprung up, having for its object the attainment of a more complete power of self-government than the Constitution of 1832 had secured. The appointments to the principal offices in the colony were still held by the Crown. The demand now made was for what is known as " Responsible Govern- ment," under which all such appointments were to be at the disposal of the party which secured a majority in the legislature. This boon of government according to the well-understood wishes of the people, or, in other Avords, executive responsibility, had been already conceded to all the North American colonies ; but the imperial authorities, notwithstanding petitions from the people and the amal- gamated legislature in favour of it, withheld it from Newfoundland for a number of years, fearing that the colony was not prepared for complete self-government. The agitation, however, in favour of it increased in in- tensity, and at length, in 1854, it was conceded. Charles Henry Darling, Esq,, was sent out as the successor of Ker B, Hamilton, Esq., to Inaugurate the new system. The importance of possessing those institutions and that civil administration now granted became especially apparent when, in 1857, the British Government entered into a con- vention with that of the French, for the purpose of settling matters long in dispute regarding the fisheries of New- foundland, When the terms of this convention were made 11 V: w M'^ :l 5I-' n iff ■ it ill 1 i ■ bI 112 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part I. known in tlie colony they were found to be unfavour- able to its fishing interests, and calculated to inflict losSj if not ruin, on the main industry of the country. A storm of opposition was speedily raised, and all parties joined ia denouncing the convention. The legislature appointed dele- gates to proceed to London and represent the opposition of the colony to the proposed arrangement. Other delegates were sent to the neighbouring provinces to invoke their sympathy and help. The British Government, having already bestowed complete self-government on the colony, yielded at once, and the obnoxious clauses were withdrawn. A despatch was sent by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to Governor Darling, which gave universal satisfac- tion, and which is regarded as the palladium of the colony's liberties in regard to its territorial and maritime rights. It contained the following words: " The proposals contained in the convention having been now unequivocally refused by the colony, they will of course fall to the ground ; and you are authorised to give such assurance as you may tliink proper, that the consent of the community of Newfound- land is regarded by Her Majesty's Government as the essential preliminary to any modification of their territorial or maritime rights." This, of course, put an end to all doubt regarding the power of the colony to regulate its own afCairs in all time to come ; subject, of course, to the rights secured to the French by treaty, in connection with the fisheries on the coast. The three years following were fairly prosperous ; the fisheries were productive ; the population increased ; the revenue was in such a condition that the legislature was enabled to undertake works of public utility. The light- houses on the coast were increased in numbers; steam communication was improved, both internal and foreign; education was fostered ; and a telegi'aph line was extended across the island. Responsible government worked well, and i of a t of Ai siibm to the' Augu plisheck AVorl.l Royal en (P. v.] "THROUGH THE FIllE." 113 and introduced many needed improvements. The erection of a telegraph line connecting the island with the continent of America suggested the bolder project of laying down a submarine cable from the eastern shores of Newfoundland to the Irish coast, a distance of 1,640 miles. On the 5th of August, 1858, this great historic enterprise was accom- plished, and the first message between the Old and New Worlds was flashed across Newfoundland. In 1800 His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales visited St. John's on his way to Canada, and met with a loyal and enthusiastic welcome from all classes of the people. In the same year, howevei", political troubles clouded the horizon. The old religious dissensions unhappily once more broke out, in connection with the elections, bringing in their train some unhappy results. Thp party who had been most energetic in securing responsible government held the reins of authority for some years. In the session of 1861, however, a misunderstanding arose between Sir Alexander Bannerman, who had been appointed Governor in 1857, and Mr. Kent, the Colonial Premier. Into the merits of this misunderstanding it is not necessary to enter, but the result was the dismissal of the ministry by the Governor, and an invitation to Mr. Hoyles, leader of the Opposition, to form a government. This was followed by a dissolution of the House of Assembly, and a general election in the latter part of April, 1861. The old political passions, in which religious animosities unfortunately played a pro- minent part, Avere once more roused into action. The election presented scenes of tumult and violence in several localities. Protestants and Catholics were once more arrayed against each other in the political conflict. At Harbour Main a life was lost, and at Harbour Grace the disorder was so great that an election was found to be impossible. The result was that the new government obtained a majority, the action of the Governor in dis- ■ : :i| i 11 II ^ p. VI. l( AFTER DARKNESS — DAWN. 119 important work. Enterinf^ upon his duties in 18G4, ho haa prosecuted the work till the present time with commcnd- ablo zeal and energy, and with irapoi'tant results. For tho (irat time, tho resources and capabilities of this neglected country were ascertained and reported on by competent scientific men. As, year after year, Mr. Murray's reports were published, it was at first with a feeling of doubt or incredulity that the people hoard of tho natural riches of tlio interior ; of extensive pino forests ; fertile valleys, in which many thousands might find a homo ; of carboniferous regions, containing coal-beds ; and immense mineral tracts, which the labours of many generations wero not likely to exhaust. His survey showed that on the west coast there were 1,320 square miles of fertile lands, admirably adapted for settlement ; and in tho valleys of tho Exploits, Gambo, Terra Nova, and Gander, not less than 3,320 square miles, equally fitted for agricultural operations or cattle-raising, much of these regions being covered with splendid forests — iu all nearly three million acres of fertile land. He further found that the island presents largo developments of the " Quebec group," which is tho great metalliferous formation of North America, and therefore might bo expected to be found rich in minerals — a prediction which has been amply verified. It is much to the credit of successive governments tliat the geological sui'vey has been continued since 1864, and is still going on. Tho knowledge of the country obtained through this agency has been gradually diffused by different writers, and made known in other lands. It can bo no longer doubted that Newfoundland now presents a promising field for mining enterprises ; and that it contains enough of fertile land to sustain in comfort a population of several millions. The year 1869 brought a turn in the tide of affairs, in the shape of abundant fisheries, tho first for many years which could be called successful. Many of the people had I i ii: if -- .-- ! 1 1' i ■ m i 120 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABt 3. •41 heen devoting themselves more to the cultivation of the soil, and the harvest this year was good. In 1868 the government had at length grappled with the system of able-bodied pauper relief, and cut it off ; and the compara- tive prosperity of the next few years rendered it possible to enforce this wholesome enactment. A general election took place towards the close of 1809, which turned on the question of union with Canada. The result was a return of a large majority of representatives pledged to oppose con- federation with the Dominion, to which it was found a large proportion of the people were opposed. So em- phatically did public feeling show itself in opposition to confederation, that the question has since been entirely laid aside. Sir Stephen John Hill succeeded Sir Alexander Bannerman in 18G9. The following years witnessed successful fisheries, accom- panied by a rise in the price of the products in foreign markets. Harvests, too, Avere fairly good, and the revenue derived from duties on importations rose as the people were able to purchase more freely the necessaries and comforts of life. In 1871 the revenue reached the unprecedented amount of 207,790/., which enabled the government to remit some duties which bore heavily on the working classes, and also to devote certain sums to public works. Great numbers of mining licences were taken out, and the new industry advanced rapidly. The expenditure of money, in the shape of wages in connection with mining, added considerably to the means of the labouring class. The improved condition of the revenue permitted increased grants for the con- struction of roads, lighthouses, and other Avorks of public utility. In 1873 direct steam communication with England and America was established, a contract with the Montreal Steamship Company having been entered into for the ecu- CBVF, '. VI.] ''after darkness — DAWN." 121 veyance of mails, passengers, and goods. The arrangement was for fortniglitly calls, both of homeward and outward hound ships of the Allan Line, at St. John's, during nine months of the year, and monthly trips, via Hp^ifax, during the remainder. The tirade and commerce of the colony ■were greatly benefited by this improved means of com- munication with the outside world. A petition was presented to the imperial authorities by the legislature, asking for the introduction of a judicial system on the so-called " French shore ; " the appointment of magistrates, the establishment of custom-houses, and the removal of restrictions on the territorial rights of the colony. In this petition it was stated that there had grown up, on this part of the coast, a large population who were outside the pale of law, so that life and property were insecure, and the means of civilisation entirely absent. Meantime, local steam communication between St. John's and the principal settlements was improved and extended to Labrador Channel, St. George's Bay, Bay of Islands, and Boune Bay. The revenue did not show any further expansion, and in 1874 was 209,53 U. The knowledge of the great natural resources of the country Avhich had now been diffused, together with the necessity of providing new means of employment for tlie increasing population, had secured the attention of thoughtful men, who saw that, for any further progress, the construction of a railway, to open up the country to industrial enterprise, had nov become a necessity. For some time the idea had been fermenting in the public mind, but in a country where the people were but little accustomed to entertain great national projects, the majority, especially of those whose capital was invested in the fisheries, shrd,nk from the proposal as visionary and beyond the ni^.ans of the colony. Still the question pressed for a solution: "What are we to do with our / I 1 i*-i! T, i ' , I ! ''-■ 1 S' (5 m 122 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AHT I. m increasing population who cannot find sustenance from the employment furnished by the precarious fisheries?" At length, in 1875, the government resolved on a movement de- signed to secure the introduction of a trunk-line of railway. Their ideas were embodied in the following passage from the Governor's speech in opening the session of the legis- lature : ** The period appears to have CTrived when a question which has for some time engaged public discus- sion, viz. the construction of a railway across the island to St, George's Bay, should receive a practical solution. Inde- pendently of the benefits to flow from opening up the great resources of the interior of Newfoundland to the industry of its people, there is the well-founded expectation that this line of railway would attract to our shores the mail and passenger traffic of the Atlantic, for which this island would afford the safest and most expeditious route between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres; and thus would he secured those vast commercial advantages which our geographical position manifestly entitles us to command. As a preliminary to this object a proposition will be suh- naitted to you for a thorough survey, to ascertain the most eligible line, and with a view to the further inquiry whether the colony does not possess within itself the means of inducing capitalists to undertake this great enterprise of progress." The result of this proposal av^s that the legislature voted the sura of money required for a preliminary survey of the line of railway, which was completed in the summer of 1875, under the direction of Mr. Sandford Fleming, C.E., an eminent engineer who was at the head of the railways of Canada. Mr. Fleming had, some years previously, puh- lished a pamphlet in favour of a railway from St. John's to St. George's Bay, with the view of establishing over tliis line the shortest route between America, and Eui'ope. The survey showed that a favourable line c^uld readily he obtained, presenting no serious engineering difficulties. J.:l CHll'. Tl.] "after darkness — DAWN." 123 On reviewing the operations of tlie previous year at tlie opening of the legislative session of 1870, the Governor an- nounced that the fisheries had been but partially successful, but that enhanced prices had rendered them moderately remunerative. " The cultivation of the soil," he said, " had met with an extraordinary degree of success," ..." Mining pursuits," he declared, "have acquired an importance rapidly on the increase." A large number of mining licences and grants had been issued within the year, and Tilt Cove and Bett's Cove mines were worked with great success. The government brought in a measure to revive the cod fishery on the Great Banks, by bounties to be continued for five years. This effort proved highly successful. The fishery commission in connection with the Treaty of Washington met in Halifax in the summer of 1870, the Hon. W. V. Whiteway being the delegate from Newfoundland. The commission awarded five and a-half millions of dollars as compensation for fishery rights ex- tended to the United States by the Treaty of Washington. Of this sum Newfoundland received one million dollars. In 1870 Sir John Hawley Glover was appointed Grovernor, and when opening the legislature in 1877 he said that " mining enterprise was advancing with rapid strides, and that the production of copper ore would soon take rank as a staple resource of the colony." The revenue was found to be over the estimate, but the cod fishery had been below that of any recent year. During the session of 1878 the Hon. W. V. Whiteway, premier, who had taken the lead in introducing the first measure in connection with the railway sui'vey, moved a series of resolutions offering a subsidy of $120,000 and a liberal grant of Ci'own lands to anycompany that would construct and work a line of railway between St. John's and St. George's. Bay. The proposal was cordially agreed to by the legis- »:a m in ^^m^ I I h ■ I! i| 124 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part I. Iiilli I ! mi lature. Arrangements were made for advertising thi? ofEer, but the British Government refused to sanction the line, on the ground that its terminus would be on the so-called "French shore." The concession of appointing magistrates and establishing legal institutions and custom- houses on the western coast had been made in 1877; but the imperial authorities considered that as negotiations with the French regarding this coast were then in progress, their sanction of a railway must be left in abeyance for the present. After waiting two years it was found that the difficulties referred to had not been removed, and that the necessity for opening the country by a railway was every day becoming more urgent. Sir John Glover made a journey across the island from Hall's Bay to Bay of Islands in the autunm of 1878, and also visited the mining region. In his speech on opening the legislature the following year he said: "j\Iy visit forcibly impressed me with the rich agricultural resources of this portion of the island and the value of the forest lands — provisions of nature destined soon to attract and rewai'd large numbers of industrious settlers. The long level tract of country, from South-West Arm, in Notre Dame Bay, to Humber Sound, affords such facilities for the construction of a main highway that this great work might be accomplished at a very moderate outlay." At length, in the session of 1880, the Hon. W. V. Whiteway, premier, moved that, as the difficulties in the way of a line to St. George's Bay had not been removed, the colony should now, out of its own revenues, pi'oceed to construct a railway of about three hundred and forty miles in length, from St. John's to Hall's Bay, the centre of the mining region, with branches to Harbour Grace and Brigus. Such a line would open s'^me of the most fertile lands in the valleys of the Gambo, the Gander, and the Exploits, and would reach the mining region, and afford vast m CHAP. VI. J "after darkness — DAWN." 125 facilities for carrying on mining enterprises ; it would also unite populous districts Avith the capital. The premier pointed out that there was a continued recurrence of pauperism in certain districts, when the fluctuating fisheries failed, and that it was necessary to draw the people more to the cultivation of the soil ; and that the present time was propitious, as there was now virtually no public debt, and the financial position of the colony was highly favour- able. The question was referred to a joint committee, composed of members of both branches of the legislature, whose report was highly favoui'able to the construction of the railway referred. It dwelt on the increasing numbers of the population, and the constant recurrence of destitution with every failui*e of the fisheries, which were precarious and showed no tendency to expansion. The great mineral wealth of the country, as now ascertained beyond a doubt, and " the vast stretches of agricultural land " which the railway would open were referred to, p. , well as the excellent local markets for agricultural produce, while the facilities for raising and exporting cattle were also insisted upon. To develop these rich resources, the committee considered a railway indispensable, and recom- mended that a million pounds sterling should be bor- rowed on the credit of tho colony, in annual sums of half a million dollars, and the work at once commenced. The legislature adopted the report, and authorised the required loan. An engineer-in-chief was selected, and the survey of the line from St. John's to Harbour Grace was completed in the autumn of 1880. Tlie legislative session of 1881 proved to be a very important one. The summer fishery of the previous year bad not been successful, and the usual amount of suffering and privation had followed in certain districts. The revenue had fallen somewhat below the estimated amount. The competition of the products of the Norwegian fisheries in ? ■'■ ■\1 '■|] '■im 111 1 i 126 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABI I. several foreign markets had told unfavourably in regard to the exports of Newfoundland. In opening the legislature the Governor announced that the government had received offers for constructing the line of railway for which pro- vision had been made during last session, and that this proposal would be submitted to the House of Assembly and the Council at an early date. When the matter was introduced by the premier he moved for a joint committee of the Legislative Council and the House of Assembly to consider these proposals, which resulted in the ratifica- tion of a provisional contract. A charter was granted incorporating the shareholders under the title of "The Newfoundland Railway Company." The leading features of the contract were that the company bound them- selves to construct "a substantial, rellaFe, and efficient road, subject to approval by a government inspector," in accordance with certain specifications which were named in the agreement, and to complete it within the period of five years; also to equip, maintain, and operate the railway when constructed. The government agreed to pay the company an annual subsidy of one hundred and eighty thousand dollars, the proportions of this subsidy to attach while the road is in course of construc- tion on the report of the government engineer as each five miles are completed. Further, the government bound themselves to give the company land grants along the line of railway to the extent of five thousand acres of land for each mile of railway built. These land grants are to be in alternate blocks of good land along the line, as far as practicable, in quantities of one mile along the line by eiglit miles in depth, provision being made for obtaining else- Avhere, as the company may select, other lands in connection with reserves for the government, to make good the stipulated amount when this cannot be obtained along the line of road. All articles for use in the construc- A V CHAP. VI.] (( AFTER DARKNESS — DAWN. 127 tion and maintenance of the line were to be admitted duty free. The railway and its capital, stock, and lands were to be exempted from exceptional taxation. The payment of the subsidy was to continue for a period of thirty-five years. The 9th of August, 1881, was an important day for Newfoundland. It saw the first sod of the railway turned. The colony now entered upon a new era of industrial enterprise. The . utilisation of the great natural resources of this fine island was commenced in earnest. The fertile lands of the interior have now the prospect of being settled and cultivated. The forests, hitherto allowed to rot or to be destroyed by fire, will be added to the resources of civilisation. Vast mineral lands will be explored and made to yield their treasures. The railway work that promises to enrich Newfoundland can hardly fail to prove re- munerative to those who have embarked their capital in the undertaking. So energetically did the Newfoundland Eailway Company prosecute their labours, that at the close of 1881, about twenty miles of the line were graded, and the rails Avere laid along the first ten miles. A substantial wharf was built in the harbour of St. John's, and the track was carried along waterside premises occupied by the company, at which four or five large steamers could load at the same time, when piers are erected. This large wharfage will be of great value in the future. Over two hundred thousand dollars wei'e distributed by the company in the shape of wages during the working season, and materials to the value of half a million dollars were purchased and partly transported to the island. Large contracts for cutting sleepers were taken, and thus re- munerative labour was provided during the winter. The wages received by the working population added greatly to their comforts, while the trading classes shared the benefits. I't'l Vh ill I .i ! 'h I, 1 U^ 'i y iX 128 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAEI When the legislature met on the 16th of February, 1882, Sir F. Ji. Carter, who acted as administrator of tho government in the absence of Sir Henry Maxse, the Governor, announced in tho opening speech that the leading industries of the country had during tho previous year been prosecuted successfully on tho whole, and that " mining showed a considerably enlarged export of copper ore, and prospects of a further development in tlio im- mediate future." Ho referred to the railway as pi'ogressing satisfactorily in construction, conferring important benefits on the people, and causing a " large monetary expenditure in the country." This " great work," he said, " is an enterprise which, in the increase of commercial and social communication, and the development of our agricultural and mineral resources, contains tho elements of solid and lasting prosperity for Newfoundland." The revenue was found to be in a very flourishing con- dition, amounting to •'?l,00'5,80o, being the largest ever I'eceived. This furnished the best proof of the generally prosperous condition of the colony. The speech, however, contained another announcement, second in importance only to that regarding the railway. The administrator informed the legislature that the imperial authorities had at length authorised the local government to make land grants, and issue mining licences on that part of the coast on which the French have fishery privileges. This was the boon for which the colony had been pleading in vain for many year*. Its importance to the people of Newfoundland can hardly be overrated. It is a virtual settlement of the vexed " French- shore Question," and a removal of a serious and long- standing grievance. It opens the half of the island which had hithei'to been closed to the people, to settlement and industrial enterprise. It enfranchises the population of this part of the island, who are in future to have two representatives in the local legislature, and removes all CHAP. TI.l 'AFTER DARKNESS — DAWN. 129 restrictions on the exercise of territorial rights. The administrator very justly connected this concession with the name of Sir William Whiteway, to whose able and persevering representations the country is largely in- debted for a settlement of this vexed question. "The coincidence," said the administrator, " of the improved conditions to which I have adverted with the inauguration of the Newfoundland railway, marks an era of progress which is a meet subject of congratulation to the country." Two other important events marked the legislative session of 1882. The first was an application to the legislature for a charter of incorporation of a company under the title of " The American and European Short Line Kailway Company." The objects of the company are described in the following terms : " You are already aware, from communications placed before your govern- ment, that it is the purpose of our company to con- struct a line of railway from a point or points on the east or south-eastern coasts of Newfoundland, through and across the said island, to a point or points on the west coast of Newfoundland, and from the western terminus to connect by steam-ferry with the railway to be constructed to a point at or near Cape North, in the island of Cape Breton ; thence by said railway to the Strait of Causo ; thence along the north shore of Nova Scotia to a junction with the Inter- colonial railway, by which line we make connections with the railways communicating with Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Montreal, Chicago, St. Louis, and San Francisco. It being our purpose to construct without delay the necessary links to complete this proposed trunk-line, when this line is completed, passengers may take cars at New lork or Montreal, and run through to the cast coast of New- foundland. From the east shore of Newfoundland the com- pany will establish a fast despatch line of steamships, to sail between that point and the west coast of England or * i; hi! 130 NEWFOUNDLAND. [»A11T I, li'ff Ireland, there connecting with fast express trains to London and all European cities, thus forming a great iuternational trunk-line across tho island of Newfoundland that will absorb and facilitate tho transportation of the mails of the governments of America, Europe, and Asia, as well as provide the shortest, speediest, and safest route for pas- senger traffic. The line, when completed, will bring New- foundland into daily communication with the great centres of trade and civilisation of Europe and America. The avei'age time s.ived by this route between London and Now York will be not less than two days to tho traveller over any other existing line or possible route between the two groat commercial centres. The short ocean voyage, the great saving in time, together with the superior comforts and safety of this line, will soon raako it tho most popular route for first-class trans-Atlantic travel; and will also attract a very largo part of the emigration that now goes direct to New York and other United States and Canadian ports. Thus will the great tides of emigration, flowing to the United States and Canada, be largely diverted across your territory ; and many emigrants will find homes in the rich fertile valleys of your island. The proposed line will pass thi'ough parts of your territory very rich in mineral and agricultural lands, capable of supporting a large popula- tion J and when this line is open to travel, the Great Valley of the Exploits, St. George's Bay, the Gander Eiver, and the Codroy will soon be busy with the hum of agricultural, mining, and mechanical industry, where all is now a silent, tenantless, and compax*atively unknown wilderness. The rail- way we propose will be, in every respect, a first-class road, and the equipment of the highest standard of excellence." The great enterprise which is defined in the foregoing extract, is not only of colonial, but of imperial and inter- national impoi'tance. In Newfoundland it has met with an enthusiastic approval. Tho charter sought for has been granted ; and, no doubt, in due time the colony will render CHAP. VI,] (( AFTER DARKNESS — DAWN. 131 substantial aid to a project which would beuofit tho island nioro than any other country. Tho legislature of Nova Scotia has also warmly approved of the enterprise, and promised assistance. That this will be tho great travel- route of the future between the Old World and tho Now can scarcely admit of a doubt, for it has been marked out by the hand of Nature. The second proposal which came before the legislature was for a charter, to incorporate a company to construct a dry or graving dock in St. John's Harbour. The dock is to be of such dimensions that it can accommodate tho largest oceanic steamers, being six hundred feet in length, one hundred feet in broadth, and twenty-six feet in depth. The site is to be hewn out of tho solid rock which composes the southern boundary harbour. The government have agreed to give a subsidy of 830,000 per annum for forty-five years, thus securing interest at five per cent, on §000,000. The total cost is estimated at a million of dollars. This dock will be of vast importance to disabled steamers and vessels requir- ing repairs, great numbers of which seek this port from all parts of the Atlantic. It will also serve for the repair- ing of the fleet of twenty-five steamers, and the large number of saihng vessels, which are connected with St. John's itself. It seems clear from all these facts that Newfoundland lias at length fairly moved into the path of progress, and lias a bright and prosperous future opening before her. Her great natural resources will now be turned to account, and her inhabitants will advance in the arts and appliances of civilised life. The population, according to the last census, taken in 1874, was 161,000; it is now probably 185,000. This small population is sprinkled round the shores of an island one sixth larger than Ireland, and having an area of 42,000 squai-e miles. That it will become an attrac- tive field for emigrants cannot be doubted, when once the in- terior valleys are rendered fairly accessible by road and rail. K 2 K ,'m ■|:|l 1 1 '■ i :IU!;i ' 'ill f ! ( ■ 1; 1 i 1 i 1 i ,, F i 1 [ J 1. yi !! I:' [ ii L ii |r ^I'i i part H. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I. SITUATION, MOUNTAINS. AND RIVERS. A stcpping-stono bohvecn the Old World and the New — Rank of Newfoundland araoHfT the islands of the Rloho — Breeding-grouiul of the cod — An iron-bound sliorc with a fertile interior— I'icturcsque -waterways — Long Range and other mountains- The Exploits River — The Grand Ealls — The Huraber and Bay of Islands — Lakes and ponds — Grand Lake with an area of a hundred and ninety-two square miles — Great pine forests- Red Indian Lake — Virgin lands or " forests primeval." If I'll In regai'd to geographical position Nature has dealt in the highest degree favourably with Newfoundland. It is dijBi- cult to imagine a more commanding position than that of this great island, anchored off the American continent and reaching out at its farthest point towards the Eastern Hemisphere, thus forming, as it were, a stepping-stone between the Old World and the New. It has been marked down as the travel-route of the future between the two hemispheres. Stretching right across the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to which it affords access at its northern and southern extremities, it might be compared to a huge CHAP. 1.1 SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND UIVEKS. 133 bastion thrown out into tlio North Atlantic, tlio capital of which, it" duly fortified, might bo converted into the Sevastopol of the surrounding seas. It is no less adapted to serve the peaceful interests of commerce, to facilitate communication between two continents, or become a place of arms and defence. At its south-western extremity it approaches within fifty miles of the island of Cape Breton, while its most eastern projection is but 1,G 10 miles distant from Ireland. When these two watery intervals are bridged by steam-ferries, the shortest and safest transit between Europe and America will be secured. Had it not been for the facilities afforded by the splendid geographical situation of the island for experiments in lengthened sub- marine telegraphy, it is doubtful whether telegraphic communication between the two worlds would bave been established to this day. The short distance between New- foundland and Ireland and the great level submarine plain, a thousand miles in width, between the two countries, suggested the trial, and literally paved the way to success. In another respect Nature seems to have marked out the island as a centre of commercial activity. A glance at the map shows that its coasts are pierced by numerous mag- nificent bays, running, in some instances, eighty or ninety miles inland, and throwing out numerous smaller arms in all directions. Thus the ocean penetrates the land deeply, bringing with it that sea-harvest whicb is reaped with- out the preliminai-y labours of ploughing and sowing. The same watery liighways, reacbing inland in all direc- tions, afford unrivalled facilities for the transport of the products of the fisheries, the riches of the mine and the forest, and the agricultural productions which will yet be derived from its hitherto untenanted plains. In those noble bays, moreover, are some of the finest harbours in the world, with countless coves and creeks, Avhere the fishermen's craft find safe and easy shelter. To such r I c.i! ii m m m 134 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT II. an extent are the shores indented that, though the island is about a thousand miles round, measuring from head- land to headland, were its bays circumnavigated, the opera- tion would more than double that extent of mileage. In fact, it would be difficult to fincT anywhere an equal land-area presenting such an extent of frontage to the sea. According to the latest and most accurate surveys, Newfoundland is situated between the parallels of 40'^ 36' 50" and 51° J39' north latitude, and between the meridians of 52" 37' and 59° 24' 50" west longitude. Its greatest length, from Cape Ray (the south-western extremity of the island) to Cape Norman (the farthest northern land) k thi'ee hundred and seventeen miles ; and the greatest breadth, from Cape Spear (the most easterly point) to Cape Anguille (the most westerly) is three hundred and sixteen miles. The total area is estimated by Mr. Murray, of the Geological Survey, at 42,000 square miles. The size of a country counts for a good deal, and in the long run becomes a measure of political power. We obtain the best idea of the size of the island by comparing it with other countries. Ireland contains 32,500 square miles ; so that Newfoundland is more than one-sixth larger than that country. It also contains 12,000 square miles more than Scotland. It is three times as large as Holland, and twice as large as Denmark, Taking for comparison two of the neighbouring provinces of British America, we find that it is tAvice the size of Nova Scotia, and one-third larger than New Brunswick. Among t^^e islands of the globe it ranks tenth in regard to size. Its figure approaches an equi- lateral triangle, having a wide southern base between Cape Race and Cape Ray, and a narrow apex towards the north. Two large peninsulas project from the main body of the island. One of these points northerly and is long and narrow; it is called Petit Nord by the French. The other is the cnvp.i.] SirUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS. 135 great peninsula of Avalon, pointing south-east, and almost severed from the principal portion of the island by the two bays of Placentia and Trinity, on opposite sides of the island, the connection being a narrow isthmus, in ono place but three miles in width. The Avalon peninsula is further divided by the two noble bays of St. Mary's and Conception. On its eastern side is situated St. John's, the capital ; and on the northern shore of Conception Bay, Harbour Grace, the second town of the island. Owing to its extensive frontage on the Atlantic, its many fine harbours, and its proximity to the best fishing-grounds, Avalon is the most thickly-populated and by far the most commercially important part of the island. Within a degree of its shores is the greatest submarine island of the globe — the Grand Bank of Nowfoundland, which extends for a length of six hundred miles, with a breadth of two hundred miles. The great breeding-ground of the cod, these submarine hills and valleys are alive with inexhaustible stores of this noble fish. Around the shores of Avalon are countless smaller submarine elevations, where colonies of cod are located, and where fishing has been carried on for centuries without any diminution of the supply. Hence, though the soil of Avalon is as a whole poor, and in many places barren, the great pro- portion of the population is clustered round its shores, but they look mainly to the ocean as the source of their sub- sistence. The vai-ious harbours of this peninsula present also the most favourable points from which to carry on the seal fishery in the spring. The first sight of the coasts of Newfoundland impresses the voyager unfavourably. Dark frowning cliff- ; miles on miles of rocky walls, from two to three hundred feet in height, with but little verdure crowning their summits ; bold promontories and headlands, sculptured into grim and fantastic forms by the blows of Atlantic billows j shapes I I I ! i llr '■»i :; ■, i it '' ! '■ r ■ n •I I!': M'tlH! HI 136 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAKT n. massive and awe-inspiring in tlieir stern grandeur. Sucli is the general picture that meets the eye of the voyager at almost all parts of the island. The iron-bound shores present no pebbly beaches on which the waves break in softened music. The island is defended by rocky ramparts, dark and lofty, repelling the watery battalions that rush upon them under pressure of the tempest. Such is the seaward aspect. Should the traveller, leaving the coast, sail up one of the fiords which at intervals cleave the rocky walls, he will ere long, if the season be summer, find himself amid scenes of rare beauty. The shores i u .kix HEART S CONTENT HARBOUR AND VILLAGE. are dotted with dark-green forests that sweep down to the water's-edge. Verdant islands of all shapes and sizes stud the bosom of the estuary. Busy boats dance hero and there on the bright waters. Fishing hamlets line the shores, with their rough stages and fish flakes for landing and drying the cod. The clearings around the villages show how little has yet been done in reclaiming the soil from the primeval wilderness. The atmosphere is balmy and exhilarating. The sky is blue and serene as that of Italy. There are, in those deep bays which pierce the laud for eighty or a hundred miles, varied scenes of beauty, iilt cHiP.i.l SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS. 137 such as are rarely purpassecl in the ■world's most favoured lands. On passing from the rugged coast-line to the outer interior of the island, a hilly country presents itself, with eminences of no great elevation. Around the heads of the bays are large tracts ol' excellent land, generally covered with fine timber, and presenting every facility for agri- culture and grazing purposes. On proceeding further inland the interior proper is reached, and, like that of Ireland, is found to consist of an elevated undulating* plateau, traversed here and there by ranges of low hills, the surface being diversified by valleys, woods, lakes, ponds, and marshes. Of the interior itself hardly anything is yet known, as it has been examined only at a few points, and has been crossed in 1822, from east to west only by a single traveller, who described much of it as a savanna country, having countless lakes and lakelets, with brooks, woods, and vast gi'een undulating plains. These savannas are composed of fine, black, compact peat-mould, formed by the growth and decay of mosses, and sustain countless herds of reindeer. All the great hill-ranges traversing the country take a north-eastei'ly and south-westerly direction, and all the other great physical features, such as the bays, lakes, rivers, and valleys, have a similar trend. No doubt glacial action has been the cause of this peculiar conformntion. The highest land is found along the western and southern shores. The course of the principal rivers shows that there is a gradual slope thence, easterly and northerly. It is along the valleys traversed by the various rivers that the greatest extent of fertile lands, and the heavy forest- growths are found, and these valleys are destined to he the seats of a large agricultural population, when rendered accessible by road and rail. The principal mountain range is called the Long Range, which extends along the western side of the island for UK. 138 NEWFOUNDLAND. [P4.I1T II. nearly its entire length, having' peaks more than two thousand feet in height. It commences at Cape Ray, runs north-east till it reaches the head of St. George's Bay, then turns north-east again, and terminates, after a course of two hundred miles, in the Petit Nord, or great northern peninsula. Outside of the Long Range, but parallel to it, and nearer the coast, is the Cape Anguille range, running from Cape Anguille to the highlands of St. George's Bay, with summits nineteen hundred feet high, and the Blo-mi-dons, extending along the south coast of the Humber Arm, Bay of Islands, and occasion- ally reaching a height of two thousand and eighty-five feet. These two ranges are of quite a different geo- logical age from the Long Range, and present separate and independent features. Another range stretches across the country between Fortune Bay and Notre Dame Bay, and is known as Middle Range. Black River Range runs from Placentia Bay to Clode Sound, in Bonavista Bay. The Avalon district is very hilly, there being two remarkable ranges, each about thirty miles long. One of these commences at Renews, fifty miles south of St. John's, and terminates at Holyrood, in Conception Bay, having at each end a rounded hill called the Butterpot. The other begins at St. Mary's Bay and terminates at Chapel Ai*m, Trinity Bay. Some of the summits in this range reach the height of one thousand five hundred feet. In addition to these "well-marked ridges, the country is i'emarkal)lo for a number of isolated and sharply-peaked summits, bearing the local name of Tolts, which spring abruptly here and there out of the great central plateau, and serve as landmarks. Some of the more conspicuous of these Tolts are Spread Eagle Peak, south of Chapel Arm, Trinity Bay; Powder Horn Hill, Bay of Bulls Arm, in Trinity Bay; Hodges Hill, on the Exploits (two thousand feet high); Mount Peyton (sixteen hundred and seventy feet), west »• >i !l ■ have seen, without ques- tion, the finest picture in Newft»andland, untouched by the hand of man. A very fine view must be obtained from above the Falls and also from below; but the limited time at our disposal prevented our doing more than resting for a short half-hour on the spray-covered rocks, and taking a sketch of the scene before starting on our wearisome walk back. The whole height of the Falls is given at one hundred and forty-five feet ; of this a good deal is broken water. I should estimate the largest Fall at not more than fifty feet, and perhaps as many yai'ds across the gorge; but the beauty of the Fall is not so much in its height as in the immense body of water com- pressed into the space, and in the general wildness of the place." The railway now under construction from St. John's to Hall's Bay will traverse part of the noble valley of Exploits, and there can be no doubt that its splendid scenery will prove attractive to tourists and sportsmen, as f ( 142 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part II. it is one of the finest salmon streams in the island. At ouo point the railway will como close to the Grand Falls. The banks of the river aro clothed with lofty pine, together with birch, poplar, aspen, etc., at intervals. The soil is fertile, and capable of yielding crops of all kinds, including oats, barley, wheat. " The Exploits River," says Mr. Murray, of the Geo- logical Survey, " rises in the extreme south-western angle of the island, and within twelve miles of the southern coast, near La Poile, and, flowing in a north-easterly direction, terminates in the Bay of Exploits, Notre Dame Bay, the UlGWAil roiNX, EXPLOITS KlVaR. n distance from the sources to the outlet measuring nearly two hundred miles in an air line. The upper waters flow iu two minor branches, the Exploits proper and the Victoria branch, of about equal size, both of which empty into Ked Indian Lake, which itself is thirty-six miles long, with au average width of about two miles, and very deep, whence flows the main stream for seventy-two miles to the sea. The normal surface of Eed Indian Lake is four hundred and sixty-eight feet above the sea, and its total area is sixty-nine square miles. There are numerous tributaries to this great river, some of which might with justice be termed rivers themselves; and the whole area drained by the <,M...i.] SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS. 143 Exploits Valloy is nothing under three thousand square miles." The next largest river is the Humbor, falling into the Iluraber arm of the Bay of Islands, on the western coast, after draining an area of two thousand square miles. The main branch of the Humber rises about twenty miles inland from Bonne Bay, and after a circuitous course falls into Deer Lake. The other branch rises north of Sandy Lake, and flows through it into Grand Lake ; thence by Junction Brook it joins the main branch, six miles above Deer Lake. From this lake, which is sixteen miles long, the Humber flows majestically into the Bay of Islands. The scenery of the Iluraber is among the grandest in the island. At certain points in its course, perpendicular rocks, several hundred feet high, spring from the deepest water, forming canons. At the mouth of the Humber marble beds, of almost every hue, are found, and in the Blo-mi-don Hills a copper mine has been recently opened. The Gander is the third of the large rivers of the island, and drains an area of two thousand five hundred square miles, falling into Fresh Water Bay. Its principal branch rises near Bay D'Espoir, on the southern coast, and running north-easterly falls into the Great Gander Lake. The other, after a very meandering course, falls into the same lake, whence the united stream runs easterly for thirty-one miles into Fresh Water Bay. Gander Lake has an area of forty-four square miles and is thirty-six miles long. These are the three main arteries ; but there are numei'ous smaller streams, most of them rising at right angles to the course of the larger streams, which have com- paratively short courses, and rush in turbulent torrents to the sea. The Gambo is a small stream flowing from Gambo Pond, and having some splendid pine timber growing on its banks. Terra Nova Eiver is a considerable stream, noted for its rapids, falling into Bonavista Bay, M' iJi 144 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part t. mm Colinot River falls into St. Mary's Bay. Tho Codroy River rises iu the Long- Range Mountains, and flows through a valley containing the finest land in the island. One of the most remarkable of the physical features of the island is its immense number of lakes and ponds. They are so numerous that were the island mapped out iu detail, more than one-third of the whole surface would probably be represented by water. They are found in every possible position : in the mountain gorges ; in the depressions between tho low hills ; in the valleys ; and frequently in hollows near the tops of the highest eminences. They are of all sizes, from tiny pools and lakelets to sheets of water nearly sixty miles in length. From tho tops of some of the highest hills from sixty to one hundred and fifty ponds and lakes have been counted. They form a very beautiful feature in the landscape, in many districts, as the eye ranges from the hilltop, over an expanse of country having these bright gems, overhung with thick woods, dotting its surface. Nearly all of them are well stocked with trout. There can be little doubt that these lakes and lakelets are relics of the Glacial Age, and have been scooped out by glaciers when the island was under an ice-mantle, two or three thousand feet thick, as Greenland now is, and down its mountain gorges, huge glaciers were thi'owing off myriads of icebergs into the encompassing seas. The largest lake in the island is Grand Lake, fifty-six miles in length, with an area of one hundred and ninety-two square miles. Its surface is but fifty feet above the sea level, while, at its deepest portion, the bottom is more than three hundred feet below the level of the sea. Many brooks empty into it, but it has only one outlet — Junction Brook, which joins the Humber. The south- western extremity bears about north-east from the head Ml I If r: j ! 1- - - ^ 'Tut 1 1 : H i 1 r''' ff ;i 1 '■ ' 1 'i M, 1 ffl il ^ 1 ™ 1 i't i; 1 J' 1 M i 1 1 rinv. i.l SITUATION, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS. 145 of St. Georgo'.s Buy, from which it is distant about ilftcon milos. Sovou miles from this end it divides into two arms, each about a niilo wide, incloying an island twenty-two miles long and Tour or live broad, to which the name Sir John Glovor's lylnnd has been given of late, in compliment to ihc late Uovcvnor, who in 1878 visited and explored the lake, from the island tho lake runs in a north-eastern direction, and widens to a breadth of live or six miles. The sliores are densely wooded to the water's-edge, in some places precipitous, in others presenting a gentle rise. The scenery in summer, when the trees are clad in " living green," or still more in autumn, when tho leaves are russet, orange, and gold, is magnificent. Tho island is covered with valuable timber, but what the character of its soil may be is yet unknown. It is a favourite resort of the reindeer in "immer, and the shores of the lake opposite to it present the best ground for deer-stalking in the island, as the deer swim across when setting out on their southern migration^ and collect in herds on the "barrens" near tbo lake. The next largest lake is Red Indian Lake, through which the River Exploits flows. It is thirty-seven miles long, and from half-a-mile to three miles wide, with an area of sixty-four square miles. Around its shores are forests of fino timber, indicative of a fertile soil. Great Gander Lako is thirty-three miles in length, with an average width of two miles, and covers an area of forty-four square miles. Its banks, and that of the Gander River which flows throujrh it, present immense tracts of the finest agricultural and timber lands in the island. Deer Lake, through which the Humber flows, is but ten feet above the high-tide level, and has an area of twenty -four square miles. The land around it is fertile in the highest degree. Sandy Lake, Victoria, Hind's, Terra Nova, and George IV. lakes i-ange next in size. ■' lii I ■h r ^m m^ 146 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part II. As yet the shores of these great lakes, the valleys through which these noble streams flow, are absolute solitudes, without a single human inhabitant. The mag- nificent pine forests are left to rot, or perish by fire. The soil is fertile enough to sustain many thousands of people in comfort, but it is as yet untouched by plough or spade. The " forests primeval " show no clearings won by human industry. All is primitive wilderness. It may seem sur- prising that such should be the case in an island only five days' steaming distance from Great Britain, and with thousands of emigrants passing these shores every day to seek a home in the far west of America. But it must be remembered that until recently the very existence of New- foundland's fertile lands and valuable forests was unknown. Now that the great revolutionist, the railway, is about to render her solitudes accessible, a portion of the great stream of emigration will ore long be diverted towards these un- tenanted wastes, which, by human industry, may be made to " blossom like the rose." ^^^T'a^mmmmmmmm ' 1 1 H m :rj Hi ffi|j^. ;.: 1 1 H" W'i'j If 'i i H ii-P i t 1 ll Imf^^'l i ^'i kn CHAPTER II. ST. JOHN'S, THE CAPITAL OF NEWFOUNDLAND. The site of the city -The Narrows — Character of the local buildings — The new dock — Water supply — Protection against fire — Cluirches and chapels — Government offices and banks — Popula- tion and its religious denominations. All travellers wlio visit St. John's admire the striking and picturesque approach to the harbour, and the fine view on entering its waters. In a lofty iron-bound coast, whobe grim rocks frown defiance on the billows of the Atlantic, there suddenly presents itself to the voyager a narrow opening in the rocky wall, as if, by some convulsion of nature, the rampart had been rent asunder, and the sea had rushed in. Hills from five to six hundred foot high guard tlm opening on each side, and, as the vessel glides through, the traveller looks up, not without a feeling of awe, at the great cliffs of dark-red sandstone piled in broken masses on a foundation of gray slate-rock. On his right he sees an almost perpendicular precipice, three hundred feet in height, above which rises, with almost equal steepness, the crest of Signal Hill, five hundred and ten feet above the level of the sea, on which stands the " Block House," for signalling vessels as they approach the harbour. On the left hand the hill rises still higher by a hundred feet, picturesque, rugged and broken. From its base a rocky L 2 1! ' ! 1 ' iii i .J. T^HIW 11 is 148 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT It. promontory juts out^ forming tlio entrance of the Narrows on one side, on the summit of which is Fort Amherst Lighthouse, where is hoard the hoarse roar of the restless Atlantic as the waves break on the I'ocks beneath. It is a scene which for grandeur and subUmity is not sur- passed aU)ng the entire Ameiican coast. Formerly batteries, armed with formidable guns, rose one over the other amid the clefts of these rocks j bat years ago the garrison was withdrawn and the cannon removed. The Narrows leading to the harbour are nearly hali: a mile in length, and it is not till two-thirds of them are passed that the city itself opens to view, as, at the termination of this channel, the harbour trends suddenly to the west, thus completely shutting out the swell from the ocean. In ten minutes after leaving the Atlantic a steamer is safely moored at the wharf in the still waters of a perfectly land-locked harbour. Vessels of the largest tonnage can enter at all periods of the tide, the rise of which does not exceed four feet. The entrance of the Narrows, between Signal Hill and Fort Amherst, is about fourteen hundred feet in width ; and at the narrowest point, between Pancake and Chain llocks, the channel is not more than six hundred feet. The harbour is a,bout a mile and a quarter in length, and nearly half a mile in width. It is deep, with a mud bottom., having from five to ten fathoms, and in the centre it is ninety feet in depth. Of its size it would be difficult to find a finer harbour. The city is built on the northern side of the harbour, on a site which could scarcely be surpassed. From the water's edge the ground rises with a slope till the summit is reached, where there is a large level space. Along the face of this slope the main streets run, and the city is rapidly extending itself in all directions beyond. The facilities for drainage are all that could be desired. Three principal streets run parallel with the harbour and with one another the whole length of the city, and these are inter- CHAP. It.] THE CAPITAL. 149 *( sected by a number of cross-streets. The former follow the sinuosities of the harbour, so that they are irregular and winding. On the south side the hills spring so abruptly from the water that only a sufficient site for a range i. f warehouses and oil factories could be scooped out. From the waters of the harbour the city presents a very picturesque appearance, climbing the slope of the hill, which is crowned by the Rom % <^ /a ^ c? VI O 7 v/a /A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SB0 (716) 872-4503 /. / ,<" €P. (5> &. w. (< i/l fA ^ 4? C\^' \ -s^A '^\ -l-.,.x> " . 20G0 . 40 » . 29-40 . 41 » . 20oO . 44 » . 2900 . 37 )i . 29-40 to warm tho houses, and free exercise in the open air is attainable at all seasons. The following extracts from a Table showing the average of certain meteorological quantities, for a period of eight years, from 1857 to 1804 inclusive, will furnish reliable (lata regarding the climate. Tho observations were taken by Mr. E. M. J. Delany, C.E., at St. John's : Year. 1857 . 1858 . 1859 . 1800 . 1801 . 1802 . 1803 . 1801. . . Average mean temperature for eight years, 41*2 dogs. Average height of barometer for eight years, 29-37 inches. The maximum height of the thermometer for the eight years was 83 degs. ; tho minimum, 7 degs. The average number of days on which rain fell during the eight years was 105-07. The highest range of tho thermometer was on July 27th, 1857, when it reached 89 degs.; the lowest was on February 11th, 1858, when it marked 2 degs. The observations taken during 1879 gave the following results : Mean temperature for year Absolute maximum temperature Absolute minimum temperature Highest temperature, August 3rd . Lowest temperature, December 22nd Mean height of barometer for year . 40-2 degs. 01-1 )) 21-4 }> 82-0 )f 4-0 }) 29-998 inches. m n ti! I : V I I 'V til ftl I if PI t 11/ ti 1 V'ip^ii Pi|p^ v^ 192 NKWFOUNDLAND. [PAII II. As to tlio ruinfiiU, tlio following observations will show tlio average depth of ruin, in inches and tenths, during the years named : Year Depth in ' inohoB and toiithR. 1875 ..... oOGl 1870 48-40 1877 .... 1878 .... 5737 40-47 The latter two, for 1877 and 1878, include depth of rain and melted snow. During the eight years fx'om 1857 to 1804 the average rainfall was 03-5"2 inches. In the "Tables of Aqueous Precipitation for Series of Years," collected by the Smithsonian Institution, United States, and published in 1872, the average fall of rain for Newfoundland is reckoned at 58-30 inches. In order to compare St. John's with Toronto, Canada, in regard to temperature, the following records will bo serviceable : Toronto, Yonr. 1875 1870 1877 1878 1870 Average temperature in Toronto 44-12 degs. Moan tempera, turo of year, 40-77 degs. 43-98 „ 40-10 „ 47-09 „ 44-10 „ for thirty-nine years. In the foregoing returns it should be remembered that the observations in Newfoundland \vei*e taken at St, John's, which is the point in the peninsula of Avalon that stretches farthest eastward, and is therefore most exposed to the chilling influence of the Arctic current. The climate of St, John's, therefore, is an unfair standard by which to tho rnir. ti.1 CLIMATK. 193 Tiioasuro that of tlio whole island. At tho heads of tlio buys, in tho interior, and on tho western coast the cliniato irt much warmer than at St. John's. Tho following cora- pamtivo table, for 1874, will furnish a fair basis on which an estiinato may bo fonndcd : Mean tompora- turo for year. liowesfc tempernturo. St. George's Bay, Newfoundland . 4;3"8 dogs. . 15 degs. Windsor, Nova Scotia . . 42-7 „ . 15 „ Toronto .... . 44-;} „ . 7-5 „ Winnipeg, Manitoba . . 30-8 „ . 4 3 „ «'ll M years, The rainfall of each place is, when compared, favourable to Newfoundland : Total days of rain in four months. St. George's Bay .... Toronto ..... Winnipeg ..... Truro, N.S 84 47 52 G8 Thus, in the American sense of the word, Newfoundland is by no moans a cold country ; but it partakes of the general character of tho North American climate, and is therefore much colder than in tho same latitude of the Old World. Its latitude corresponds to that of France, but its climate is very different. Winter sets in, as a rule, in the beginning of December, and lasts till the end of March or middle of April. The frost is occasionally broken by southerly winds and bright warm days, and much of the snow is melted. Then it returns, and fresh falls of snow are experienced. Tho frost rarely penetrates the ground to a greater depth than a few inches, whereas in Canada it has been known to go down three feet. During winter there are often heavy gales of wind, which however do not extend far out to sea. The cold is of course felt more I K 194 NEWFOUNDLAND. [met II. intensely in consequence of tliese gales. Snow-storms are not uncommon ; and when the icy particles are hurled ou the wings of a fierce north-wester it is safest to keep within doors. Such storms, howevei', do not often occur, nor. as a rule, do they last long. Winter is the season of social enjoyments of all kinds, and is far from being unpleasant. Nothing can be more exhilarating than the bracing air of a fine winter's day, with the hard crisp snow underfoot and a bright sun overhead. The musical tinkle of the sleigh-bells when driving over the frozen snow, and the purity of the atmosphere add to the charms of the scene. In fact, winter is regarded as the most enjoyable part of the year. The snow preserves the ground from the influence of the frost, and when in April it melts, the fields soon become fit for the operations of the farmer. It is true the spring is late, and often Winter lingering chills the lap of May. ff V But once vegetation sets in it progresses with marvellous rapidity, and crops grow and ripen much quicker than iu the Eastern Hemisphere. The autumn is usually very fine, and is prolonged often till November. The frosts of winter, too, aid the operations of the husbandman, and help to pulverise the soil. Thus there is nothing in the climate of the country to interfere with agriculture. The de- structive tornadoes that often spread havoc in certain portions of the American continent are unknown in New- foundland. Thunder-storms, too, are very rare, and when they occur seldom prove injurious. A curious phenomenon, called in Newfoundland "the silver thaw," is often witnessed in winter, though seldom seen in Canada. When rain falls with a low state of the thermometer near the earth, it is congealed as it descends, and thus a regular deposition of ice takes place on tho CHiP. VI.] CLIMATE. 195 j-vellous tlian in ery fine, |f v/inter, help to climate trhe de- certain lin New- id when id "the seldom te of tlie lesccnds, on tbo bmnclies and the smallest twigs of trees and shrubs. The layer of ice goes on increasing till it attains a thickness of half an inch or more. A magical transformation is wrought. The trees are hung with glittering jewels, even the smallest twigs being loaded, and the branches bent to the earth. When the sun shines a scene of dreamlike splendour is presented. Each tree has the appearance of a great chandelier of crystal, the play of the sunbeams on myriads of prisms producing a dazzling effect. The weiglit of the icy jewellery often breaks the thickest branches. Sometimes the wind rises suddenly and speedily unloads the jewelled trees. Another phenomenon witnessed in perfection in New- foundland is the aurora borealis. At certain seasons the play of the northern lights presents occasionally one of the gr,' ndest sights in the world. The whole heavens are lig jed up with the brilliant display, and flame-curtains of all hues seem to wave over the vast concave. The auroral phenomena are finer here than even in the Arctic regions. It may be desirable to cite the opinions of a few in- telligent pei'sons who, from experience, have been enabled to form an opinion of the character of the climate. That famous ancient mariner Richard Whitbourne, who spent many years in voyaging to the country, and also made it his residence for a length of time, about 1(315, was an en- thusiastic admirer of the island. In his book, after many encomiums on the country and its productions, he says : "What receive we from the hands of our owne countiy which in most bounteous manner we have not had or may have at hers ? Nny, what can the world yield to the sustentation of man which is not in her to bee gotten ? Desire you wholesome ayre (the very food of life) ? It is there. Shall any land powere in abundant heaps of nourish- iiicnts and necessaries before you ? There you have them. What seas so abounding with fish ? What shores so o 2 li' ( 19G NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABi ir. replenished with fresh and sweet waters? The wants of other kingdoms are not felt heere; and those provisions which other countries want are from them supplied. How much is Spain, France, Portugal, Italy, and other places, beholding to this noble part of the world for fish and other commodities (it is to be admired). Let the Dutch report what sweetness they have suckt from thence by trade thither, in buying fish and other commodities from our nation, and (albeit all the rest should be dumbe) the voyces of them are as truir^phets, lowd enough to make England fall more and more in love with such a Sister-land. " I am loth to weai'y thee (good reader) in acquainting thee thus to those famous faire and profitable Eivers, and likewise to those delightful large and inestimable Woods, and also with those fruitful and enticing Hills and delightful Vallies — there to hunt and liawke, where is neither savage people nor ravenous beasts to hinder their sports. They are such, that in so small a piece of paper as now my love salutes thee with I cannot fully set them down as they deserve; and therefore I doe intreat thee with judgment, with patience, and with true desire for the benefit of thy dread Sovereign and Country, to reade over this discourse which (I trust) may encourage thee to further so hopeful a Plantation as it appeareth to be, and also I trust give thee ample satisfaction and just cause to answere opposers, if any out of ignorance or any other sinester respect should seek to hinder so honourable and worthy designs." Sir Richard Bonnycastle, who spent some years in the country, in his interesting work on Newfoundland (1842), says, regarding the climate : " We find that the extremes of temperature in Newfoundland are trifling compared with those of Canada. There the thermometer falls as low as twenty-seven degrees below zero, and even lower at times in winter, and rises to ninety in summer. Here the lowest temperature in winter scarcely exceeds zero, or 'land They my love as tliey trment, of thy liscourse ipeful a ivc thee sers, if should in the (184-2), l-euies of led with low as it times ■ere the tero, or niAP. Ti.] CLIMATE. 197 eight or ten degrees below it, excepting upon rave occa- sions; and in the height of summer does not attain more in common years than seventy-nine degrees. Winter may really be said to commence here towards the latter end of November only, though fires are comfortable adjuncts during most of that month ; and its severity begins after Christmas, runs through January and February, and be- comes less and less stern until the middle of April, when it ceases altogether. In the winter of 1810 ploughing was going on after Christmas. " It is generally supposed in England that Newfound- land is constantly enveloped in fog and wet mist ; nothing, however, can be further from the truth. The summers are frequently so hot and dry that for want of rain the grass perishes — the summer of 1840 was one of these — and the nights are unusually splendid ; whilst in winter fog is very rarely seen." He kept a register in regard tc foggy days, from which it appears that in 1841 there were only seventeen and a half days of thick fog in St. John's, " which is more exposed to the ' bank weather,' as it is called, than any other p&rt of the island j " and light fogs were prevalent only nineteen and a half days — giving thirty-seven days of foggy weather on the shore throughout the year. He remarks further on the light clothing with which the labouring classes went about in winter, and on their robust appearance, and pronounces the climate salubrious in the highest degree. The Right Rev. Dr. Mullock, in one of his lectures, says regarding Newfoundland : " We never have the thermometer down to zero, unless once or twice in the year, and then only for a few hours, and for a few degrees, three, four, or perhaps tenj while we hear of the tem- perature of ten and twenty below zero in Canada and New Brunswick; and this life-destroying cold continuing lor days, perhaps weeks. Then see another effect of i it iii I I ■ III W! >■■■ 81- 11 198 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT II. I i this — the Canadians and other North Americans of the same latitude, are obliged to keep up hot stoves continually almost in their houses, while we have open fireplaces or at most Franklins; our children, I may say, are lightly clad as in summer, spend a large portion of their time in the open air; and thus while our neighbours have the sallow hue of confinement tinging their cheeks, and their children look comparatively pale and delicate, our youngsters are blooming with the rosy hue of health, developing their energies by air and exercise, and pre- paring themselves for the battle of life hereafter, either as hardy mariners, or healthy matrons — the blooming mothers of a powerful race.'' ... "I may remark that by the climate table furnished me by Mr. Delany, I find that the highest temperature was ninety-six degrees on the third of July ; eight degrees on the 3rd of March ; and the mean temperature of the year (1859) forty-four degrees; mean maximum pressure of barometer 29"7J!; rain 63'92U inches ; [for the year ; maximum quantity in twenty-four hours 2-089 inches. Wind, N.N.W. and W.N.W. two hundred days; N.E. twenty-five days ; W. and W.S.W. thirty-eight days; S.S.W. and S.E. one hundred and two days ; thunder and lightning five days ; rain fell on one hundred and ten days ; snow fifty-four days." In, reference to the high temperature of ninety-six degrees on July 13th, 1859, mentioned in the foregoing extract, Mr. Delany, in a foot-note to the table, remarks that it was probably owing to a large portion of the woods being on fire on that day, in the neighbourhood of St. John's. Such a temperature is never reached except under exceptional conditions. Sir Stephen Hill, formerly Governor, says in one of his despatches, after a description of the country and the seasons : " Before quitting this subject, I would observe that the climate of Newfoundland is exceedingly healthy. .,\ CHIP. VI.] CLIMATE. 199 ty-six egoing emavks of tlie l»urliood eaclieil of liis nd the observe tealthj. The robust and healthy appearance of the people, and the iidvanced ages which many of them attain, testify to the purity and the excellence of the air which they inhale, and the invigorating qualities of the breezes of British North America." Mr. Murray, geological surveyor, says : " In other respects the climate of Newfoundland is, as compared with the neighbouring continent, a moderately temperate one. The heat is far less intense, on an average, during the summer, than in any part of Canada, and the extreme cold of winter is much less severe. The thermometer rarely indicates higher than seventy degrees Fahrenheit, in the former, or much below zero in the latter ; although the cold is occasionally aggravated by storms and the humidity consequent on an insular position. The climate is undoubtedly a very healthy one, and the general physique of the natives, who are a powerfully-built, robust, and hardy race, is a good example of its influence." ilil , '.'II ■ UIP i I ^A CHAPTER VII. THE ABORIGINES. Human relics— The American Indian skull--" Survivals "—Tlio Bethuks — Cartier on the natives of his day — Whitbourne's dfiscription of "The Natural Inhabitants" — Earl^' experiences of the Settlers — Invasion and retaKation — British intervention — Indians captured and taken to St. John's — Disappearance of the native tribes — Modes of sepulture — Cormack's expeditions — Wigwams and deer-traps — Indian vocabulary. In the Museum of St. John's there is preserved a human skull, to which a curious interest attaches. It is the only cranium known to be preserved of the once numerous and powerful Bethuk or Boeothic tribe of Red Indians, the aborigines of Newfoundland — a race now extinct. It was found in a grave in Greenspond, together with a tliigh bone, a shoulder blade, and a few other smaller bones ; the remainder of the skeleton having been probably carried off by the wolves or foxes. The skull is in a good state of preservation, except that the cheek bone and the lower part of the socket of one eye are broken. Underneath where these remains lay was a circular hole, lined with birch bark, about twenty inches in diameter and ten inches in depth, at the bottom of which were two pieces of iron pyrites. In the grave was also found the shaft of a spear stained with red ochre. The skull and bones are the only relics of the CHAP. VII.l THE ABORIGINES. 201 kind wliicli remain of the vanished Bethuks, once lords of this large island. Diligent search has been made within the last few years, by more than one traveller, in the burial places of the tribe around Red Indian Lake and elsewhere, for skulls or other bones ; but, so far, not a fragment has been found. A few of their aiTow and spear heads and stone implements of various kinds have been dug up in various places ; but only a solitary skull remains to tell us what was the configuration of " the dome of thought " in which beat the brain of a Bethuk. Even this relic was in danger of being consigned to the dust-bin through care- lessness, when the present writer rescued it, and placed it in the local museum. It has been since photographed, and formed, together with stone implements, the subject of a paper by Mr. Lloyd, which was read before the Anthropo- logical Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, and printed in their Journal. The peculiarities which stamp the American Indian skull are discernible — the vertical occiput, the pro- minent vertex, the low defective forehead, the square form, the quadrangular orbits, and the massive maxilla. It is the cranium of a savage, but not one of a low type. Around the skull in its present place of repose, are appropriately grouped various Indian implements of stone which were found in the island. One of these is an oblong vessel of soft magnesian stone, hollowed to the depth of two inches, the lower edges forming a square of three and a half inches in the sides. In one corner is a hollow groove which apparently served as a spout. There are also arrow- heads of a hard gray cherty stone, an axe-shaped tool of felsite slate, and a finely-worked and highly-polished gouge- shaped implement of chert, nine and a half inches in length. No little skill and patient labour were needed to form these poor implements of stone. They were the best whicli heads of the type here presented could devise to help them in their hard "struggle for existence." With these poor vHs- ilM •^m 202 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT II. :Hi 1. implements they were perhaps hunting anil fishing when our own progenitors in Europe had not got far in advance of the red men. Ethnologists are generally agreed in regarding the aborigines of America as but a single race, from Cape Horn to the confines of the Esquimaux, around the Arctic circle, divided into an infinite number of small tribes, presenting more or less differences one from the other. Dr. Morton separates them bi'oadly into two great families : the Toltecan nations — embracing Mexicans and Peruvians — and the barbarous tribes, including the whole remaining inhabitants of the continent. The barbarous tribes have been ai'ranged into five groups : First, Irocpois ; second, Algonkiu and Apalachian ; third, Dacota ; fourth, Shosho- nees ; fifth, Oi-egonians. The question is to which of these groups did the red men of Newfoundland belong. Some writers have regarded them as being Esquimaux, and others as Micmacs; but for neither opinion is there any foundation. The Esquimaux are looked upon by some recent ethno- logists as the "survivals'' of the Cave Men of Europe. If this theory be correct, then the Cave Men were gradually driven farther and farther north by new arrivals in Europe, until they were pressed within the Arctic regions. But when the Bethuks are compared with them there are no points of resemblance. They are also quite distinct from the Micmacs, another tribe of red men. Latham, one of the highest authorities in ethnology, regards the Bethuks of Newfoundland as a branch of the great Algonkin tribe of North American Indians. In his "Varieties of Man" he says that all doubts on this subject have been set at rest by "a hitherto un- published Bethuk Vacabulary, with which I have been kindly fui'nished by my friend. Dr. King, of the Ethno- logical Society. This marked them a separate section of Cllll'. VII. I THE ABORIGINRS. 203 aucl tho Algonkins, iind such I believo them to have been." The evidences we are about to furnish seem to point to the same conclusion. Thus wo may safely classify them as a branch of the wide-spread and warlike Algonkins, whose area embraced the whole of Canada, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, New Brunswick, Labrador, and part of Hudson's Bay territory, together with a largo portion of tho United States. In fact this tribo were distributed east and west, from the Rocky Mountains to Newfoundland, and north and south, from Labrador to tho Carolinas. The Bethuks came of a good stock of red men, and if they wei-e unable to retain a footing in Newfoundland before tho advancing tread of civilisation, they have only anticipated a little the inevitable doom which awaits their race in continental America. At what time the Bethuks found their way to New- foundland from the shores of Canada or Labrador is of course utterly unknown. When Cabot discovered the i-sland, in 1497, he found them in possession. No doubt, for many centuries previously, they had been fishing in its creeks, harbours, and bays, hunting the caribou over its plains, and erecting their wigwams by the placid waters of its inland lakes. At this day there are few better hunting- grounds than those of Newfoundland ; and what must they have been before tho coming of " the pale faces," with their destructive fire-arms ! One can fancy that the island, with its abundance of wild creatures of all kinds, and its shores and countless lakes swarming with fish, must have been the very paradise of the red men. Unmolested, they pursued the game over a country having an area of forty- two thousand square miles. Countless herds of the finest reindeer bounded over the savannas of the interior, in their annual migrations ; and who more skilled than the red men in entrapping and slaying the lordly stag, in capturing the beaver, with which the ponds were lavishly stocked, or in I ; I • '! li '^Vi 204 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'iKT II. bringing down tlio plump ptarmigan, of which vast flocks wcro everywhere to bo mot with. Wo can hardly doubt that when " mouarchs of all thoy surveyed/' and with all the resources of the island at their command, the Bothuks revelled in a savage luxury, feasting on venison, and clothing themselves in the rich furs which were the spoils of the chase. The early historical notices of the red men of New- foundland are very brief, but serve to give us some idea of their appearance and habits as they presented themselves to the early voyagers. The earliest reference met with is iu " Hakluyt," * where there is an account of the discovery of Newfoundland by Cabot. Of the aborigines Cabot is reported to have said : " The inhabitants of this island use the skins and furs of wild beasts for garments, which they hold in as high estimation as Ave do our finest clothes. In war they use bows and arrows, spears, darts, clubs and slings." In "Kerr's Travels," it is stated that Cabot, on his second voyage, brought away three of the aborigines, and took them to England. " In the fourteenth year of the king (Henry VII.,) three men were brought from New- foundland, who were clothed in the skins of beasts, did cat raw flesh, and spoke a language which no man could under- stand ; their demeanour being more like that of brute beasts than men. They were kept by the king for some con- siderable time, and I saw two of them about tAvo years afterwards, in the Palace of Westminster, habited like Englishmen, and not to be distinguished from Englishmen until I was told who they Avere." It may be doubted whether this account is correct in all respects, as Cabot does not appear to have had much to do with Newfoundland after its discovery. The red men * Vol. iii. p. 27. ilimen m all ch to men ( nir. Tii.l THE ABORIGINES. 205 referred to may have been natives of Capo Breton or Princo Edward Island. Jacques Cartior, in 1531, described the aborigines of Newfoundland as " of indifferent good stature and bigness, but wild and unruly, Thoy wear their hair tied on tho top like a wreath of hay, and put a wooden pin in it, or any other such thing instead of a nail, and with them they bind certain birds' feathers. They are well clothed with beasts' skins, as well tho men as the women ; but tho women go somewhat straighter and closer in their garments than the men do, with their waists girded." Hayes, who was second in command to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, about 158o, and whose narrative has been pre- served in the Hackluyt Collection, says : " The savages are altogether harmless." Captain Eichard Whitbourne, 1G22, gives much fuller accounts in his interesting book on Newfoundland. He tells us that "tho natural inhabitants of the country, as they are but few in number so are they something rude and savage people, having neither knowledge of God nor living under any kind of civil government. In their habits, customs, and manners they resemble Indians on the con- tinent." Ho further describes them as ingenious and tractable, full of quick and lively apprehension ; willing to assist the fishermen in curing fish for a small hire." He shows that " in their habits they resemble the Canadian Indians, as they constructed canoes with the bai'k of birch trees, Avhich they sew very artificially and close together, and over-lay every seam with turpentine." He also tells us that they were able to " sew the rinds of spruce-trees, round and deep in proportion, like a brass kettle, to boil their meat in;" and on one occasion he says three of his men surprised a party of them enjoying themselves in a sumptuous manner. " They were feasting, having the canoes by them, and had three pots made of rinds of trees, standing each 1. i- '1 • Ij! ' 20G NKWFOUNDLAND. ll'A«T U. of tliom on tliroo stems, boiling, witli fowls in each of tlioni, every fowl as big as a pigeon, and soi big as a duck. They had also many snch pota so fowled, iid fashioned like the leather buckets that are used for quenching fires, and were full of the yolks of eggs that they had taken and boiled hard, and so dried small, which the savages used in their broth : they had great store of the skins of deer, bcttners, bears, seals, ottors, and divers other fine skins which wore well-dressed ; as also great store of several goots of flesh dried ; and by shooting off a musket towards them, they all ran away naked, without any apparel, but only their hats on their heads, which were made of seal- skins, in fashion liko our hats." Wo are greatly indebted to this quaint old skipper of the days "iueen Elizabeth for preserving these details, and thns ^j'^ng the only picture we have of the domestic life of this extinct tribe. They evidently knew how to appreciate the good things around them, and had very fair ideas of cookery. The friendly relations which at first existed between the white and red men in Newfoundland did not continue long. The savage people began speedily to exhibit a tendency to annex the white man's goods whenever opportunity offered. Such objects as knives, hatchets, nails, lines, or sails, pre- sented a temptation which to them was almost irresistible. Their petty thefts were regarded by their invaders as crimes of the darkest dye, qnite sufficient to justify the unsparing use of the strong arm for their extermination. The rude hunters, trappers, and fishermen in the more distant settle- ments in the north of the island were rough men outside the control of law, and but little disposed to try conciliation or kindness on a tribe of savages whose presence in the country was felt to be an annoyance. That they treated the poor Bethuks with brutal cruelty admits of no doubt. In fact, for a long period they regarded the red men as vermin to be hunted down and destroyed. We can hardly CBAl'. VII. TIIK AIJOUIOINES. 207 doubt that such treatmont provoked tho red man to deeds of fierce retaliation, and that at length " war to tho knife " bocamo tho rule between tho two races. The savages, at lirst mild and tractable and disposed to maintain friendly relations, became at length the fierce niid implacable foes of the white man, and sternly refused all overtures for poace- ablo intercourse wliMi at length such offers were made by a lunnauo (lovernment. Deeds of wrong and cruelty were perpetrated by the invader, and followed by retaliation on the part of tho savages. In such a conflict the weak must go to the wall. Bows, arrows, and clubs could avail little against the firearms of the white man. Gradu- ally their numbers were thinned ; they Avere driven from their best huntinfr-grounds. War, famine, and disease thinned their ranks, 'l^o-day not a single representative of the lied Indians of . wfoundhmd is known to be in exist, ence. Their haunts i the interior have been explored in tho hope of discovering some remnants of the ill-fated race, but in vain. Only a few graves and the mouldering r-'raains of their huts and deer-fences have been found. Their camp-fires have been extinguished for ever, and the record of their fate fills another dark page in the white man's progress in the New World. Some believe that a small band of them escaped and took refuge in the wilds of Labrador, but of this there is no proof. It may bo regarded as quite certain that in Newfoundland not a single individual of the race now exists. They are gone Like tho cloud-rack of a tempest, Like the withered leaves of autumn. We must further take into account that the white men were not the only enemies of the doomed aborigines. TheMic- macs invaded their territory from Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, and, having learned the use of firearms, carried on a deadly war against the unhappy Bethuks. Assailed on the '!« ^m 208 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT II, one hand by the white settlers, and on the other by the Mic- raacs, it is not wonderful that the uuhappy tribe were slowly but surely exterminated. Through the representations of various humane in- dividuals, the British Government were at lengtb aroused to take measures to arrest the barbarities of the settlers ; but owing to the scattered nature of the settlements and the law- less habits of the early trappers and fishermen their efforts had little effect. The earliest official notice of the aborigines is in the form of a proclamation by the governor. Bearing the date of 17G0, it seems to have been repeated on the accession of each new governor. The document sets forth that His Majesty bad been informed that his subjects in Newfound- land " do treat the savages with the greatest inhumanity, and frequently destroy them without the least provocation or remorse. In order, therefore, to put a stop to such inhuman barbarity, and that the perpetration of such atrocious crimes might be brought to due punishment. His Majesty enjoined and required all his subjects to live in amity and brotherly kindness with the native savages," and further enjoined all magistrates to " apprehend persons guilty of murdering the native Indians and send them to England for trial." Not content with such proclamations the Government engaged in various zealous efforts to establish friendly relations with the Bethuks. A reward Avas offered for the capture of a Red Indian, and in 1804 a female was taken by a fisherman and brought to St. John's, where she was kindly ti'eated and sent back to her tribe loaded with presents. A strong suspicion was entertained that the presents aroused the cupidity of the man who was entrusted with the duty of conveying her back to her own people, and that the wretch murdered her and took possession of the property. In 1810, Lieutenant Buchan, of the Eoyal Navy, was M raip. vir.j THE ABORIGINES. 209 sent to the River Exploits, with orders to winter there, and open a communication with the Indians. He succeeded in finding a party of them ; and, taking two of their number as hostages, and leaving two marines with them as a pledge of good faith, he returned to his depot for presents. During his absence, the fears of the red men were aroused, lest, from his delay in returning, he might be bringing up reinforce- ments with a view to capture them. They murdered tlie hostages and fled to the interior. In 1819, another female was taken by a party of trappers on Red Indian Lake. Her husband and another Indian were with her, and, having offered resistance, were both relentlessly shot. The woman was brought to St. John's, and was named Mary March, from the month in which she was taken. She was treated with great kindness and sent back to her friends, with numerous presents, but died on the voyage, haviijg been suffering for some time from consumption . Her body was placed in a coffin and left on the margin of a lake, so that it might be found by her people. They conveyed it to their burying-placo on Red Indian Lake, where, as we shall presently learn, it was found several years afterwards by the adventurous traveller, Cormack, lying beside the bod^ of her murdered husband. In 1823, three Indian females were taken in a wigwam, by a party of men from Twillingate. They proved to be a mother and her two daughters. They were brought to St. John's and treated with great kindness. The mother and one of the daughters died; but the third, whose name was Shanandithet, survived for about two years and became useful as a house-servant. She is described as six feet high, and having a fine figure ; her complexion swarthy, like the Micmacs, and her features handsome. In her manners she was bland, affable, and afPectionate. AVhon a pencil and a piece of paper were given to her she drew a deer perfectly at a few strokes, and, what was most r m 4 !| iil^' '' 11 1 ":t j , -,r- .1.. 1 i i m m lit ^ i 210 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAST U. sui'prislng, she began at the tip of the tail. Both she and the others were unwilling to be sent back to their tribe; but Shanandithot declared they would be killed by their own people as traitors, as they had been among the whites, whom they considered their deadly enemies. She also said that her tribe was reduced to a very small number. These were the last of the Red Indians seen alive. Shanandithet died in the hospital in St. John's, of consumption, after six years of civilised life. A final effort to open communications with the Bothaks was made in 1828. In that year a " Boeothick Society," formed at St. John's, having for its object the civilisation of the aborigines, organised an expedition to the part of the island supposed to be still occupied by a remnant of the tribe. Mr. Cormack, the traveller who had crossed the island in 1822, headed the expedition. He took with Lira three Indians — one an intelligent man of the Abenakie tribe, from Canada; the second an elderly mountaineer from Labrador ; and tlie third an adventurous young Mic- >nac, born in Newfoundland. The party entered the country at the inlet called the North Arm, at the mouth of the River Exploits, and took a north-west course to Hall's Bay, an arm of Notre Dame Bay, across the extremities of New Bay, Badger Bay, Seal Bay, etc. On the fourth day after their departure, at the east end of Badger Bay, at a portage known by the name of the Indian path, they found, traces made by the Red Indians, evidently in the spring or summer of the preceding year. They observed a " canoe-rest " on which the daubs of red ochre and fibrous roots of trees used to fasten or tie it together, appeared fresh. Fragments of their skin-dresses, a spear-sliaft eight feet in length and recently made, ochred parts of old canoes, and a few other objects were found scattered about. The remains of eight or ten mamateeks, or winter wigwams, each fitted to con- tain from ten to twenty persons, were also seen close together. CHAP. VII.] THE ABORIGINES. 211 Besides these there were the remains of summer wigwams. The winter wigwams were conical, the frames made of poles covered with skins or birch bark. One difference between the Bethuk wigwam and those of other Indians was that in most of the former there were small hollows, like nests, dug in the earth around the fireplace, one for each person to sit in, " These hollows," says Cormack, " are generally so close together, and also so close to the fireplace and to the sides of the wigwams, that I think it probable these people have been accustomed to sleep in a sitting posture." In addition, each winter wigwam had close to it a small square- mouthed or oblong pit, dug into the earth about four feet, to preserve their stores. Some of these pits were lined with birch rind. Cormack also found in this Indian village the remains of a vapour bath, which, it seems, was used chiefly by those who were suffering from rheumatic affections. Their method of making a vapour bath was the same as that practised by many other savage tribes. Large stones were, first of all, made very hot in the open air by burning a quantity of wood around them. After this process the ashes were carefully removed, and a hemispherical frame- work, closely covered with skins to exclude the external air, was fixed over the stones. The patient then crept in under the skins, taking with him a birch-rind bucket of water, and a small bark dish to dip it out. By thus pouring water on the hot stones ho could raise the steam at pleasure. Failing to got any further intelligence regarding the Red Indians at Hall's Bay, Cormack decided on proceeding to Red Indian Lake, hoping that at that noted rendezvous ho should at last find the object of his search. After a march of ten days over a marshy country, during which no traces of the rod men were seen, he obtained a glimpse of this splendid sheet of water, more than thirty-five miles in length and five to six in breadth. From the hills at the p 2 M ti- Si I r I 'f i 1' i i- i I ' ir mmmm 212 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAKT II. northern end of the lake he looked down on its waters with feelings of admiration. But no canoe could be dis- covered moving on its placid surface; no human sounds were heard; no smoke from wigwams mounted into the air. Silence, deep as death, reigned around, Cormack and liis party were the first Europeans who had seen Red Indian Lake in an unfrozen state, only one or two parties having precedi'tl them in the depth of winter by way of the Exploits River. The view was solemn and majestic, " We approached tlio lake," says Cormack, "with hope and caution; but found to our mortification, that the Red Indians had desei'ted it, for some years past. My party had been so excited, so sanguine, and so determined to obtain an interview of some kind with these people, that, on discovering from appear- ances everywhere around us that the Red Indians, the terror of the Europeans as well as the other Indian in- habitants of Newfoundland, no longer existed, the spirits of one and all were deeply affected. The old mountaineer was particularly overcome." The party, he tells us, spent several "melancholy" days wandering around the borders of the east end of the lake. Everywhere they met with indications that this had long been the headquarters of the tribe in the days when they enjoyed peace and security. On several places by the margin of the lake they found small clusters of winter and summer wigwams in ruins; also a wooden building, con- structed for drying and smoking vension, still perfect ; and a small log-house, probably a stox*e-houso, in a dilapidated condition. Among the bushes on the beach they lighted on the wreck of a large, handsome, birch canoe, twenty-two feet in length, and evidently but little used. The pro- bability is that, after being wrecked it had been cast up by the waves, the people who were in it having perished. The most interesting objects met with were the re- positories for their dead — one trait of the Bethuks having CHVP. VII ] THE ABORIGINES. 213 been great respect for the remains of their dead. It appears from Cormack's account that there were among them four modes of disposing of the dead, according to the rank and character of the persons entombed. One of the burying places met with " resembled a hut ten feet by eight or nine and four or five feet high in the centre, floored with square poles, the roof covered with rinds of trees, and in every way well secured against the weather inside and the intrusions of wild beasts." On entering this structure their curiosity was raised to the highest pitch. They found the bodies of two grown persons laid out at full length on the floor, wrapped round with deer skins. But what most astonished them was the discovery of a white deal coffin containing a skeleton neatly shrouded in white muslin. "This was the coffin of Mary March, which had been carried by some members of her tribe from the sea-coast to this solitude. In the building were also found two small wooden images of a man and a woman, supposed to represent husband and wife, and a small doll, which perhaps represented their child." Several small models of their canoes, two models of boats, an iron axe, a bow, a quiver of arrov.'^s, were placed by the side of Mary March's husband, and two fire-stones (nodules of iron pyrites, from which they produced fire by striking tliem together) lay at his head. There Avero also various kinds of culinary utensils, neatly made of birch rind, and oniamcnted,'^ The second mode of sepulture observed here was similar to that of the Western Indians of the sources of the Mississippi. The body of the deceased had been wrapped in birch rind, and with his property, placed on a sort of scaffold, about four feet and a half from the ground. The scaffold was formed of four posts, about seven feet high, fixed perpendicularly in the ground, to sustain a kind of crib, five feet and a half in length, by four in breadth, with t, ' (: ! i^i^ I » ) ■■^w mmm « W'i W if ' 214 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT II. a floor made of small squared beams laid close together horizontally, and on which the body and property rested, A third mode was, when the body was bent together wrapped in birch rind, and was enclosed in a kind of box, on the ground, the box was made of small squared posts, laid on each other horizontally, and notched at the corners, to make them meet close. It was about four feet by three and two and a half feet deep, and well lined with birch rind, to exclude the weather. The body lay on the right side. A fourth and more common mode of burying, was to wrap the body in birch-rind, and cover it over with a heap of stones, on the surface of the ground, in some retired spot. Sometimes the body, thus wrapped up, was put a foot or two under the surface, and the spot covered with stones. In one place where the ground was sandy and soft, the graves were found deeper and no stones were placed over them. Cormack's party returned by way of the River Exploits, which flows from Eed Indian Lake, this part of its course being about seventy miles. Cormack says, "Down this noble river the steady perseverance and intrepidity of my Indians carried me on rafts in four days, to accomplish which otherwise would have required proba.bly two weeks, What arrests the attention most while gliding down the stream, is the extent of the Indian fences to entrap the deer. They extend from the lake downwards continuously, on the banks of the river at least thirty miles. There are openings left here and there in them, for the animals to go through and swim across the river ; and at these places the Indians were stationed, to kill them in the water with spears, out of their canoes, as at the lake. Here, then, connecting these fences with those on the north-west side of the lake, are at kast forty miles of country, easterly and westerly, prepared to intercept all the deer that pass that CHAP. VII.] THE ABORIGINES. 215 way, in their periodical migrations. It was melanclioly to contemplate the gigantic, yet feeble efforts of a whole primitive nation, in their anxiety to provide subsistence, forsaken and going to decay. There must have been hundreds of the Red Indians, and that not many years ago, to have kept up these fences and pounds." With Cormack's expedition the last hope of finding the Bethuks was abandoned. Either they were gradually thinned in numbers, by wars, disease, and want, till at length, perhaps on the banks of the Red Indian Lake, the last Bethuk looked despairingly on the ruins of his race, and the graves of his fathers, and then folding his deer-skin robes around him, followed his ancestors to the happy hunting-grounds of the hereafter. Or it may be a little forlorn band, relics of a once numerous nation, took a last mournful look at the desolate scene, and then departed for some unknown retreat, where the murderous arm of the white man could not reach them, but where, with the fatality that follows their doomed race, extinction gradually overtook them. This sketch of the tribe extends over a pei'iod of three hundred and thirty years, commencing in 1497 and termina- ting in 1828. A few of their peculiarities and customs remain to be briefly noticed. Their method of kindling fire by striking together two pieces of iron pyrites, was not peculiar to the Bethuks, as the use of these " fire-stones " was known to other tribes of the North American Indians. But their custom of making small hollow-like nests around the fire-places of their wigwams, dug into the earth, one for each person to sit and probably sleep in, was, so far as is known, peculiar to the Bethuks. These oblong hollows were lined with tender branches of pine (white), fir, and dry moss, and doubtless added greatly to their comfort in the cold nights of winter. Their bows were made of sycamore or mountain-ash, and were five and a half feet ,i iiiil !i. H 1 (iir ii f: I ' 216 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT IP, ill length, having strings of deer's sinews. The arrows were made of well-seasoned pine (white), or sycamore, and were light and perfectly straight. Their intercourse with the whites supplied them with scraps of iron, out of which they made a two-edged lance, about six inches long, for the arrow head. This was let into a cleft on the top of the shaft and secured there by a thread of deer's sinew. The stock was about three feet in length, and was feathered by the quill of the goose or of the bald-headed eagle. Their deer-fences were made by felling the trees along the ridge of the river's bank Avithout chopping the trunks quite asunder, taking care that they fell parallel with the river, each tree having been guided so as to coincide with and fall upon the last. Gaps were filled up by driving in stakes and interweaving the branches and limbs of other trees. They were raised to the height of six, eight, or even ten feet, as the place required, and wei'e not to be forced or leaped by the largest deer. Their wigwams were conical, the base being proportioned to the number of the family, whose beds formed a circle of nest-like hollows around the fireplace. The frame of the wigwam Avas composed of poles and covered with birch-rind, which was overlaid, sheet upon sheet, in the manner of tiles, and secured in its place by outside poles. This perfectly sheltered the whole apart- ment except the fireplace, over which was left an opening to carry off the smoke. The central fire spreading its heat on all sides made the apartment quite warm. Where materials and labour were plentiful, one of these wigwams could be completed in an hour, and yet so durable were they, that they have been found standing after a lapse of thirty years on Eed Indian Lake. Besides wigwams, they had square habitations, one side of which was made of trees well squared and placed horizontally one on the other, the seams being caulked with moss. The other three sides were made of upright studs, the seams being stuffed with deer-skins. >" >' : ciiAr. vii.) THE ABORIGINES. 217 }at on terials Id be T, that years square well seams made •skins. The beams and rafters were neatly executed, the roof being in the form of a low pyramid. According to Mr. Lloyd the Bethuk canoe was peculiar to these Indians. "The principle on which it is constructed" ho says "is perhaps nowhei'e else to be met with. It has, in a way, no bottom at all, the side beginning at the very keel and from thence running up in a straight line to the edge or gunwale. A transverse section of it at any part whatever makes an acute angle, only that it is not sharpened to a perfect angular point, but is somewhat rounded to take in the slight rod which serves by way of a keel. The rod is thickest in the middle (being in that part about the size of the handle of a common hatchet) tapering each way and terminating with the slender curved extremities of the canoe.'' "The peculiar shape of their canoes may bo owing, as suggested to me by Mr. John Evans, Pres. Geo. Soc, to an adaptation of form to cir- cumstances; the greater height of the gunwale, and the curving up of the ends of the canoe, as compared with the ordinary birch bark canoe of Canada, would render it less liable to ship a sea, while its V shaped section would increase its capability as a sailing craft in moderate weather. The fact of paddles, arrow-heads, and other articles having been found on the Funk Islands, more than thirty miles from the mainland, appear to show that the Indians could travel a considerable distance out to sea in their canoes.'' The implements and utensils found in various parts of the island consist chiefly of mortar-shaped vessels, spear and arrow heads, gouges and rude axes. They are all fashioned from stones of various degrees of hardness. In 1875, a discovery of Indian stone implements was made on Long Island Placentia Bay, at some eighteen inches underneath the surface, there having been a growth of stout timber over the spot where they were found. t:f wimif^^mmm l! 218 ^•KWFOUNDLAND. [I'ABT II. They consLstod of arrow and spear heads, gouges, toma- hawks, rubbing and sharpening stones, and a pot shaped out of serpentine. The arrow and spear heads were iu every stage of manufacture, from tho rudo outline roughly chipped out of the raw material to tho perfected and highly polished implement suggesting the idea that hero there had been a manufactory for tho production of these stone implements. About one third of the whole are polished. Some appeared to be failures which had been cast aside. A thorough exploration of this locality might lead to a discovery of many more of their relics. As to their personal appearance the Bethuk men were of the ordinary stature, and about five feet ten inches iu height. Their hair was coarse and black, and tho men let it fall over their faces. Their complexion was lighter than that of the Micmacs. Their dress consisted of two dressed deer-skins, which, were thrown over their shoulders, some- times having sleeves. Rough mocassins of deer-skin covered their feet. There is nothing to show that they had any religious culture or mode of worship, and the vocabulary which has been preserved does not contain any word to express the idea of a Deity. The following vocabulary may prove interesting to philologists, who are acquainted with the Indian tongues of North. America. It was supplied by Mary March, and recorded by the Rev. John Leigh. The original is in tho possession of a gentleman iu St. John's : Vocabulary of Mary March's Language. Presented to Mr. John Peyton by the Eev. John Leigh. A. Bonnet Abodonoek Arms Arrow ... B. ... Memnyet ... Dogernat Beaver Mamshot Boat and vessel... Adotlio Buttons & money Aganiet Berries Bibidigemidic Boy ... BfikashrimcBh Blanket Manavooit Breast ... ... Bogomot or a Bear Gwashmvet CHll". Tit.) THE ABORIGINES. 219 Blood iKgobauth Feathers. . ... Abobidresa Boat Buliiiskawik Fall ... Kosbet Bito Boshoodik Fork ... Ethenwit Blow-tlio-Noso ... Shogamik Fishing lino ... Edat or o Biruh bark Boyish Flying .. ... Miaoth Body Ilaildabothio G. Girl C. ... Emamooset Clothes Thonyyam Gloves . . ... Obsedeek Codfish Bobboosoret Gun .. . Adamadret Cattle — cowB anc Glass ... Hadibiot horses Nothnbcte Go out .. ... Eunno Cat, domestic .. Abideoshook Gall ... Absoii Ciit, martin Canoe Adidish Tapatliook Gimlet Quadranuek Grindstone ... Agiiatlioovet Can or jug Motheryet Gunpowder ... Baasothnut Come hither Thooret Goose ... Odensook Caudle Shaboth Good night ... Botheok Capelan Shamoth Get up .. ... I'anyess or Cry Matheoduo Gaping . . Groaning ... Abeniik Comb Moidonaa ... Cheashit Chin Child . Goun Immiiraoosi't, .7. P. Gooseberry ... Jiggamint Cut Odishuik H Comet ... Auin Clouds Berroic/i or h Hand .. ... Mewet Hair ... Drona D. House .. ... Mamruateok Door Osweot Hammer.. ... Mathuis Deers' horns Magorun Heart .. ... Bogodoret Dog Mammasiivr'ct (or Hare ... Odusweet Mammooscrnit, Husband.. ... Zathrook J. P.). Hoop ... Waine Drawing... Moeshwadet Head .. ... Govathin- Dogwood, or keathut mountain ash.. Emoethook Hiccough ... Madyrut Duck Boodowit Herring .. ... Washeniesh Duck& Drakes.. JIameshet Dancing Badisut I. Ice ... Ozeru E. Indian (re 3) ... Beathook Eye Guinya Indian cup ... Shucodimit Egg Debuio Iron ... Mowagesnito or e Eat Odoit Islands .. ... Mammasheck Eyebrow Marmeuk Elbow MOQCUS K Ear Mooshaman JX Knife .. ... Nine P. Knee ... Hodamishit Fire Woodrut Kneeling ... Acnsthibit Fish hook Adothook Kiss ... Widumife or ik i I : ;•! ,1 • I ^ 220 L. NEWFOUNDLAND. R. [riRT II. Lobster ... • • t Odjot Rocks Alimoo liamp • •* UobbiduiBheniet Rain Hathuo Lord bird (orlFar- Running... Wotlmmaahot leiiniii c uck P) Mammadronit or u Ruwiug ... Oaavato Leg Aduso S. Lead . . , Lip Lie down LoUBO Uooshcbou Ooish Bitiiwait KiiBobuut Shoos Smoke Seal Shaking Moosin Bxailic or a Bidesook Mathic-bidoscdk M. Spoon Adadiniiitfe or nte Sun Kuis and MaiiL,'n> 2Ian • •* Bukashman (or rooftish or it Boukslituion,j.p.) Sit down Athess Mouth ... ..• MatncHliook. Sleep Isedowcot Moon • •« Kuisaud Washew- Saw Duddowoofc nish Sails Ejabatliook Mosquito (black Shovel Godawik fly) ... ... Shema-bogostuo Stockings Sword QoHsett, gasack Bidisoni N. Silk handkerchio Scissors ... ■ Kgibidiuish Ozcgeon Nose Net Necklace Night and dark- nesB Nii)per(mosquito) Gun or gecn Giggaremanet Betheo Washeu Uudadrook Sore throat Snipe Swimming Seal sunken Scratch Anadriok Aoujet Tlioowiilgeo Api)arot biJo- sook Bashbet Nails Neck and throat Quish Tcdeshoet Scallop or Frill.. Sneezing Singing Gowet Adjith Awoodot 0. Shoulder .. . Manegomothon Oil Emot Standiii" ■'■ ^abib Otter Edru or ec Shak; •( .^oMii Mouas- Ochre Oar ... Odemet Podibeao *t hus lonishit P. T. Puppies ... ... Mammasavcet Teeth .., . Botomet onthcr- Puppy ... ... Mfimmoosumich, mayot .1. p. Trap . Shabathoore Pin Dosoniito Trousers .. . Mowead Partridge (Ptar- Trout . Dattomeif' migan) Zosweet Ticklass (a soa Pitcher and cup... Manune bird) . Gotheyet Pigeon (a sea bird) Bobbidish Pufiin GwaHbawifc Turr (a sea bird) Geouet Tinker (a sea bird) Osthouk CnAl'. VM.) THE ABORIGINES. oo Ticklo (? a rapid Walk ... ... Woothyat ciinont in a Warminff yourself Olmghoou ntirrow channel) Kudniiuhuito Wind ... ... Gidycathuo Thanic you Thine Wolf ... ... Moisamadrc Tiiuinb Itwoona Tonj,'uo Meniasuk Numerals, Throw Piigathoite Thread Meroobish Ono ... Gathet Thunder Baroodisick Two ... Adasio Throe ... ... Thodsio W. Four ... Abodoesic Woman Emamoose, Tin. Five ... Nijoek or c niamrioso, J.i*. Six ... Rigadosic Water Ebanthoo Seven ... 0-o-dosook Watch Kuis Eight ... ... Aodoosook Woodpeciior Shebohowit Nino ... Yootlioduc Wifo Oosuck Ten ... Theant ^n I i '• I I CHAPTER VIII. MANNEES AND CUSTOMS. Two famous races — Physical and social characteristics — An orderly and ainiiible peojjle — The middle and npper classes — Life among the fishermen — "The credit system" — Amusementsand pastimes. I|l| TiiK present population of Newfoundland if derived entirely from the Saxon and Celtic stocks, blending the strengtli, endurance, and perseverance of the one with the versatile rapidity, brilliancy, and imaginativeness of the other. This blending of two races on the same soil, in proportions not far from equal, has resulted in producing a hardy, energetic, industrious people, with many of the best qualities of the stocks from which they originated. Eeared in one of the healthiest climates in the world, and engaged mainly in open-air employments, they are physically as fine a race as can be found, with plenty of iron in their blood, able to "toil teiTibly," and well fitted to encounter the world's rough work. We have depicted the early settlers, in these pages, and the hardships they had to encounter, fighting cold and hunger in their "tilts," battling with the ice-floes, drawing a scanty subsistence from the stormy ocean, and pursuing their ill-remunerated labours amid discourf.gements of all kinds. Wat in the struggle with difficulties they gained energy, courage, self-reliance, all ;t CHAP, vin.] MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 223 tlieso jilting 1 tlio 3tormy amlel with that constitutes true mauliood ; and they transmitted these, as an inheritance, to their posterity, who have now "entered into their labours," and find their lot cast amid happier surroundings. According to Samson's riddle, " Out of the eater came forth meat, and out of the strong came forth sweetness." But it is not alone in physical qualities that the Newfoundlanders hold a high place. Their intellectual development has not been helped by education, as, under happier circumstances, it might have been, so that their contributions to the mental wealth, or literary or scientific gains of the woi'ld, are yet to come. In the earlier periods of their history too often Chill penury repressed their noble rage, And froze the genial current of tbo soul. The struggle for the daily bread rendered mental pursuits an impossibility. Now, however, that material prosperity lias dawned, and many have attained comfort and even wealth, leisure is found for the cultivation of the mind; and when young Newfoundlanders go to other countries for the liigher education not yet attainable at home, they fre- quently carry off the highest honours at school and college. Indeed anyone who comes in contact with the people will be struck with their mental quickness and intellectual aptitude. When education, which is still in its infancy, though making hopeful progress, has done its work, there can be little doubt that the descendants of the fishermen who fought the billows and drank in the health-giving sea breezes will bo found competing successfully with the foremost brain-workers of the coming age. As to their moral qualities, it is admitted on all hands that a more orderly, law-abiding population cannot be found elsewhere. Serious crime is very rare, and the proportion of offenders against the law to the whole population is very small. Formerly intoxicating drinks were cheap and VM h' U'.i r ili^ i^n ; fi 224 NEWFOUNDLAND. (I'ABT :i. abundant, and were largely indulged in by a people who had few other enjoyments; but as they have risen in the scale of comfort and civilisation, drunken habits have disappeared, and, as a whole, they ai-e now temperate, and a large number are total abstainers. Their kindness and hospitality to strangers who visit the country are proverbial. A traveller finds himself at once at home in Newfoundland, whether in the capital or the more distant settlements, and all vie with each other in showing him attention and kindness. Quiet, orderly, church-going, attached to their religious faith, the people live peaceably among themselves, and outbreaks of bigotry or fanaticism are now almost un- known. Kindness to the poor and indigent is a marked feature in the character of the people; and when, thi-ough failure of the precarious fisheries, distress occurs, the fishermen help each other to the full extent of their means, and often share to the last morsel with those more indigent than themselves. Charitable societies for the relief of the poor are organised in the capital and chief towns. Facilities for obtaining education are now multiplying, and a taste for literatui'e is spreading. The Athenteum in St. John's has done ex- cellent service by providing a good public library and reading-room, and securing the delivery of a course ot public lectures each winter. The Catholic Literary Institute is a similar institution, and has also a course of winter lectures. In the larger towns, such as Harbour Grace and Brigus, there are also literary societies; and these light- radiators will increase. Music is widely cultivated in the capital, and the concerts of the choral society and others attract crowded audiences. There is, of course, no distinction of ranks other than that arising from wealth, or official or professional position. The upper class is composed of the officials of Government, members of the legislature, judges, clergy, merchants, doctors, lawyers, and wealthy individuals who may have CHAP. Till.] MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 225 retired from business. The middle class is composed of the newer merchants, shopkeepers, tradesmen, farmers, and that large class who, by industry and economy, have acquired a modest competence, and now look to Newfound- land as their home, and that of their children. Happily this class, well named " the shield of society ,'' is increasing rapidly, and making its influence felt more extensively. The large mercantile firms engaged in the exporting business are about twelve in number, ten of them being in St. John's. The older members of these firms for the most part reside in Britain, and junior partners or agents conduct the business. The merchants of Newfoundland are a highly respectuble and intelligent class of men, many of whom have realised considerable wealth, and their standing in the commercial world is very high. Sir Richard Bonnycastle says of the merchant of former days : " He came to Newfoundland, not with any idea of living there, but to amass, in this new Sea Peru, sufficient wealth to enable liiin to return to the scenes of home and youth.'' This has undoubtedly been one of the great drawbacks, to the prosperity of the country. The wealth amassed in the island did not remain as capital to extend its business, develop its resources, and be invested in agriculture, buildings, and other improvements. lb went to enrich other lands, and develop branches of trade elsewhere. The interest felt in the prosperity and advancement of the country, by non- resident capitalists, could not be the same as in case of those who regarded the country as their own permanent abode and that of their posterity. It is not wonderful then to find, as we have shown in other portions of this work, that the merchants of former days, as a class, resisted all changes and frowned on all innovations. Happily a different spirit animates many of this class in the present day, though among the older school, the former traditions linger, and they cannot admit that any other I . f M :| |i: ^i ■r- ifi tt if! , I NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'ART II. ! t occupations than fisliing are possible or desirable. But the younger school hold different ideas, and admit that the fisheries are quite insufficient to suppoi't the present population, and that the time has come for colo- nising and settling the fertile lands of the interior. It is, however, among the middle class, which has grown up, that the sentiment of progress has taken deepest root. All these interests are bound up with the country ; and in its progress lies their hope for the future. The fishermen, too, welcome the prospect of new industries for the support of theirselves and their children, feeling that their present means of subsistence are insufficient for their increasing numbers. There is another class of men called "planters" to be found in all the principal fishing centres. This term carries •us back to the days when all colonies were " plantations," and the colonists were " planters." The name is still continued here, but does not at all indicate a farmer, or one who plants anything; but simply means a sort of middle-man who stands between the merchant and the fisherman. He takes his supplies direct from the merchant, to whom he is accountable, and distributes them among a number of fishermen at the commencement of the season. Theso fishermen either work directly under his control on his own premises, or they carry on operations apart, under his eve, and at the close of the season haiid over the proceeds of their labour in payment of advances. The plante" again passes the fish to the exporting merchant. Many ; the " planters " are indepenuent, and can pay cash for their supplies. Others have but moderate means, and are simply fishermen who own a fisliing room, with boats and fishing gear. They engage a number of htuids for the season, and the fish is made on their own premises. The fishermen are the working classes of the country. During the height of the fishery season, and when fish elcomo n selves ans of srs. ' to be carries itions," is still farmer, sort of md the reliant, among season, control apart, d over The cliant. an pay means, pn, witli bands mises. ountry. len lish 3r( ra\f. viii.] MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 227 are abundant, tbeir labours are severe and incessant; but during winter they are for the most part in a condition of enforced idleness. Much of the work of curing the fish is done by women and girls, and their labours are often very heavy. When the fisheries are over, there are boats, nets, etc., to repair, stages and flakes to look after, and fuel to be cut in the woods and hauled over the snow. Those who have gardens, or plots of ground under cultivation, take up the produce and store it in their cellars. If the fishery has been successful, then the fisher- man has a balance coming to him after paying for his summer supplies, and is enabled to lay in a stock of provisions for the winter. Should the fisheries prove a failure, the poor fisherman, after all his toils, has perhaps only a few quintals of fish to hand over, in payment of his advances. He is in debt, and has to depend on the liberality of the supplying merchant for a scanty supply of the necessaries of life, to sustain himself and his family throughout the winter. Should a second unfavourable season follow, he is hopelessly involved ia debt. The advances made have to be charged at high prices, in order to allow a margin for bad debts. Here too often, all the evils of " the credit system " are felt in the hopeless indebtedness of the fisherman; and when a good year comes, all is swallowed up in paying old debts. The iinfortunate fisherman has no heart to work, and is tempted to recklessness and idleness. Many of them however, who are careful and industrious, and especially those who cultivate the soil, are able to make ends meet and live comfortably. On the other hand, in unfavourable seasons, widespread poverty is felt and severe privations. The "credit system" has much to do with the hardness of their lot; but how to get rid of it is the difficulty. It is injurious both to him that gives and him that takes. Q 2 i I 'rt I is ;, -^ ; f [ i !, 228 NEWFOUNDLAND. [WIITJI. i ; ' 4 I 11 '' 1;: 1' La Increased openings for other industries, the cultivation of the soil, employment during winter, education with the forethought and thrift which it teaches, will alone enable the fishermen to get rid of the injurious "credit system" and attain comfort and independence. Late years have witnessed a marked improvement in the con- dition of the fishermen, and larger numbers than formerly can now afford to dispense with supplies on credit. Still the system has very wide ramifications, and its practices are deeply engrained in the habits and ideas of the fishermen. The present class of merchants are not accountable for a system which is the growth of many generations, and which can only be got rid of by degrees. Winter is the season for enjoyment among the fisher- men. Among them, too, with all their toils and privations, life vindicates its right to gladness and relaxation. The season for " fireside enjoyments, home-born happiness," is welcomed. They have their simple social pleasures of various kinds, limited in range, but satisfying to those whose aspirations do not take a lofty flight. Dancing is a favourite winter amusement among the fishermen and their families ; and to the music of the fiddle, or, in its absence the flute or fife, they will dance vigorously for hours. Weddings are, of course, occasions of much festivity. Tea meetings, temperance soirees, readings with music, have multiplied of late years in the larger villages and settle- ments. Newspapers, pei'iodicals, and books are finding their way to these distant and lonely "dwellers by the sea," and stirring intellectual life among them. When inter- course with the capital is facilitated by railways a wider range of thought and sympathy will be developed. As it is, there is perhaps as much genuine happiness among these people as among any similar number who toil for their daily bread. Nature has wonderful compensations ; and in ng IS a d their labsence hours- , Tea |c, have settle- finding by the inter- wider As it I or these ir their and in CH.ir. viii.l MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 229 the health, vigour, freedom, and capability of enjoying simple pleasures which the Newfoundlanders possess, they have much to console them for the absence of those exciting and artificial enjoyments in which more advanced communities find their chief happiness. tl ih I ; '^l i I .1 H M iiflt 41 r:| Ti \ lEi' ll J i 1 iff J ^ '■'V ! ' ■ ■i- .;p !' : ' ■■ 'ii. i Wr- >'l \ n ' V ' 1 ' CHAPTER IX. ANIMAL KINGDOM. The caribou, wolf, and black bear— The " Wolf Killing Act"— The beaver — "Newfoundland dog"— The seal tribe — Eagles, hawks, and pigeons — The American bittern — The great auk — Tlie gigantic cephalopod, or devil-fish. Mill I i 1 i Among the well known wild animals indigenous to New- foundland are the caribou or reindeer, of which an account will be given in the chapter on " Newfoundland as a Sporting Country/' and the wolf, of which there are con- siderable numbers in the interior, though they are rarely seen by the settlers. Captain Kennedy in his " Sporting Noies " gives it as his opinion that the wolves are far less numerous than is generally supposed. They .are ve.y destructive to the caribou. The black bear is frequently met with. It feeds on the wild berries and roots in summer, and passes the winter in a state of torpor. The seal-hunters occasionally encounter the white or polar bear on the ice off the coast, and sometimes it has been known to land. The fox is found in considerable numbers and varieties, as the black, silver, gray, and red fox. The skin of the black fox is worth 161. sterling j that of the silver fox, 8/. ; the gray fox, 11. 10s.; the red fox, which is the commonest, only 8s. The skin of a bear is v.alued at from 21. to 3/. ; that of a deer at 15s,, and that of a wolf at 11. By the HORNS Ol' THE CAIUIIOU. I. The Ordinary Canadian Type. 2. Caribou horns from Newfoundland. _ . 3. Horn$ from Labrador. Facing fa^e 230. ! ! m V 1* ! ,■ 1 ' f^m u I I ( f V s t; n tl w ic S£ b. th \!, IBAP. IX. ANIMAL KINGDOM. 231 " Wolf Killing Act " a reward of twelve dollars is offered for every wolf skin ; but so cunning are these animals that it is exceedingly difficult to trap or shoot them, and the reward is seldom obtained. The beaver is still numerous in the lakes of the interior; the skin is worth IGs. A good trapper will kill thirty or forty beavers in a week, and average two a day all the season. The otter is less numerous; the skin is valued at \l. 8s. There are two species, one frequenting fresh water, and a much larger kind found on the coast, and chiefly in salt water. The marten, the weasel, the bat, the rat, the field and common mouse, and the musquash or musk-rat are numerous. The Arctic hare grows to a largo size, and becomes completely white in winter. It is a variety of the lepu-s AmericauHH. A few years ago a few pairs of the common North American hare were brought from Nova Scotia and let loose in the neighbourhood of the capital. They have thriven and multiplied rapidly, and in many places furnish an important item of food for the settlers in the winter. They are called "rabbits," but improperly so, as they never burrow, and have all the habits of the hare. There are few fine specimens of the world-i'enowned "Newfoundland dog" to be met with now in the island from which it derived its name. The common dogs are a wretched mongrel race, cowardly, thievish, and addicted to sheep-killing. By starvation, neglect, and bad treatment the race has degenerated so that few traits of the original remain. The Newfoundland dog thrives better elsewhere, though there ai'e still some superior specimens to be met with in the country. The origin of this fine breed is lost in obscurity. It is doubtful whether the aborigines pos- sessed the dog at all ; and it is highly improbable that the ."^^ewfoundland dog is indigenous. Some happy crossing of b.'eeds may have produced it here. The old settlers say that the ancient genuine breed consisted of a dog about 4 fi':r 232 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PAVT II. hv. twenty-six inches high, witli bhick ticked body, gray ninzzlc, and gray or white-stockingod legs, with clow-claws behind. Those were probably tlie progenitors of tho present Now- fonndland dog, whoso life-saving capacities in cases of threatened drowning, especially with those who live near the sea or great rivers, are valuable. Judicious treatment lins greatly improved tho breed, tiandseor, as is well known, has immortalized one of them in his celebrated picture entitled " A Distinguished ^loniber of tho Humane Society," and tho breed to which ho belonged is known as tho " Landsoor Newfoundland." Their colour is white with black patches, curly coats, noble heads and powerful frames. The favourite Newfoundland dog at present is entirely black, of largo size, from twenty-six to thirty inches in height, remarkabU> for his majestic appearance. It is now generally admitted that there are two distinct types of tho Newfoundland dog, one considerably larger than the other, and reckoned as the true breed ; the other being named tho Labrador, or St. John's, or Lesser Newfoundland. The latter is chieHy found in Labrador, and specimens are also to be met with in Newfoundland. Within the last four or five years the celebrated Leonberg dog has been introduced into Newfoundland and thrives remarkably well. The first specimens were brought by Herr T. A. Verkruzen, a German naturalist, who visited the island for the purpose of collecting raollusca. He brought with him three carefully selected puppies from Esslg's establishment iu Leonberg, Wurtembei'g, of this renowned breed, now so much sought after by the gentry and nobility of Europe. The Leonberg is the result of a skilful crossing of the St. Bernard with the Newfoundland dog and the wolf dog of the Pyrenees, the result being the largest and handsomest long-haired dog now in existence, and distin- guished for sagacity, strength, and faithfulness. Some of the finest well-trained specimens of the breed are sold iu I 1 % lur. IX.] ANIMAL KINGDOM. 233 ICurope as high as 50Z. and lOOZ. They possess some of tlio liif,^host moral qualities of the noble races whose blood blends in their veins. At the leading dog shows of the world they have carried off the highest prizes. They grow to the height of thirty-three to thirty-six inches, and are over one hundred pounds in weight. The breed is multi- plying in the island and is much esteemed and sought after. In time they will perhaps supersede the present degenerate breed of the Newfoundland. Their colours are white with black spots, wolf gray, and black. The last have often a double or split nose. Of the seal tribe there are four species — the harbour or bay seal, the harp, the hooded seal, and the square flipper. These will be described in the chapter on the seal fishery. The walrus, or morse, is often met with by the sealers. The cetacea, or whale tribe, are rei)resented by the fin-backed whale, which lives on caplin, lance, etc., the sharp-nosed whale {llalwna acuta noatra), and the pike- headed species ; the great Greenland whale is rarely, if ever seen. The delphinidso are represented by the species called by the fishermen black- fish, or pot-heads ; the body is bluish black, the head round and blunt, and the blow- hole very large ; they yield from thirty to a hundred gallons of oil. Another variety is called puflSng-pig and herring- hog by the fishermen. The porpoise is common around the shores, and specimens of the grampus are scon occasionally. The bii'ds of Newfoundland are far too numerous to be named in this brief and imperfect sketch, and only a few of the more important can be enumerated. Mr. Heniy Reeks, F.L.S., an English naturalist of note, spent two years on the western coast of the island, studying its ornitho- logy, and published the result of his observations in the " Zoologist." He enumerates two hundred species of birds, and of course there are many more. A Swedish naturalist « li 234 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT II. island estimated that there were five of birds. Nearly all the birds are ou a visit to tl hundred species migratory. The sea eogle is occasionally seen, and the bald or white-headed eagle is common. The latter is called by the fishermen " the grepe." Of hawks, the most important varieties are the American osprey or Irish hawk, the pigeon, the sparrow, the Greenland falcon, and the American goshawk. Of owls, there are the ?rowy owl, the great horned owl, the long-eared and short-eared owls, and the hawk owl. Of woodpeckers, there are the hairy, the downy, and the black-lieaded woodpeckers. The American chimney swallow is rare, and the American night hawk is a summer migrant. The belted kingfisher is common. There are six species of fly-catchers, and the same number of thrushes. Of the latter, the migratory thrush or American robin — called the blackbird or robin in Newfoundland — is the earliest songster, and even when the ground is still covered Avith snow is lieard pouring forth its sonorous notes. The warblers and swallows are in great variety. The finches inchidc the American pine grosbeak, the American cross- bill, the snow bunting, the snow bird, and the chipping sparrow. The American raven and jay, the blue and Canada jay are common. • In the chapter on " sporting " reference will be made to the grouse or ptarmigan of the island, erroneously called " partridge." This game-bird is the willow grouse (Lagopus alhns) ; but there is another kind called the rock ptarmigan {Lagopus riipcstris), an Alpine species, inhabiting only the highest and barest mountain ridges, and called the " mountain partridge.'' The Canadian grouse, or spruce partridge, is sometimes seen as a rare visitor on the western side of the island. Mr. Eeeks met with some specimens. The American bittern, the American golden plover, and CBAl'. IX. I ANIMAL KINGDOM. 235 made called njopiis spruce restern iraeiis. aud other varieties, and a great number of different species of saudpijjers and curlews ai'e abundant. The Canada gooso and the Brent goose are regular summer visitants. Of ducks there are the black, the pintail, the green-winged teal, the gray, and the American golden-eye. The harlequin duck is called " lords and ladies," and the long-tailed duck " hounds," from their fancied resemblance to the cry of a pack of hounds in full chase. The eider duck and the red- breasted merganser are tolerably common. The local name of the latter is " shell duck.'' The stormy petrel, gulls in great variety, gannets, cormorants, and the loon, or great northern diver, are common. The great auk was once found in myriads around the shores, but is now extinct everywhere, not a specimen having been found for the last fifty years. The little auk, tlie puffin, the common guillemot, called locally the " murr and turr," and the razor-billed auk are abundant. The great auk was a very remarkable bird, and deserves more than a passing mention. It must now be reckoned, like the dodo, among the things tl\at have been, though in the sixteenth and seventeenth centui-ies it was to be seen m multitudes on the low rocky islands on the eastern coast of the island, and immense flocks of them wore encountered by the mariners of those days as far out as the Banks. Now the discovery of a single living specimen, or even of a skeleton, would be hailed as a most fortunate event. The last auk was shot on an isolated rock off the south coast of Iceland, in 184 !•, and is now in the museum of Copenhagen. Ill all the museums of Europe and America there are only seventy-two specimens of the bird. Three of these were found on Funk Island, off the north-eastern coast of New- foundland in 18G1'. They came into the possession of Bishop Field, Avho forwarded one to Agassiz, another to Professor Newton, of Cambridge, and the third ultimately reached the British Museum, where there is but one other specimen. . '11 ;i, : ¥■ 'i 'I .. 23G NEWFOUNDLAND. PART II. brought from the Orkneys, in 1812. Numerous bones of the great auk have been found on Funk Island, and a careful search might discover many perfect skeletons. The great auk was larger than a goose. Its wings were very small, and not constituted for flight, but were admirable paddles in the water, enabling the bird to move about even more swiftly than the loon. The legs were extremely short, but powerful, and placed so much posteriorly, that, in resting on the rocks the birds assumed an upright attitude, the whole of the leg and toes being applied to the surface. It was a native of the Northern Hemisphere, the penguin being its relative in the Southern. The causes of its extermination are not dilHcult to discover. Its short wings and peculiar conformation rendered it helpless on the land ; while its flesh and feathers were so valuable as to invite the rapacity of man. There were few suitable breeding places, and when these were invaded it could not fly elsewhere, and had no choice but to die. In the " struggle for existence," to which nature subjects all her animated productions, such a bird as the great auk must perish early. It must have been a curious sight, two hundred years ago, to see these wild lonely islands, their coasts literally swarming with these strange birds, as they waddled slowly about in an erect position, with their broad webbed feet and short wings, resembling the flippers of a seal. They were the connecting link between the flsh and bird, partaking of the nature of both. The " English Pilot " for 1771, thus refers to them : "They never go beyond the banks, as others do, for they are always on it or within it, several of them together. They are large fowls, about the size of a goose, a coal-black head and back, with a white spot under one of their eyes, which nature has ordered to be under their right eye — an extraordinary mark. These birds never fly, for their wing« are very short, and seal, and <.t" the itliiu 30Ut with has lavk. and rtur. IX.] ANIMAL KINGDOM. 237 most like the fins of a fisli, having nothing upon them but a sort of down and short feathers." Not only were the crews of the fishing vessels of those days in the habit of consuming vast ({uantities of these birds fresh, but they were accustomed to salt down mauy tons of them for future use. The merchants of Bonavista and other places were in the habit of salting them and selling themj in the winter season, instead of pork, to the fishermen. The sailors used to land on the islands where they bred, and fill their boats with the plump unwieldy birds (which on land could make no effort to escape), driving them, according to Whitbourne, on board by hundreds, or knocking them on the head with sticks. They feasted on their eggs, and even burned their bodies for fuel, in order to warm water to pick off the feathers which were valuable. After slaughter- ing them, they sometimes shut them up in stone enclosui'es, in order to have them ready when wanted. It is not wonderful that, under such circumstances, the great auk has been completely exterminated. The principal commercial fishes in the waters around the island will be described in the chapter on " The Fisheries," the cod, salmon, and herring being the most valuable. The mackerel, once abundant, have been ex- tremely scarce for many years. Halibut, turbot, plaice, sole, etc., are not taken in such quantities as to render them of value. Eels are plentiful in lakes, rivers, and salt water. Sturgeons are rarely taken. Lobsters are most abundant, and now constitute a valuable article of export. Oysters are not found around the shores ; crabs are plentiful. A few other species are met with, such as the pipe-fish, frno--Hsh, bellows-fish, sculpins, lance, cat-fish, and lump- fish. Sharks are not uncommon. A .specimen of the basking shark was brought ashore a few years ago at Topsail, in Conception Bay, measuring thirty feet in length. The dog-fish, a kind of small shark, hated by the fishermen, m I «> ! , ! Ill i ; p 'iirir il. 'ill '. nH«RiAflWHin«ii 238 NEWFOUNDLAND. IrAST Ii, 11 ■ r as it often takes vlic lisTi from tlicir nets and hoots, is abundant. The fox-shark, or thresher, is only seen occasionally. The absence of venomous reptiles of all kinds, and also of frogs and toads, is remarkable. Several animals coinmou on the continent of America are a,lso wanting, such as the lynx, the skunk, porcupine, mink, and squirrel. Of the molluscous animals the principal representative is the common squid, a cephalopod about five or six inches in length, which visits the coast in immense shoals in August and September, and supplies a valuable bait for the fishermen. It possesses ton arms radiating from the head, a small horny beak, and an ink-bag, from which at pleasure it ejects a black fluid, thui darkening the water so as to elude its foes. It moves either backwards or forwards through the water with great rapidity. A very great interest was awakened among naturalists in 1 873 by an announcement which one of the present writers (Mr. Harvey) was fortunate enough to be able to make, of the discovery of a new species of cuttle-fish., of gigantic size, in the Avaters around Newfoundland. Victor Hugo in his " Toilers of the Sea," gives a thrilling description of such a monster under the title of the "devil fish;" but the reality sur- passed the fiction. Victor Hugo's devil fish was onl}'" four or five feet between the extremities of the outspread arms ; the creature now discovered had arms the longest of which measured each twenty-four feet, and between their out- spread extremities were fifty-two feet. The body was between seven and eight feet in length. The circumstances under which the discovery was first made were as follows : On the ilGth of October, 187o, two fishermen of Portugal Cove were out in a small boat off the eastern end of Belle Isle, in Conception Bay. Observing something floating in the water they rowed up to it and ono of them struck it with bis boat-hook. Instantly the mass showed that it was cnir. IX.] ANIMAL KINGDOM. 239 IS 5ellc iruck was animated by putting itself in motion. A liuge beat reared itself from among the folds and struck the boat, and a pair of large eyes glared at them ferociously. The men, as may be imagined, were petrified with fear ; but before they had time to escape two corpse-like arms shot out from around the head and flung themselves across the boat. Had those slimy arms, with their powerful suckers, once attached themselves to the boat, it would speedily have been drawn imder the water and its occupants would have been brought within reach of the monster's powerful beak. One of the men, however, had the presence of mind to seize a small hatchet that fortunately lay in the bottom of the boat, and with a couple of blows he severed the arms as they lay over the gunwale of the boat. The cr^^ature uttered no cry of pain; but at once moved off from the boat and ejected an enormous quantity of inky fluid which darkened the water for two or three hundred yards. Tli^ men saw no more of i J and having dragged the amputated arms into the boat speedily made for the shore. The shorter and thicker of the two arras was thrown carelessly aside and destroyed, hut was described as six feet in length and ten or twelve inches in circumference. The longer arm was brought to St. .John's by the fisherman, and Mr. Harvey was fortu- nate enough to secure it. After being photographed it was placed in the Geological Museum, where it now is. On measurement the fragment was found to be nineteen feet in length, not more than three and a half inches in circum- ference ; of a palish pink colour, exceedingly strong and tough. The fisherman estimated that more than ten feet of this arm were left attached to the body, so that its entire length must have been thirty feet. Towards the extremity it broadened out like an oar and then tapered to a fine, tongue-like point. This part was thickly covered with suckers, having horny, teethed edges, the largest of them over an inch in diameter, the smallest not larger than a split ii I I. U'l I m s 240 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PiRT II. I i pea. Their number was estimated at one hundred and eighty. All these suckers, acting together, would establish such a grasp on an object as it would be impossible to escape from. Tlie fishermen described the body of the monster as being of immense size, but under the influence of terror, their account would be greatly exaggerated. Subsequent discoveries of perfect specimens, however, render it certain that the body must have been over ten feet in length, and showed that this was one of the two long tentacles ; the other eight arras being shorter and thicker. Only a fortnight after this event, a perfect specimen was taken in a net at Logie Bay, three miles from St. John's. Mr. Harvey had again tlie good fortune to hear of the capture and to obtain possession of the animal. He had it measured and photographed, and described it minutely in various newspapers and periodicals. An engraving, copied from the photograph, and a descrip- tion, appeared in tlie London Field, and the accounts made the rounds of the press in Britain and America. Everywhere the discovery was regarded by naturalists as of great importance, as it was the first pei'fect specimen of a creature hitherto regarded as fabulous. The mode of its capture was curious. During the hauling in of a herring net the creature got somehow entangled in the folds, and became powerless. It struggled desperately, and befoi'o three men could drag it into the boat, they were obliged to kill it by cutting off the head. It proved to be a gigantic cuttle-fish or calamary; and is called by the fishermen a " big squid." The two long arms or tentacles were found to measure each twenty-four feet, and to be three inches in circumference ; the eight shorter arms were each six feet in length, and at the point of junction with the central mass, were ten inches in circumference. The longer arms broadened at the extremities, and were there ccvered with suckers as in the l,i :"-f t'^/^NiPft" mary; Tho each in the lltAP. IX. 1 ANIMAL KINGDOM. 241 Conception Bay specimen. The shorter arms had their under sides covered through the entire length with a double row of suckers, and each tapered to a fine point. Tho total number of suckers was estimated at eleven hundred. The ten arms radiated from a central mass two and a half feet in diameter, in the middle of which was a strong horny beak, shaped precisely like that of a parrot, and in size larger than a man's clenched fist. The eyes were destroyed, but the eye-socket measured four inches in diameter. The body was between seven and eight feet in length, and five feet in circumference. The tail was fin-shaped, and about two feet across. This specimen was forwarded to Professor A. E. Verrill, of Yale College, New Haven, one of the most eminent living naturalists of America. He made a very careful study of the animal, and has given an exhaustive account of it in a series of papers in the " American Journal of Science " and the " American Natux-alist," all the different organs being figured in excellent engravings, and a restoration of the ci'eature being also given. To his admirable account those who wish for a full description of the now famous devil fish must be referred. The details are highly interesting, and prove, once more, that " fact is often stranger than fiction." Professor Verrill has distinguished two species of the giant cephalopods : one he named Architeuthis Ilarveyi, "as a well-merited compliment to the Rev. M. Harvey, who has done so much to bring these remarkable specimens into notice; the other he called Architeuthis monachus." In the " Popular Science Review," for April, 1874, there appeared a highly interesting article, by W. Saville Kent,F.L.S.,on these gigantic cuttles, in which the writer proposed to name the species Megaloteuthis llarveiji, " in recognition of the great service to science rendered through Mr. Harvey's steps taken to preserve these valuable specimens." Mr, Frank Buckland, : It Jh i 'lii 1 ■ ^A li 242 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PABT II. in his " Logbook of a Fisherman and Geologist/' has a jiaper on the subject ; he also constructed a wooden model of the devil fish for his museum. Since 1873 several specimens of this creature have come ashore, generally after heavy storms. The largest heard of was one cast ashore in Thimble Tickle, Notre Dame Bay, the body of which was reported, on good authority, to have been twenty feet in length, the tentacles forty feet. Another was found at Three Arms, Notre Dame Bay, with a body of fifteen feet long. A perfect specimen was obtained at Cata- lina, in 1877, nine feet two inches in length of body; circum- ference of body, seven feet; tentacles, thirty feet ; short arms, eleven feet. This specimen is now in the New York Aquarium. In 1881 another specimen with a body eleven feet in length was obtained at Portugal Cove. It is now in Worth's Museum, New York. All these instances prove that in the seas around Newfoundland these gigantic cephalopods are abundant. They seldom approach the shore, so that the depths of the ocean in certain places may contain shoals of them. Mr. Savillo Kent says, in the article previously Teferred to: "Summing up the whole, we are forced to admit that this group of cophalopodous mollusks contains representatives of enormous dimensions distributed in the seas througliout the globe, and embracing in all probability many distinct genera and species. Such is the formidable size of these giant calamaries that they vie even with the cetacea in magnitude, and in this respect yield to no other animals now existing. It further appears obvious that the numerous tales and traditions that have been current from the earliest times, concerning the existence of colossal species of this race, though in some instances unscrupulously exaggerated, had, in all probability, in the main a back- ground work of fact, and can be no longer passed over as the mere fabrications of a disordered mind, as wo hav;^ hitherto been inclined to accept them." II '' back- over as CHAP. IS.] ANIMAL KINGDOM. 243 Professor Vorrill says: "The pen of our Arcluteuthin Ilarveyi seems to resemble that of the ancient genus TcmlopNis, found fossil in the Jurassic formations, and contemporancoas with tho huge marine saurians, ichthyo' saiirus and ^iJcsioraurns, etc., the sea-serpent of thoso ancient seas. May there not also be hugo marine saurians still living in the North Atlantic, in coni| ny with tho ginut squids, but not yet known to naturalists ? Such a bt'lief seems quite reasonable when we consider how many species of great marine animals, both among ccphalopods and cetaceans, are still known only from single specimens, or oven mere fragments generally obtained only by chance." Should this eminent naturalist's opinion be well founded, then our Newfoundland devil fish may prove to be first cousin to the sea-serpent, and perhaps may introduce one day this relative who has tantalised and eluded the grasp of so many mariners, and may yet prove to be no more a myth than the devil fish which has now an acknowledged place in the halls of science. Herr T. A. Verkruzen, the German naturalist, already mentioned in these pages as the introducer of the Lecnberg dog, spent a portion of two summers in dredging and collecting mollusca around the shores of the island. He also visited the Banks, in a fishing vessel, for the same purpose. The result was a collection of the mollusca of Newfoundland of great value to science, by an able and accomplished naturalist, who is a master in conchology. He very kindly presented to the Geological Museum of St. John's a collection embracing specimens of ninety-two different species of mollusca, which he had collected and identified. He also printed a small pamphlet containing a complete list of his discoveries. His collection cost him much time, labour, and money, and his is the only account of the mollusca of Newfoundland yet published. «> I !J ii| CHAPTER X. \ VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Forest trees — Evergreens — The Labrador tea-plant — Wild berries- Flowering plants and ferns — Wild tlowers and vegetables. In the chaptei' on "Forest Timber," an account will be given of the more valuable trees of the country, and the extent of the forest growths. It will be there shown that in the valleys of the interior are magnificent forests of great extent of pine, spruce, birch, juniper, larcli, etc., furnishing ample materials for a large timber trade, as well as for shipbuilding purposes. The white pine is often found from seventy to eighty feet in height, and over three feet in diameter. The spruces and larches are of the best quality for shipbuilding purposes, while the yellow birch is pronounced equal in durability to the English oak. The latter, especially on the western side of the island, frequently attains a great size both in girth and height. The oak, beech, maple, chestnut, and walnut are not found in New- foundland. A kind of dwarf maple is found in the interior. The American mountain ash grows to a large size, and is very abundant, the aspen, the balsam poplar, the dog- wood thrive well, and the willow family is well represented and attains a large size. The recumbent or ground juniper and the recumbent Canadian yew are plentiful. The alders attain but a stunted growth. The English hawthorn has i VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 245 Jew- 3rior. id is Idog- ^nted piper llders has been introduced and thrives well, but is not extensively cultivated. The evergreens are in considerable variety. The most remarkable is the Labrador tea-plant, growing in swamps to the height of three feet, the leaves of which are used by Indians and hunters in place of tea. The ground laurel is a low running shrub, with leaves nearly two inches in length, on long stalks, rough, leathery, and shining, Tts whito fragrant flowers groAv at the ends of tho branches. There is a great variety of recumbent trailing evergreens. The Jvidinia family abounds in the swampy grounds, its beautiful clusters of red and pale rose-coloured flowers being very agreeable to the eye. One of the most characteristic features of the country is the immense variety and abundance of berry-bearing plants. These cover every swamp and open rocky tract, iuid furnish excellent fruit for preserves. Over many thousands of uncultivated acres they carpet the soil. The principal varieties are the hurtleberry — called in tho ver- iificular "hurts'"* — the whortleberry in several kinds, tho cranberry, partridgeberry bake-applo berry. The wild straAvberry and raspberry are most abundant, and make a delicious preserve. The maidenhair, or capillaire, is a little trailing plant belonging to the family of the felices or ferns. It bears a little fruit, white, and like an ant's egg, which contains so much saccharine matter as to be lusciously sweet when made into a jam or preserve. Berry-picking is quite an industry at a certain season, and might be indefinitely expanded. Of the wild cherries, the choke-cherry is most abundant, and often forms an ornamental tree in gardens. The fruit is pendulous and grape-like, the flowers of a yellowish white colour. There is also a kind of wild prickly gooseberry. . The flowering plants and ferns are in such variety that '!^i ; Ad ^a %* ^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 I.I 'AMIIM ill 5 :S. 1112 'MO 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 < 6" ► ^% V} V), m 'm VI ,'^- o >> / /A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. M580 (716)872-4503 iV ^^ 4^ \ \ ^ % V ... ■''■'' o .V A, <^^ .\ k % 1> ^-.>> Pb^ % A' ^■> i M their annual value, all fishery products included, may be estimated at from six to eight millions of dollars ; and they constitute the main source from which a population of 180,000 derive their support. They do not, however, expand with, the increasing jiopulation ; and hence, to pro- vide for the future, the long dormant resources of the island are at length, about to be turned to account. The great cod fishery, though many more hands are employed in it than formerly, lias long been absolutely stationary. For thirty years it has occasionally risen above, and at times fallen below, a million quintals ; and had it not been for the discovery of mines and greater attention to agri- culture, destitution would have driven away great numbers of the inhabitants. The railway now under construction will revolutionise matters and create new industries. Having tlius sketched the history of the Newfoundland fisheries, we subjoin the following statistics of the cod fishery, in order to show its growth from the earliest periods find its condition at the present time. The earliest record is for 1096, and is as follows : A\ m f Residents ...... 293 Fishermen 2,028 Total population ..... 2,321 Number of boats ..... 431 Number of quintals of cod caught in ■ the harbours occupied by the British . 220,700 The following is an abstract of the trade and population two years later, in 1098 : Number of planters Number of their children Number of their servants 284 462 1,894 imm P "ifr r 2G6 NEWFOUNDLAND. Number of boats owned by them Quintals of fisli made by them Number of ships fishing and carrying fish Their tonnage . . . . . , Number of seamen employed Quintals of fish caught by ships . Quintals of fish purchased by merchants Quintals of fish carried to market [PABT III, 397 101,152 252 24,318 4,2-14 114,770 157,848 205,108 The returns for the following sixteen years seem to indicate a decline in the cod fishery, the average exporta- tion for the first three years of that period being 154,370 quintals, and for the last three 102,303 quintals. A remarkable increase in the catch of fish took place in 1703, and in the following years the progress was fully sustained, as the following statistics show : Year. Quintals exported 1703 . . . . 3-1-8,294 1704 . 470,118 1705 493,054 1785 . 591,276 1787 , 732,015 1788 . 048,070 1700 0-10,002 1702 . 552,200 1705 500,000 1800 382,000 1805 025,519 1810 884,474 1813 891,300 1814 . 947,702 1815 . 1,080,200 1820 . 901,159 ♦: , i cnAP. I.] THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. 1825 1835 1815 1850 1854 18G0 18G3 187Q 1872 1873 1874 1875 187G 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 207 073,104 712,588 1,000,233 1, .089, 182 774,117 1,379,804 1,012,321 1,101,535 1,221,150 1,309,205 1,009,724 1,130,235 1,301,008 1,029,004 1,074,040 1,387,770 1,419,505 1,583,132 In connection with tlio foregoing returns tlio population of the island at various periods must bo taken into account. The statistics given ahovo include tho quantities of cod taken by the whole number of fishermen, both those who came in ^ ling vessels and returned to England at the end of the season, and those resident in the country. As the population increased tho fishing industries fell more and more into the hands of those who resided in the island, and at length the migratory fishery ceased entirely. In 1703 the resident population was 13,112; in 1792, 15,253; in 1789, 19,100; in 1825, 55,719; in 1832, 00,008; in 1855, 122,638; in 1809, 140,536; in 1874, 101,449; in 1882, estimated population 185,000. Naturally we should expect to find as the population grew, and more persons were employed in the fisheries, tho ' 1 I > ! i( ■; 2G8 NEWFOUNDLAND. [rxui III. 1*4 j il quantities of fish cauglit ■would incronso in proportion. 15ut the foregoing statistics provo that this has not been the case. In 1855, with a population of 122,G;]8, the quantity of cod taken amounted to 1,107,388; in 1880, with a population of nearly 183,000, the quantity of cod taken was 1,419,505. For thirty years the catch has occasionally fallen below a million quintals, but only duving two or three years has it greatly exceeded a million quintals. 1}\ 187 !•, an ex- ceptional year, it rose to 1,000,721 quintals, which were the highest figures ever reached; and in 1880 the catch amounted to 1,419,505 quintals. The grand staple industry must bo regarded as stationary, though greatly increased numbers are engaged in it, and improved appliances have been of late introduced for the capture of the cod. The question arises — Have the limits of the cod fishery been reached ? Are there fewer cod in the water than formerly, owing to the heavy drafts made on the prolific race by the increasing numbers of fishermen ? There can be no doubt that there are localities which show signs of exhaustion, either from over-fishing or other causes, such as the destruction of the food of the cod. Some of the bays, notably Conception Bay, whore cod were once abundant, are now comparatively unproductive fishing- grounds. But this exhaustion is confined to a limited area; and the more extensive fishing banks along shore, and the Great Banks far out at sea, show no signs of depletion. The Great Banks, six hundred miles in length and two hundred in breadth, the home and breeding- grounds of the cod, have been fished for three centuries and a half without showing any symptoms of a falling off in the quantities taken. The enormous fecundity of the cod forbids the idea of exhaustion ; and the quan- tities taken by man are infinitesimal when compared with the destruction caused by their natural enemies. The li ^' CHVI-. I.] TlIK COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. 2G9 Fishery CommisFionors oE England, after an exhaustive iiujiiiry into the matter, declare that there is no falling' off in the supply of fish around the shores of Great JJritain, notwithstanding the iniinonso and increasing drafts on them ; and in consequence, have recommended the removal of all restrictions on the fishing industries. It is difficult to see why the Newfoundhuid fisheries should ever fall into a state of depletion, when other British Avaters, with far heavier drafts, are as prolific as ever. The stationary condition of the Newfoundland cod fishery is not caused by a falling off in the quantity of cod in the waters, but is largely owing to the imperfect and antiquated methods of taking them which still obtain. Science has not been called in to aid this important industry as has been the case in Norway. Newfoundland has no fishery bureau. Improvements are very slowly introduced. The hook-.and-line is depended on far too extensively. Fishing from small punts with the baited hook, close in-shore, is the method followed by large numbers of the poorer class of fishermen. The merchants show no spirit or energy in procuring information re- garding what other countries are doing, or by inducing fishermen to use improved fishing gear. The preser- vation of bait by ice is only attempted on a small scale, the aid of the telegraph and the thermometer has not yet been obtained. Above all, the vicious "supplying system," by which advances in food and clothing, at high prices, ax'e made to the fishermen at the commencement of each season, is destructive to the industrious efforts of those who are thus never out of debt, and often on the brink of famine ; and tends to undermine their self-respect and honesty. Were there a well-organised fishery bureau, under the guidance of a skilled scientist and practical men, and were the improvements of the other fishing couutrief U r' ;,l i i' * tiil I 270 KKWFOUNDLANI). (FAIT HI. ill ,1 I introdncod hero, and tho supplying system cnvtailcd or ubolislied, tlio cod fishery, as well as tho other fiaherics, by tho application of skill and capital, might bo indefinitely increased. Under tho present system, it is not likely to mako further advances. There have boon some improve- ments, but much remains to bo done. Newfoundlanders have every natural advantage in inexhaustible supplies of cod either close to their doors or on tho Banks, a day's sail from their shores, or on the Labrador coast, at no great distance. To tho inhabitants of warm countries tho dried cod furnishes a palatable article of food, and many of them regard it as indispensable. Cfitholic countries alono spend annually about half a million sterling in the purchase of cod taken in North American seas. So far from declining in value, tho price of Newfoundland cod has advanced from fifty to seventy-fivo per cent, within the last fifteen years. While there is a difficulty often in finding a market for English manufactured goods, the demand for cod-fish never fails; and, as railways extend in Brazil, in Spain, in tho Mediter- ranean countries, so as to permit its conveyance to the in- teriors, tho demand increases. Thus it is evident that a cod-producing country possesses in this industry a source of prosperity which can never fail, and which the fluctuations of trade, or tho caprices of fashion, cannot much affect. The extraordinary fecundity of tho cod secures the fisheries against exhaustion. The cod fishery of Newfoundland is the grand staple industry, all the other fisheries — of tho seal, sahnon, herring, etc. — amounting in the aggregate in value to but one-fifth of tho whole. Four-fifths of tho eutii'e returns of the fisheries arise from tho cod fishery. In pi'oof of this we may take the latest complete returns, those for tho year ending July 31st, 1881. The products of CHAP. I.] THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. tlio cod fishery exported that year, inclusive of wore as follows : 1,583,123 quintals dried cod, at $3 20 c. . 1,51 G „ green „ 4,127 tuns cod oil, at $180 . lli „ refined cod-liver oil, at $180 1,0 10 barrels cod-rocs, at $3 . . 43 packages of tongues and sound, at $1 300 barrels cods'-heads, at $1 . Total value of exports of the cod fishery . To this must be added the local consumption of cod-fish, at the rate of 1^ quintals per head, or 270,000 quintals at $3 20c. Total value of cod fishery in 1881 271 Labrador, Dollars. 5,0GG,O20 1,51 G 445,71 G 25,922 3,120 43 300 5,542,G35 8G4,000 G,40G,G35 I I The value of the other fisheries — of the seal, salmon, liorring, etc.— for 1881 was $1,429,871. The value of the whole exports, copper ore included, for 1881 was $7,01.8,574. It is interesting to note the number of persons employed iu taking this quantity of cod-fish. The latest census, that of 1874, showed that out of a population of 101,449 thcro wore 2G,377 able-bodied fishermen in the colony, 45,845 persons engaged in catching and curing fish, 1,197 vessels of a tonnage of Gl,551 tons, 8,902 fishing-rooms in actual use, and 18,G11 boats employed in the shore fishery. At the present date there are about 53,000 persons engaged in catching and curing fish out of a population of 180,000. The same men are employed in the seal and herring fisheries as in the cod fishing, the seal fishery occurring in spring before the cod make their appearance, and the herring in the autumn and winter. S' ;i4i rf 272 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AKT HI. ii ) : I We shall now endeavour to estimate tlie extent and value of tho French, and American . Newfoundland cod fisheries. For some three hundred and fifty years, Franco has carried on a cod fishery on tho Banks of New- foundland, and also along the western and northern shores of the island. Each year a fleet arrives at St. Pierre, in April, from France. After purchasing a supply of bait, for which they are dependent on the Newfoundland fishermen, who realise about $100,000 per annum by its sale, they proceed to the Banks and the stations along shore. Each vessel makes three trips from St. Pierre to the Banks. Tho produce of the first two voyages is taken ashore at St. Pierre and dried, and that of the third is taken direct to France in a green state. The fishery is sustained by a bounty of eight shillings and four pence sterling per quintal. It has been for years in a state of decline, and without the bounties would perish. In 1839, according to Lc Gonstitiitionnel, as quoted by Sir R, Bonnycastle in his work on Newfoundland, tho French cod fishery, in Newfoundland waters, employed GOO ships, 13,000 men, and 50,000 tons of shipping, furnishing France with 12,000 able seamen — being one-fourth of the whole number required for her navy at that time. In 18 18, according to the report of Captain Loch, of H.M.S. Alarm, " there were 360 French Banking vessels, of from 150 to 300 tons each, carrying from 16,000 to 17,000 Frenchmen; which vessels caught annually 1,200,000 quintals of fish on the Banks.'' In 1852, Perley's report was, in substance, the same. In 1865, James S. Hayward, Esq., of H.M. Customs, Newfound- land, visited St. Pierre, and obtained access to tho French records. His report, which is quite reliable, shows a very striking decline in the French fishery. He found that in 1864, there were employed in the fisheries ninety-eight square-rigged vessels, carrying 2,742 men, and 579 small craft and boats, carrying 4,541 men : making a total of [I'.VliT III. 3nt and nd cod , Franco )i New- aortlieru ), Pierre, ipply of jundland n by its ns along t. Pierre voyages it of the tte. The and four in a state In 1839, ly Sir R. e French ,00 ships, icr France ;lie whole laccording jhere were ;ons each, ;h vessels Banks." ;ame. In ewfound- lie French vs a very Id that in |ety-eight ,79 small total of cnAP. I.] THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. 273 7,223 engaged in the fisheries. The catch that year was : Dried cod-fish, 190,997 quintals ; green cod, 46,940 quintals. Allowing twenty quintals per man for the last trip, the produce being taken to France green, we have 54,840 quintals ; and the Northern fishery, not reported at St. Pierre, would probably yield 100,000 quintals. We have thus, as the total catch along the shores and on the Banks, by the French, in 18G4, 398,797 quintals. In a favour- able year it is possible that the catch may approach half a million of quintals — a striking decline since 1848. This fishery has not advanced since 18G4, as the latest returns obtained, those for 1874, show that there were that year, 847 vessels, and 5,G21 men employed in the fishery. In this return are included the schooners from St. Pierre, a,nd boats not decked, employed at the local fishery about St. Pieri'e, In 18G8 the cod-fish export from St. Pierre was 217,G45 quintals. The I'rench Newfoundland fisheries may be estimated at present as averaging from 400,000 to 500,000 quintals annually ; the number of men employed being 5,000 to G,000. The following return shows the number of men and vessels employed from 18G7 to 1874: Men. 7,178 G,552 G,452 G,397 5,295 5,G20 6,036 5,G21 Boats and schooners are included in t^.o above return. The French returns give the value of their Nrwfound- T \ Vessels 1867 . . 804 18GS . . 774 1869 . . 806 1870 . 833 1871 . . GC)o 1872 . . 865 1873 . . 899 1874 . . 847 Iri! -ti 1 1 ,1 274 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT lit. land fisheries as 8,300,000 francs in 1S71, and 10,500,000 francs in 1872. In the Eeviie cles Deux Mondes for November, 1874, a writer states that these fisheries bring some lo to 20 million francs to French commerce, and employ 9,000 sailors. This statement is not borne out by their own returns. The history of the French Newfound- land fisheries shows a steady decline since 1850. From 1841 to 1850 the average tonnage employed in their fisheries annually was 18,000 ; the average number of men 11,500. The decline, therefore, amounts at present to one- half. After "fatal Waterloo," the Fi-ench, in order to restore their naval power and create sailors, gave immense bounties to those who engaged in the Newfoundland fisheries, amounting to about 870 per man. Being sus- tained by such bounties the Newfoundland fishermen could not compete on the Banks with the French, the outfit for this fishery being very expensive. The result was that the British Bank fisheiy declined rapidly, so that in 1845 it was completely extinct. Once it employed 400 vessels. As a commercial speculation the French Bank fishery is not suc- cessful ; and were it not for the bounties it would be aban- doned. It is well known that the French fishermen pursue these foreign fisheries largely for the bounties they enjoy, the fish being, in many instances, a secondary consideration. There are no available statistics, as far as we are aware, to show what is the American catch of cod-fish on the Banks. Formerly a large number of American fishing vessels used to frequent the Labrador coast, but at present very few are seen there, and American fishei'men confine their efforts mainly to the Banks when in pursuit of cod. According to the Annual Report of the chief of the Bureau of Statistics, etc., the amount of dried cod-fish received into the Customs' Districts of the United States during 1871 was 850,732 quintals, valued at 83,094,483 ; and in 1875 the quantity of dried cod-fish was 750,513 quintals, valued at >?3,001,19D. [PAST III. 500,000 des for !S bring 'ce, and 5 out by iwfound- . Frotn in tlieir • of men .t to one- order to immense coundland eing sus- BBii could ! outfit for ,s that the 815 it was els. As a not suc- be aban- en pursue icy enjoy, ideratiou. we aware, le Banks, ssels used •y few are ;ir efforts ording to Statistics, Customs' 850,732 Liantity of 3,0(31,100. ,3 tnvp. I.] THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. 275 The greater portion of this catch was, wo believe, taken on the Banks. The American cod fishery shows a marked decline between the years 1850 and 1SG7. In the former year the tonnage of the United States employed in the cod fishery was 130,651; in 18G7 it was 30,700. Tho decline has been most rapid since 1863. Whether this fishery has rallied since 1807 we have no statistics to determine. The following Table shows the comparative value of the cold-water sea fisheries of tho United States, the Dominion of Canada, and Newfoundland. The returns include not only cod but all fish, such as mackerel and herring, taken in the waters around the coasts : Year. United States. Dominion of Canada. Newfoundland Dols. Dols. Dols. 1870 . 5,313,9G: . 7,000,000 . 7,260,298 1871 . 11,428,410 8,000,000 . 8,086,081 1872 . 9,526,647 . 0,570,116 . 6,954,528 1873 . 8,348,185 . 10,754,988 . 8,138,965 1874 . 9,522,553 . 11,081,886 . 8,511,710 1875 . 10,747,579 . 10,31-7,886 . 7,845,328 1876 . 9,756,683 . 11,019,451 . 7,687,877 From this Table it appears that the combined catch of the Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland is nearly double in value tho mean annual yield of the sea fisheries of the United States. The greater part of the latter are carried on in waters off British- American coast-lines. Of European cod-producing countries by far the most important is Norway. It is the great rival of Newfound- land in tho cod markets of the world, and its competition is very keen, especially in recent years, during which the Norwegians have madogi'cat advances, by the aid of science, ill the modes of capturing and curing cod. The following table exhibits the comparative condition of the Noi'wcgian X 2 '(■ li ' I ! t: ' .|.;i 276 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT ni. and Newfoundland cod fisheries from 1840 to 1865, show- ing the average annual catch during groups of four years : ft !' "hi ■'¥ Yeara. Norway. Cod exported. Quintals. Newfonndlanrl Cod exportocl. Quintals. 1846-1850 . 537,450 . 980,336 1851-1855 . 605,737 . 953,858 1850-1860 . 606,070 . 1,220,154 1861-1865 . 751,382 . 1,056,551 That the cod fishery of Norway, though fluctuating during certain periods, is increasing in value, is evident from the report of M. Friele, presented at the Paris Expo- sition of 1878. In that report the returns are given as follows : Years. 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 Cod. 49,500,000 47,500,000 53,000,000 38,000,000 70,000,000 Value in dels. . 4,210,000 . 4,060,000 . 4,300,000 . 3,600,000 (about) 6,630,000 The yield in Norway in 1877 of 70,000,000 cod-fish must be regarded as exceptional, being by far the most abundant on record. If we allow fifty cod-fish to a quintal, then the Norway catch in 1877 was 1,400,000 quintals. The last two years have witnessed a failure in these fisheries, which has had the effect of enhancing the price of Newfoundland cod-fish, the catch in Newfoundland being at the same time above an average. In 1877 there were employed in the Loffoden cod fishery — which is the prin- cipal one — 21,287 men and 4,567 boats. The average gain of each fisherman was 8120 during the season, which lasts from the beginning of February to the middle of April, [riHT ITI. , sliow- years : idland. lortod. tals. ),336 J,858 0,154 G,55l actuating 5 evident ris Expo- given as in dols. 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 cod-fisli the most a quintal, quintals. in these the price land being ihere were the prin- lerage gain Irhich lasts of April- OBAF. I.] THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. 277 being a winter fishery. Finmark is the summer cod fishery of Norway. Although the Newfoundland cod fishery does not show any marked advance in the quantities taken during the last thirty years, the increase in the market value of dried cod- fish has been enhanced to the extent of from fifty to seventy-five per cent., so that there has been a steady progress in the value of the products. The following Table shows the progress of the value of the whole products of the Newfoundland fisheries during each group of five years, from 1852 to 1876 inclusive, the main increase arising from the cod fishery : Group of Five Years. 1852-185G 1857-1862 1862-1866 1867-1871 1872-1876 Average "Value of Exports from Newfoundland. Dollars. 5,166,129 6,132,392 6,080,445 7,011,407 7,847,661 The following are the values of the en:ports of New- foundland for the years named : Years. 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 Average for the last five years Dollars. 7,625,441 6,591,807 7,168,924 7,131,095 7,648,574 7,233,168 The last-named return in the foregoing Table is for the year ending July 31st, 1881, and is taken from the report of the St. John's Chamber of Commerce. The Custom House returns for 1881 extend to December 31st, 1881, and 278 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'ABT III. show a most extraordinary advance in the value of the fisheries for the whole of that year. The value of the whole expoi'ts for 1881 was no less than 89,365,301. The value of fishei'y products exported in 1881 was thus greater by no less than 82,234,209 than those of 1880. Thus 1881 was by far the most successful year in regard to the products of the fisheries which is on record, the values exceeding those of previous years by nearly two millions and a quarter of dollars. Excluding the catch of cod-fish on Labrador from the returns of 1880 and 1881, the exports of dried cod stood as follows : Dollars. 3,282,963 5,125,275 Years. Quintals. 1880 985,134 1881 . 1,173,510 Increase in 1881 1,842,312 j i f. ,■ • - lit » - . , v. ii !,; m 1 Thus the increase in the values of the exports in 1881 arose largely from an increase in the quantity of cod-fish taken, but also from an advance in the price, which, owing to the failure of the Norwegian fisheries, was considerable. Other things combined to swell the value of the exports for 1881. . The value of the products of the seal fishery was greater by 8302,570 than that of 1880, which had been much below the average. The value of the copper ore exported was also greater by 8106,180 than that of 1880. We must therefore regard 1881 as being quite an excep- tional year, and one whose results are not likely to be equalled for years to come. The seal fishery of the spring of 1882 has proved one of the very worst on record, the catch not exceeding 150,000 seals. The cause of the falling off was the masses of heavy ice which beset the shores for many weeks, impeding the movements of the vessels. This will of course cause a corresponding falling off in one item of the exports for 1882. From the foregoing statements it is evident that the [PABT III. CnAT. I.] THE COD-FISH INDUSTRIES. 279 /1 I !| o£ tho of tho .. Tho greater as 1881 to tlio 1 values ions and -fish on ports o£ rs. ,903 ,275 ,312 i in 1881 ' cod-fish !h, owing iderahle. ports for hery was lud been pper ore of 1880. n excep- ly to be lie spring [cord, the of the )eset the ts of the Ig faUing cod fishery of Newfoundland is greater than that of any other cod-producing country in the world, the Norway fishery being next in value. The average value of the Newfoundland products of the cod fishery may now be reckoned at 8 500,000 per annum ; and adding to this the value of the local consumption, we must place the entire annual value at 80,304,000. It may be interesting to compare the principal sea fisheries of the world in regard to their respective value. The following Table may be regarded as presenting a fairly correct estimate of the annual value : British European sea fisheries . British American sea fisheries . United States . . . . France Norway . . . . , Eussia (European sea fisheries) Eussia (Asiatic fisheries) . Netherlands . . . . Total Yaluo iu Dollars, 31,090,000 20,193,590 13,030,821 12,100,060 0,250,219 2,425,156 10,890,025 1,035,725 'i' m that the CIIAPTEE 11. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD, ITS DISTRIBUTION, MOVEMENTS, SPAWNING, AND MODE OF CURE. 'liM' .■■ Ill I! Cold-water seas and the Arctic current — Nature's laws of com- pensation—Food of the cod — The Labrador current — An old theory exploded — A submarine plateau — The fishing season — Caplin and squids — Process of curing the cod — Operators at ■work — Cod-liver oil — Fishing tackle and methods of taking the cod. Of tlie tlivee leading kinds of commercial food-fishes — the cod, tlio herring, and the niackei'el — the cod has the widest range. On the east coast of America, it is found, from the Polar regions on the north to Cape Hatteras on the south, being most abundant on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, and on the great banks lying to the south and west. On the western coast of America, in the North Pacific Ocean, its boundary runs from Northern China, at Chusan, northward along the west coast of Japan and the Kurile Islands to the southern extremity of Kamtschatka, and across to the Aleutian Islands, by Kodiak, Sitka, and the islands of the west coast of North America to San Francisco. In the Old World the cod has an extensive geographical range, being most abundant in the neighbourhood of the Loffoden Islands, Norway, Finmark, Iceland, the Faroe and British Islands. BUTION, JURE. J of cotn- t — An old I season — levators at of taking lod-fishes has the it is ;o Cape tlio coast banks coast of ary runs .he west southern Aleutian est coast d World mg most Islands, Islands. CHAP. II.] NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD. 281 Its northernmost limit is in general seventy-seven degrees north latitude, and the southernmost, in the Atlantic, thirty degrees north latitude. It is thus found on the coasts of both continents, and on the line where the Arctic and North Atlantic Oceans meet. This may be called the domain of the GadidiG, which naturalists tell us embrace nine genera and forty-one species. Cold-water seas are essential to the life of the com- mercial food-fishes. In the tropical seas, or even in A NKWFOUNDIAND FISHING FLEET BEFORE THE DAYS OF STEAM. the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, they could not exist, any more than the Arctic hare could thrive in the Torrid Zone. The Arctic current which washes the coasts of Labrador, Newfoundland, Canada, and part of the United States, chilling the atmosphere, bearing on its bosom huge ice-argosies, is the source of tho vast fish wealth which has been drawn on for ages, and which promises to continue for ages to come. Wanting this cold "river in the ocean," the cod, seals, herrings, mackerel, halibut, hake, etc. which now crowd the northern seas, would be entirely absent. Tho great I ' !ii 1 ^ -t Hi 1 1 r 282 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT III, iilv fishing interests nvo thus as dependent on the Arctic current, as the farming interests on the rain and sunshine which ripen the crops. Here is an illustration of Nature's great hiw of compensation. Whilo the bleak shores of these northern regions are almost teuantlcss •wildernesses, tho encompassing seas are swarming with vast varieties of marine life. Tho Ai'ctic current rushes down from tho Spitzbergen seas, laden with ice-fields and iccoergs, sweeps round Capo Farewell, tho southern point of Greenland, flows north as far as Cape York, and being hero deflected westward, it mingles with tho ice-laden river coming from tho Arctic regions through Davis Strait. It now flows south, and receiving a fresh accession of strength from Hudson's Strait, it rushes along Labrador and the Newfoundland shores, till it encounters the warm waters of the Gulf Stream moving eastward. Hero it is divided into two parts, one wedging itself between tho Gulf Stream and the coast, the other shooting underneath tho warm waters of this second river of tho ocean. From Labrador southward it is usually called the Labrador current j and tho area which it occupies on tho coasts of North America is the great feeding and spawning ground of the commercial deep-sea fishes. It is not altogether owing to its temperature that the Labrador current is favourable to the development of the commercial fishes, though that is essential to their growth. This cold current brings with it the food on which these fishes thrive, and tho supply is one that can never fail. So far from being unfavourable to the production of life, the Arctic seas and tho great rivers Avliich they send forth are swarming with Biinute forms of life, constituting, in the words of Professor Hind, " in many places a living mass, a vast ocean of living slime; and the all-pervading life which exists there affords the true solution of tho ■t! m lii t ! [past III. Arctic insbino [ature'a oro3 of :nesses, arieties zborgcn , round I, flows leflcctcd comiug It now strength dor and le warm Hero it between sliooting r of tlie y called occupies feeding fishes, lire that Ipment of to their on which an never uction of hoy send Istituting, a living ervading of the CUM', tl.l NATURAL HISTORY OF TIIK COD. 283 problem which has so often presented itself to those engaged in the great fisheries — where the food comes from which gives sustenance to the countless millions of fish wliicli swarm on the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland, and in Dominion and United States waters, or wherever the Arctic current exerts an active influence." In the Arctic seas the waters are characterised by a variety of colours and it is found that if a fine insect net bo towed after a ship it becomes covex'ed with a film of green in green water, and with a film of brown in brown water. These films are of organic origin. " It is," says Hind, " a living slime, and where it abounds there also ai'o to be found swarms of minute crustaceans, which feed on the slime, and iu their turn become the food of larger animals." Dr. Brown has shown that the presence of this slime spread over a hundred thousand square miles jirovides food for myriads of birds that frequent the Arctic seas in summer, and also furnishes sustenance to the larger marine animals, up to the giant whale. This " slime of the ocean " appears to be most abundant in the coldest water, and especially in the neighbourhood of ice. The ice-laden current from Bafllu's Buy and the Spitzbergeu seas carries myriads of icebergs which ground iu countless numbers on the coast of Labrador, and " render possible there the existence of all these forms of marine life, from the diatom to the minute crustacean, from the minute crustacean to the crab and prawn, together with molluscous animals and starfish in vast profusion, which conti'ibute to the support of the great schools of cod which also find their homo there." Thus, then, the great battalions of icebergs carry with them the slime-food on which minute crustaceans live ; and these in their turn furnish food for the herring which swarm on the Great Banks, where this food is abundant, and the herring, with multi- tudes of other forms, are devoured by the cod. When the cod is assimilated by man this great circle of Nature is complete. i! ! -- 1, w 11 [I:: 1 1 i i 1 1 i # I ■t! lii i i III' 1 i ■ - i-T 1 1 ; 1 ' 284 NEWFOUNDLAND. [fAIT lit. There is a vast area on the shores of North America occupied by the Labrador current, and constituting the homo of tho cod and other commercial fishes. IJy far the greatest area of this cold water subtends the coasts of tho British American provinces, within the hundred-fathom line of soundings. It is computed that while the cold-water area subtending the coast of the United States is about 45,000 square miles, that subtending British American shores is 200,000 square miles. The following Table, given by Professor Hind, shows the comparative extent of coast-line washed by the cold current : United States, north of Capo Hattoras Newfoundland . > . Labrador, as far as Nain . Now Brunswick .... Nova Scotia ..... Quebec ...... Jliles. 1,070 2,000 3G0 545 1,170 1,104 Thus while British America has a coast-lino of 5,239 miles of fishing ground, the United States have but 1,070. Hence the superior value of British North American fisheries. There is another important consideration. The homes of tho deep-sea commercial fishes are in the vicinity of the coasts washed by the cold-water seas, and these are the great storehouses of the commercial fish supplies, and the real and only mainstay of the deep-sea fishery industries of both British America and the United States. The old theory regarding the extended migrations of the cod and herring to the Arctic or other distant regions and back is now entirely exploded. These fish are now known to be local in their habits, and to be confined to a limited area in their movements. They are governed in their movements by the presence or absence of food, the spawning instinct, and the temperature of the water. Their general move- ments are in schools, from the deep to the shallower and [nn in. imerica ng the far tlie 1 of the lom line (l-water s about merican ■ Table, xtent of ilea. ,070 ,000 ;3G0 545 ,170 ,101 CRAP. It.] NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD. 285 warmer waters of tlio coast, for spawning, or in search of food, returning by the same route in a direct lino to their hahltat. The law which governs fish life is that they return to the place of their birth for reproductive purposes. Hence all round the coasts there are at difPorent places what may be called colonies of fish, differing from each other, and each having a range of movement from the deep to the shallower watcs, and vice versa. To the spot where the young first issued from the ovum they return when mature to repeat the story of their birth. Further, in passing from the spawning grounds to the deeper waters where they spend the winter, the cod and other fish follow a definite line of migration, and that generally the shortest and most direct route. Most of the schools around tlie Newfoundland coast are believed to winter at no great distance from tho shore. Thus the cod taken along any stretch of coast-line is really indigenous to the adjacent sea area. The eminent naturalist, Professor Sars, has proved that the cod drops its spawn free into the sea, at a considerable distance from the bottom. The spawn does not sink, but goes through all its stages of development swimming free in the sea, quite near the surface. The eggs are transparent, and have a specific gravity so near that of sea-water that they float near the surface, and are hatched in about six- teen days. The male fish, in spawning, swims deeper than the female, and the milt being of less specific gravity than the sea-water, floats upon the surface as soon as it is poured out. The young cod in its first year grows to be about a foot in length. When six months old it goes off from its birthplace into deeper water. It is not reproductive till its fourth year. The remarkable submarine plains at some distance from the shores of Newfoundland, where the finest cod-fish are taken, and where they are most abundant, are not, as was long believed, masses of sand, borne thither by the Gulf ■ ■ i! \h 1 i ■ 1 m '< i ;■ . ii ■ ',! 1 -^. p' 1 1 1 i ; i i ■ 1 1 ■ > 1 / .1 i 286 NEWFOUNDLAND. IPAHT III. Stream and the Eiver St. Lawrence. They form a rocky submarine plateau, whose eastern and southern borders descend steeply to a great depth. The Great Bank extends over fully nine degrees of latitude from north to south ; from west to east it covers in some places five degrees. The depth of water varies from fifty to three hundred and sixty feet. Beyond the Grand Bank to the eastward lies tho Outer or False Bank, upon which the sea is from six hundred to nine hundred feet in depth. To the west there are several smaller banks. At the west end of the Great Bank soundings have shown a depth of nine thousand feet. The depth around the bank is from ten thousand to fifteen thousand feet. The -water on the bank is not warmer than that surrounding it at a depth of three hundred to six thousand feet, namely, 39'2 to 42"8. The fishing- grounds do not extend over the whole bank, but have an extent of about two hundred miles in length and sixty- seven miles in breadth. For nearly four hundred years this " cod meadow " has been fished by large fleets of various nations, without showing any decrease in productiveness. The cod taken on the Banks is larger and finer in quality than the fish taken along the shores of the island or on Labrador. An average of thirty Bank cod, when dried, make a quintal. The price is higher than that of shore fish. It is a prevalent opinion among fishermen, and until recently was also held by naturalists, that the cod taken in deep water, on banks and reefs, at a considerable distance from as well as close to the land, is a different species from the cod taken in coastal waters. The re- searches of Sars into the natural histoiy of the cod have exploded that opinion, and proved that the shore and Bank cod are really the same species. The Bank cod is merely the mature full-grown cod that has reached its fourth year or upwards, its habits at that age leading it to prefer the Banks to the shore as feeding-grounds. The [part 111. I rocky borders extends soutli ; degrees, red and ard lies rom six ;st there le Great md feet. fifteen warmer adred to fisliing- liave an ,d sixty- ears this : various eness. finer in land or dried, of shore len, and the cod siderablo different The re- od have ud Bank merely fourth ng it to 3. The en CHIP. II.] XATUKAL HISTORY OF THE COD. 287 two-year-old and three-year-old cod remain on the shore all the year, passing to and from the .shallower water. When four yeai*s old their reproductive instincts are de- veloped, and. after spawning they retire far from the coast, and are found on the submarine slopes and valleys of the Great Banks. On the Labrador coast and on Finmark great numbers of small cod are taken, from eighteen to twenty-two inches in length; and these are probably schools in their second or third year, which in a season or two, when mature, will change their mode of existence and become Bank fish. The cod begins to appear on the coasts of New- foundland each year about June 1st, being drawn there mainly by the great master instinct which pei'vades all animated existences. Local variations in the time of arrival, amounting to days and even weeks, occur; and these are dependent c temperature, which determines the move- ment towards the land of the various forms of marine life on which the cod feeds. On the same cause the time of spawning depends. Professor Hind, from a series of careful observations on the movements of the cod, has deduced the following law : " Over an area extending northerly from Conception Bay for seven hundred miles, the cod approach the shore about one week later for every degree of latitude we advance to the north." In Notre Dame Bay and Southern Labrador they appear about June 20th, and on Northern Labrador from the 20th to the 2Sth July. In August and September cod-fishing is going on simultaneously "throughout a length of coast-line extending from latitude 47" 30' to latitude 58" 30', or more than seven hundred miles in one continuous line. Hence it appears that the migrations of the schools of this fish are merely from deep-water winter :.'oeding-grounds to the nearest coast, and from the coast to the nearest deep-water feeding- grounds again. The coast migrations during the summer m m.- ' 11 11 ^^M 288 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT III. months appear to be of equally limited extent, and schools of cod frequenting any particular coast may be said to be indigenous to it." The fishing season on the Newfoundland coast lasts about one hundred and forty-three days; on Southern Labrador, eighty-seven days; and on Northern Labrador, fifty-two days. The arrival of the cod on the coast, about the 1st of June, is heralded by the appearance of the caplin. This is a beautiful little fish, about seven inches in length, which arrives in vast multitudes, swarming in enormous schools, in every bay and creek, and on erery fishing-ground around the island. They approach the shores to spawn, and continue for about six or seven weeks, when they disappear, and retire to some deep-sea valleys of the shore, v/here they remain till the summer of the following year. As they press in on the shore in vast masses, the greedy cod follows behind, feasting on the rich banquet, devouring its prey in myriads. The caplin furnishes the best bait for the fisher- men; and the caplin schooltime is his richest harvest season. Vessels engaged in fishing on the Banks run in to the harbours at intervals for fresh supplies of caplin as bait, T^hioh is preserved in ice. Some idea of the immense shoals of caplin that till the bays may be formed from the fact, that a man standing on shore with a casting-net will often fill a cart with them in an hour. With small seines a couple of men can fill a small boat in an hour or two. Thousands of cartloads of caplin are purchased by farmers, who mix them with earth and bog, and thus form a most fertilising compost. If any means could be devised to cure them, like sardines, which they resemble, caplin would become of considerable commercial value, as they have a very delicate flavour when fresh. In a calm moon- light night in June, when fish are plentiful, and the waters all alive with marine forms, the silvery sides of the cod may be seen flashing in the moonbeams, as the fish leap out of fli CHAT. II.l NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD. 289 the water, and dash upon their prey, the little caplin flying in all directions, and in evident terror often flinging them- selves on the beach. The world of waters, it would seem, is no more free from terror, pain, torture, and death, than the land. Surrounded by ravenous foes, watching for their assaults, flying for dear life, fishes, it may be easily con- ceived, form a part of "the creation that groaneth and travaileth in pain." No sooner do the caplin retire from the coast than a new school appears, which also supply food for the cod, and valuable bait for the fisherman. These are the squids, or small cuttle-fish. The usual time for the appearance of the squids is about the 1st of August. They also remain for six or seven weeks, and are followed by the herring in the end of September and October. Without these bait-fishes the fishermen could do little in captui-ing the cod. In order to form an idea of the process of curing, we shall take a Newfoundland cod-fish, at the tiuie when it is drawn from the water, and follow it through the different stages till it reaches the exporting merchant's store. When the fisherman's boat, laden with the day's catch, reaches his " stage " — a rough covered platform, projecting over the water, and supported on polos — the fish are flung one by one from the boat to the floor of the stage, with an instrument resembling a small pitchfork, and called a pew. The cod is now seized by the " cut-throat," armed with a sharp and pointed knife, with one stroke of which he severs the attachment between the gill-covering and the belly, and inserting the knife in the opening thus made, slits the abdo- men to the vent. He then makes a cut on either side of the head at the base of the skull, and passes it to the " header." This operator first extracts the liver, which is dropped into a vessel by his side, to be converted into cod-liver oil. He then wrenches off the head, removes the viscei*a, which ' 290 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAET III. are thrown into a vessel, to be preserved along with the head for the farmer, who mixing them with bog and earth thus forms a fertilising manure. The tongues and sounds, II ^ V ■; 1 FISH-FLAKE. COD SPREAD OUT. BOAT LANDING COD. or air-bladders, are also taken out, and, when pickled, make an excellent article of food. The fish now passes to the " splitter," who places it on its back and, holding it open with his left hand, takes a splitting-knife in his right, and cuts along the left side of the backbone to the base of tho i ,s 1 1 ' [PABT HI. : witli tHe and earth ud sounds. led, make es to the g it open I'ightj and ise of tl .10 i t . 'A ill r \A>\ '•I*, Y. U m 2 3 O a o '1 ,^ cniF. II.] NATURAL HISTORY OP THE COD. 291 tail. The fisli now lies open on the table, and with a sharp stroke of his knife, the " splitter " severs the backbone at a short distance from the extremity, and catching the end thus freed, lifts it slowly, and following along its side with his knife, quickly cuts it from the body. The " Salter" now takes hold of the fish, and having carefully washed away every particle of blood, he salts it in piles on the floor of the fish-house. After remaining the proper length of time in salt, it is taken from the heap, washed, and carried to the " flake," where it is spread out to dry. The flake consists of a horizontal framework of small poles, covered with spruce-boughs and supported by upright poles, the air having free access beneath. Here the cod are spread out to bleach in the sun and air, and during the process require constant attention. In damp or rainy weather, or at the approach of night, they are piled in small heaps with the skin outward. When thoroughly dried they have a whitish appearance, and are then ready for storing. In due time they reach the merchant's wharf or store, where they are weighed and " culled," or assorted, into four different Kinds, called Merchantable (the best), Madeira, West India (intended for the consumption of the negroes), and Dun, or broken fish, which will not keep, and is for homo use. The dried cod intended for Spain, Italy, Brazil, or any other hot country, is packed by screw-power in " drums," or small casks. To some countries it is shipped in bulk. The cod-liver oil, so famous as a remedy in cases of scrofula and consumption, is extracted from the liver of the cod. The process is very simple as followed in New- foundland. The fresh livers, when carefully washed, are subjected to a moderate heat in a vessel around which warm water circulates. The oil is dipped out and filtered three times, through bags of thin blanketing or stout calico. After the third filtering the oil comes out with a beautiful transparency and almost inodorous. It is then barrelled for u 2 I \ I I I M 4 i : hi i »!| 292 NEWFOUNDLAND. [VABT III. exportation. Great care is required during the process, in regard to cleanliness, and the application of the proper degree of heat. No adulteration is practised in Newfound- land, whatever may be done elsewhere. This refined cod- liver oil is usually sold for about a dollar per gallon in the island. In 1881 it was worth a hundred and eighty dollars per tun. Common cod oil is used for tannery and other purposes, and is worth a hundred and eight dollars per tun. The cod is the most useful of all fish. No part is valueless. The head is sometimes cooked and eaten. More frequently in Newfoundland, it is along with the intestines, converted into manure. The offal and bones of the cod, when steamed, dried, and ground, are converted into a fish guano, which is almost equal as a fertiliser to the Peruvian guano. From the swimming bladder isin- glass is made. The roe is exported to France, and used as ground bait in the sardine fishery. The tongues and sounds are a delicate article of food. The Norwegians give the head, with marine plants, to their cows, for the purpose of increasing their milk ; while the Icelanders use the vertebrao bones and ribs for a similar purpose. The apparatus used by the Newfoundland fishermen are the hook-and-line, the seine, the cod-net or gill-net, the cod- trap, and the bultow. The simplest and least expensive mode of fishing is the hook-and-line, or hand- line. The best bait is the caplin. Too large a proportion of the Newfoundland fishermen depend on this hand-line fishing, from small punts near the shore. It is least expensive, but also least remunerative ; and poverty, in a vast number of instances, forbids the use of the improved methods, which, however, are gradually extending. ^Vhen very fat, the cod does not bite readily, and the hook- and-line men do best when the fish is tliin and towards the end of the season. When spawning, the cod does not take the bait well ; and it is then that the seines, nets. [P\BT III- cess, in proper vfound- ed cod- L in the J dollars id other per tun. part is i eaten, kvitli the id bones converted ■tiliser to [der isin- and used igues and Drwegians s, for the celanders urpose. I fishermen gill-net, land least hand- broportion hand-line or 13 lerty, iinpr least in a Dved When [he hook- ards tow cod does Ines, nets> UBAP. Il-i NATURAL HISTORY OF THE COD. 293 and traps are specially serviceable. The nets and seinea are suspended in the water from floats of cork or wood. The Norwegians now use almost exclusively hollow glass floats, covered with knotted tarred cord as a protection. They are found to be a great improvement on the old buoys. Bultows are used extensively on the Great Banks, and also very largely round the shores and at the entrances of the bays. The bultow is simply a set-line mode of *»iJ^ wHi C0D.FI8HING WITH HOOK AND LINK. fishing, and is called in some places a " trawl-lInc." It is a vast improvement on the hand-line, as several hundreds of hooks are baited, and each is attached to a fine line of hemp or cotton. These short lines are suspended at intervals on a long line, carrying over one hundred hooks which are dropped from the boats and secured by buoys and anchors, and left all night and taken up in the morning. On the Banks, many miles are covered by these bultows, which are secured by suitable moorings, to prevent their being carried away by the strong currents I vr IWnfW 1« 294 NEWFOUNDLAND. (vast lit. whicli usually prevail on the Banks. They are overhauled each day and the fish taken off. The countries to which the Newfoundland cod is exported are Brazil, Spain, Portugal, Italy, the West Indies, the United States, and Great Britain. Brazil and Spain are the colony's best customers. 1 i lit Ai* i •'1 i h I CHAPTER III. THE SEAL mDUSTEY. I i Ancient methods of taking seals — Perils and hardships of the hunters — The beginning of the season — Steamers and sailing vessels — Battling with the ice — Impressive scenes — The Aurora Borealis — How a sealing ship is fitted — The hunters at work— How tho seals are killed and packed for port — Converting the seal for market — Oil and leather. Next to tlie cod fishery, the most valuable of the Newfoundland fisheries is that of the seal. While the cod fishery has been prosecuted for three hundred and eighty years, tho seal fishery is not more than eighty years old. Until the beginning of the present century, the attention of the people was absorbed in the capture of cod. L'Abbe Raynall tells us that as early as 17G3 some English fishermen used to repair to certain parts of the island during winter, for the prosecution of the seal fishery. This was entirely an inshore net fishery, and must have been carried on upon a small scale. The fisher- men placed their nets between the shore and the islands or rocks lying at a short distance from it, and tho seals, in passing these narrow places, were caught. In the Scots Magazine for March, 1704, it is stated that a valuable whale fishery had also been discovered and prosecuted during the preceding three years, in the Gulf and River \m \t- ItIM / !■ 1 . 1 i ! 296 NEWFOUNDLAND. iPAHT lit. of Sfc. Lawrence. Tho Now England people sent ^'"^m fifty to eighty vessels to take part in this fishery, ^ appears to have been very valuable. In Fortune jjay whales continued to bo taken for many years, and are still captured; but this fishery is now unimportant. Up to 1774 vessels went to tho seas around the inland in pursuit of the walrus — morse, or sea-horse, as it is indifferently named. In the returns of the admirals who commanded on the station, we find entries of sea-cow oil, skins, and teeth, each year from 1707 to 1774, after which they do not occur. The value ranges from 1,000Z. to 2,300/. per annum. The walruses have long since disappeared. A wanderer is still, however, occasionally captured by tho seal-hunters. Another mode of killing seals was by shooting large boats, which sailed about the middle of April. At that time of year the "whelping ice" had passed many weeks, and the young seals having taken to the water, only a few stragglers camo within range. As late as 1 795 tho whole catch of seals only amounted to 4,900 per annum. A great step in advance was made when the sealing boats gave place to small schooners of from thirty to fifty tons, carrying twelve or fourteen men, the outfit of each vessel costing about 75L They did not at first leave port till after March 21st, to avoid the equinoctial gales, or, "St. Patrick's brush,'' as it was called, and were often too late for the young seals, though they met plenty of ice. Soon, however, they learned to start somewhat earlier. In 1807 there were only about fifty vessels from all the ports in the island, of from thirty to sixty tons, engaged in the seal fishery. This industry, however, proved so remunerative that its growth, was very rapid. In 1805, 81,088 seals were taken; in 1815, 120,315; in 1820, 213,679; in 1822, 306,982; in 1830, 558,942; in 1840, 631,385; in 1842, 344,683; and in 1844, 085,530 seals, the largest number hi hmi y [FAIT III. at ^"'^'Ti r, ^ ,ne juay are still Up to 1 pursuit ifforently nmanded kins, and . they do ,300/.. per jared. A d by the tint, \.pril. At ised many ater, only 1795 the nnum. A boats gave , carrying el costing iter March . Patrick's te for the , however, 807 there ts in the 1 the seal unerative ,088 seals in 1822, in 1842, it number criAr. III.] THE SEAL INDUSTRY. 297 ever taken in one year. In 1857, there were nearly four hundred vessels, of from eighty to two hundred tons burthen, engaged in tho seal fishery, their united crows numberiug 13,000 men, the total catch of seals that year being close on half a million, worth $1,700,000. Since that date the catch of seals has not increased, and has varied greatly from year to year. In 1800, it amounted to 444,202 seals in 1802, 208,420; in 1871, 537,094; in 1872, 278,372 in 1873, 520,000; in 1874, 398,330; in 1877, 451,078 in 1880, 223,795; in 1881, 447,903; and in 1882, about 150,000 seals, being the smallest number on record since 1818. The cause of this last failure was the continuous blockade of the coasts and bays by heavy ice, impeding the movements of the vessels. Tlie average annual value at present of the seal fishery is ab' t $1,100,000, being about an eighth part of the entire cxp ts. The number of men employed is from 8,000 to 10,000. Thus, beginning with a few nets, there followed tho sealing boats and tho little schooners, carrying each a dozen men, until the industry was prosecuted with vessels of 200 or 250 tons, and crews of forty or fifty men. At length all-conquering steam entered the field, and in 1803 the first steamer took part in this fishery. Since then tho number of steamers has rapidly in- creased, and the number of sailing vessels has still more rapidly diminished. The day is not very distant when this industry will be carried on solely by powerful steamers. In 1800 there were 177 sailing vessels and five steamers; in 1871 there Avere 201 sealing vessels • and thirteen steamers ; their united crews numbering 9,791 men. In 1873 there were eighteen steamers, and at present there are about twenty-five, some of them of 500 tons burthen. They are strongly built, to stand the pressure of ice and cleave their way through the ice-fields, being stoutly timbered, sheathed with iron-wood. 1 . 1 ir 1 1 ^^m ■■m ■»■«■ ■««■■*■ I ■ ■ ■ : 1 ! i i|«l!iW i 1 i l'« 298 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT III. and having iron-plated stems. They carry froo'' 200 to 300 m3n. Of late years, six of the fine Dundee steamers that formerly took part in the Greenland seal fishery, now comparatively exhausted, have come out each season to Newfoundland, shipped crews there, and engaged in the fishery. They are among the finest of the sealing fleet. There is always great excitement connected with the seal fishery. The perils and hardships to be encountered,, the skill and courage required in battling with the ice- giants, and the possible rich prizes to be won, throw a romantic interest around this adventure. Not the seal- hunters alone, but the whole population, from the richest to the poorest, take a deep interest in the fortunes of the hunt. It is like an army going out to do battle for those who remain at home. In this case the enemies ta be encountered are the icebergs, the tempest, and the blinding snowstorm. A steamer will sometimes go out and return in two or three weeks, laden to the gunwale, occasionally bringing homo as many as thirty to forty thousand seals, each worth two and a half or three dollars. The successful hunters are welcomed with thundering cheers, like returning conquerors, and are the heroes of the hour. What tales they have to relate of perils in icy wildernesses, of narrow escapes from being crushed, of the cold plunge into the treacherous ice-chasm, of fierce combats with the '' old Dog Hood ! " No wonder the young Newfoundlander pants for the day when he will get "a berth for the ice,'' and share in the wild joys and excite- ment of the hunt. According to law, m sailing vessel can be cleared for the ice before the 1st of March, and no steamer before the 10th of March; a start in advance of ten days being thus accorded to the vessels which depend on wind alone. As the time for starting approaches, the streets and wharves ii: : II get (( , excite- Lved for toro tlie ig thus le. As ^liarves CHAP. III.] THE SEAL INDUSTRY. 299 of the capital assume an appearance of bustle wliicb. contrasts pleasantly witli the previous stagnation. The steamers and sailing vessels begin to take in stores and complete their repairs. Eough berths are fitted up for the sealers ; bags of biscuit, barrels of pork, and other neces- saries are stowed away; water, fuel, and ballast are taken on board; the sheathing of the ships, which has to stand the grinding of the heavy Arctic ice, is carefully inspected. A crowd of eager applicants surround the shipping offices — powerful-looking men in rough jackets and long boots, splashing tobacco-juice over the white snow in all direc- tions, and shouldering one another in their anxiety to get booked. The great anxiety is to secure a place on board one of the steamers, the chances of success being considered much better than on board the sailing vessels. The masters of the steamers are thus able to make up their crews with picked men. Each steamer has on board from one hundred and fifty to three hundred men, and it would be difficult to find a more stalwart lot of fellows in the royal navy itself. The second-rate and older men are obliged to content themselves with berths on board the sailing vessels, while many poor fellows are obliged to be left behind without employment. The steamers have an im- mense advantage over the sailing vessels. They can cleave their way through the " slob " and heavy ice-packs against the wind J they can double and beat about in seai'ch of the " seal patches ; " and when the prey is found they can hold on to the ice-fields, while sailing vessels are liable to be driven off by a change of wind, and if beset with ice, are often powerless to escape. It is not to bo wondered at that steamers are rapidly superseding sailing vessels in the seal fishery. They can make two, and even three, trips to the ice-fields during the season, and thus leave behind the antiquated sealer dependent on the winds. Before the introduction of steamers one hundred and twenty sailing I'l. ■ ' '^'V 1 '"1 1 i '"' ' i. "vm ill r it! ■ 1 I 300 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PABT III. vessels, of from foi'ty to two hundred tons, used to leave tlie port of St. John's alone for the seal fishery. Now they are reduced to some half-dozen, but from the more distant " outports " numbers of small sailing vessels still engage in this special industry. The young seals are born on the ice from the 15th to the 25th of February, and as they grow rapidly, and yield a much finer oil than the old ones, the object of the hunters is to reach them in their babyhood, while yet fed by their mother's milk, and while they are powerless to escape. So quickly do they increase in bulk that by the 20th of March they are in perfect condition. By the 1st of April they begin to take to the water, and can no longer be captured in the ordinary way. The great Arctic current, fed by streams from the seas east of Greenland, and from Baflin's and Hudson's Bays, bears on its bosom hundreds of square miles of floating ice, which are carried past the shores of Newfoundland to find their destiny in the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. Somewhere amid these float- ing masses the seals have brought forth their young, which remain on the ice, during the first period of their growth, for five or six weeks. The great aim of the hunters is to get among the hordes of "white-coats," as the young harp seals are called, during this period. For this purpose they go forth at the appointed time, steering northward till they come in sight of those terrible icy wildei'nesses which, agitated by the swell of the Atlantic, threaten destruction to all rash invaders. These hardy seal-hunters, however, who are accustomed to battle with the floes, are quite at home among the bergs and crashing ice-masses j and where other mariners would shrink away in terror, they fearlessly dash into the ice wherever an opening presents itself, in search of their prey. In the ice-fields the surface of the ocean is covered with a glittering expanse of ice, dotted with towering bergs caxv. III.] THE SEAL INDUSTRY. 301 of every shape and size, having gleaming turrets, domes, and spires. The surface of the ice-field is rugged and broken, rising frequently into steep hillocks and ridges. The scene in which " The Ancient Mariner " found himself is fully realised : And now there came both mist and snow, And it grew wondrous cold ; And ice, mast-higb, came floating by. As green as emerald ; And through the drifts, the snowy clifts Did send a dismal sheen : Nor shapes of men, nor beasts we ken — The ice was all between. Tlic ice was lierc, the ice was there, The ice was all around ; It cracked and growled, and roared and howled. Like noises in a swouud. When a storm arises amid these icy solitudes the scene is grand and awful beyond all powers of description.. The unbroken swell of the Atlantic rolling in huge continuous ridges, heaves the pavement of ice on its mighty folds, and alternately lifts up the vessels as play- things on its broad domes, or swallows them up in its deep hollows. Speedily, by the upheaving of the waves, the ice-field, many hundreds of square miles in area, is broken up into countless floes, or smaller pieces. The whole mass opens and expands ; and then the broken fragments are dashed against one another with resistless violence, and piled on each other, forming " hummocks," or hills of ice. Or, under pressure of the storm, it fre- (juently happens that the ice is " rafted," as the sealers call it; that is, the fragments are piled in layers one over the other, to the height of thirty or forty feet, being lifted by the swell and hurled forward, as if from huge catapults. Woe to the unfortunate vessel that is I ! ' i '! ;■ § MHni mm l)lr M' H: 302 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT III. witliin the range of these fearful missiles ! In this terrible war of elements, the thundering crashes, as the ice-giants meet and dash one another to death, the floes and bergs grappling with each other in the fray, and the roai'ing overhead of the blinding snowstorm, all combine to make up a scene of terrible confusion. At times the gigantic iceberg takes part in the contest, and borne along in its unswerving course by the deep-sea current, heedless of wind and wave, it smites the ice-field as with the hammer of Thor, rending and tearing the mighty mass, and send- ing its fragments flying in all directions. Frequently the ice acquires a rotary motion; and when we consider the immense weight of these ponderous masses, we may form some faint conception of the blow delivered by such a body when set in motion by the tempest. Scorcsby calculates one at ten thousand millions of tons. Such are the scenes amid which the seal-hunters have to gather in " the precious things of the deep." Considering all the perils, it is surprising how few fatal disasters occur. During the soal-hunt of 1872 one hundred men perished, fifty of these having gone down in a single vessel called the Huntsman, on the coast of Labrador. In the same year, two steamers, the Bloodhound and Retriever, were crushed by the ice and sank, but their crews, numbering nearly four hundred men, managed to reach Battle Harbour, on Labrador, over the ice, after enduring great hardships. Another steamer, called the Monticcllo, also sank, in con- sequence of injuries received from the ice, but her crew were all saved. Happily these terrible storms are not frequent. For the most part the sea is at rest, and then the ice-fields present a strange beauty of their own, which has a wonderful fascination. Beneath the mild light of the moon, and in contrast with the deepci' blue of the sky, ice scenery ia always most impressive. When the sun is shining brightly terrible !e-giants id bergs roaring to make gigantic ag in its 3dless of liammer nd send- :equently consider we may I by sucli Scorcsby 3. Sucli have to nsidering ers occur, perislied, ailed tlie me year, cruslied g nearly •bour, on ardsliips. in con- ler crew it. For I ice-fields has a fie moon, scenery I briglitiy •CHAP. III.I THE SEAL INDUSTRY. 303 it is too dazzling, and its monotony is wearisome. The moon, the stars, and the flickering aurora are needed to reveal all its beauty. During the calm that follows the storm, the evenings amid the ice-fields are often very lovely. The dry bracing atmosphere sends the blood dancing through the veins. The clouds have cleared away, unfolding a lovely sky, studded with stars, through which a brilliant moon sails in calm radiancy. The ice, by the pinions of the storm, has been opened in all directions, and the seal-hunters find them- selves sailing gently through calm water, amid numerous fairy islets of glittering ice, with shining pinnacles and fantastic forms floating caln.ly around. Frequently, in such nights the auroral display is magnificent. An immense curtain of light is spread over the sky, having a border of the richest and most vivid colours, waving its folds like the canopy of an immense tent when agitated by the wind ; green, blue, and red hues are seen colouring the aurora. Occasionally the whole sky is flushed with intense crimson, which, when reflected from the snow, gives it a blood-red hue. Then vast flame-curtains seem to open and close with inconceiv- able rapidity, and radiations of purple, pink, green, and orange sport about the heavens, swelling like waves upon a mysterious shore. Flashes of light in quick suc- cession dart from side to side, the sky being one moment dark and the next lighted up with fitful gleams. Long converging pencils of light of various colours range them- selves round a blank space near the zenith, and form a corona, and then suddenly vanish, leaving the upper sky unoccupied. Such is The borealig race, That flit ere you can mark their place. We shall now look into the equipment of a sealing steamer, and then in imagination accompany her to the ice-fields, in order to form some idea of the hunt. 1' .: 1 1 h Ifi a ■ M H 1 i, ■ i' :}\ 1 liiil ■f 1 i 304 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT r;i ! 1 1 ., Ii In the first week of March the roads leal llll gs; Til'' 1 ' CHAP, iii.l THE SEAL INDUSTRY. 305 the proceeds of the voyage are divided as wages among the men, but in steamers only a third is thus distributed. The captain gets a certain number of cents per seal. The food of the men is none of the daintiest, and no one who is at all squeamish about what ho "eats, drinks, and avoids" need attempt to go "swile huntin'." Tho diet consists of biscuit, pork, butter, and tea sweetened with molasses. On throe days of tho week dinner con- sists of pork and " duff," the latter item consisting of flour and water with a little fatty substance intermixed " to lighten it." When boiled it is almost as hard as a cannon- ball. On the other four days of the week all the meals consist of tea, sweetened with molasses, and biscuit. Such is the rough, fare on which these hardy fellows go through their trying and laborious work ! When, however, they fall in with seals, their diet is improved. They cook the heart, liver, flippers, and other parts, and feast on them ad libitum, and generally coine ashore in excellent condition, though the odour that attends them does not suggest the " spicy breezes which blow soft from Ceylon's Isle." When out on the ice it is a common practice to string upon their belts a dozen or two of seals' kidneys, and eat them raw as appetite prompts. The hearts of seals are treated in the same way. The use of fresh seal meat in this fashion is highly condu- cive to health, and the best pi'eventive of scurvy. Very little sickness occurs among the men while leading this rough life. They are often out for eight or ten weeks without seeing laud, and enduring the hardest toils. When seals are taken in large quantiiied the hold of the vessel is first filled, and then the men willingly surrender their berths, Avhich are packed full of "white-coats." In fact, every nook and corner is crammed with the precious fat; and the sealers sleep where they can — in barrels on deck, on a layer of seals, or in the coal-bunks. It is marvellous to see men, after eight or ten weeks of such a life, leap li^l' 1 I- III lii ' J f -i, : , s. Til m p.' :^ |.tities, at St. Pierre and Miquelon, for use by their Bank fishing vessels. By the application of ice these early herrings might be presei'ved in abundance, as bait. During the winter the herring are taken in Fortune Bay in gill nets, and are exported to the American markets in a frozen state. At that season they are in excellent condition. The Fall herring is the market- able fish, and it is then that they are taken on the Labrador coast, where they appear early in September. There are two varieties of herring taken on the shores of the island — the Bank (called also the Labrador) herring, and the Shore herring. They are probably the same species, differing only in age, the Bank being the full-grown fish, and measuring on an average thirteen and a half inches, while the Shore is eleven inches long. The herring does not reach maturity till the third year, but it spawns in its CHAP. VI.] THE HEIUIING AND OTHER FISHERIES. 325 second year, and at that period is known as the Digby herring in the Bay of Fundy. The Shore herring spawns in September and October, and comes on the shore in April. The spawning time of tlie Jiank or Labrador herring varies according to locality. On the Labrador coast it appears to be in the autumn. The chief seats of the herring fishery are Fortune Bay, St. George's Bay, Bay of Islands, Bonne Bay, and the whole coast of Labrador. Fortune Bay is the centre of productive winter herring fishery. According to the most reliable accounts, the herring strike the shore about the first week in December, and take up their quarters in the deep arm about the 1st of January, where they remain under the ice until about the 20th of Miu-ch. From the latter date till the 20th of April they are usually abundant and quite near the shore; they then go into deep water and remain there till the 5th or 10th of May, when they make their appearance in every cove and harbour for the purpose of spawning. The season lasts till the 5th of June, and is not completely over till the 1st of August, when they retire into deep waters to recuperate. The quantity taken in Fortune Bay is estimated at from 25,000 to 30,000 barrels per annum. Much of the catch in sold as bait to the French and AmericMis. St. George's Bay has a summer herring fishery. The herring are thin and far inferior to those in the Bay of Islands. They are taken in May. Captain Brown in his "Fishery Report for' 1871" says: "The herring in St. George's Bay are abundant and the catch unlimited. Every man takes as many as he thinks he can cure. This year about 30,000 barrels arc ready to go to Halifax." The average catch is estimated at 20,000 barrels per annum. The Bay of Islands winter fishery is the most valuable next to that of Labrador. The lish are the Hank or lltit Ji ^i i.' 32G NEWFOUNDLAND. PAHT III. Labrador herring, and of the finest quality. They are taken chiefly in Humber Sounds and even up the Humber Eiver to a considerable distance. The nets used are two and three-quarters and thi'ee inch mesh. The fishery com- mences in October and ends in May, broken only when the ice is forming and breaking up. When the Bay is fiozen, the herrings are taken in nets which are put down in holes and drains cut through the ice. Two men will often take from two to eight barrels per day. In 18G4, when the total population was only 118 families, the catch for the season was 30,500 barrels. Were this splendid fishery properly worked it might be increased tenfold. In 1868, 50,000 barrels were exported from the Bay of Islands; and in 1870, C0,000 — value $120,000. The herring are exported mainly to Canada and the United States, where they sell for $4 or $5 per barrel. The method of cure, though improved of late, is still imperfect. Bonne Bay has a similar fishery on a smaller scale. On the coast of Labrador is the largest and most valuable herring fishery carried on by Newfoundlanders. The herring are taken here in September and the early part of October, and are considered the richest and finest in regard to quality. The catch varies greatly, but the average does not fall far shoi*t of from 60,000 to 70,000 barrels. Only a portion is exported, the local consumption by the fishermen being considerable. It is difficult to estimate correctly the quantity of herring taken annually on the coasts of the Island and on Labrador, inasmuch as the exports show only a portion of the Avhole, and do not exhibit what is sold as bait or cured for home consumption. The last census (taken in 1874) gave the following enumeration of the number of barrels of herring taken in that year : mmmmmmm cnAr.vi.I THE HERRING AND OTHER FISHERIES. 327 Barrels. Herring cured in the Electoral districts . . 75,297 „ ,, on the French Shore (St. George's Bay, Bay of Islands, Bonne Bay). 03,825 „ „ on Labrador ..... 10,000 Total cured . . . 185,382 Add to the above the number sold to the French as bait 70,000 Sold to the Americans ...... 10,000 Total number of barrels of herring caught . . 271,382 The exports for the year 1871 show that 189,050 barrels of pickled herring were exported, and 8,300 of frozen herring, making a total of 198,250, and leaving 73,120 barrels for home consumption. The value of the herring exported from Newfoundland may be gathered from the following returns made in the years named : Value of herring Tear. exported. Dollars. 1869 242,801. 1871. 1874. 1877. 1878. 1880. 1881. Total in seven years 449,838 578,108 538,730 200,200 229,100 209,550 2^8,498 This would give as the average annual value of the exported herring iu those years, $358,359. The value of the herring- sold to the French and Americans as bait may be safely estimated at not less than $150,000 per annum. Allowing 73,000 barrels for home consumption at $3 per barrel, the I .1 I !|i i I '^iMidM^^h^MMHumikm liimni^ i 328 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAHT 111, value would be $219,000. We liave, tlierefore, as the total value of the annua,! catch of herring $727,359. Professor Hind estimates that the aggregate number of barrels of herring caught in the Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland waters annually exceeds 800,000 barrels; and that, allowing for the quantity used for manure, the quantity used for bait and destroyed by barring", the quantities of this fish drawn each year from British American waters is fairly represented by 1,000,000 barrels. The vast importance, therefore,, of tliis fishery is evident, not only in regard to its intrinsic value, but as ono on Avhich other fisheries are dependent for their very existence. In Newfoundland it may be described as being yet in its nfancy. There is considerable improvement within the last few yeai*s in the process of curing, which, however, is still rude, insufiicient, and in many instances so grossly careless that large quantities are annually spoiled and fit only for manuring land. Of other kinds of fish taken in Newfoundhmd waters, the quantities are insignificant. Fifty years ago mackerel were abundant, but this capricious fish has disappeared for nearly half a century. At times high hopes of its return are awakened. Tiiu.';, in 1880, o7G(5 barrels of pickled mackerel were exported ; but in the follovinng year only 181 barrels were taken. In 1877 only fourteen barrels were exported; in 1874, forty-seven barrels; in 1871, lo74. It is not impossible that this valuable fish may ono day return to its old haunts. Only a fevsr hundred- weight of halibut and haddoclc are taken in Newfound- land waters. ^V'ithin the last three or four years the e.Kportatioii. of pres'erved lobsters has increased rapidly. At various points lobster factories have been established, and a.p[>ear to be multiplying. In 1881, 1,299,812 pounds of preserved lobster, in tins, were exported, and 4G, 1-28 pounds of frozen lobsters ; the total value being $111/108. CHAPTER VII. THE FISHEEIES AS AFFECTED BY INTERNATIONAL TEExVriES. Privileges ol" the French — Concui'reut rights — Unfounded chiims — Sir Williiim AVliitcway'.s mission to Loudon — Scttlonieut of the ''French Shore" fiuestion — Fishery riglits still in dispute — Lord Puhnerston and the French Government— Engliind iiid the United States— Various interpretations of American rights — "The Ecciprocity Treaty " and the Treaty of Washington. Amoxg Britain's forty colonies the position of New- foundland is in one respect unique. The sovereignty of the entire territory belongs exclusively to Great Britain, bat the French have the right of fishing along more than half the entire shore of the island, and of using that portion of the coast for such purposes as maybe neces- sary in the prosecution of their fishery. In addition to this important privilege, the French have ceded to them pos- session of the two small islands of 8t. Pierre and Miquelon, at the entrance of Fortune Bay, as a shelter for their fisher- men, the only condition attached to the possession of them being that no fortifications are to be erected, and only such buildings as are necessary in carrying on the fishery. These rights have been secured to France, first by the Treaty of Utrecht in 17PJ, confirmed and modified by that of Paris in 17G3, by that of Versailles in 1783j and by the Definitive ' 330 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part hi. Treaty of Peace, Art. XIIL, in 1814, The line of coast to which these claims apply extends from Cape Ray, at the south-western extremity of the island, around the western, northern, and north-eastern shores, to Cape St. John, being fully half the entire coast of the island, and that by far the most fertile and valuable portion. How this unfortunate concession was originally made to France by British statesmen must be left to the pen of the historian to describe. To the colony of Newfoundland it proved to be most injurious, and retarded its prosperity more than all otlier causes combined. The practical effect has been to exclude the people from the use of the best half of the coast, whether for fishing purposes or agricultural settlements. It is true the French have no territorial rights, and are prohibited from forming any permanent settlements, or any erections excepting such as are required for fishery purposes dm'ing the season. It is also true that their right of fishing along the line of coast is not exclusive but con- current ; and that, notwithstanding the persistent and repeated attenipts of the French so to interpret the treaties as to establish an exclusive right to the fisheries, such claim has never been recognised by England, and has been re- peatedly and most emphatically repudiated by the colony itself. Still the French have exercised their rights with such stringency within the defined limits, and have shown such jealousy regarding them, that they have succeeded in prac- tically preventing Newfoundland fishermen from using the concurrent right, which they justly claim, by fishing within the French bounds. Moreover, while England has never expressly prohibited her subjects from fishing along with the French within their limits, yet dreading, no doubt, the results of quarrels arising between the fishermen of the two nations when prosecuting their calling in the same waters, she has discouraged the exercise of the concurrent right, while still recognising its existence. (fart III. coast to ly, at the ( western, hn, being jy far the J made to en of the ndland it prosperity ical effect 3 beat half rricultural ■ial rights, ittlements, for fishery :heir right e but con- stent and be treaties !uch claim been re- he colony with such OAvn such Id in prac- using the ing within lias never long with .oubt, the if the two waters, snt right, FISHERIES AFFECTED BY TREATIES. 331 The policy of successive imperial governments has been to discountenance any attempts to fish along that portion of the shore on which the French have treaty rights. The consequence has been that the concurrent right has fallen into abeyance, and that for fishing purposes that portion of the coast has been closed against the people to whom the soil of the island belongs. And this is not all. The French have not only claimed and tried to enforce an exclusive -right to the fishery, but they have preferred more ex- travagant cliiims to prevent the inhabitants of Newfound- land from occupying the land within the limits defined by the treaties, whether for agricultural, mining, or other purposes ; thus virtually exercising sovereignty over half the island. It is true they did not pretend to a right of occupying the laud themselves, except for fishery purposes, but they pur- sued, only too successfully, the " dog in the manger " policy of pi'eventing anyone else from doing so. They preferred this claim on the ground that the occupation of the land by the people of the island would be an infringe- ment of their fishery privileges. Here again the imperial authorities inflicted a cruel wrong upon the colony by temporising with these unfounded claims, and refusing to permit the local government to issue land grants in the dis- puted district, while at the same time they repudiated the French claims and declared the sovereignty of the territory to be vested solely in England. At length, in 18GG, a despatch from Lord Carnarvon positively prohibited the issue of grants of land on that part of the isliiud called the " French Shore.'' Meantime a numerous population had, in spite of all difficulties and pi'ohibitions, settled on this shore. They were in the position of squatters, having no title to their property, and were left without the guardianship of law, or any of the ordinary appliances of civilisation. Tlieir numbers at length reached from eight to ten thousand, and their condition became a source of great anxiety to M i < ■i j i 1 1 I m 332 NEWFOUNDLAND. Ipaht III. the local government. Both branches of the local legis- lature, first in 18G7 and again in 1874, memorialised the home Government, and emphatically protested against the restriction on issuing land grants, and praying for per- mission to make such grants for agricultural, raining, and other purposes. All efforts proved fruitless till 1881, when Sir William Whiteway, premier of the government, was despatched as a deputy to London. His powerful repre- sentation of the flagrant injustice inflicted on the colony, and of the serious dangers of any longer delaying a settle- ment of the vexed question, at length prevailed. The imperial authorities decided on withdrawing the restriction on the issue of land grants, and permitting the local govern- ment to exercise territorial rights by making grants of land for agricultural, mining, or other purposes. This was welcomed by the colony, which ^lad patiently borne the wrong so long in oi'der that it might be peacefully settled, as a great and important boon, inasmuch as it permitted the settlement of this region and the utilisation of its fine natural resources. At the same time the imperial authorities sanctioned an Act providing for the representation of the residents of this region in the local parliament. Magistrates have been appointed, and due arrangements made for the administration of justice. Thus one great branch of the *' French Shore question " has been satisfactorily disposed of. There now remains the question of concurrent or exclusive right to the fisheries to be decided. The whole region is now an integral part of Newfoundland, and the government are empowered to exercise territorial jurisdiction over the whole, subject of course to existing treaty rights. The boon granted in 1881 might as well have been conceded fifty years before, as the same reasons for the concession existed at the earlier date. The people of Newfoundland maintain that the French claim to the exclusive right of fishery is not warranted by IP*BT III. local legis- •ialised the against the g for per- aining, and 1881, when iment, was jrful reprc- the colony, ng a settle- liled. The » restriction )cal govern - ants of land This was ' borne the 'ully settled, t permitted 11 of its fine authorities ion of the Magistrates ade for the ncli of the ly disposed current or The whole d, and the Ijurisdictiou eaty rights. n conceded concession FISHKRIES AFFECTED BY TREATIES. 333 tlio terms of the treaties; and they claim as their right that they shall not be molested in fishing on any part where they do not actually interrupt the French by their com- petition, and that there shall be no interference with their buildings or inclosures which do not actually interfere with the fishing privileges of the French. They are willing that a joint Naval Commission should be appointed to settle all disputed points, when the concurrent right is admitted by the French. Sucli is the position of the colony on this important question. There ought to be no great difficulty in settling it, as the value of the shores of Newfoundland to the French, as fishing stations, is every year becoming less. It is the Bank fishery which is the main consideration with the French. On the shores of Newfoundland the annual catch of the French does not exceed a hundred thousand quintals. The French, however, still maintain that the proper interpretation of the treaties gives them an exclusive right to the fisheries, and the British as em- phatically repudiate such claims. Negotiations between the two nations on these disputed points are now in progress. In regard to the justice of the claim put forward by the colony to a concurrent right to the fisheries, it was never bettor expressed than in Lord Palmerston's note of July 10th, 1838, in reply to Count Sebastiani's communication, in which he urged the British Government to disavow the claim of the British subjects to a right of fishery on the coasts in question, concurrent with the rights of the subjects of France. After a searching review of the treaties bearing upon the subject, and the construction placed upon them previously. Lord Palmerston closed his note in the following terms : , '. . i'fl the French [rranted by "It is true that the privilege secured to the fisher- men of France by the Treaty and Declaration of 1783, a ! i I ^!' H' 334 NEWFOUNDLAND. IpVHT IK privilege which consists in the periodical use of a part of the shore of Newfoundland, for the purpose of drying their fish, has in practice been treated by the British Government as an exclusive right during the fishing season, and within the limits prescribed ; because, from the nature of the case, it would scarcely bo possible for liritish fishermen to dry their fish upon the same parts of the shore with the French fishermen without interfering with the tenipor.ary establish- ments of the French for the same purpose, and without interrupting their operations. But the British Government has never understood the Declaration to have had for its object to deprive the British subjects of the right to participate with the French in taking fish at sea, off that shore, provided they did so without interrupting the French cod fishery ; and, although in accordance with the true spirit of the Treaty and Declaration of 1783, prohibitory proclamations have been from time to time issued, on occasions when it has been found that British subjects, while fishing within the limits in question, have caused interrup- tion to the French fishery, yet in none of the public documents of the British Government, neither in the Act of Parliament of 1788, passed for the express purpose of carrying the Treaty of 1788 into effect; nor in any sub- sequent Act of Parliament relating to the Newfoundland fishery ; nor in any of the instructions issued by the Admiralty and the Colonial Office ; nor in any proclamation which has come under my view, issued by the Government of Newfoundland, or by the British Admiral upon tlio station, does it appear that the right of French subjects to an exclusive fishery, cither of cod-fish or of fish generally, is specifically recognised. " In addition to the facts above stated, I will observe to your Excellency, in conclusion, that if the right conceded to the French by the Declaration of 1 78o had been intended to be exclusive within the px'escribed district, the terms [PVRT III a part of rying their overnment und within £ tho case, ueu to dry the French J establish- iid without J overnment had for its le right to ea, off that the French ih the true prohibitory issued, on |3Jects, while id interrup- the public in the Act purpose of any sub- iwfoundland led by the Iroclamation lovernment upon the [Subjects to generally, observe to It conceded tn intended the terms ri((P. vri.] FISHERIES AFFECTED BY TREATIES. 335 used for defining such right would assuredly have been more ample and specific than they are found to bo in that document ; for in no other similar instrument which has ever come under tho knowledge of tho British Government is so important a concession as an exclusive privilege of this description accorded in terms so loose and indefinite. " (Signed) Palmekston. " To His Excellency Count Sebastiani." To this conclusive statement of the British case no effective answer has been given, or ever will bo given. Assured of the justice of her claims, Newfoundland can calmly await a peaceful solution of this long-standing difficulty. But there are limits to human patience. Again and again has a settlement been promised and hoped for, and disappointment followed. So far back as 1835 Mr. Eobinson, in the House of Commons, when introducing a motion on the subject, stated in his speech that " the question arose out of the construction put upon a treaty entered into between England and France in ISlo, and though so long a period as twenty-one years had elapsed, the Government had given no answer to the persons engaged in the fisheries as to how the treaty was to be construed. This was very strange, and he would ask tho Government how long after twenty-one years were British subjects to wait before they were told whether they had a right concurrent with tho French of fishing on their own coast. He protested against any further delay in adjusting this question. The French had an interest in having the settlement of the question indefinitely postponed, because whilst it was so they arrogated to themselves the right of interrupting all others fishing on the coast. France had no other right of fishing than that given by the Treaty of Utrecht, and that was nothing more than a permissive right to fish.^' ^'k. ^%.. ^>r..%^ ^.o-^^^^-.O. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // // ! ^.> f<3. fe /. {/, 1.0 I.I 1.25 IM 1125 iU IIIIIZ2 12.0 1.8 U i 1.6 7^ a r ..^^/^^' ^/. / / i-^ (?^i >^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ,\ iV .4^ V<^^ If \ \ ^X"^ ;\ . VIII. J LABRADOR. 341 the fifty-second degree of north latitude, and all the islands adjacent to that part of the said coast of Labrador, as also of all forts and garrisons erected and established, on which shall bo erected and established within or on the islands and coasts aforesaid (which said islands and coast, together with the Island of Newfoundland, are hereinafter referred to as our said colony), and that the person Avho shall fill the said office of Governor shall be from time to time appoiuted by commission under our sign-manual and signet/' In the Appendix to the " Journal of the House of Assem- bly " for 18G4,page Glo,tho boundaries of the Newfoundland portion of Labrador are defined in the following terms : "The western limit of the government of Newfoundland is kt. 51« 25' N.; long. 57^ 9' W., and includes Blanc Sablou and the Woody Islands. The northern boundary is Cape Chudleigh in hit. GU^ 37' N. ; long. G5^ W.'' Thus a line drawn due north and south, from Blanc Sablon to Cape Chudleigh, constitutes the boundary between the two juris- dictions. This portion of Labrador was not always attached to Newfoundland. The first annexation took place after the Treaty of Paris, 17Go. While the flag of France waved over Canada, the French carried on extensive fisheries on the Labrador coast, near the Straits of Belle Isle, to which they attached the greatest importance. After the conquest of Canada by Britain, a company established in Quebec obtained a monopoly of these fisheries which lasted for sixty year.s, but was brought to an end in 1820. Until 1 7Go, the fisheries of the whole southern and eastern shores of Labrador were placed under the Government of Quebec. Increased importance was given to the governorship of Newfoundland at that date by annexing to it the Atlantic coast of Labrador. Ten years after, in 1773, it was con- sidered advisable to restore this portion of Labrador to Canada, owing to difficulties arising out of grants made to a number of persons under the rule of the French. In 1809 .»H j 1 i i j 1 \ l^li i 4 ' 343 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT III. it was .igaiu transfoi'red to the jurisdiction of Newfoundland, under wliicli it has remained ever since. A Court of Civil Jurisdiction, on the coast of Labrador, was instituted in 182 1'. A. special court of civil and criminal jurisdiction, called " The Court of Labrador," and presided over by one judge, appointed by the Governor in Council, secured the administration of justice. The Custom;:' duties levied on goods landed on Labrador are the same as in Newfoundland. The Hudson's Bay Company had formerly the exclusive right of trading with the Indians of that part of Labrador which had rivers flowing into the inlet from wnicL the Company took its name, and which is designated East Main. In 1870, however, the Company surrendered all their rights of government, property, etc., in the whole of British North America ; and these have been transferred to the Dominion of Canada, the Company being still at liberty to carry on their trade without hindrance, or any exceptional tax. Canada has thus jurisdiction over all the region of Labrador which does not belong to Newfoundland. The northern Sagas relate that about the year 1000, Eric the Red and Lief his sou, whom Humboldt calls "the discoverer of the New World,'' passed this way and saw the land which a previous navigator, Biorn, had seen four- teen years before, and named " Helluland," that is a land of slate, or naked rocks — a name which was also given by these Norsemen to Newfoundland. The modern discoverer of Labrador, however, whatever may be thought of the account given in the Sagas, was undoubtedly John Cabot, in 1497, the same date at which he discovered Newfound- land. In the historical portion of this volume it has been shown that the map, which was made by Sebastian Cabot, or under his direction, removed all doubt as to his " Prima Vista," and proved that it was near the eastern point of the present island of Cape Breton. Continuing his course thence, in a north-westerly direction, he fell in with the illl [PABT III. oundland, b of Civil tituted in risdiction, '•er by one scared the levied on foundland. exclusive Labrador wuicli the East Main, heir rights tish North I Dominion o carry on ional tax. f Labrador year 1000, calls "the y and saw seen four- t is a land 3 given by discoverer ;ht of the ihn Cabot, STewfound- has been lian Cabot, is "Prima point of his course with the cnu>. vni.) L.\BRADOR. 343 Labrador coast, and then, altering his course easterly, he passed along the north coast of Newfoundland, and so homeward, through the Straits of Belle Isle. The Basques, who were among the most daring of early maritime adventurers, were soon employed in fishing on the Gulf shore of Labrador. Tradition has it that a Basque whaler named La Bradore, from the Kir^dom of Navarre, pene- trated as far as Labrador Bay (now called Bradore Bay), and gave his name to that locality, and as this bay was, in process of time, much frequented by Basque fishermen, the whole coast received the name of its first visitor. After the Basques came the Bretons, who founded the town of Brest, iu Bradore Bay, about 1520. This was about three miles from Blanc Sablon Harbour, and at one time contained upwards of 1,000 residents. The ruins and terraces of this old town are still visible on this iron- bound coast. The French and English were the next visitors in pursuit of fish. Although detached from Arctic lands, and notwith- standing that much of it lies between the same parallels of latitude as Great Britain, the climate of Labrador is rigorous in the extreme. The snow lies from September till June. Li winter, the whole coast is blockaded by ice- fields drifting from Baffin's Bay and other outlets of the Arctic Ocean ; while in summer the glittering icebergs, stranded or floating, impart a stern beauty to the storm- beaten shores. Perhaps no country on the face of the globe is less attractive, as a permanent residence of civilised man. Much of the surface of the country is covered with low mountains and barren plateaus on which are vast plains of moss interspersed with rocks and boulders. At the heads of the bays and fiords only, is there a large growth of timber; and here, and along the margin of some of the rivers, patches of cultivable lands are to be found. The Atlantic coast of Labrador is a grim and terrible f'H ^ I li' 344 NKWFOUXDLAXD. (part III. "Kk i wildevnoss, moro than a tliousand miles in length, hut still not without scenes of nwe-inspiring heauty. 'riie thunders of the Atlantic have been breaking upon its shores for countless ages; the frosts and storms of winter have been carving the rocks into the wildest and most fantastic shapes which the human imagination can con- ceive. When the interior is reached, it is found to consist of a vast table-lond, which in one region is 2,2 10 feet above the sea-level. I'rofessor Hind says of this table-land, " it is pre-eminently sterile, and where the country is not burned, caribou moss covers the rocks, with stunted spruce, birch, and aspen, in the hollows and deep ravines. The whole of the table-land is strewed with an infinite num- ber of boulders, sometimes three and four deep ; these singular erratics are perched on the summit of every mountain and hill, often on the edges of cliffs ; and they vary in size from one foot to twenty in diameter. Language fails to depict the awful desolation of the table- land of the Labrador Peninsula." Were it not for the fish that swarm in its waters, Labrador would be left to the few tribes of Indians and Esquimaux who roam over its desolate wastes ; but such is the extraordinary wealth of the adjacent seas, that thou- sands of adventurous fishermen are annually found on its shores during its brief summer. This migi'atory population is estimated at 30,000. The fixed population consists of white inhabitants, who live in widely scattei'ed settle- ments, on the Atlantic and St. Lawrence coasts, and at the posts of the Hudson's Bay Company. The northern coast is thinly peopled by wandering Esquimaux, among whom the Moravian missionaries have been labouring for more than a century with marked success. Nomadic tribes of Indians roam over the interior. These are branches of the great Algonkin race, whose area once extended from the Rocky Mountains to Newfoundland, and from Labrador (part lit. ngtli, but uty. The upon its I of winter and most cap con- to consist feet above lo-land, "it ;ry is not ted spruce, •ines. The inite num- ecp; thcf-o ; of every ; and they diameter. [ the table- its waters, ndians and ; but such that tliou- und on its population consists of •ed settle- tSj and at e northern .;x, among louring for ladic tribes [ranches of Inded from Labrador nni". vm.] LABRADOR. 345 to tlio Caroliims, and aro known as tlio Montagnais or ;^^ountaiueers, tho Nasquapee, the Mastassini, and the Swampy Creek Indians. Tlic Atlantic coast of Labrador, in un economic point of view, is by far tho most important and valuable portion of tho country. Here, during the summer, some thirty thousand hardy fishermen aro employed in the capture of the cod, tho herring, and the .seal. Of late years, too, tourists in search of tho picturesque, artists sketching ice- bergs and coast scenery, sportsmen and anglers searching for game, and even invalids in pursuit of health have been finding their way in increasing numbers to the Atlantic shores of Labrador during its short but lovely summer. The voyage from St John's to tho Atlantic coast of Labrador, should the weather prove favourable, is ouo of the most delightful to those who enjoy the grander and sterner aspects of nature. Sometimes tho North Atlantic is found in a gentle playful mood, dimpling and laughing under the rays of a bright summer's sun as though it had never clashed a gallant ship to pieces. Overhead is a blue sky in which float masses of fleecy clouds. " Even in their very motion there is rest," so gently do these beautiful forms move across tho azure dome, presenting an ever- shifting panorama of loveliness. Then, if we suppose the voyager sailing northward bound for Labrador, ho will find himself gliding along a lofty sea-wall, with bold head- lands and grim rocks frowning defiance at the ocean, while the waves ai*e gently laving the base of the giant cliffs and playfully leaping over the jutting rocks along tho coast. No scenes of softened beauty, no wave-kissed pebbly beaches, no upland slopes clad in forest emerald need be looked for; but there is the grandeur, massive, perpendicular cliffs, sometimes sculptured into shapes of stern beauty, or torn and jagged by the fierce frosts and tempests of winter and the ever-gnaAving tooth of H 1 ■ i: I ]■■ Li/ i.: 34G ^•K\VFOL'^•DL^VND. ll'AKi III. II ^r time. The monotony of the rocky sea-front is broken at intervals by tlio lofty capos which project their extrcinitics far seaward and mark the ortrauco of the great bays of Conception, Trinity, Bonavista, and Notre Dame. The mouths of these bays being crossed, the voyager at length approaches an important land-mark, Cape St. John, the northern headland of Notre Dame Hay and the boundary of the " French Shore." Here is perhaps the most mngnificent scenery along the whole coast, a vast wall of rock from four to five hundred feet in height and six miles in length, whose summit presents every shape into which I'ocks can be torn or sculptured, grim, shaggy, and terrible precipices, up whose sides the great Atlantic rollers have been charging for centuries. On ncaring the Cape, Gull Island is passed, a rugged barren islet, once the scene of a terrible tragedy. In 1807 a vessel was wrecked here in the month of December, and eleven unfortunates were left without food or shelter to perish by cold and hunger. One of them kept a diary, which is one of the most touching records of human suffering ever brought to light. Their agonies were prolonged for thirteen days, and no knowledge of. their terrible fate was obtained till the following spring, when their remains were discovered. At length the most northern point of Newfoundland is reached, Cape Bauld, the northern point of the Island of Quirpon, four degrees north of St. John's. From this point, at times, great processions of stately icebergs may be seen moving majestically with the current which rushes through the straits of Belle Isle from the far-off Arctic regions. Midway to the Labrador shore, and fourteen miles from Cape Bauld, is Belle Isle, nine miles in length and three in breadth, iu the entrance of the straits of the same name. It is utterly barren, treeless, and desolate. A lighthouse is erected here, and a depot of provisions is kept for the relief of shipwrecked mariners. When fog envelops ii.. (I'AHT 111, broken at xtreinities at bays of mo. The I' at length John, the oundary of nngnificent : from four gth, whose :an bo torn cipices, up n charging Island is )f a terrible le month of lout food or lem kept a 3 of human c prolonged erriblo fate eir remains jundland Is Island of I From this [^berga may hicli rushes -off Arctic Id fourteen in length hiits of the Bsolate. A Ions is kept g envelops cnvi". Tiii.l LABRADOR, 347 these sons, or the snow-flakes arc hurled on the tempest's wing, a cannon is fired every half-hour to guide the bewildered mariner. The islands of Belle Isle and Quirpon, owing no doubt to their grim forbidding aspect and the dangers from ice and storm encountered in those seas, were named by the early mariners, " The Isles of Demons," and, in old maps, are represented as covered with " devils rampant, with wings horns, and tails. ^' The terror-stricken sea... en of early times used to "hear in the air, on the tops, and about the masts, a great clamour of men's voices, confused and inarticulate, such as you nuiy hour from a crowd at a fair or market-place; whereupon they knew that the Isle of Demons was not far oif." There is a curious legend con- nected with Belle Isle, namely, that here Roberval, in 1512, put on shore from his fleet the Lady Marguerite, niece of tlio Viceroy of New France, and her lover, with whoso conduct he had oeeu scandalised on the voyage. The un- happy, but now penitent pair, were assaulted by tlie demons, but guarded by bands of saints. The lover died first, then the nurse and child, and the Lady Marguerite was left alone in the terrible wilderness. The smoko of a fire, at which she cooked her food, at length attracted the attention of some fishermen, who ventured to land on the haunted spot and rescue the lady after two years' residence among the demons. Battle Hai'bour, near the entrance of the Straits of Belle Isle, is the first point on the Labrador coast touched at by voyagers. " It is a sheltered roadstead between Battle Island and Great Caribou Island, about half a mile in length and quite narrow." Battle Harbour is an important fishing centre, and is much resorted to by fishermen during the season. Near Battle Island, the easternmost land of the Labrador coast, the water is of great depth, and the place is noted for a remarkable ground-swell, which at times rolls 348 NP]WFOUNDLAXD. [part in. n T i^'m I ^'tJi l^^l k ^\ ■ 1 in from the eastward into St. Lewis' Sound. Admiral Bayfield describes it in the following terms : " I certainly never, in any part of the world, saw a heavier sea than that which at times rolls in from the eastward in Si". Lewis' Sound, even as far up as the entrance of the inlet, round the Eiver Islands and up the bays of the main to tlie westward of them. I never saw anything more grand and wildly beautiful than the tremendous swell which often comes in without wind, rolling slowly, but irresistibly in from the sea, as if moved by some unseen power, rearing itself up like a wall of water as it approaches the craggy sides of the islands, moving on faster and faster as it nears the shore, until at last it bursts with fury over islets thirty feet high, or sends up sheets of foam and spray, sparkling in the sunbeams, fifty feet up the sides of the precipices. I can compare the roar of the surf in a calm night to nothing less than the Falls of Niagara." Leaving Battle Harbour, the voyager has now in sight the rugged coast of Labrador, deeply indented with bays and inlets, and having many fine harbours. The scenery now becomes grand and impressive. The great headlands, like sentinel giants, tower over the waters, sometimes grim and bare, while others are covered with the dark green of dwarf-spruce, or the paler green of mosses and shrubs. Then come monotonous miles of rocky precipices, up whose sides charge the watery battalions, urged from behind by the mighty swing of the Atlantic, and evermore flung buck in spray and foam. The most striking natural scenery here are the rocks at the entrance of Chateau Bay, which has withiri it the noble fiord of Temple Bay. Chateau gets its name from the rock formations at the mouth of this deep and narrow bay. Mr. Hallock says : " This castle is a most remarkable pile of basaltic rocks rising in vertical columns from an insulated bed of granite. Its height from the 'f A'-Httc!. [PABT iir. Admiral I certaiuly !a than that St. Lewis' inlet, round lain to the grand and i'hich often resistibly in ,ver, rearing the craggy ' as it nears islets thirty sparkling in ■ecipices. I t to nothing ow in sight 1 with bays The scenery headlands, 3times grim [dark green land shrubs. Is, np whose behind by flung back the rocks Uhin it the its name |s deep and is a most tal columns from the nup. VIII.] LABRADOR. 349 level of the ocean is upwards of two hundred feet. It is composed of regular five-sided prisms, and on all sides the ground is strewn with single blocks and clusters that have become detached and fallen from their places. It seems like some grim fortress of the feudal ages from whose embrasures big-mouthed cannons were ready to belch forth flame and smoke. On the very verge of the parapet, a cross stood out in bold relief in the gleaming moonlight, like a sentinel upon his wrtch tower." Chateau was once a place of considerable importance. When the unfortunate Acadians were driven from their homes, a number of them took refuge on this bleak shore and fortified the post. The remains of these fortifications are still visible, consisting of batteries, magazines, etc. ; but they are almost completely overgrown by thickets. "In 1763, a British garrison was located at Chateau, in order to protect the fisheries ; but the place was captured in 1778 by the American privateer Minerva; and thi'ce vessels, and £70,000 worth of property, were carried away as prizes. In 179G, the post was again attacked by a French fleet. A long bombardment ensued between the frigates and the shore batteries, and it was not until their ammunition was exhausted, that the British troops retreated into the back country, after having burned the village. In 1535, the French exploring fleet, under the command of Jaques Cai'tier, assembled here." Having passed St. Francis Harbour, Cape St. Michael, Batteau Harbour, and Indian Tickle, Sandwich Bay is reached, nine miles wide at the entrance and fifty-four in depth. Further north, Hamilton Inlet, or Esquimaux Bay, opens, the largest by far of the numerous inlets that indent this coast. The entrance ^is in lat. 54° 23' N., long. 57° 25'. and 250 miles north of the Straits of Belle Isle. This great inlet is thirty miles wide at the mouth ; but at Port Rigolette, a post of the Hudson's Bay Company, 1 i 1 1 ! JJ^^HVn|B!M V 1 pM 'M If, i \ \ 350 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT in. fifty miles from the sea, it narrows to a mile in ■width. On both sides of these narrows, hills tower to the heijjhfc of 1,000 feet, wooded with spruce from base to summit. At the termination of this channel the inlet again expands and forms Lake Melville, a salt-water lake, thirty miles in length and twenty in breadth. After narrowing again it forms another lake seven miles wide and twenty long, and at its extremity the head of the inlet is reached, one hundred and fifty miles from the sea. The scenery around the shores of Hamilton Inlet is wild and rugged, but above Rigolette becomes very fine. Along the south shore of Melville Lake are the weird and wonderful volcanic peaks of the Mealy Mountains, 1,500 feet in height. This mountain range is first visible one hundred miles to the south of Hamilton Inlet, running nearly parallel to the coast, and after skirting Lake Melville it strikes north- westerly and is lost in the hilly regions of the interior. At Eigolette two great arms stretch from the inlet — the one south-cast running about forty miles, and the other having a course nearly parallel with the main bay and a length of sixty miles. Professor Hind estimates the surface covered by water including the arms of the inlet, at 1,700 square miles. It is studded with islands of all sizes, which, in foggy weather, render the navigation perilous. "The only level ground of any extent near the bay reaches from the head of it to the foot of the Mealy Mountains. It is difficult to conceive anything more beautiful than the tints that their summits assume when touched by the rays of the setting sun, long after he has disappeared from the eye, while every little ravine and inequality in their surface is chiselled out against the clear cold sky with wonderful vividness and precision." * Not many tourists will care to proceed further north, along the coast of Labrador, than Hamilton Inlet. The * Hind's " Labrador." [part i:i. ) in widtli. the height to summit, lin expands ^ty miles in ng again it venty long, eached, one nery around I, but above th shore of canic peaks ight. This niles to the allel to the 'ikes nortli- ;he interior. 5 inlet — the \ the other bay and a ;he surface et, at 1,700 lizes, which, ous. "The eaches frora ains. It is m the tints the rays of 3m the eye, ' surface is wonderful ther north, "Inlet. The CHAP, vm.] LABRADOR. 351 southern portion of the coast, as far north as Sandwich Bay, has been occupied as a fishing ground for more than a century ; and during the last thirty years increasing numbers of fishermen have extended their opei'ations as far north as Cape Harrison, or Webeck. In recent years, a considerable number of Newfoundland cod-fishers have ventured still further north, as far ad Cape Mugford ; and the probability is that Cape Chudleigh, at the entrance of Hudson's Strait, will be reached by these hardy adven- turous fishermen before many years have elapsed, as the fish wealth of Northern Labrador is reported to be amazing. A succession of narrow but deep fiords, some of them ex- tending fifty miles into the interior, indents this northern coast. Fine growths of timber are found at the heads of many of these fiords fit for the construction of fishing craft and all ordinary building purposes. The soil and climate, too, are favourable for the growth of potatoes and other vegetables. According to tho report of Professor Hind, who visited this part of the coast a few years ago, "it is fringed with avast multitude of islands, forming a continuous archipelago from Cape Aillik to Cape Mugford, averaging twenty miles in depth seawards. Outside these islands, and about fifteen miles seaward from them, are numerous banks and shoals which form the summer feeding grounds of large cod ; and a second range of banks, out- side the shoals, which are probably their winter feeding grounds." This island-studded area, exclusive of the banks and shoals, from Capo Harrison to Cape Mugford, Professor Hiud estimated at 5,200 square miles, furnishing a boat- tishing ground for cod nearly as large as the com- bined area of the English and French boat-fishing grounds on the coast of Newfoundland. This immense cod-fishing ground has, as yet, hardly been touched. Professor Hind estimates the total area of the boat-fishery on North and South Labrador at 7,100 square miles. The great cod- ^^9mm li' m i i f ! i 352 NEWFOUNDLAND. IPAKT III. fishery of the future will probably be alorg Northern Labrador and over the adjacent banks. The Arctic current, which washes these shores, exerts a most beneficial influence on the fish life of those regions, as well as on that of the seas around Newfoundland, Canada, and a portion of the New England shores. The icy cun*ent flowing frc.n the Arctic seas is, in many places, " a living mass, a vast ocean of living slime" J and this slime which accompanies the icebergs and floes, " accumulates on the banks of northern Labrador, and renders the existence possible there of all those forms of marine life — from the diatom to the minute crustacean, from the minute crustacean to the prawn and crab, together with molluscous animsils and starfish in vast profusion, which contribute to the support of the great schools of cod which also find their home there.'' The same current which brings the slime and multitudes of minute crustaceans also carries on its bosom innumei'able cod ova, and distributes them far and wide. Northern Labrador, from Cape Webeck to Cape Chud- leigh, is the proper home of the Esquimaux of this region. They call themselves " Innuits,'' which means "men," the term Esquimaux ("eaters of raw flesh'') being applied to them by hostile tribes to the west. " They are of low stature, with coarse features, small hands and feet, and black wiry hair. The men are expert in fishing, catchiug seals, and managing the light and graceful boat called the /,ai/o/i', which outrides the rudest surges of the sea; while the women are skilful in making garments from skins." It is estimated that the Esquimaux of Labrador number about 1,700 souls, scattered along 500 milos of coast. For more than a century, the Moravian missionaries have been labouring among these Esquimaux, and with such success that nearly all of them have been reclaimed from heathen- ism of the worst description and brought under Christian training. The practice of polygamy has ceased among cn\p. VIII.] LABRADOR. 353 them, and they Lave become to a large extent peaceful and industrious, and are weaned from tlio wandering life to which they were addicted, living around the mission stations in winter, and at the fishing posts in summer. The missionaries trade with them, and export the products of their labours, giving them necessaries and comforts in exchange. Once a year a missionary ship arrives laden with provisions and stores of all kinds, and carries a return cargo of furs, fisb, oil, etc. The brethren have four stations — Hopedale, Nain, Okkak, and Hebron. At each station there is a church, store, dwelling-house for the missionaries, and workshops for the native tradesmen. In addition to instructing them in the truths of Christianity, the missionaries seek to teach them those industrial arts which may contribute to their comfort, and foi'm habits of steady application. In seasons of famine food is freely distributed from the mission stores. About twenty missionaries are resident on this savage coast. The hardships they have to endure may be estimated from the fact that the mean annual temperature at Nain is 22° 52', and at Okkak 27° 82'. The thermometer marks 75° occasionally in summer, while spirits freeze in the intense cold of winter. The white inhabitants of the Atlantic coast of Labrador are in widely scattered settlements south of Cape Harrison. Many of them are British sailors or their descendants, who prefer a rude, lonely, semi-barbarous life to the restraints of civilisation. Salmon and cod fishing are their main occupa- tions, and the products of their industries are exchanged with traders on the spot for such commodities as they require. The winter is spent in trapping fur-bearing animals. At the vainous mercantile establishments along the coast a number of book-keepers, clerks, servants, and others are resident. The last census taken by the Govern- ment of Newfoundland, in 1874, gives the resident popula- tion from Blanc Sablon to Cape Harrison as 2,41 G. Of > " mm I |i ! * ■ i I 354 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT m. these 1,480 belong to the Church of England, 47G to the Church of Eomo ; 295 are Wealeyans; 30 are Presbyterians; and 120 belong to other denominations. There are nine places of worship : four of the Church of England, three of the Church of Eome, and two of the Wesloyan. Church. During the fishing season a steamer carrying mails and passengers plies fortnightly on the coast, connecting with the Newfoundland coastal mail steamer at Battle Harbour. On the St. Lawrence coast of Labrador, from Port Neuf to Blanc Sablon, there is a considerable population, num- bering in all about 4,400. These are mainly of Canadian or Acadian origin, and live chiefly by fishing and hunting. Many of them speak both French and English. Of the whole number 3,800 are Eoman Catholics, and 570 are Protestants. The Indians of the interior, both the Montagnais and Nasquapces, speak dialects of the Creo language. Their numbers are estimated at 4,000, but they are slowly dis- appearing. Game, on which they depend, is becoming scarcer every yeai', owing largely to destructive fires which have swept over vast areas destroying forests, berry-bearing shrubs, mosses and lichens, and converting whole districts into hopeless deserts strewed with naked boulders, where no animal life can exist. Some of the Nasquapee tribe are still heathen, but the Montagnais are nearly all nominally Eoman Catholics. The zealous Jesuit missionaries of early times extended their labours from Canada to Labrador, and these have been specially successful among the Montagnais. Of late years they have been resumed, and are now syste- matically carried on. The Indians hunt over the interior, and at certain seasons visit the coast in order to exchange the products of the chase for clothing, ammunition, and other necessaries. fPXBT III. CHAP. VIII.] LABRADOR. 355 47G to the jstyterians; ro are nine nd, three of an Church. f mails and connectinf^ r at Battle n Port Neuf iation, nuni- 3f Canadian nd hunting, sh. Of the nd 570 are tagnais and age. Their slowly dis- becoming ires whicli rry-bearing- e districts ers, where tribe are nominally ies of early jrador, and ilontagnais. now syste- the interior, exchange nition, and One of the principal features of vegetable life in Labrador is the berry-bearing plants, which in certain districts are found in great variety and abundance. These are chiefly partridge berries, bake-applo berries, raspberries, cran- berries, hurtleberries, wild currants, and wild gooseberries. Alosses of every hue, wild flowers of tho most delicate colours, ferns and tall wild grasses in imnionso variety, help to beautify tho scene during the brief summer. At the heads of tho fiords forest-growths of considerable size are found sufficient for fuel and building purposes. The trees are chiefly larch, black, white, and red spruce, birch, aspen, silver fir, willow, cherry, and mountain ash. Among the wild animals enumerated are reindeer in large numbers, black and white bears, foxes, martens, lynxes, otters, minks, beavers, musk-rats, hares, and rabbits. Among the birds are eagles, owls, ravens, hawks, falcons, ptarmigan, spruce partridges, curlew, gray plovers, sand-pipers and other waders, geese, ducks, gulls, divers, swallows, snipe, and pigeons. The winter in Labrador, to those accustomed to it, is far from unpleasant. It is almost one continued stretch of cold dry bracing weather, broken at times by fierce snow-storms. Thirty, and even forty degrees below zero, is not an uncommon state of tho atmosphere ; but when the ther- mometer ranges so low there is generally a dead calm, so that the temperature is not specially disagreeable. Of tho rivers of Labrador those falling into the Gulf of St. Lawrence are the Moisie (two hundred and fifty miles in length), the Mingan, the Ounaneme, and the St. Augustine. Rupert's River, East Main, and Great and Little Whale Rivers fall into Hudson's Bay. The Eagle, the West, and East Rivers — all fine salmon rivers — fall into Sandwich Bay. The largest river in the peninsula is the Ashwanapi or Hamilton River, discharging its waters into Hamilton Inlet, ^s '\ I :i A 1 i'li I' ' i H 356 NEWFOUNDLAND. [P\RT III. being nearly a mile and a half wide at its mouth. The valley through which this great river flows is in many places well wooded, aud patches of fertile land are found at intervals on its banks. The Nasquapee or North-west Eiver and the Kenamou also fall into Hamilton Inlet. Between Hamilton Inlet and the Gulf of St. Lawrence there is a canoe route, the distance being traversed in fifteen days. George's River, Whale River, and South River, or Koksoak, fall into Ungava Bay. The Laurcntian formation constitutes the great frame- work of the peninsula, and Lower Silurian beds, principally Potsdam, rest on the Laurentian at various points of the coast. Copper ore has been found at different places along the coast, and gold in small quantities has also been dis- covered. Labradorite, a beautiful felspar, is found in great masses on Labrador and elsewhere. It is celebrated for its beautiful lustre. Its surface, when seen at particular angles of vision, is frequently distinguished by an exquisite play of colours, charming the eye with changing lustre, and reflecting the most lovely grays, the most delicate blues, and the softest golden yellows. There are mountain ranges in Labrador largely composed of this felspar. According to Dana, the eminent American geologist, it is colourless to grayish and smoky brown, and usually with beautiful internal reflections. Its composition is silica, 53 ; alumina, 30"1 ; lime, 123; soda, 4'5. Ratio of protoxyd bases, alumina and silica, 1:1::!^. Labradorite and anorthite differ from other felspars in containing propor- tionably less of silica, and being decomposable easily by acids. It is manufactured into cups, vases, aud other ornaments. The main value of Labrador lies in its fisheries. These are of immense and steadily increasing value. The following returns will show the present value of those fisheries. IP :!j!' i- [P.IHT 111. CHAP. Till.] LABRADOR. 357 outh. The J in many are found North-west ilton Inlet, ronco there I in fifteen li River, or reat frame- principally ints of the (laces along D been dis- md in great ebrated for t particular an exquisite ing lustre, )st delicate mountain lis felspar, ogist, it is sually with silica, 53 ; protoxyd dorite and ng propor- easily by and other es. These 3 following jries. Exports from Labrador for the year ending July 31st, 1880: NEWFOUNDLAND UGUSES. Dried cod-fish . > . 893,436 qtls. Green do. . 144 „ Sealskins . 1,096. Seal oil . . 50 tuns. Cod oil . . 76 „ Other oil . . . 1 » Blubber . . . 17 „ Pickled salmon . . 592 tierces Pickled herring . 16,970 brls. Pickled trout . . 14 „ Pickled mackerel . 459 „ Dried caplin . 58 „ EXPORTS BY LABRADOE HOUSES NOT CONNECTED WITH NEWFOUND- LAND, FOR YEAR ENDING JULY IST, 1880. Dried cod-fish . 14,000 qtls. Sealskins . . 110. Seal oil 14 tuns. Cod oil . . 55 „ Refuse 2 „ Blubber . 15 „ Pickled salmon 400 tierces. Salmon in tins . 30,000 lbs. Pickled herring . 700 brls. Pickled trout . . 40 „ Pickled mackerel . 200 „ Dried caplin . 160 „ I •! M>c7!^2^|^|S^^3P^ m i i i 1 ■; 1 fHI 358 NEWFOUNDLAND. [FABT III, EXPOKTa liV TRADERS ON LADRADOB COAST FOR YEAR ENDING JULY 1st, 1880 (estimated quantities) : Dried cod-fish . . 52G qtls. Cod oil . 14 tuns. Pickled salmon 757 tierces. Pickled herring . 2,G12 brls. Pickled mackerel 30 „ The foregoing' statement shows that in that year the total export of dried cod-fish was 407,902 quintals, value at three dollars per quintal, 1,223,880 dollars ; the export of herring 20,282 barrels, value at three and a half dollars per barrel, 70,987; the export of salmon 1,749 tierces, value 34,980 dollars. For tho year ending 31st July, 1881, the exports of the three great staples were as follows : Dried cod-fish . Pickled herring Pickled salmon 419,997 qtls. 33,330 brls. 957 tierces. i ! 1 i i 1 i. \ It must be remembered that the foregoing figures represent only the exports of tho fishery products, and do not show the quantities consumed by the fishermen while employed, or afterwards during the winter at their own homes, which must be very considerable. Besides, about a fourth of tho whole catch is sent to Newfoundland for shipment, and the Canadian and American fishermen who frequent these shores carry away with them the products of their labours, which are estimated to be about a ninth of the entire quantities taken. About 100 Canadian and Nova Scotia vessels are annually engaged in the Labrador fisheries. The number of American fishing- vessels visiting Labrador has declined of late years, and is now lu.ii'. vm.l LABRADOR. 359 1' l'< rEAR ENDING comparatively insignificant. Tho Americans mainly devote themselves now to the bank fishery. When tho quantities disposed of in tho way described aro added to tlio direct exports, tho aggregate will bo increased by more than ono half. Altogether, from 1,000 to 1,200 fishing-vessels are employed each year on tho Atlantic coast of Labrador, carrying more tlian 80,000 fishermen. These valuable fisheries are each year fulling more and luoro into tho hands of Newfoundland fishermen. Canadians and Americans, coming from great distances, cannot com- pete witb those who aro but three or four days' sail from the coast of Labrador. Formerly there were a largo number of Jersey houses at Labrador, but only three of these now remain. The English mercantile establishments have all withdrawn. It has been computed by competent authorities that when tho quantities of fish of all kinds taken on tho Atlantic and St. Lawrence shores of Labrador, by tho Esquimaux, by Newfoundlanders, Canadians, and Americans, aro esti- mated, tho aggregate values will not fall short of a million pounds sterling per annum. The total population of Labrador is about 12,527, and is distributed as follows : On tho St. Lawrence Coast, from Port Neuf to Blanc Sablon . . . 4,411 On the Atlantic Coast — White Population .... 2,41 G Esquimaux ..... 1,700 Indians of the Interior . . . 4,000 Total . 12,527 1 1 1, ^^\ AGEICULTURAL RESOURCES. CHAPTER I. THE GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. Difficulties of tho past — ^Tho vagaries of Governor Milbanke— Value of tlio land now under cultivation — New discoveries of fertile belts — Lands suitable for settlement — Two million nine liundrcd and seventy-six thousand acres awaiting cultivation. Up to a comparatively recent period, the belief was almost universal that Newfoundland was a " howling wilderness," its interior a region of swamps, bogs, "nd rocks, and its climate such as to forbid the idea of attei ' .iig the cultiva- tion of the soil. It is not difficult to account for these unfounded and erroneous impressions. It has been already shown that for nearly one hundred and fifty years, the laws enacted and enforced in the colony prohibited tl'e occupation or cultivation of land under heavy penalties, and even tho erection of housco, except such as were necessary for carrying on the fisheries. In vain did the resident inhabitants apply for permission to inclose and cultivate even small patches of land. The right to do so was sternly refused. The island was to be preserved as a station for the use of a small body of mer- rmr. i.] THE GEOORAl'IIICAL SURVKY. 3G1 chants ■who carried on n migratory fishery. To prevent the increase of inhabitants, stringent orders were given to successive Governors not to make any grants of hind, and to reduce the number of those who were already settled there, by withholding whatever might servo to onconrago them to remain in the island. As Mr. William Knox forcibly expressed it in his evidence before u Parliamentary Committee, in 1793: "The Island of Newfoundland had been considered in all former times as a great Knglish ship, moored near the Banks during the fishing season, for the convenience of the English fishermen. The Governor was considered as the ship's captain, and all those concerned in the fishery business as his crew, and suljject to naval discipline." The treatment of the settlers was graphically described by Lord North in the following terms : " What- ever they loved to have roasted, the Governor was to give them raw, and whatever they wished to have raw, ho was to give it to them roasted." Governor Milbanke, in one of his despatches which is still extant, expressed his astonishment how any Governor could imagine himself vested with power to grant laud to persons in Newfoundland in the face of existing statutes, and declared that the possession of any laud "ought to subject the holders to imprisonment or banishment from the counti-y." Another cause which retarded agriculture in Newfound- land was the delusion so systematically and perpcveringly propagated by interested persons, that the soil of the island was hopelessly barren, and that all attempts at agricultural improvement must prove failures. The mercantile mono- polists were most sedulous in impressing this belief on the English people and on successive English governments, simply because they wanted to keep the country as a comfortable "preserve" for their own advantage. For a long period they were successful in duping the world on this subject, until it became at length a settled belief 302 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAKT IV. ' %i that tliis large island, witli a healthy climate, and situated in a temperate latitude, presented insurmountable obstacles to agriculture. The people themselves, cooped up chiefly around the shores of the peninsula of Avalon, "where the soil is poorest, knowing nothing of the interior, and being dependent on the fisheries, at length became persuaded that there was no soil to cultivate, and that the Avhole island was of the same character as the rocky margin of the sea. As years rolled on this notion regarding the barrenness of the soil has been entirely dissipated. Experience proved that wherever judicious industry was expended on the soil it yielded excellent returns; and at the present moment those who have bestowed most attention on agriculture are the most prosperous and independent portion of the working classes. To the statement that the soil of Newfoundland is unfavourable to agriculture, it is sufficient to reply that the value of the land now under cultivation, together with the cattle, sheep, and horses, etc., which it sustains, is not less than two millions and a half of dollars, and the annual pro- duce is $G12,o50. This is the result of the limited effort made by the people in this direction around the various settlements on the shore, where the soil is poorest, and the harsh winds blowing over the ocean are most felt. What may not be accomplished, when the fertile belts of the interior, having a much finer climate, are peopled and culti- vated. Even now, however, enough has been done to prove that the soil of the island, so far from being intractable and barren, yields on cultivation rich and abundant ciops iu great variety. The farther settlement has extended inland, especially around the heads of the different bays, where noble stretches of the finest land exist, the more evident become the capabilities of the soil to sustain an agricultural population. The geological survey, as it advar.ced year after year, and made fresh discoveries of fertile lands, noble forests, and cinr. I.] THE GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 3G3 mineral districts, has at length completely banished the old delusion founded on ignorance and prejudice, and revealed a country having very great agricultural resources, awaiting the operations of the strong arm of labour for their develop- ment. These conclusions no longer rest on mere conjecture, or the assertions of individuals whoso judgments are not reliable. They rest on evidences collected by scientific men whose testimony cannot be disputed. Before giving a detailed account of the several fertile belts of the island, we propose to present a general outline of the extent of the agricultural resources as ascertained by the geological survey. A very careful survey was made of the western coast, for a considerable distance inland, by Mr. Murray and his assistant. Their reports state, as the result, that the regions near and surrounding St. George's Bay, including the Codroy Valleys and Po"t-a-Port, contain seven hundred and thirty square miles, more or less suitable for settlement, "the most favoured tract being the coal- measure districts, where the sui-face is often flat or gently undulating over a great many acres." Bay of Islands, in- cluding the valley of the Humber, Deer Lake, and Grand Lake country, contains six hundred square miles suitable for settlement — being a total of thirteen hundred and thirty square miles in this single district of land " perfectly capable of being reclaimed and converted into fairly ^jroductivo grazing and arable land." " These valleys,'' says the report, "are for the most part well wooded, producing, in many instances, lai'go pines, juniper, or tamarack (the latter a species of larch), fine yellow l)irch, and other valuable timber. In the valley of the Ilumber this is especially the case, where a large area of country appears to be provided with all the necessary material for shipbuilding in a re- markable degree." Passing nov/ to the eastt. a coast, we come to the Gander country. On the Gander river and lake, with the tribu- if' ' -t ■|| m Pfl ■™i V' 1. .. 1 i i ■ 1 ; s; 1 1 i f. I§ I m i-N * i ir hi 364 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AHT IT. taries, and including the Gambo and Terra Nova valleys, together with the tracts at the heads of the bays, there are, according to Mr. Murray, seventeen hundred square miles available for settlement. The Exploits Valley and Eed Indian Lake, together with the lands surrounding the estuary of the Exploits, contain sixteen hundred and twenty square miles. Thus we have a total, in these great valleys alone, of 4,650 square miles, or 2,970,000 acres, fit for settlement, and capable, when cultivated, of sustaining a very large population in comfort. The foregoing comprise only the most extensive tracts of fertile land at present known, but in addition there are many smaller portions of excellent soil around the heads of all the bays, along the margins of the smaller rivers, and on several of the islands, such as Random Island, iu Trinity Bay, which united constitute a large area. The Salmonier arm and river may be named as a district where there is a very considerable extent of good soil, but little of which is yet under cultivation. The peninsula of St. Mary's, the north side of Smith's Sound, in Trinity Bay, Goose Bay, in Bonavista Bay, are also fertile districts, each capable of sustaining a considerable agricultural populatiou. When you add to these the land already under culture around the various settlements, and the extensive tracts of land tlu'oughout the whole peninsula of Avalon, which are admirably adapted for cattle and sheep raising, the area of the whole can scarcely be under 2,000,000 acres. Thus we have close on 5,000,000 acres well fitted for agricultural and grazing purposes. The savanna country of the interior, described by Cormack, which in all pro- bability will one day be converted into cattle tracts or sheep walks, is not included in the foregoing estimate. It is probably about one hundred and twenty miles in length and ninety miles in breadth. [I'AUT IV. Nova valleys, Days, there are, d square miles alley and Eed rrounding the •ed and twenty e great valleys acres, fit for ' sustaining a ctensive tracts ition there are d the heads of ler rivers, and )m Island, in je area. The district where il, but little of insula of St. Trinity Bay, districts, each •al populatiou. under culture ;ensive tracts ivalon, which raising, the 00,000 acres, ell fitted for mna country h in all pro- ttle tracts or ing estimate, nty miles iu CEAP. I ] THE GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY. 365 Having thus given a general outline of the agricultural districts and their extent, we propose now to take each in turn, and furnish a more detailed account of their capa- bihties, begmning with the Codroy valleys on the western COUSua 1% I< K ^iMM CHAPTER II. THE CODEOY VALLEYS OlS^ THE WESTERN COAST. A well-woodcrl coiintry — Wild grass — Grazing lands — A vrintor in Codroy Villa — Experiences of local farming — Building stone and minerals — Emigrants going West — A fertile oasis on route hitherto unknown. The Great Codroy Eiver falls into the sea in latitude 47° 50' 14", longitude 59'' 19' 55", between fifteen and sixteen miles north of Cape Ray, and about six miles south-easterly from Cape Anguille. Thei'e is a narrow gut between the sea and the expansive shallow estuary of this river. Banks of sand and gravel, which are continually sliifting, render the entrance difficult and dangerous even for small craft ; and in some places there are only eight or ten feet of water. Inside this gut there is an excellent harbour sheltered from all winds. On the coast, four miles south from the outlet of the Great Codroy River, is Larkin Point, immediately south of which the waters of the Little Codroy River are poured into the sea. The fine valley, which is drained by these two streams, is bounded on the south-east by the Cape Ray mountains, rising in some places to a height of two thousand feet, and on the northern side by the Cape Anguillo range, whose highest elevations reach CHAP. II.] THE CODROY VALLEY. 367 LN COAST. —A ■winter in iaikling stone oasis eii routa in latitude fifteen and six miles narrow gut uary of this continually gferous even ily eight or m excellent , four miles or, is Larkin f tlie Little fine valley, nded on tlio some places ortliern side at ions reach one thousand threo hundi'od feet, and " are ricldy covered by forest trees nearly to the summits." Of the Codroy Valley, Mr. Murray says : " The area occupied by level or gently undulating land amounts, by rough measurement on the plan, to about seventy-five square miles, or about forty-eight thousand square acres ; a very large proportion of which is available for settlement. For the most part the country is well wooded with stout mixed timber, consisting chiefly of spruce, balsam firs, yellow birch (frequently of large size), white birch, and. tamarack. The islands and flats of the lower part of Great Codroy River yield a luxuriant growth of wild, grass, affording an ample supply of admirable fodder for cattle. Notwithstanding the very rude process by which the land is cultivated, the crops of grass, grain, and roots which it yields highly testify to the excellence of the soil on which they are grown. Cattle and sheep are raised upon most of these small farms, producing most excellent beef and mutton, besides dairy produce of the very best descrip- tion. The greater portion of the Anguille, and some portions of the lower slopes of the Cape Ray ranges are quite capable of improvement, and if cleared of t'mber and sown in gi'ass would afford grazing land not easily surpassed in any country." The sui'veyor-general of Newfoundland, who held ofiico more than thirty years ago, after a visit to Codroy, said in his report : " The extent of land between the Great and the Little Codroy rivers, and on the north side of the former, may, from the examination made, be estimated to contain an area equal to seventy thousand acres. The whole of that space consists of a rich loam capable of the highest degree of cultivation, and fit for the production of any description of crop. Limestone is readily obtained, and can with little trouble be made to contribute to the support of the land where it is so abundantly found. Timber of the most I • m 8G8 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAHT IV. L f serviceable description covers, for the most part, tlio tract here referred to. Birch trees measuring from five to seven feet in circumference were found within a quarter of a mile of the shore, while others of a larger growth may bo readily procured at a short distance from it. Among the birch are mingled spruce and fir of all sizes, suitable either for the erection of houses or the construction of vessels. From information obtained at Codroy, little doubt exists that coal may be procured, and that without much diificulty, toward the eastern end of the river. Lying to the northward of the valuable tract of land above referred to, is found a range of hilly ground, admirably adapted for grazing, its natural productions consisting of herbage, which early in the summer attains a height of between two and three feet.^^ ..." In closing the remarks on this river, it is doing no more than justice to say that it would be difficult to imagine a more beautiful or picturesque scene than the whole presents; and whether with reference to the soil around it, to its fisheries, or to its geographical situation, forming as it does pai't of the Northern Head, and therefore commanding the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a more desirable and important place for a settlement could scarcely be found." An intelligent farmer from Prince Edward Island was shipwrecked, a few years ago, at Codroy Island, and was compelled to pass the winter in Codroy Valley. On his return home, he published in a newspaper an account of his experience, from which the following is an extract : " You may judge of the richness of these Codroy lands by the fact, that at the homestead where I passed the winter, a farm of not more than fifteen acres of roughly-cultivated land, supported a stock of twenty head ofjcattle and thirty- five sheep, wholly upon hay. Along the 'intervals' I passed over rich fields where clover had been grown luxuriantly for more than thirty years, without manure, CHIP. II.] THE CODROY VALLEY. 369 and witH no sign of decay or loss to the soil. Even the neighbouring uplands seem equally inexhaustible in fertility, giving no sign of wearing out, though they have been cropped, year after year, without manure, since they were settled. Indeed, the manure-heaps are considered an encumbrance by the farmers there. Observing large and unsightly heaps of stable manure, which had been accumu- lating for thirty years, as I was told, I asked one of the farmers why he did not turn the manure to account. He replied that their hay-fields had no need of manure, and as for their potato lands, any manure on them would choke the potatoes with clover. Indeed, these uplands are so rich, that there seems no doubt that they are of volcanic origin. The Right Rev. Monsignor Sears, who has spent many years in this district, says : " As you ask in particular for the Codroy River, suffice it here to say, that the range of good land along its banks is sufficiently broad for all purposes of forming good farms. The ' interval ' is from a mile to two miles wide. The valley of the Codroy is iu most places computed at from ten to twelve miles wide, mostly composed of excellent land. The length of the valley is about forty miles altogether. There are of course some marshes, as in all countries, and some plots of stony ground, but nothing to impede farming operations on an extensive scale. In the ' interval,' and even the major part of the good upland, there are scarcely any stones. The wood is abundant and of excellent quality. The birch, ■which is plentiful, is an excellent article of fuel, besides its well-known use for shipbuilding." Regarding minei'als and other economical materials of the Codroy valleys, Mr. Murray says : " The coal rocks wore perceived to be distributed along the base of the Cape Ray mountains wherever visited, from Trevain Brook to the upper forks of the Great Codroy. Near the junction of the 2 B S' J 370 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PABT 17. i I I I coal measures with the gneiss, on the Great Codroy River, some bands of a very ferruginous character were observed. These bands are of a reddish brown colour, are hard, brittle, and with conchoidal fracture, the broken "surface presenting occasionally a metallic lustre." . . . . " Some beautiful speci- mens of magnetic iron were procured from the neighbourhood of the Cairn Mountain, near Flat Brook, which, judging from the quantity distributed over the ground, is probably derived from a large and important mass in the neighbourhood." .... "Grypsum," Mr, Murray adds, "abounds in the lower part of the carboniferous system, and is largely developed on the coast near Codroy and in Bay St. George. The vast masses which come out in the cliffs between Codroy Island and the Gi-eat Codroy River can hardly fail to pi'ove,some day, of great value and importance." . . . . " Admirable building stone is found on Codroy Island, in the section between the Great and Little Codroy rivers, and on the Great Codroy River. Some of the sandstone beds of the coal formation on the Great Codroy River would produce good scythe stones." Limestone beds, he also describes as " occurring on the coast near Codroy, and thence cropping out at intervals near the right bank of the Great Codroy." A traveller from Cape Breton who recently visited this region says : " The land is scarcely surpassed by any of the Lower Provinces for its fertility. We travelled about twenty-four miles above this beautiful and romantic river. There is a range of good upland extending some nine miles above the settlement. This is studded with bii'ch, spruce, and fir. Then commences what is called the ' Big interval.* This great tract of rich land I travelled for about fifteen miles either side of the river, some places extending over a mile in width. The extent and appearance of this splendid ' interval ' struck me so forcibly that I stopped to examine carefully the nature of the soil. I could see along the banks that the soil was exceedingly good, and four feet in [PABT IV. [roy River, 3 observed, ir J, brittle, presenting itif ul speci- ;libourhood dging from ,bly derived bourliood.'^ in the lower Y developed . The vast idroy Island '8, someday^ ,ble building between the reat Codroy al formation rood, scythe " occurring ping out at visited this any of the jelled about lantic river, nine miles h'ch, spruce, fig interval.' Dout fifteen [ding over a his splendid to examine along the I four feet in CHAP. II.] THE CODROY VALLEY. 371 depth, while the grass, balsam, and Balm of Gilead trees, and tall alders gave proof of its surpassing fertility." .... "As I ascended the mountain, previous to coming into tho valley of Bay St. George, I took a survey of this vast and mag- nificent valley, and tho same grand and pleasing sight was presented to view, unbroken by barrens or rocks, till the sight Avas lost amid the dark and gloomy forest which, robed in its sombre green, seemed to mourn tho neglect in which the vale below was left." The foregoing statements prove that in tho Codroy valleys there is a tract of exceedingly fertile land, of very considerable extent, easily reclaimed, having a favourable climate, enormous development of gypsum and limestone beds, with indications of coal and minerals and fine timber — in fact, that tho valley is rich in all that can minister to man's comfort and material progress. From ten to twelvo thousand people might find a comfortable home here. It is now occupied by a few hundreds of settlers; while thousands of emigrants are constantly passing within sight of it, to seek settlements in less promising regions, thousands of miles farther west. li B I'ii, "M, i\ CHAPTER ITI. THE BAY or ST. GEORGE AND THE WESTERN COUNTRY. Capabilities of the district for sottlciriont — Mr. Murray and Mr. Jukes on the productiveness of the soil — Vast tracts of un- occupied lands — Monsignor Scars gives the results of a settlor's experiences — Room for thousands of farms on " Tho Barrens " — Dr. Bell ou the climate — The Bay of Islands and tho Humber district. ! 11 About thirty-five miles to the north o£ Cotlroy is the fine Bay of St. George. More properly it might bo called a gulf, being forty miles wide at its entrance, and fifty miles in length. It is long and tapering, and receives at its head and along its southern shore numerous streams and rivers. A long low tongue of land runs out at tho south side of tho head of the bay, forming an excellent harbour. More than a quarter of a century ago the surveyor-general of the day paid a professional visit to this region, with the view of reporting on its capabilities. lie estimated that it was capable of supporting in comfort from one to two hundred thousand inhabitants. " Tho soil,'' he said, " is deep and rich, and when the trees and stumps are removed from it no further obstacles exist to prevent the land being at once brought under the plough ; while the husbandman has at hand limestone and gypsum sufficient for tho most CBAF. III.] THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE. 373 extonsivG farmiiii^ operations, and in addition to which help, a most vuluablo mauuro may be collected ahnost to any extent." lie calculated that the expense of clearing ground here would not exceed forty shillings per acre. Mr, Murray has estimated that the extent of land in St. George's Bay, available for settlement, is two hundred and twenty-five stiuaro miles, or one hundred and forty-two thousand eight hundred square acres. In addition to this he says : " On the north shore of the bay there is a con- siderable area of fine agricultural country, equal to nineteen thousand two hundred square acres." . . . . " The present settlement of this line region is limited to some straggling farms along the coast, on either side of the bay, on which ex- cellent crops of grass, potatoes, and turnips are raised. Winter wheat has been succes.sfully grown on the north side of the bay. The valleys around the bay are for the most part well wooded, producing in many instances largo pines, juniper or tamarack, fine yellow-birch, and other valuable timber." .... "North-eastward from the terminating point of the Cape Anguille Montains, the whole country between the coast and the Long Range is of a flat or undulatory character, densely covered with forest trees, except in such parts as have been swept by fire, or occasional tracts of marsh. The trees of this forest consist of white and yellow birch, spruce and balsam fir,poplar, and tamarack or larch." .... "Much of the timber of this groat plateau is very large. Trees of yellow and white birch are frequently met with, and particularly on the river flats, having a diameter of three feet and even more, many of which are tall and straight, resembling the hard-wood forests of Canada; spruces, balsams, poplars, and tamaracks also reach a maximum size, and seem to bo of excellent quality." .... "All these streams take their rise among the barren wastes of the Long Range Mountains, but the lower reaches of each, for distances varying from twelve to twenty miles, flow through richly-wooded and fertile •.-I i M 1 i 1 i 374 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAVr IT. vnlloys, interaccting tho plateau just described. Tlicso valleys, and much of tlio liighor lands, now primeval wilder- noss, appear to bo nearly in every respect well adapted for agricultural settlement. By deducting tho tract occupied by tho Anguillo rango of hills, amounting to two hundred and fifty-six square miles, which is too high and steep for ordinary tillage, although well suited as runs for sheep or cattle, the remainder of the block, viz. five hundred and sixty square miles, is certainly to a largo extent reclaimablo; and there can bo but little doubt that tho construction of roads, which must necessarily bo tho consequence of occupa- tion, together with tho clearing of tho forest, will lead to mineral discoveries of vast importance to the colony." .... " Tracts of considerable extent upon the coast, and nearly all the valleys of the principal streams, bear a soil of the most fertile description, which is even already shown by the few and rudely cultivated spots here and there, where the pro- duce in grass, green crops, and even cereals, ai'e all first- class, both in quantity and quality. And this in a country where there is no evidence of a plough, a harrow, or a •wheeled vehicle of any kind whatever !" . . . . "Large tracts of extremely fine land extend up the valleys for many miles. Tho richness of the soil at this part of the coast is probably due to the calcareous msiterial derived from the adjacent mountains, together with the disintegration of the trappcau rocks, of which the subsoil is composed.^' So far back as 1810, the late Mr. Jukes, the dis- tinguished geologist, visited St. George's Bay, and was much impressed with the beauty of its scenery and its agricultural capabilities. He described the country as " gently undulating, with a fine short turf, not unlike some English landscapes." From a rising ground, at a spot where he landed, he saw " a tract of low undulating land, covered with a rich sea of wood, stretching away into the interior for fifteen or twenty miles, backed by a range of CRAt, III.J THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE. 375 blue lulls in tlio horizon, that rose toward the south-west, while toward the north-cast they died away and coaloHced with the hills at tho head of the bay." The rich-looking valley with its bright waters winding away into the woods he describes as " completing a most lovely and most English picture." The Very Rev. Monsignor Sears, who has spent many years on this coast, and done much for the improvement of the region and its people, says of St. George's Bay : " As the soil here is surpassingly productive, especially in tho growth of various grasses, I believe there is no country in our latitude to surpass it for grazing sheep or cattle. Of course the laud will have to be cleared before there is much facility for grazing, although in many places near tho salt water there are large tracts already yielding grass. I find that all over Cape St. George, and tho sea-coast in general, wherever the trees are removed, either by fire, wind, or other causes, a spontaneous growth of grass springs up. The grass is good for grazing ; and even when protected yields a good crop of hay." Monsignor Sears gives an instance of a settler on a river running into the bay, who, having cleared one square mile of land, raised on this quantity, the following year, two hundred and forty tons of excellent hay. The river on which this settler is located is fifteen miles in length, and the land is equally good through its entire extent. In the more favoured localities he says there are meadows giving hay for the last nineteen years, without getting a particle of manure, and the nineteenth, crop is better than the first. "To my own knowledge," he says, " there are plains on either side of the Bay of St. George, some thirty or forty miles long, and in some places fifteen or twenty miles wide, traversed by rivers, and quite as fertile as the one I have described. The hay is so good that it sold at [St. Pierre for £8 per ton. The wood is abundant and of excellent quality, especially the birch for h I 376 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT IV, 1 ! ' fuel and shipbuilding. There is another tree here called the balm tree. It grows so luxuriantly on the ' Long interval ' tracts of the river margins that, viewed from a distance, this fine-looking tree reminds one of the oak forests of the Old World, or the maple groves of the neighbouring colonies. The timber is very light, something like that of the aspen, and is as soft to cut as the cedar. For inside work it combines the gloss or polish of hard-wood with the facility of being worked or dressed peculiar to pine. It covers hundreds of acres, and grows to a size of three or four feet in diameter." One more testimony regarding this region may be referred to— that of John Bell, M.A., M.D., of Montreal, tvho visited the west coast, and described it in the "Canadian Naturalist" for 1870. He says: "Along the river flats, in the valleys and on ' the barrens,' when these are drained and the country is a little more cleared, there will be room for thousands of farms, and the hills will afford walks for immense flocks of sheep, and pasture for countless herds of cattle, the surplus of all which will find a ready market at the ports and fishing stations, at the lumbering, manufacturing, and mining establishments which ere long will make this old and neglected colony one vast scene of active and profitable industry. The climate of the island is favourable to the development of its agri- cultural resources of every kind. Instead of the cold, foggy atmosphere which is generally supposed to hang over the island, quite the reverse is the case. The air is clear and warm, and the temperature during the year remarkably equable, the mercury in winter seldom falling below zero of Fahrenheit's scale, or in summer rising above eighty degrees ; while the mean temperature of the year is about forty-four degrees. I never saw finer weather than during the two months I was on the island. It is only on the south-west tPABT IT, CBAV. Ill,] THE BAY OF ST. GEORrTE. 37r I here called ong interval ' 1 a distance^ )rests of the leighbouring ' like that of For inside Dod with the to pine. It ize of three ion may be of Montreal, d it in the " Along the ' when these leared, there he hills will pasture for icli will find tions, at the tablishments d colony one The climate of its agri- ) cold, foggy ng over the s clear and remarkably elow zero of ity degrees ; t forty-four ng the two south-west corner that fogs prevail to any extent, from the proximity of that part to the Gulf Stream/' In addition to its agricultural capabilities. Bay St. George has valuable fisheries near, and to these the attention of the inhabitants is largely directed. Herrings ai ' abun- dant. Every man takes as many as he thinks he can cure. About thirty thousand barrels are exported annually. Cod, salmon, and smelt are also taken. St. George's Bay is further noticeable as containing on its shores the most extensive and promising coal-field, which Mr. Jukes estimated to be twenty -five miles wide and ten miles in length. He found a seam of excellent Cannel coal here, three feet in thickness at the outcrop. We reserve further account of this coal-field for the chapter on the mineral wealth of the island. Macrnetic iron has been found u( V Cairn Mountain, in St. George's Bay. J^orth of St. George's Bay extends the small peninsula of Port-a-Port, between it and the Bay of Islands. The few settlers here live chiefly by farnaing, the land being in many places well-wooded and good for agricultural purposes. The settlements are at West Point, Isthmus Cove, East Bay, and Fox Island. The inhabitants have a considerable number of cattle and sheep, and employ themselves during the winter months in making staves and herring-barrels, which they dispose of to traders going to the Bay Islands, where there is a large herring fishery. The best harbour is that of Piccadilly. The peninsula is but very imperfectly known. The mineral indications are of the most promising character. The ores of load and copper have been met with in such quantities and positions as to warrant the expectation of the district being one day a mining centre. A lead mine was opened here a number of years since, under the most favourable auspices, but had to be discontinued, as the imperial authorities — influenced by the protests of the I 378 NEWFOUNDLAND. Ipabt it. Ill French, who considered their fishery privileges invaded — prohibited the further working of this industry. This state of things has row ceased to exist, and mining grants can now be issued anj'where by the local government of the island. About fifty miles from the north head of St. George's Bay, the Bay of Islands opens, being fifteen miles wide at its entrance, where it is studded with lofty islands. This fine region, only second in importance to Bay St. George in regard to its agli^ultural capabilities, its fisheries, and its mineral and timner wealth, contains as yet but few inhabitants, who ai'e scattered along the banks of the Humber Sound and River. The bay is spacicas and easy of access, its depth being about fifteen miles, and the anchorage safe and good on the southern side. There are several arms extending from its eastern side, but these are as yet little known. The most important, however, is that arm which is known as the Humber Sound, extending from the south-eastern part of the bay about twenty-eight miles easterly into the country, with a width of more than two miles. At its head is the mouth of the fine River Humber, the second largest river in the island. A range of hills called the Blo-mi-don Hills, from eight hundred to a thousand feet high, rises to the south of the Sound. On approaching the Humber their height and abruptness gradually level down until, on the banks of this noble river, they do not rise higher than three hundred feet, while they pre- sent to the eye a rich clothing of the most varied foliage, that goes down to the water's-edge. This, however, does not hold good on the first or lower course of the river, •which passes through a narrotv gorge nearly three miles in length, having on each side lofty crags, which in some places shoot up perpendicularly from the water's edge to the height of a thousand feet. In flowing through this gorge the river is in some places pent up to less than a chain in [PABT IT. s invaded — istry. This ining grants ament of tlio St. George's niles wide at ilands. This y St. George isheries, and yet but few lanks of the cas and easy les, and the . There are but these are vever, is that tending from y-eight miles )re than two ver Humber, mge of hills ,0 a thousand approaching adually level rev, they do e they pre- aried foliage, owever, does if the river, three miles ich in some or's edge to ■h this gorge i,n a chain in ->. CHIP. III.] THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE. 379 width, the current being deep and strong. Three miles from the mouth of the river a slight rapid is met, which is easily passed at high spring-tides. Above this rapid the Humber opens out wide, flowing through a beautiful and picturesque valley, from three to seven miles in width, with fine flat land on either side. Within a mile of the lower end of Doer Lake, which is twelve miles from the mouth of the river, a second rapid is met, considerably stronger than the first, over which a boat can be readily taken by tracking, and which presents but a slight impediment to the safe transit of rafts of timber from the lake to the Sound. The rise from the sea to the level of Deer Lake, Mr. Murray found to be only ten feet. Deer Lake, through which the Humber flows, it' fifteen miles in length and three in breadth. Around it, especially to the eastward and north- ward, is a fine expanse of flat rolling country, reaching away in the former direction towards Grand Lake. " The land surrounding Deer Lake," sayj the surveyor-general already quoted, " is of the most fertile description, bearing on its surface pines measuring from three to four feet in diameter, with birch of hardly inferior dimensions, and both these kinds existing in great quantities, and with such water-power within reach as would Reem to invite the establishment of saw-mills, and at the same time to insure success to such an enterprise." The River Humber is about one hundred and fourteen miles in length, and flows through a beautiful and fertile tract of country, which ere long, by the extension of the railway system, will be populated, its valleys waving with the yellow harvest and its hills covered with browsing herds. The difficulties presented by the rapids already referred to could easily be removed were the country settled ; and if this were done, vessels of considerable size and small steamers could reach Deer Lake. All who have visited the Humber district speak highly 380 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT IV. of its resources. The soil is deep and fertile, and capable of yielding excellent crops of all kinds. Limestone can be easily procured, and to any extent, for agricultural purposes. The surveyor-general says : " From the resources which this part of our island possesses in its herring, salmon, and cod fishery, coupled with the great extent of land, which only requires the ordinary care of the agriculturist to insure a profitable return, it may not be extravagant to say that from a hundred thousand to two hundred thousand persons could be readily located there, who would be placed in such circumstances and surrounded with such resources as would guarantee to the sober and industrious settler a comfortable maintenance." Mr. Murray estimates the extent of land more or less available for settlements on the route through which he passed at two hundred and fifty thousand square acres. " Thousands of square miles,'' he remarked in his report, " have been laid out m townships, and already partially settled, in Canada, either for the purpose of lumbering or . farming on the northern shores of L ike Huron and many parts of the Lower Provinces, far infenor in most respects to this region of Newfoundland, which, there can scarcely bo a doubt, is capable of supporting a very large population." Li this valley of the Ilumber many thousands might find employment in agriculture, while those living on the lower reaches of the river and on the banks of the Sound could combine fishing, lumbering, and shipbuilding with farming. In the fine country around Deer Lake there is but a single settler — a courageous farmer from Cape Breton, who with his family veutui-ed into this solitude a few years ago. The present writer, when on an excursion to Grand Lake, in 1878, met this lonely pioneer, whose nearest neigh- bours were some twenty or thirty miles off. He described the country around Deer Lake as superior to any he had seen in Nova Scotia or Capo Breton. The extent of good land CHAP. III.] THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE. 381 he estimated at thirty-three miles in length, and with a breadth varying from three to five miles, all of it perfectly level. The soil is a deep sandy loam, and, for the growth of root-crops, cannot be surpassed. He had grown potatoes which weighed each three pounds ; parsnips and carrots twenty-two inches in length ; and beans and peas one third larger than the same kinds grown in Nova Scotia. He had raised a small quantity of wheat as an experiment, and found it quite equal to Canadian wheat. Clover and buckwheat also grew luxuriantly, and he found the soil specially favourable to the growth of flax. He thought the soil would suit fruit-trees. The " interval " laud along the river made excellent meadow ground. Hay could be cut here from the natural grasses. The timber, he said, was large — chiefly pine, spruce, birch, and fir. The Humber district contains some of the finest timber in the island, which will be more minutely referred to when the forests come to be noticed. Coal beds are believed to exist in the neighbourhood of Grand Lake. Marbles of all kinds occur at various parts of the Bay of Islands. More details of these are given in another part of this volume, and also of the splendid herrin<^ fishery of the bay, which is one of the finest to be met with, the quality of the herring being equal to those taken on the coast of Labrador, North of the Bay of Islands another fine bay opens, named Bonne Bay. It has not been surveyed, and is but very imperfectly known. Casual visitors report a largo extent of good land especially suitable for grazing purposes. Those who have attempted to cultivate the soil speak highly of its fertility. There is here a fine herring fishery, and on that, with salmon and cod, tho inhabitants chiefly subsist. Of the climate of Western Newfoundland the surveyor- general says : " To persons visiting the western shores of ii\ 382 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT TI. li ' >, j I a^ Newfoundland, after having been acquainted witli tlio eastern and southern, 'the difference of climate between these two places and the different effects produced on the weather by the winds become at once most apparent. The southern shore is frequently enveloped in fog, and the eastern, though not subject to that visitation to an equal extent, yet does the easterly wind almost always bring to the eastern shore cold and disagreeable weather. On the western shore fog is rarely seen, and the climate is an ameliorated one.'' In regard to the more northern bays little is yet known ; but casual visitors concur in declaring that at the heads of all these bays there are large stretches of good land, well adapted for settlement, and possessing natural advantages of great value. The foregoing evidence adduced regarding Western Newfoundland shows that here is one of the most desirable fields for emigration that can well be imagined, but which being unknown is neglected. In Codroy, Bay St. George, Port-a-Port, and Bay of Islands, together with the Humber district, there are 851,200 acres of land such as we have described, awaiting the axe, the plough, and the spade. The climate is favourable to health and industrial occupa- tions. The character of the district is such that a variety of occupations can be followed by the settlers — farming, lumbering, mining, shipbuilding, fishing, etc. The pro- jected Great American and European Short Line Kailway will open up the whole district, and place it in communica- tion with the outside world, securing a market for the various products of industry. There is nothing, however, to prevent settlement proceeding at present in advance of the railway, the diflBculties being far fewer than those en- countered by settlers who face the prairie or the forests in the west of the United States and Canada. Be it remem- bered, too, that this region is within five days' steaming np« > ^ll1> [PABT TI. ted with the imate betweea roduced on the ipparent. The fog, and the )n to an equal ways bring to ither. On the climate is an CBAP. III.] THE BAY OF ST. GEORGE. 383 distance of the Irish coast. Once its attractions are thoroughly known it can hardly fail to secure a consider- able rill from the great stream of emigration now flowing from the Old World to the New. i I is yet known ; b the heads of :ood land, well •al advantages ding Western nost desirable led, but which ly St. George, h the Humber h as we have id the spade, strial occupa- it a variety of ers — farming, c. The pro- Line Eailway 1 communica- irket for the ng, however, in advance of ban those en- the forests in Be it remem- .j»' steaming :f!l| 1^ S! I I I! I 11 CHAPTER IV. NOTRE DAME BAY AND THE EASTERN DISTRICTS. The future of the plain that will one day unite the Humber district with Notre Dame Bay— A splendid stretch of country — Scenery equal to that of the English and Scotch lakes — Large and small game — Red Indian Lake and White Bay — The fertile belts of the Gander and Ganibo country — A wilderness that might be " settled " — The unpeopled valley of the Exploits — Gander River. From the Bay of Islands on the western coast Newfoundland can be crossed, without much difficulty, to the shores of Notre Dame Bay on the eastern coast. The distance from the head of Humber Sound to the head of Hall's Bay, an arm of Notre Dame Bay, does not much exceed ouo hundred miles. A level plain at this point extends across the whole island, the greatest height of land between the two opposite shoi'es of the island not exceeding one hundred feet. Thus a railway one hundred miles in length, for the construction of which along this level plain there are the greatest facilities, would unite the fertile Humber district and the Bay of Islands with Notre Dame Bay, the great mining district which will one day. contain a dense popula- tion. Such a railway could commence on the eastern side, either at the south-west arm of Green Bay or at Hall's Bay, and terminate at the head of Humber Sound. There is a ■"TR^ ,1 CHAP. XV. NOTRE DAME BAY. 385 )ISTRICTS. splendid stretcli of country between these two points, the land being in many places excellent, the limber abundant and of large size, and the mineral indicatiDUj at many points such as to give promise of important discoveries. Ten or twelve thousand people could find comfortable homes along this great plain, which in some places attains a considerable width, but for the most part does not exceed from two to five miles. A chain of small lakes, with rivers flowing from them, extends from Hall's Bay to the shores of Grand Lake, with only ono portage a mile wide. By following these rivers and lakes a journey across is greatly facilitated. From Grand Lake the route lies across a portage of nine miles in width, and then the Humber Eiver is reached, flowing through Deer Lake into Humber Sound. There is not a single settler in this valley which stretches across the island. Were it settled, and a railway or ordinary road constructed, there would be a never-failing market for all kinds of agricultural produce, as well as for timber of all kinds, at the mines of Notre Dame Bay. The coal fields of St. George's Bay and of Grand Lake district would supply the mines with coal for smelting pui'poses and domestic use ; and from Notre Dame Bay coal could be conveyed to St. John's and other towns by the railway which is now under construction. The scenery along this route from Hall's Bay to Grand Lake is in many places beautiful, especially on the lakes, where it is often as picturesque and lovely as in the lake country of England or Scotland, Game of various kinds is abundant, and deer, at the proper season, are to be met with in large numbers. In 1878 Mr. Harvey made the journey across in company with Sir John Glover, then Governor of the island, and a small party. He has given an account of the excursion in a pamphlet entitled " Across Newfoundland with the Governor." The route lay from Hall's Bay up Indian Brook navigated in canoes, through 2 Hi m iL 1 ' i I ' I i ' ' h i 1 386 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAST IT. Indian Lake till tho portage, or "Loiglit of land," was reached, whence the streams flow westward, then Birchy Lakes, Sandy Lake, and Main Brook were followed, till Grand Lake, fifty-four miles long, was reached, and some time was spent in exploring its shores. The following extract from the pamphlet above referred to will convey some idea of Grand Lake and of the feelings its scenery awakened in the mind of the writer. "The shades of evening were closing in as we got our first glimpse of Grand Lake, and a very beautiful and impres- sive sight it was. Near its mouth the river takes a sudden bend and reveals at once the full expanse of the blue waters of the lake in which it loses itself. Our expectations were wound up to the highest pitch as we approached this noble sheet of water, of which we had heard so much but which so few had visited. To compare small things with great, we had been looking out for it and anticipating a sight of it with something of the same feelings which Speko experienced when he mounted the last height and saw the magnificent Victoria Nyanza stretching away in the dim distance, as far as the eye could reach. Where the river enters it Grand Lake is about six or seven miles in breadth, and with the encompassing hills gently sloping down to the water, thickly wooded, and flashing under the rays of the setting sun in all the golden glories of autumn, and the bright waters gently heaving under the evening breeze, the sight was enchanting. Near the shore the bottom is composed of bright yellow sand, and the reflection on the rippling surface produces an endless succession of golden squares and circles dazzlingly beautiful in appearance. I stood on the shore enjoying the fine sight as long as daylight lasted, and watching the effect of the darkening shadows on the waters, which, as the breeze died away, became like molten silver. I tried to picture to myself in its full extent this great watery expanse stretching from where I stood for fifty-four CHAP. IV.] NOTRE DAME BAY. 387 miles towards St. George's Bay, and grasping in its two nrms a lofty island twenty-two miles in length, thus exceed- ing the famous Lake of Geneva by nine miles. Here it had lain embosomed in its surrounding hills, its silences un- broken save by the shouts of tho Eod Men, whose wigwams uro no longer seen on its shores, or by the wild unearthly note of tho great northern diver fishing in its waters. In all these woods and hills stretching away in one direction to Ecd Indian Lake, and in another to White Bay, there was not a single track except the paths beaten by the deer in their annual migrations; and in the whole region round there was not a human being but the few composing our party. " I sat down on the trunk of a pine tree that had been washed up by the waves, and gave myself up to the spirit of the hour and the influence of the scene. The shades of night had now darkened tho hilltops, and only a stray breath of wind played on the surface of the lake. The stillness had in it something oppressive, almost painful. There were no warblers to fill the woods with their eveniner song, nor even the hum of an insect to disturb the stillness. In vain you hold your breath and listen intently for tho faintest sound. The silence was absolute, and had a peculiar and depressing influence on the feelings. To re- lieve this sombre mood I tried to picture the 'good time coming,' when the great valley stretching from shore to shore will be filled with a busy prosperous population ; when the forests will be cleared away, and smiling corn fields and meadows will overspread the scene ; when along the iron road will be gliding the chariots of fire; when those blue waves will be the pathway for the steamboat with its tranquil motion ; and when * young men and maidens, old men and children' will mingle their voices here in songs of gladness. It seemed to me as I gazed in the darkening twilight at lake and hilltops, woods and sky, 2 c 2 388 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PVIIT IV. 11 as if the utter stillness was prophetic of humar 'broach — as if our little Land was to be the pioneer .le great wave of civilisation, the boom of wliich I seeruod to hear along the newly-laid telegraph wire which now pierced these forests. IMie dead and dreary stillness became vocal to my ear, and whispered that man, th'> lord of creation, the mighty king and conqueror, was coming to make all things new J to build the great city, to erect the monuments of human culture, to make this new world blossom like tho old ; to ' make the wilderness and the solitary place glad.' And as I listened, now that tho mantle of darkness had wrapped tho scene around, tho air seemed all alive with his name. The trees whispered it in trembling ex- nctancy to one another; tho breeze took it up and sprei over the hills and along these lonely valleys, and prot^^^ -)d aloud that man, the rightful heir of all, was coming, that his distant footfalls were heard ; and the trees seemed ' to clap their hands' in welcome, the hills to listen for his approach, the forests to bend their tremulous tops in expectancy, and all Nature to offer eagerly the precious things with whicli for centuries she had been storing her bountiful bosom for the heir of all tho ages.' " There remains now the two great fertile belts opening on the eastern side of the island to bo described, namely, the valley of the Exploits and tho Gander and Gambo country. The Bay of Exploits forms a deep bight on the south coast of the great Bay of Notre Dame. It has numerous arms, the greatest being the inlet which leads to the entrance of the Exploits River. There are several islands in this arm, the principal being Thwart Island, on the eastern side ; the water is deep, and " there is no impediment to navigation for vessels of any size, until reaching Peter's Arm, where there is a good anchorage.''. . . " The entrance to the Exploits River is at Wigwam Point, in latitude 49° 5 ' N. 1; ! ^ CtfVP. IV.] NOTRE DAME BAY. 389 longitudo 55° 19' W. This magnificent river rises in tlio south-wostern angle of the island, and within a moderate distance of St. George's Bay, and after a courdO of two hundred miles, it falls in here. With its numerous tributuncs, it drains an area of nearly four thousand square miles. Of those it is estimated that one thousand six hundred and twenty square miles are fertile soil, roclaim- ablo and fit for settlement. Except at the mouth of the river, and on the arm, where a few settlers aro found, there are no inhabitants in all this great valley. The river flows through Red Indian Lake, thirty-seven miles in length, and distant from the mouth of the river between seventy and eighty miles. The lower valley of the Exploits, between the lako and the ssea, is capable of sustaining many thousand inhabitants. 'Tho soil," Mr. Murray says, " is equal to the best parts o ^ower C mada," with little swamp, unencumbered with boulders, the hills wooded to their tops, and from two to five miles wide. The root crops grown by the settlers — potatoes, turnips, parsnips, etc. — he pronounces " the finest he ever saw." The timber is in many places still abundant, consisting of pine, white bii'ch, very large spruce, and tamarack. Lumbering operations are carried on hero on a small scale, but might be largely increased. The river and its tributaries afford water-power to any extent. The facilities for stock- raising are unrivalled ; while railways or common roads could be easily constructed, the valley being for the most part a dead level. Twenty miles from the mouth of the river are the Grand Falls, already described. The land in the neighbourhood of Red Indian Lake is excellent. Its shores were the headquarters of the Red Indians for many generations, and the spot where they made their last stand, when assailed by the Micmacs. Formerly their burying places and traces of their wigwams were visible here, but they are now obliterated. I WW #41' i 1 1 i ' 1 1 ^t' •■■ 390 NEWFOUNDLAND. [past it. This great valley was practically unknown till the year 1871, when it was surveyed by Mr. Murray, whose account of it came like a new and startling discovery — so indifferent were the people to the riches of the interior and so ignor- ant of their very existence. Regarding its agricultural capabilities, he says in his report : " The main river valley, from Red Indian Lake downwards, is nearly for the whole distance a level or gently undulating country, broken only by occasional abrupt hills, or rocky eminences, and densely wooded for many miles back, from either bank of the stream." .... " The forests of the Exploits Valley consist of pine, spruce, balsam-fir, tamarack, white birch, and poplar." .... " The quality of its spontaneous productions may fairly be taken as indicative of a fertile soil. The width of this fertile belt of land varies at different parts of the river: but taking it to average about two miles on either side (and it probably is much more), there would be an area of reclaimable country of about two hundred and eighty square miles, or 179,200 acres." This estimate refers only to the lower reaches of the river, and does not include the country around the lake or that around the arms of the bay. " The fertility of the soil," says Mr. Murray, " at this part of the region is amply testified wherever culti- vation has been attempted, producing roots, potatoes, grass, and other crops of the finest description ; while as a grazing or stock-raising country it can hardly be surpassed." .... "No observant person visiting the valley of the Exploits could fail to be impressed with the manifold advantages it presents for the prosecution of industrial pursuits, such as lumbering and agriculture. With a splendid river, abundant timber, and a fertile soil, the region that is now a wilder- ness might, by energy and enterprise, be soon converted into a thriving settlement, maintaining a large population." Above Red Indian Lake the Exploits is divided into two branches — the main river or Exploits proper, and the CHAP. IV.] NOTRE DAME BAY. 391 Victoria branch. The former rises not more tlian twelve miles from the sea-coast, flows through King George IV. Lake and several smaller ponds. The Victoria branch takes its origin between the White Bear and Grandy's Brook watei's, and flows through Victoria Lake, a magnificent sheet of water, sixteen miles long, with a breadth of three- quarters of a mile. The character of the country through which these streams flow is varied. South of King George IV. Lake and Victoria Lake "the country is oiiO vast desolation of bare rock" with marshes interspersed. On the left bank of the Victoria there are areas o2 well- timbered laud, averaging five miles in width, and rich "interval" land between Lloyd's Pond and Red Indian Lake. Sixteen miles up the Victoria River " the country greatly improves, and a large tract, well wooded, generally level and covered by a good soil, prevails nearly up to Victoria Lake. This level and reclaimable land seems to extend to the eastward, with a few interruptions, to the Great Rattling Brook.'' The country south of Hodge's Hill and on the southern side of the Exploits " presents an unbroken dense forest, in a series of gentle undulations, as far as the eye can reach The country between the Victoria and the head of Red Indian Lake is well timbered throughout." Rich in agricultural capabilities as is the yet unpeopled valley of the Exploits, it is greatly surpassed by the valley of the Gander, which, when settled and culti- vated, will undoubtedly be the garden of Newfoundland. It may truly be said to have been discovered in 1874, when Mr. Murray surveyed a portion of it, from the sea to the bead of the Gander Lake, his examination being completed by Mr Howley, his assistant, in 187G, who explored the upper reaches of the river. The total length of the main river is one hundred miles ; but another branch of it, called the South-west River, also empties into the Gander Lake, and is eighty miles iu length. The area drained is nearly m I I !' 1 i i ■ i : .ii 392 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAET IT. 4 three thousand square miles. Altogether there are in this great expanse of country, including the whole of the Gander River and Lake, and the neighbouring Gambo and Terra Nova valleys, no less than seventeen hundred square miles available for settlement. This, as we shall see presently, is the finest lumbering country in the island. Gander River is approached from the sea at Sir Charles Hamilton's Sound, by the great inlet of Gander Bay, the head of which is in latitude 49" 17' N., and longitude 54° 29' W. From this point to the lake the river is thirty miles in length. The Gander Lake is thirty-three miles in length, with an area of forty-four miles. In the deepest part fifty-seven fathoms of line failed to strike the bottom. The main branch of the river extends above the lake for a distance of sixty miles. Thus the lake intersects the finest part of the district, having one outlet by the river to Notre Dame Bay, on whose shores are our copper mines. This river, with a small outlay, could be made navigable for boats of a good size, and down it timber could readily be floated were some present obstructions removed. Lumber and produce would here find a waterway to the sea, and a ready market in the rapidly advancing mining district. The railway now in course of construction from St. John's to Hall's Bay will traverse this splendid valley, and unlock its natural treasures and render it accessible. The eastern portion of the lake stretches away in serpentine form towards Bonavista Bay, its extremity being separated from that bay by only nine miles of a very level country, over which a road or tramway could easily be constructed. Thus the valley has two outlets to the sea, and will have railway communication in one direction with the mining region, in the other with the capital and the principal towns. It is difficult to imagine a district more favour- ably situated for a farming and lumbering population. Along the valley drained by the South-west River, eighty 1 .1 I ' ' ' t [PAET IT. Ca.VP. IV.] NOTRE DAME BAY. 393 e are in this hole of the Gambo and idred square ^e shall see B island. t Sii' Charles der Bay, the nd longitude fiver is thirty iree miles in the deepest ! the bottom, the lake for ntevsects the by the river 5opper mines, navigable for Id readily be ed. Lumber ;o the sea, cing mining notion from endid valley, it accessible, in serpentine \g separated vel country, constructed, d will have the mining ho principal I ore favour- population. Uver, eighty miles in length, the soil and timber are reported to be excellent. Pino logs, eighty feet in length, have been cut around the mouth of this river, and floated down the lake to the sea. In regard to the character of the soil, Mr. Murray says : " Of this great expanse of country a very large proportion, particularly eastward from the main river, is of rich and fertile soil, as amply testified to by its indigenous produce, which, to a great extent, consists of pine and spruce of a superior size and description, intermingled with balsam fir, white birch, and poplar, the ground often being thickly matted over by an underbrush of ground hemlock. It is greatly to be regretted however that chiefly, if not alto- gether, from the careless use of fire on the part of trappers Avho frequent these regions, great damage has been done to those noble forests.^' .... " Were the region opened up for settlers a very large proportion of the timber might still be utilised, as we found upon trial upon several trees, that they were still sound and solid though dead." .... " With the almost unrivalled capabilities the country possesses for grass-growuig, breeding and rearing of stock can hardly fail to become one of the great future industries of the province. The total rise on the river to the level of the Great Lake has already been shown to be about seventy- five feet ; and, as a great part of the natural course is still and moderately deep water, the impediments to the naviga- tion of vessels drawing from five to six feet might be easily overcome by the construction of five or six locks." Mr. Howley, assistant-geologist, who completed the survey of the Gander River above the lake, says in his report: "Within the immense region drained by the Gander and Gambo rivers, there is a vast area of country capable of being easily reclaimed and converted from its present state of wilderness into agricultural settlements." ..." The country lying above the great lake and forming the valleys •li '■i 1 i 1 ; 394 NEWFOUNDLAND. tPABT IV. of the two rivers, present everywhere a gently undulating surface, rising to a moderate height in its more elevated parts, and sloping gradually and with beautiful regularity down to the rivers' banks on either side. For a distance of thirty miles above the lake, and at the least two miles on the western side of the main and eastern side of the south- west rivers, the country is of this chai'acter, giving a block of thirty miles long by ten miles wide, or an area of three hundred square miles, covered with a rich deep yellow sandy loam. Nearly every acre of these three hundred square miles is well adapted for agricultural purposes, while the whole is, or was at one time, densely timbered with magnificent pine, spruce, fir, and white birch. The islands or intervals in the river, especially near their outlets, are perfectly level, and covered with exceedingly rich and deep alluvial soil. Many of those flats are of considerable extent, and for the most part they support a large growth of timber, while a luxuriant crop of wild grass flourishes round the banks and on the lower levels. Much of the country surrounding the Great Lake is also well adapted for settlement, and the advantages of having a frontage on this future great highway will still more enhance its value." . . . " The country itself is magnificent. I have never seen such an extent of level land in any other part of Newfoundland. It is not to say level in the general sense. It is composed of low rounded ridges and wide sloping country, all densely timbered. There is not a hill anywhere near the river from which a good view can be obtained." . . . . " That the soil here, over a very great area, is of excellent quality and capable of yielding rich harvests I cannot doubt. Taking every- thing into consideration, I do not think that a more promising country or one more easy of access could be found in British America." .... "In all my travels about the island I have nowhere seen anything like the quantity of pine timber to be met with here ; and, although the soil on ■•v:;ii> CHAP. IV.] NOTEE DAME BAY. 395 the western side of the island is richer in some places, this country, taking all its advantages into consideration, offers more immediate inducement to settlers/' In addition to its agricultural and lumbering capabili- ties the Gander country gives abundant promise of being a mining region. The rocks of the serpentine group, having all the characteristics of the copper-bearing formation in Notre Dame Bay, are extensively developed in the Gander district, not only on the north and north-east of the lake, but also on the main river above the lake, where they occupy an immense area. " It is only reasonable to suppose,'^ says Mr. Ilowley, "that the ores of copper and nickel will be found to exist here also." Of the Gambo Eiver Mr. Howley says : " The timber on the Gambo, especially in the valley of the Triton River, is very fine. Pino is abundant, and though not generally so large as that of the Gander, is of excellent quality. The white birch, spruce, and fir along the banks of the river are remarkably fine, indeed I have seldom seen finer in any part of the island. The land available for general agricul- ture in the valley of the Gambo is not extensive, being chiefly confined to the alluvial flats on either side of the river. These, however, are frequently richly luxuriant, as testified by the indigenous vegetation, especially in the valley of Triton River, where they are generally upwards of a mile in width, extending from the outlet into the upper ponds and to the foi'ks." i^^B ' w V ■) ^^■' i 1' '^ li CHAPTER V. ON THE PROSPECTS OF LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. Authoritative opinions and reports — Newfoundland compared with the most favoured provinces of North America— Summers and winters — Newfoundland as a grazing country — Vegetable pro- ductions — Tlie district of St. John's — Fish as a fertiliser — Wheat, barley, and hops — Report of the Joint Committee of the Council and House of Assembly — The peninsula of Avalon— The present condition of agriculture — Customs returns — Markets for farm produce- Forest timber, pine and spruce — Area of forest lands — The lumbering regions. In 1812 Sir John Harvey was appointed Governor of the island. He was a man of much intelligence and energy, and he had an extensive knowledge of the soil of the neighbouring colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. He became an enthu- siastic advocate for the agricultural improvement of New- foundland, and never ceased to urge its importance. He showed that the country must be openqd up by roads as an indispensable step to the cultivation of the soil. Nothing was known in his day of the fine districts and valleys described in the precading pages. He was only acquainted with the poorest portion of the island around the eastern shores and bays, and yet, addressing the legislature, he referred to the subject in the following ENTS AND cn.ip. v.] LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. 397 terms: "And liere I will not deny myself the satis- faction of recording this public declaration of my con- viction, derived from such observation and information as a residence in the island for upwards of a year has enabled me to acquire, that, both as regards climate and agricultural capabilities, Newfoundland in many respects need not shrink from a comparison with the most favoured pro- vinces of North America. Its summers, though short, enjoy an extraordinary degree of vegetative power, which only requires to bo duly taken advantage of ; its winters are neither unusually long nor severe, and its autumnal seasons are as open and fine as those of any of the sur- rounding colonies. In point of rich natural grasses, no part of British North America produces greater abundance. Newfoundland, in fact, appears to me to be calculated to become essentially a rich grazing country ; and its varied agricultural resources appear only to require roads and settlements to force them into highly remunerative develop- ment." After referring to the entire absence of roads in his day, he said : " So long as this unexampled state of things, more especially as respects the roads, is suffered to continue, this colony must remain — what it would appear to have been designed to keep it — little beyond a fishing station. Emigration to it, beyond the number of labourers required for the prosecution of that single pursuit, cannot be expected, no other encouragement being held out. But by opening up its interior by means of good roads and com- munications, upon lines carefully surveyed and carried through lands — and it is known that such are to be found — capable of repaying the labour of the settler, and therefore holding out inducement to that class of emigrants, you will, as I have elsewhere said, discover treasures which, though they may not offer, in the first instance, rewards so tempting, and so immediately available, as those of the surrounding deep, are nevertheless quite as essential to the prosperity of 1 1, w p II if 1 ■';! •r ^iippp •\- A . : , ( , M.f 1 i ' 1 li 398 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAIIT IV. your island home as are the fisheries themselves." These utterances of Sir John Harvey have proved to be prophetic. The existence of " the treasures " ho refers to is now placed beyond all question. Sir Eichard Bonnycastle, a military officer of distinction, ■who spent some years in the island, and has written one of the best books on the country, was strongly impressed with its agricultural resources. His work bears the date of 18 12, and in it he earnestly advocates colonisation and agricultural development. He speaks of Newfoundland as " possessing a climate of extraordinary salubrity," and predicted that if opened up for settlement, it would " take its rank amongst the more flourishing colonies of the neighbouring conti- nent." He enumerates among the vegetable productions which he saw growing and thriving admirably, cucumbers, melons, cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli, beet, parsnips, carrots, peas, potatoes. " The garden strawberry and rasp- berry of every variety thrive without more than the usual care." . . . . " Potatoes, oats, turnips, and all the necessary vegetables, can readily be reared, even on the very worst por- tion of such a wilderness as that of the littoral. Hero one hundred thousand acres are stated to be under cultivation." .... "The very worst portion of the soil is that in the neigh- bourhood of St. John's, and yet here, in all directions, the plough speeds and the ancient forest has vanished." His description of the soil in the neighbourhood of St. John's is perfectly correct. It is among the poorest in the island, and yet in every direction for miles around the city are well-cultivated and productive farms, comforta]Dle home- steads, and a numerous agricultural population. Oats and barley of the best quality are grown, and even wheat has been tried with success. If, then, such are the results of cultivation in the least promising portion of the country, where the harsh winds from the east are felt, and the effect of the cold Arctic current is most felt, what may we not cu.ir. v.] LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. 399 expect when the deep soil of the sheltered valleys and of the ■warmer interior and of the west coast are brought under cultivation ? " The district of St. John's/' says Bonnycastle, " is especially well adapted for a grazing country ; and the imported and home-raised cattle look as plump and as sleek as those of any other part of the world where they are care- fully attended to ; and I have seen cows at some of the farms which would not discredit the dairies of Devon." It may be mentioned hero that a large portion of the manure used by the farmers is a compost made by mixing cods'-heads and fish offal of all kinds with earth and peat. After standing for a year a fertilising compound, equal to guano, is thus produced. The Eight Ilev. Dr. Mullock, Roman Catholic Bishop of St. John's, a gentleman of high culture and intelligence, and one who took a deep interest in the improvement of the country, delivered two lectures on Newfoundland, in 18C0, in which he spoke in high terms of the natural capabilities of the island, especially of its agricultural and mineral re- sources. Of the former he said : " All garden vegetables — cabbages, carrots, turnips, salads, etc. — are brought to the highest perfection, and the climate appears specially adapted to impart succulency to them. The potato, you all know, before the rot, was of the finest quality. It has now nearly recovered." .... "Wheat will ripen very well. I have never seen finer barley than the growth of Newfoundland ; and all persons who have bought, as I have done, Newfoundland oats, at nearly double the price of the husky grain imported here, will find that he has gained by the purchase. Hops are most luxuriant, and so are strawberries, currants, goose- berries, cherries, and many other species of fruit." .... "My estimate, then, of the agricultural capabilities of Newfound- laud, comparing it with what I have seen in the north of Europe, is, that if we had a large agricultural population, we could support them in comfort." It must be re- :ir I k 400 NEWFOUNDLAND. (I'ABT IT. membered that the foregoing was written previous to tho discoveries of the geological survey. Sir Stephen Hill, who was Governor in 1873, says in one of his despatches that "the agricultural capabilities of the island are far greater than are usually assigned to it," and that large portions of it are " capable of a high cultivation." The area of the fertile portions, he says, " added together, amount to many millions of acres. With respect to tho pro- ducts of the colony, potatoes, turnips, cabbages, peas, beans, and indeed all vegetables which grow in England, arrive at the highest state of perfection in Newfoundland. Of cereals, its barley and oats will not suffer by comparison with tho produce of Nova Scotia; and even wheat can be ripened in spots, though, as a rule, not as a profitable crop." (This refers to tho neighbourhood of St. John's.) "As regards fruit — currants, strawberries, gooseberries, and cherries, with other fruit, grow in the gardens; and countless species of bei'ries are found in great profusion throughout the country." In 1880 a joint committee of tho Council and House of Assembly, appointed to consider the question of constructing a railway in the island, presented a report, of which the following are extracts : " Our agricultural industry, though prosecuted to a valuable extent, is yet susceptible of very enlarged development. Vast stretches of agricultural land, extending from Trinity Bay, north, along tho heads of Bonavista Bay, Gander Bay, and Exploits River, as well as on the west coast, need only the employment of well-directed labour to convert them into means of independent support for thousands of the population." .... "The inquiry is further suggested whether this colony should not become an ex- porter of live stock ; and we have little difficulty in affirming this position. For grazing purposes, we have largo tracts that we believe cannot be surpassed in British North [I'ABT IT. rious to tlio , says in ono ilities of tlio i to it," and cultivation." led together, ;t to the pro- , peas, beans, ,nd, arrive at . Of cereals, son witli tlio 36 ripened in n-op." (This "As regards cherries, with itless species irougliout the cnAP.v.i LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. 401 America ; and when we regard our proximity to England, and the all-important consideration of a short voyage for live stock, the advantages wo possess in this connection are too manifest to he the subject of question or argument." The last authority we shall quote is Mr. W. Frasor Rae, who visited the island in 1880, and has recorded his views in an excellent and trustworthy work, " New- foundland to Manitoba." Ho formed a very favour- able opinion of tho island, and, from its great natural resources, ho anticipates for it a career of prosperity, now that tho railway has at last been introduced to aid in the development of its agricultural and mineral resources. Of tho former he says : " That the soil and climate of Newfoundland are really good is a statement which may be read with scepticism. The common opinion is unfavourable to both, and this opinion is based upon experience gained near the coast." . . . . " Not till a few years ago was it determined to open up the interior of the island by constructing a railway across it. In 1875 the legislature passed an Act for an extended survey. The reports of the engineers confirmed all that had been previously written in praise of the island, while showing how easy it was to construct railways there. Nearly the whole of the interior is undulating, is covered in parts with forests, is intersected with rivers, and is strewn with lakes. One-third is water. The greater part of the soil is adapted for the growth of all kinds of vegetables, most kinds of grain, and even tobacco. On the western side the soil is richer and tho climate is finer than in the peninsula of Avalon at the east. If the earlier settlement had taken place at the western shore, the island might now sustain a large population, living by the pursuit of agriculture alone." In Newfoundland, as in Canada and the United States, there are areas which are hopelessly barren or nearly so, the 2 D ft )■ ! 1 > I 402 NEWFOUNDLAND. [fabt it. soil being too scanty to permit vegetation, or tlio surface covered deep with largo boulders. A largo space, too, is occupied by marshes or swamps. The beat judges declare that, in a majority of cases, these could bo drained, and profitably converted into meadow if uot arable land, as has been done in similar cases in Great Britain and Ireland. Between the head-waters of tho Exploits and the sea thero is a dreary and desolato country on the southern coast, where vegetation is very scanty, and for months dense fogs prevail. Tlie mistake has been in supposing that tlio character of such a repulsive region hold good of tho whole island, and that it contained no fertile belts. Tho present condition of agriculture in Newfoundland will bo best learned from tho following returns taken from tho census of 1874, being tho latest. It is necessary to bear in mind that agriculture hitherto has been mainly confined to the littoral portion of the island, where tlio soil is poorest and the climate less favourable, tho good lands beinn: inaccessible. Land — Acres cultivate; 1 . . . 34,293 Cattle — Head (3,286 Milch Cows — Head G,240 Horses 3,890 Sheep . . ^- .. Swine 7 Goats ( S Butter — Pounds . 180,d54 Hay — Tons cut . . 21,004 Wheat — Bushels 84 Barley — Bushels 546 Oats — Bushels 6,606 Potatoes — Barrels . 315,096 Turnips — Barrels . 14,001 Other root-crops — Barr sis . . . 5,487 .ij; I wm iPXBT IV. p tlio surface spaco, too, 13 udgos declare I drained, and lo land, aa has I and Ireland, the sea there outhcra coast, itlis dense fogs sing that the ,d o£ the whole Newfoundland rus taken from [t is necessary aa been mainly land, whore the ^able, the good 34,203 0,286 G,240 3,890 ,^ 7 ( 8 18o,o54 21,004 84 546 6,006 315,096 14,001 5.487 cuAt.r.] LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. 403 The growth of agriculture, for obvious reasons already referred to, has been very slow. The census of 1830 gave 11,002 acres as the ((uantity under cultivation. That of 1845, gave 29,050 acres; that of 1855, 41,108 acres; that of 1809, 38,134 acres; that of 1874, 34,293 acres. On these points, however, the censuses are not to bo rolind on as entirely accurate. As the returns stand they show a decline since 1855 instead of an advance in the quantity of land under cultivation. The want of all facility of access to the fertile districts, and of every encouragonient to settle in the interior, is sufficient to account for this stagnation. The Customs' returns for 1 880 show that in that year the total value of agricultural produce imported into Newfoundland, was no loss than $2,825,411. If wo suppose this amount of px'oduco raised in the country, which, were the island opened up to any extent, would bo the case, then nearly three millions of dollars annually, which now are sent out of the country to pay the agri- culturists of other places, would bo retained and spent among Newfoundland farmers, to the great benefit of the home population. If the encouragement of home manufactures is proper, then as farms are food factories, every facility should be given for the extension of this industry, by providing railways for the transport of farm produce to market. It is evident from these returns, that for the produce of the farm and dairy and the raising of stock, there will be, for years to come, a re- munerative market in the island itself, apart altogether from exportation. The total annual value of the produce of the land now under cultivation has been estimated by Sir William Whiteway at $012,350. The value of the cultivated land, at the rate of $80 per 2 D 2 404 NEWFOUNDLAND. [pABT :r. acre, together with liorses, cattle, sheep, etc., in 1855, was estimated at $3,957,069. It may be doubted, however, whether this estimate is not too high. Although from time to time fires have destroyed large sections of the heavily-timbered districts, yet the forest wealth still I'emaining and yet unutilised is immense. These forests are found chiefly in the valleys of the gi-eat rivers already described, and along the banks of their tributaries ; also in the country around St. George's Bay and Port-a-Port. The varieties of the indigenous forest timbers ai'e white pine, white and black spruce, tamarack or larch, fir, yellow and white birch. Once the country is fairly opened up by railways a great timber trade will be created. The yellow birch, which abounds largely in St. George's Buy, is said to be equal in durability to English oak, and, with* the spruces and larches, is admirably adapted for shipbuilding purposes. The great valley of the Gander is destined to be the most important lumbering region in the island. It is covered with pine and spruce of the finest description; and the river and lake present all facilities for floating logs to the sea-margin, where saw-mills could be erected. On both sides of the lake itself water-power for driving machinery could be obtained in many places. Besides the river, an outlet could be found at Freshwater Bay, in Bonavista Bay, which is separated from the lake by a level tract only nine miles in length. Mr. Murray reports as follows of this region : " Ex- cept where pai'tially denuded by fire the whole valley of the rivei', the shores over the lake, and the banks of the tributaries are aii densely clad by forest, among the most conspicuous trees of which are pines, to all external appearance of the finest description. Upon the south-west arm, and at various parts of the lake, cHvr. r.j LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. 405 groves of pine may be seen where the average girth of the trees is not much, if anything, less than nine feet, and where many individual trees will reach to eleven, twelve, and even fourteen feet. On about one acre of surface I measured fifteen or twenty trees, the diameters of which varied from two and a half to four and a half feet ; and these, moreover, were straight, tall, and sound, with stems running up symmetrically for upwards of fifty feet without knot or branch." He estimated that there was here "an area of not less than five hundred square miles worthy of being laid out as timber limits where an immense timber trade might be carried on success- fully." .... " Were the ti*acts surrounding the head- waters of the Gambo and the south-west branch to be taken into account, I have little doubt the area would be extended to a thousand square miles." In another place he said : " On the supposition that the avei-age amount of timber fit to be converted into lumber is 20,000 feet per acre, it follows that 400,800 acres will contain nine billion two hundred and sixteen million feet of more or less merchantable produce, equal to ninety-two millions one hundred and sixty thousand feet annually for one hundred years, and yielding timber to the value of 81,843,300 per annum." .... The establishment of the lumber trade in these regions, however, would only be a preliminary move- ment towards the ultimate permanent settbment of the land. The soil over an enormous area is rich and fertile, the surface level or gently undulating. The country is capable of raising all or most of the cereal crops in ample abundance." Mr. Howlcy, assistant-geologist, says in his report on the same region : " From careful examination of the forests at many different points, and particularly as regards the limits of available pine, I feel myself in a position to furnish I I r7^ V i 1 i i. ! 1 1 ^ 406 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT IT. the following estimate of tlie area" supporting that timber with tolerable confidence : Square miles. Area of pine lands on the lower valley of the Gander Eiver and north side of the lake . 200 Valleys of the Main and south-west rivers above the lake ..... 300 Country along the south side of the lake, and across to Freshwater Bay . . .200 Valley of the Gambo and Triton Eiver with their tributaries .... Total . 150 . 850 " I conceive it probable that still further investigation naay bring the total area up to one thousand square miles. Most, if not all, the pine hero referred to is of the white variety, Finns strohus, probably the most valuable species for the manufacture of lumber." Fires have swept over many portions of this district, but "the pine, though scorched, does not appear otherwise to be much injured so long as it remains standing." Though not nearly equal to the Gander country in forest wealth, the valley of the Exploits contains a very large quantity of pine and other valuable timber. Near the mouth of the river a steam saw-mill has been successfully at work for many years, and no difficulty is experienced iu procuring a large supply of material. " Between the Grand Falls and Badger Brook," says Mr. Murray, "at many parts, on both sides of the main river, pine was observed to flourish luxuriantly, much of which appeared to bo of excellent quality, being often of fair diameter, straight, and tall. These reaches also display a fine growth of other varieties of timber, and at some parts, especially about the forks of the Sandy Brook, wliite^ birch often attains a very large size." About Eed Indian Lake there is a superb ' ... jiNHa^mimi ^ that timber ntry in forest a very large Near the a. successfully xperienced iu jen the Grand y, "at many ,s observed to 'ed to bo of straight, and svth of other illy about the ittains a very is a superb rs^ 'm 1 f f i ; 1 I i < 1 /■'aciiig /lagv 407 l.UMUERMAN .S CAMP IN WINTI'.R. lis. .t^^:. ---*i CHAP, v.] LAND INVESTMENTS AND EMIGRATION. 407 growtli of pino and spruce of " large size, straight, and tall/' . . . " With, a splendid river, abundant timber, and a fertile soil, this region is marked out for a prosperous settlement/' ..." The southern side of the Exploits pre- sents an unbroken dense forest, in a series of gentle undulations, far as the eye can reach." . . . "From the Victoria Eiver to the head of the Eed Indian Lake, the country is well timbered throughout." Another richly-wooded district is the valley of the Humber, where for many years lumbering has been con- ducted on an extensive scale. The surveyor-general reports of the timber here as follows : " The hard-wood found hero consists chiefly of the different descriptions of birch, the yellow, called wych-hazel, within a quarter of a mile of the shore was found measuring, at six feet from the ground, from five to seven feet in circumference ; and soft- wood, as pine, spruce, birch, etc., are to be had with as little difficulty, the whole consisting of a size sufficiently lai'ge for any kind of building, and in quantities abundant enough to become an article of export." Mr. Murray says : " Tama- rack, or larch, is not rare ; yelloAV birch of large dimen- sions is abundant ; white pine and spruce grow in the greatest profusion, frequently of a size and quality not greatly inferior, if not equal, to the best that is now largely brought into the market in Gaspe and other parts of the lower province of Canada." These are the principal lumbering regions, but, as already stated, the valleys around St. George's Bay and the Codx'oy valleys contain a fine growth of mixed forest timber — spruce, pine, bii'ch, and fir. On most of the smaller streams there '.re also groves of pine and various other trees, Avhile the same holds good regarding the heads of many of the bays. It is thus evident that in "regard to forest wealth and lumbering capabilities Newfoundland holds a very important place." : ■7"IW>^'' I 408 NEWFOUNDLAND. [past it. .It "It is very remarkable," says Mr. Howley, "that no species of cedar, beech, elm, or oak have been met with in this country, although they are all common on the continent, and some of these varieties are known even to exist at Cape Breton. The valuable American white ash is a rare tree here : it has only been met with at a few favoured spots in the country surrounding St. George's and Port-a-Port Bays." |3art 19. MINEEAL EESOUECES. CHAPTER I. PIONEEE "WORK AND PROSPECTS. Opening of the first mine — Mr. 0. F. Benneb and Mr. Smith MacKay — Tilt Cove and Rett's Cove. It was not till a comparatively recent date tliat some of the £;rimmest-looking rocks of Newfoundland were known to contain mineral treasures of enormous value. People were at first slow to believe in the possibility of this despised outlying portion of creation containing deposits of valuable minerals ; those who persisted in searching for them were i*egarded as visionaries. To-day, however, New- foundland stands sixth among the copper-producing countries of the globe. The first mine was opened in 1864 ; and though at first mining was prosecuted in a languid way, productive returns quickened operations ; new deposits were speedily discovered and worked, and at the end of 1879 the Customs' returns showed that copper and nickel ore to the value of a million pounds sterling had been exported. Mining villages sprang up, having a considerable popula- tion, where formerly a few detached huts of fishermen had 410 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT V. / ; ! ! ' i i : 1 stood. A small fleet of vessels was employed in conveying tho ore to Swansea. A rush to sccuro mineral lands took place, and the shores of Notre Damo Bay, where the ore was found, were eagerly covered with mining licences and mining land grants. Six or seven mines were soon in operation, and great heaps of ore accumulated at different points awaiting shipment. Speculation ran high, and an extent of country forty to fifty miles in length and five or six miles in breadth] was taken up by speculators. Even men who formerly refused to believe in anything but cod-fish and seals in connection with tho country were now found among the most eager copper-hunters. The work still goes on steadily, but the copper fever has abated to some extent, and now sober capitalists are at work developing mineral resources which tho best judges pronounce to be of vast extent and great value. Geologists inform us that the area of mineral lands exceeds five thou- sand square miles. The serpentine rocks in which the ore is found arc spread over this great space, and wherever these occur a seai'ch may be made with some probability of success. Mr. C. r. Bennet was tho pioneer of mining enterprise in Newfoundland. For some time he stood in a minority of one as a believer in the existence of minerals in the island. To Mr. Smith MacKay, however, belongs tho honour of discovering the first considerable deposit of copper ore. This enterprising and intelligent explorer, when making a tour in the northern part of the island, in 1857, arrived at a little fishing hamlet, called Tilt Cove, containing ten or a dozen huts. His experienced eye soon detected in one of the cliffs signs of copper ore. It was not, however, till 18G4 that, in conjunction with Mr. Bennet, he commenced mining operations here, which have gone on, with more or less activity, ever since, upon the deposit then discovered, and which, as yet, shows no sign of exhaustion. At the end of 1879, Tilt Cove Miuo '•■ I cn.ir. I.] PIONEER WORK AND PROSPECTS. 411 had yielded close on 50,000 tons of copper ore, valued at $1,572,154, and nickel ore worth $32,710. Tilt Cove Mine, however, was completely eclipsed by Bett's Cove Mine, a dozen miles farther south, which was opened in 1875. It was secured by Mr. Francis Ellers- liausen, a gentleman of great energy and sagacity, who had speedily a thousand minors at work hero ; and in the second year took from it 20,000 tons of ore, and in the COPPEE MI.NE, UETT8 COVE, third year more than double that quantity. In 1870, the total quantity of ore exported by Mr. Ellershausen amounted to 125,550 tons, valued at $2j982,8oG. In this return, however, was included some ore from a new mine, at Little Bay, opened in 1 878. The last-named mine has thrown the others completely into the shade, and may be regarded as one of the most valuable copper mines in the world. The returns from Little Bay Mine show an average yield of 20,000 tons per annum. Other mines have been it 1 ' / 1 j ' m ■ ' 1^ 1 i G i ^ i i 412 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PABT V. opeued and worked with moro or less success at Seal Bay, Roberts Arm, Colchester in S.W. Arm of Green Bay, Hall's Bay, and Naked Man. It is remarkable that the ore in these mines, is not in veins but in hugo sheets, or bunches of greater or smaller dimensions. One of these was reached in Bett's Cove mine sixty feet in depth. The strata are much corrugated, and the masses of ore are found to be greatest towards the axes of the corrugations, while strings and leads often run in the course of the small faults and cracks. Operations at Bett's Cove were carried on in a thorough manner. An iron tramway connected the mouth of the mine with the harbour ; a fine wharf eighty feet in length was built for the accommodation of shipping ; and smelting furnaces were erected. Little Bay Mine was worked in the same energetic way, and with satisfactory results. These mines are all situated around the shores of the great Bay of Notre Dame. Until the interior is opened by roads and railways and explored this will be the chief scene of mining enterprise. Notre Dame Bay contains numerous arms, the largest of which are Green Bay and Hall's Bay. The whole peninsula between these arms is of serpentine formation and highly metalliferous. Numerous discoveries of copper ore have been made in various places, but the holders of the licences, not being possessed of capital sufficient to work their "claims," await tho arrival of mining capitalists, with whom they would willingly come to terms. Many large islands in Notre Dame Bay are also of serpentine formation, and in them several promising discoveries have been made. It is not in the serpentine that the ore is found, but immediately associated with a chloritic slate, very ferru- ginous, which occurs both above and below the serpentine. Where the serpentine appears there is always a possibility that this ore-bearing chloritic slate may be found, so that m uns numerous CHAP. I.] PIONEER WORK AND rROSPECTS. 413 tho serpentine becomes a guide to prospectors. Where no serpentine is, it is vain to look for ore, but there are vast developments of serpentine without any indications of ore. Mr. Murray says in a recent report : " The ores of copper, usually sulphurets, are found disseminated, or in layers, with iron pyrites in the chlorite slates and dioritic beds, but the more solid and valuable ones are concentrated in the folda and dislocations, particularly in the magnesian portion, by which the formation has been affected. The ores are also of fi'equent occurrence in white quartz veins near the same horizon. The surface rocks where these deposits exist is usually of a reddish rusty-brown colour, scored by remark- able minute reticulations which weather in relief, giving a marked and peculiar aspect, which once seen is easily recog- nised, and may serve as a trustworthy guide to explorers in making preliminary examination of tho ground.'^ N II : «VP 1.,, f 11 CHAPTER II. METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS AND COAL AREAS. Tho Quebec Group of tho Lower Silurian Series — Mr. Murniyou the ore deposits of Tilt Cove — Areas of the Serpciitino Scries — Ii'ow- foundliiiul as :i copper-producing country — Professor Stewart's report — Tlio auriferous rocks of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland — Mr. Selwyu's opinion — Discoveries of precious metals — Mr. Murray on the prospects of gold-mining — Lead, gypsum, and slate — Mr. Jukes on the coal seams of St. George's ]5ny and up tho Codroy River — Conditions on which land licences are granted — Exports of copper and nickel. Thus it is evident that the largo development of the serpentine i-ocks in tho island must bo regarded as a fact of primary importance. These serpentines belong to what in Canadian geology is termed tho Quebec Group of tho Lower Silurian Series. "This group" says Sir William Logan, " may conveniently be separated into thi'co divisions, the middle one of which has proved rich in metalliferous deposits in its course from the Southern Atlantic States of tho American Union to Canada, and through Eastern Canada to Gaspu.'' This middhi division, called the Lauzon division, is the one which is developed in Newfoundland, and in which all tho copper mines are situated. " The Lauzon division " says Sir William Logan, "was at first united with the Levis division, but has been separated from it on account of its great mineralogical importance and distinctness, it being the metalliferous zone of the Lower Silui'iau in North onAp. II,] METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS, ETC. 415 L AREAS. r. jMnrriiy on the lie .Series — Ii'ow- fcssor Stewart's i Ncwf omul laud )us metals — Mr. ,d, gypsum, and jcfo's Bay and up nil licences are )incnt of tlio (1 as a fact of g to wliat in rroup of tho Sir William irco divisions, metalliferous ntic States of stern Canada Lizon division, und in which on division" ed -with tho m account of less, it being u in North America. It is rich in copper ores, chiefly as intorstratified cupriferous slates, and is accompanied by silver, gold, nickel, and chromium ores." In tho "American Journal of Science" for May, 1801, Dr. Sterry Ilunt thus expresses his views in reference to tho economic value of the Quebec Group : " Tho Quebec Group is of considerable economic interest, inasmuch as it is the great metalliferous formation of North America. To it belongs tho gold which is found along tho Appalachian Chain from Canada to Georgia, together with lead, zinc, copper, silver, cobalt, nickel, chrome, and titanium. I have long since called attention to the constant association of tho latter metals, particularly chrome and nickel, with tlio ophiolites, and other magncsian rocks of this series, while they aro wanting in similar rocks of tho Laurontian age. The immense deposits of copper ore in East Tennessee, and the similar ores in Lower Canada, both of which are in beds subordinate to tho stratification, belong to this group. The lead, copper, zinc, cobalt, and nickel of Missouri and tho copper of Lake Superior, also occur in rocks of the same age, which appears to bo pre-eminently tlie metalliferous period." In a paper contributed to " The Journal of the Sc ciety of Arts " Mr. Murray, geological surveyor, says : " I may broadly state that tho ore deposits of Tilt Cove occur under conditions strikingly similar to those known in Eastern Canada, and to characterise rocks of contempo- raneous origin. Tho metallic material is arranged in isolated, irregularly-shaped masses, through a set of strata conforming with beds above and below, of a calcareo- magnesium quality, and that these beds aro succeeded on the north by a great body of serpentine. As far as I have hitherto seen, and from all the information I have been able to gather, the copper will, in this county, most fre- quently be found to occur in a similar manner — that is to i i'lii, I 1 1 ■ / 1 416 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT V. say, in beds r.ather ttan in regular veins or lodes. I think it right to call particular attention to the facts of this case, and to express a strong opinion, for the benefit of ad- venturers or explorers, that the immediate neighbourhood of the serpentine rocks, wherever they may be found to exist, will bo the most probable position for their labours to be crowned with success. These serpentines, besides being associated with many valuable metallic substances, frequently afford a beautiful variety of marble, which in many cases might of itself prove of considerable importance, added to which may be enumerated the frequent occurrence of soap-stone, asbestos, and talc. Chromic iron is fre- quently associated with the serpentine, and may probably be discovered in some paHs in workable quantities." Thus then science, confirmed by actual experiment, points to Newfoundland as one of the great copper-bearing regions of the world. It holds a wide development of that metalliferous zone whii^li in other North American countries has yielded abundance of valuable mineral. The question arises : " What is the extent of the serpentine rocks in the island ? " Mr. Murray's geological map enables us to answer that question. Commencing at Cape Norman, the extreme northerly point of the island, v/e find serpentine develop- ments of considerable extent from Pistolet Bay to Hare Bay, while another spread extends along the coast to Canada Bay. At Cape St. John begins the great serpen- tine development in which are situated all the existing mines. The whole shores of the Great Bay of Notre Dame, together with its cluster of islands, are of the serpentine formation. This belt may be estimated at a length of forty miles, the breadth being yet undeter- mined, without taking the islands into account. The greatest spread of the serpentine rocks is in the Gander country, where as yet they are unexplored. Round the shores of Bonne Bay and Bay of Islands there ClUP, II. J METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS, ETC. 417 are also large developments of serpentine. Indeed there are strong grounds for believing that the serpentine formation runs across the whole island ; and as the interior is yet un- explored, it may come to the surface in many places far inland, where it will be discovered when railways are extended so as to open the whole country. It must be re- membered too that these rerrarks apply to the prospects of copper mining alone ; and that in other parts of the island lead and other ores are found, and give promise of very encouraging developments. Mr. James P. Howley, assistant geological surveyor, gives the following trustworthy estimate of the areas of the terpentine series in Newfoundland : Between Hare and Pistolet Pays North from Bonne Bay South from Hare Bay South from Bonne Bay South from Bay of Islands Surrounding Notre Dame Bay . Gander Lake and Kiver country Bay d'Est River Total Square miles. 230 350 175 150 182 1,400 2,310 300 5,007 The foregoing calculation, which is made by one tho- roughly acquainted with the country, shows how extensive are the mineral lands of the island, requiring many years for their thorough exploration and development. In the most extensive of these areas — the Gander River country — no prospector has yet tried his fortune. The great success of mining, especially at Rett's Cove and Little Bay, shows what poHsibilities exist in connection with the prosecution of this industry, which is yet in its infancy. The discovery of fresh deposits is constantly taking place ; and the next tea ^ Ci i i ill 418 NEWFOUNDLAND. [rAIlT V. or twenty years will witness, in all probability, a wonderful expansion of mining enterprise. It would seem that only capital and skill are needed to insure success. There is no man whose opinion on the mineral resources of the country is more worthy of respect than that of Mr. Murray, a careful and cautious observer, and one of the most skilled geologists of North America. After a survey of a largo portion of the mining region, he thus speaks, in his Eeportj of the Geological Survey of 1875: "I feel bound to state that the experience of the late investigation convinces me more than ever that many of the northern parts of this island, and the great Bay of Notre Dame in particular, are destined to develop into great mining centres, should capital and skilled labour be brought to bear in that direction. The frequent repetition of the mineral-bearing strata, associated with serpentine, chloritic slates, and diorites, maintaining a nearly uniform character throughout their distribution, and invariably exhibiting metalliferous indications, all seem to warrant the expression of such an opinion." . . . . " The ores of copper, usually sulphurets, are found disseminated, or in layers with iron pyrites in the chloritic slates and dioritic beds; but the more solid and valuable ores are concentrated in the folds and dislocations (particularly the magnesian portion) by which the formation has been affected. In addition to the ores of copper, ores of nickel, magnetic, chromic, and spicular iron, lead and sul- phur ores have been found in abundance, and traces of the precious metals have occasionally bee i found always near the same horizon. The usual form of the nickel ores is that of arsenical or copper nickel ; but it also occurs as millerite, or nickel pyrites; and as cloanthite, or an allied species which is of a steel gray or pale ruby-red colour." In a paper published in the " Journal of the Royal Geo- graphical Society," in 1877, Mr. Murray says: "There is every probability that vast tracts on both sides and centre of the * Va [rAUi V. a wonderful iva. that only sral resources that of Mr. 1 one of the iter a survey lus speaks, in J75: "I feel investigation the northern otre Dame in lining centres, ,0 bear in that ineral-hearing c slates, and er throughout metalliferous )n of such an ;ulphurets, are oyrites in the lore solid and id dislocations ihe formation opper, ores of lead and sul- traces of the d always near vel ores is that rs as niillerite, allied species r." w Royal Geo- There is every I centre of the rnip. n.] METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS, ETC. 419 I island contain metallic ores of great value and importance. The chief of these are copper, nickel, lead, and iron, which are usually more or less nearly associated with serpentine and other magnesian rocks of Lower Silurian age. The presence of the precious metals has been indicated by analysis at a few parts, and native silver is said to have been found at Fortune Bay. There can hardly be a doubt that the Bay of Notre Dame, particularly, will soon become a great mining centre." Professor Stewart, an American mining expert of high standing and great experience, visited Notre Dame Bay in 1880. In a lecture delivered in St. John's, on his return from his explorations, he declared that he had formed a most favourable opinion both as regards the extent of the mineral deposits and the quality of the ore. The following are extracts from the report of his lecture in one of the local newspapers : " He described the copper ore as a beautiful yellow sulphuret, free from arsenic or any undesirable ingredient, with a little iron, and containing from eight to twelve per cent, of pure copper. He hud never seen finer copper ore in the course of his experience. The character of the rocks in which it occurred was such as to give an absolute assurance of perpetuity in the working. These rocks were metamorphosed and laminated, and the extent of mineral indication over extensive areas was such as rendered exhaustion in the working a practical impossibility, A more promising mining field for copper he had not seen anywhere. No fear whatever need be entertained that these mines would become exhausted. Judging by the laws which govern mineral deposits, the depth of the vein is such as to render them practically inexhaustible. He had traversed a region between Little Bay and Hall's Bay, where his party had seen so much copper that they were fairly surfeited. He said that before coming here he had merely heard that there were some copper mines, but when ho came he felt ill ( : piit'^^^'w^.n :| ' ■ 1 1^ m ^ r I ■- 1 420 NEWFOUND!.. A.^'D. [P.IBT V. astounded at what had been done in copper mining in the short space of five years. He found that already Newfound- land stood sixth in the roll of the copper-producing countrieii of the world, and that during the last five years copper ore had been extracted to the value of four million dollai*s, and about one million dollars had been spent on mining plant alone, He expressed his admiration of Little Bay Mine, which was yielding two thousand tons of ore monthly. Looking to the future he had every reason to believe that Newfoundland was destined to become one of the greatest copper-mining countries in the world, and he believed that this industry alone would yet raise it to a very high place. He expressed himself as delighted with the beautiful sceuory of the island, and impressed with the immense natural advantages presented in these grand bays and arms of the sea, which penetrate so far inland, and enabled ships of any size to load ore or other products near the spot where they were raised. He predicted a great and prosperous future for the island when its natural riches were turned to account.'' Copper is by no means the only ore found in the country. In the lower geological formations, Avhich are largely repre- sented, the existence of ores of various kinds, and of other valuable economic materials, has been ascertained. Magnetic iron ore has been found, though not yet in large masses, in the Laurentian; the presence of the precious metal is indicated in the Cambrian ; while lead ore has been found in workable quantities in the Huronian and Lower Silurian. Coal has been found in pretty extensive beds in the Car- boniferous. Thus, while the great beds of serpentine hold the copper treasures, present indications warrant the belief that the Huronian rocks contain the precious metals., und especially that extensive and valuable deposits of lead are to bo found. The whole island, therefore, may be fairly regarded as more or less metalliferous, while on the western coast the coal areas have yet to be turned to account. [past v. nining in tlio ly Newfoun cl- ing countries! rs copper ore 0. dollars, and mining plant lo Bay MinC;, ore monthly. believe that f the greatest believed that •y liigb place, lutiful scen.-jry aense natural i arms of the d ships of any )ot where they I'ous future for to account." n the country, argely repre- and of other jd. Magnetic ge masses, in 10U& metal is lis been found ower Siluria,u. s in the Car- poiitine hold uit the belief metiils, and 8 of lead are niiy be fairly n the western c count. 2V IS (■n\i-. II.] METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS, ETC. 421 Mr. Murray has repeatedly expressed in his reports his l)t!liof that the equivalents of the auriferous rocks of Nova Scotia are developed in Newfoundland. Mr. Selwyn, director of the Geological Survey of Canada, is of opinion that the gold-bearing rocks of Nova Scotia are the repre- sentatives of the Cambrian and lowest members of the Silurian system. It was not till 1880 that any discoveries of auiifei'ous quartz were made in Newfoundlan*^. In that year certain discoveries were made near Brigus, Conception Bay, which induced Mr. Mu ray to visit the locality. He tested one spot with the following results, as described in his report : " By the first blast from two to three cubic feet of rock was removed, all of which was carefully broken up, washed, and examined ; which operation finally resulted in the display of ten or twelve distinct ' sights ' of gold. In one fragment, about five pounds weight, largely charged v,ith dark-green chlorite, the gold shows itself in three places distinctly, while many small specks are perceptible by means of a good lens. The fracture of a fragment of milky white and translucent quartz, which was bi'oken off the largo piece, i-evealed two patches of gold, both of which together, if removed from the matrix, would probably pro- duce about one pennyweight of the metal; whilst several small masses or nuggets were found adhering to the small broken fragments of quartz at the bottom of the pail in ivhich the rock was Avashed, the largest of which contained about ten or twelve grains of gold.'' . . . "That a large area of the country in the regions referred to is auriferous there can scarcely bo a doubt, although nothing short of actual mining and practical experience can possibly prove what the value of the produce may be, or whether the prospects of obtaining a remunerative return for the neces- sary outliiy are favourable or otherwise." His report concludes in the following words ; " The indications of gold in this country then are certainly sufficiently favourable to I I - . I, if i ■ 141 1. ^1 - ' ■'^'\' ' ' i I ;, \ 1 y f 77- li 1, 422 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAIIT V. merit a fair trial. And there are good reasons to hope and expect that ample capital applied to skilled and judicious labour may be found remunerative to future adventurers ; while a now industry will bo added to give employment to the labouring population of the island, and possibly bring this despised and but little-known colony into more prominence and consideration abroad than it hitherto has enjoyed/' Whatever the future may determine regarding golil^ there is no doubt that the island is rich in lead ore. This ore is not confined to any one formation, the presence of that metal having been observed as low as the Laurentian and as high as the Coal measures. Lead was first discovered at La Manche, near the north-eastern extremity of Placentia Bay, where workings were carried on for several years. The vein which was worked here is from three to six feet, and is chiefly of calc spar. The ore is distributed irregularly through the whole thickness of the vein, and sometimes in pockets. Professor Shephard, of America, Avho examined it, placed it on a par with some of the most valuable lead deposits of the New World, and estimated that the part of the vein he examined " would yield ^0,000 cubic feet of solid galena, giving a product of upwards of thirteen millions of pounds." An English mining engineer said of it : " The quality of the ore is very fine, and commands the highest price in the English market. It will produce about 82 per cent, of metallic lead. It also contains some silver." This mine, however, has not proved a success, notwithstanding its promising appearance. It has never, however, been worked by men having either skill or capital. In 1875 a ri(;h deposit of lead ore was found at l^rt-a- Port, on the western shore, and was worked for a short time with very promising results; but on the protest of the French, the Imperial authorities ordered the work to bo KpXIU'i'^'T' Al CHAP. 11.) METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS, ETC. 423 stopped. Now that the French Shore difficulty is settled, .IS far as the territorial rights are concerned, it is likely this mine will soon be reopened. Magnetic iron ore has been found at Cairn Mountain, in St. George's Bay. Mr. Murray anticipates, fi'om various indications, that its existence will be discovered along the range of the Laurentian Hills. Gypsum is found in immense developments. Mr. Murray says : " This mineral gypsum is perhaps dis- tributed more profusely and in greater volume in the carboniferous country of the first area than in any part of the American continent of the same extent." There ar(3 enormous developments of gypsum at Codroy and around St. George's Bay. Marbles too, of almost every shade of colour, have been produced from various parts of the coast, on both the eastern and western shores; while granite of the finest quality, building stones, whetstones, and lime- stones ai'e in ample profusion. Auother material which the island can supply in abun- dance is roofing slate. The best slate quarries yet opened are in Smith's Sound, and Random Island, Trinity Bay. The development here is very extensive, sufficient to supply half the continent of America, if duly worked; and the quality is declared by good authority to be equal to the best Welsh slate. Mr. Murray says of them : " Judging of the quality of the specimens which were brought from Smith's Sound, and the thickness of sti'ata attributed to their place in the formation, together with their proximity to the sea, these slates, when fully de- veloped, can hardly fail to prove of very considerable commercial importance." In the rocks of the carboniferous age, which cover extensive areas on the west coast, it is now placed beyond all doubt that there are large workable seams of coal. \ii I I'l :' 1 :> w 424 NKVVFOUNDLAND. [I'Mir 7. 1 i 1 1 ■ i, \ 1 i \ 1 1 ■ ['[ 1' ' i: i 1 1 t ! 1 ■ i ^- i P 1 i Mr. Jukes paid a visit forty years ago to St. George's Bay. On the south side of the bay, near Crabb's River, and about eight miles from the coast, he found a seam of coal three feet in thickness, of excellent quality, being cannel coal. As the top was wanting, he concluded that it belonged to a still thicker bed. He says in his I'eport : "There is no doubt of there being more beds in this vicinity, and of the probability of all the centre of this low district being occupied by a productive coal field. Up the Codroy River, in a similar parallel, beds equally valuable are repoi'ted to exist." From fair data, Mr. Jukes calculated the extent of this small portion of the coal basin of Newfoundland at about twenty-five miles wide by ten in length. Mr. Murray has laid down the posi- tion of an outcrop upon his map, in order to show where workable seams were likely to occur in St. George's Bay, and he calculates that the plan of one seam, there drawn as three feet in thickiiess, and occupying an area of thirty-eight square miles, contains 51,720,000 chaldrons of coal, or 1, 125,000 chaldrons per square mile. A very considerable portion of this he believes will be found within workable depth ; and this is but one of the mauy seams that may yet be found in the ai'ea between Cape Anguille and the head of St. George's Bay. The whole carboniferous area of the western coast occupies three distinct areas, which Mr. Murray designates the " St. George's Trough, the I'ort-a-Port Trough, and the inland Trough of Humber River and Grand Lake." " Tlie latter ti'ough," he says, "in its western outcrop strikes inland from the lower end of Deer Lake towards Adee's Pond, and then along the left bank of the river towards the western shores of White Bay. The eastern outcrop runs along the edge of the upper end of Deer Lake towards the Grand Lake. If the workable beds of Cape Breton exist at all in the central trough of CHAP, n.] METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS, ETC. 425 Newfoundland, the country whore they may be expected to bo found will be the region between the Humber River and Sandy Lake, where there is ample room to bring in a sufficient accumulation of thickness." Mr. Jukes gives it as his opinion that " it is highly probable that coal may be found over the whole or greater part of it." Tlius then, in addition to its other resources, Newfound- land contains, beyond all doubt, valuable and extensive coal fields, which are yet untouched. The projected Short Line Railway will traverse the coal region, and when it is constructed these treasures will not long remain undeveloped. The laws which regulate the sale or leasing of Ci'own lands, for agricultural purposes and mining, are very liberal, and well calculated to promote the settle- ment of the country and the development of its mineral resources. A licence may be obtained for the occupation of un- granted lands, for agricultural purposes, of not less than two hundred and fifty acres or more than one thousand acres, subject to the condition that the licensee shall, within five years, settle upon the land at least one family for every two hundred aiad fifty acres ; and within that period, cause to be cleared and cultivated, at least five acres for every hundred acres so licensed, and continue the same under cultivation, and continue the said families thereon, or others in lieu thereof, for a period of ten years from the expiration of the said five years. Upon the performance of which the licensee shall be entitled to a grant in fee of the said land. The Governor in council may issue free licences of occu- pation in quantities not exceeding fifty acres, for a terra not exceeding five years, of any ungranted lands, to any persons w^ \ i 1 1 % ! 1 426 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PVIlT V. !:' desirous of pormanontly settling on and cultivating the saino; and to every person desirous of erecting a saw-mill upon any such land a similar licence for two hundred acres. Grants in fee of such lands will be given to the occupiers at the end of five years if they have cultivated two acres, and also grants in fee to such as shall have erected a saw-mill and worked it for three years. An exclusive right to search for minerals for a period not exceeding two years, over a space not exceeding three square miles, can be obtained by any British subject; and the person obtaining the same has a right to a lease for eleven years of all the mines and minerals in one square mile of the said land (if applied for within the said two yeai's), and fifty acres of unoccupied surface land. When mining leases are obtained for a term of eleven years, for the minerals contained in one square mile the lessee is bound to expend, within five years from tlio date of such lease, the sum of ten thousand dollars; and within six years from the expiration of the first five years, the further sum of ten thousand dollars, otherwise the lease is forfeited and reverts to the Crown. The foregoing conditions being complied with a grant in fee is given, gold being reserved. The fee for mining licences over three square miles is twenty-five dollars, for mining leases fifty dollars, and for subsequent grauts in fee twenty-five dollars. Gold is reserved in all such licences. The following are memoranda relating to minerals, drawn up by Alexander Murray, C.M.G., F.G.S., and published in a paper which appeared in Nature in 1881. dlvIMI.] MKTALLIFKIKKTS DEPOSITS, KT(!. 427 MEMORANDA: SHOWING THE QUANTITIKa AND VALUK OV COrrER AND NICKKfi 0KK3 EXl'OUTED FUOJI THK ISLAND OF NEWFOUNDLAND IN THE UNDEUMENTIONIOD YEAUS. fee for mining [-five dollars, jquent grants ll ill all sucli 1 to minerals, F.G.S., and Nat lire in Yoam ForU cleared {rom. Copper. Nickel. Dollars. Remarks, etc. 1H6 1 ) t.) ■ ]N(HJ IH-.-. ) to ■ 1H70) Tons. Toes. Bt. John's • • . 627J 22,080 Chiefly from Uiironiun roukH. It la « • 6Mi 19,170 Partly from oponingH in Total Notre Dame Uay. 1172 42,160 Value of Nickel ore. Dollars. Isil'l Union Mine, Tilt Cove 5n;i8 30 190,010 72(H) IsTD II 4218 88 131,070 8800 1S71 1024 r 01,5(18 700 18-2 4774 8 162,7(18 25HO 1H7H 6M4 233 180,40(1 0320 1S71 4310 — 104,304 ls-5 4838 17 170,000 1300 lN7(i ukii 28 232,704 2800 1877 6380 101,0(14 — ISVS 4160 07,000 lS7i) loot — 3.">,352 — Total . . 40,710 411 1,572,134 32,740 The ores returned for 1878-70 were larjjely do- rived from Little Hay Mine, 1873 Belt's Cove' 0,280 — 232,3(10 and partly froniColohoHteri 1870 II 18,070 — 150,481 all belonging to the Bett's 1H77 *f 42,(105 — 1,003,708 Covo MiiiinK Company. 1878 It 31,370 — 000,1 U) Thus, the total of the orcK ,, Regulus 750 — 34,500 of Copper and Niekel ex- 187!) i» 20,42 U — 475,587 ported since 1854, amounts to 4,020,880 dollnra.or nearly Tot9 1 .. . 123,556i 2,082,830 i:i,000,0(K) sterling '111 p IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) / o J/ fj, k^,. v W^. y 8 &. ^?/ 1.0 I.I m i|^ 2.5 iM 12.2 120 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 .4 6" ► Jk,

t? /. // '/^ M Photographic Sciences Corporation S w^ ^^ 4^ \ ^9) V \ 6^ % A> <> - . Cb gS2 s X ti.■& a S Xi" o ^ £§& 1,882 1,039 2,140 969 2,926 1,217 1,112 75 1,588 177 1,615 188 71 2 118 — 97 — 2,112 14 2,397 15 2,501 1 ' 1,859 1 : 2,367 3 2,3(i2 8 4,191 1 4,857 — 5,220 — 3,460 7 4,985 20 5,663 14 1,083 23 1 2,091 17 3,531 18 2,036 7 4,235 25 6,217 18 8 — 1 1 1 \ 212 , 219 11 239 13 1,810 9 2,789 6 3,340 5 30 29 6 2 9 1 282 2 843 11 731 26 186 37 991 179 165 28 295 156 itional data. 1 20,: 48 1,209 28,990 1,322 35,745 1,812 It is worthy of remark that the increase of population has arisen ahnost entirely from natural growth, as since 181 1 the amount of immigration has been quite insignificant The fisheries were barely sufficient to sustain the existing settlers, and latterly have failed to expand so as to meet the wants of a rapidly growing population. Till recently no attempts were made to open up the agricultural districts, work the mines, and utilise the forests ; and no inducement was presented to emigrants to seek for a home in New- foundland. The case is now altered. Railroads designed to open up the interior are under construction ; mines and forests are being developed ; agriculture is rendered prac- ticable. We may now fairly expect that ere long a stream of thrifty immigrants will pour in to the colony, and turn the line natural resources to industrious account. The last census, that of 1874, presents some results that will be interesting. The number of males was found to be S2,9G3; the number of females 77,791. The number of males between 50 and 70 years of age was 0,798; of females between 50 and 70, 0,085; of males from 70 upwards, 1,600 ; of females same age, 1,435 ; number of married males, 24,402 ; of married females, 24,380. Of the total population of 101,374, 153,621 were born in Newfoundland ; the remainder in other countries. The number of aged and infirm paupers was 1,146; of deaf and dumb, 83; of blind, 107; of lunatics, 137; of idiots, 100. Of Indians (Micmacs) there were 151. The number of churches belonging to the Church of England was 103; to the Church of Rome, 77; to the Wesleyans, 60; to others, 4. There were 4 bishops; 120 clergymen or ministers ; 30 lawyers ; 41 doctors ; 589 merchants or traders; 1,004 farmers; 2,171 mechanics; 45,845 persons engaged in catching and curing fish ; 26,377 able-bodied seamen engaged as fishermen ; 18,935 children attending school ; 20,758 children not attending school ; 21,050 inhabited houses by 26,916 families. ; ; i J i ' i I 1 < i f ] ,iiifir)fj| 1 1 , i 1 i 1 ' 1 1 i! I 4 434 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'AHT vr. The same census showed that there were 8,G89 men on board 1,197 vessels that were engaged in the sea and other iisheries. The number of acres of land under cultivation was 30,339 ; the number of head of cattle was 0,005 ; of milch cows, 7,273; of horses, 4,057; of sheep, 28,700; of swine, 22,955. The present population of the island is composed mainly of two elements, the Celtic, or Irish, and the Saxon, or English. The Roman Catholic portion of the population are the descendants of Irish emigrants ; the Protestant portion are the descendants of English settlers, chiefly from the south-western counties of England. There are besides a small number of Scotch. KEVENUE, FINANCIAL CONDITION OP THE COLONY, TRADE, EXPORTS, IMPORTS, SHIPPING. The following Table shows the revenue and the value of the exports and imports from 1870 to 1881 inclusive: Years. Revenue. Exports values. Imports values 1870 $831,423 $0,984,543 $0,055,849 1871 749,981 8,154,200 0,039,227 1872 812,752 7,100,443 6,710,008 1873 801,412 7,700,799 0,700,003 1874 841,588 8,509,900 7,354,089 1875 830,219 8,214,708 7,058,372 1870 855,228 8,108,540 7,205,907 1877 872,913 7,025,441 7,303,03 i 1878 839,040 0,594,807 0,808,723 1879 902,921 7,108,924 7,201,002 1880 897,474 0,759,875 6,900,243 1881 1,003,803 9,305,304 0,803,708 The revenue is chiefly derived from duties levied on imports. These duties are partly ad valorem and partly [I'Aur VI. 8,680 men on sea and other er cnltivation ivas (),()<)r); of ep, 28,700; of [nposed mainly fclie Saxon, or blie population ;he Protestant P3, chiefly from ere are besides ,0NY, tra.de, md the value of ,nclusive : Imports values. $6,055,849 6,039,227 6,710,068 6,766,603 , 7,354,689 7,058,372 7,205,907 7,303,634 6,808,723 7,261,002 6,966,243 6,863,708 jities levied on \em and partly CHAP. I,] POPULATION AND TRADE. 435 specific, but only to a very slight extent differential, the tariff being designed for revenue purposes only, not for protection. Thert are no direct taxes of any kind, and no city or town corporation. Even the capital is not in- corporated. All expenses for making and repairing roads, streets, bridges, breakwaters, public wharves, etc., are defrayed out of the general revenue, the Board of Works having charge of this department. The provision for the poor, for the maintenance of a police force, and indeed for the whole Civil Service is also chargeable on the general revenue. The ^)er capita taxation in 1882 is only $4"94 per head of a population of 185,308. When the absence of municipal taxation is taken into account it will be seen that the people of Newfoundland are the most lightly taxed of all the inhabitants of the British colonies. Out of a total revenue of $1,003,803 in 1881, no less than $910,938 were derived from customs' duties; $11,638 from Crown lands; $17,400 from postal revenue; and $29,736 from interest on the Halifax Fishery Award. The prosperity of the colony may be inferred from the steady advance of the revenue witlvout any additional taxa- tion, till in 1881 it reached over one million dollars, and is now quite adequate to meet all the demands of the public service. Within the last twenty years the revenue has more than doubled. In 1860 the revenue amounted to $534,432; in 1861, to $300,172; in 1862, to $467,716. In 1881 it amounted to $1,003,803. The financial position of the colony is exceptionally good. The consolidated and debenture debt of the colony on the 31st December, 1881, was $1,351,008. The amount l^er capita, with a population of 185,000, is thus a little over seven dollars. In Canada the public debt was a few years ago $29 per head, and is now considerably more. In Victoria it is $104 per head; in New Zealand, $279; in 2 p 2 in ■|: 1 '' 1 . 1 ! 1 ! I Mi 1 i i^..^ 43G NEWFOUNDLAND. In Mir VI. South Australia, $170; in New South Wales, $7^]; in the Cape of Good Hope, $ 18 ; in Newfoundland, $7. This, however, is not all. This small public debt is nominal not real. Of the whole sum of $1,351,008, the Savings Bank, which is a Government institution, holds $593,301. An Act was passed by the legislature in 1879, entitled " An Act to provide for the payment of the public debt of this colony," by which it was enacted that " the profits of theNewfoundland Savings Bank now existing, and the profits of the said Bank, as they shall arise from time to time, together with the sum of $8,G51 now held by the said Bank as a sinking fund, and all interest accruing thereon, shall be constituted a sinking fund for the liquidation of the public debt of this colony ; and that such fund be applied in the first instance towards the payment of all debentures of the colony which ai'e or may be held by the said New- foundland Savings Bank." The efPect of this Act in reducing the public debt will be that in twenty-one years from 1879, even supposing there should be no increase in the present amount of deposits and profits, the debentures held by the Bank will be paid off. So much of the funded debt being thus provided for, there remains only $757,704. But as an offset against this amount the colony has now placed to its credit, at four per cent., $711,814, being a portion of the Halifax Fishery Award of one million dollars. This almost covers the remainder of the public debt. Virtually, therefore, the colony is in the unique and enviable position of being free from public debt, the whole of the existing debt being provided for. Such being the financial position of Newfoundland, with an increasing revenue and without debt, it is in a most favourable condition for undertaking public works of genei'al utility; and should it be found necessary at any time to contract a loan for such purposes, with such unquestionable security to offer, money can be borrowed on the most favourable terms. How small an POPULATION AND TKADE. 437 amount it lias been found necessary to borrow of lato may be judi^ed of by tlio fact that during the last eight years the public debt has been increased but thirty-six cents per jiead of the popuhition — a scarcely appreciable amount. The sound condition of the revenue is apparent from facts already stated. In the thirty years which have elapsed since 18o2 it has risen from .f 335,700 to over a million dollars. The following statement shows the estimated charges on the revenue for the year 1882 : Relief of the poor and the institutions connected therewith .... Steam and mail service subsidies Postal service .... Telegraph extension, maintenance, and interest Education .... Roads and bridges . Public works (special votes) Magisterial and police department Interest on public debt Interest on railway loan . Geological and land survey Court-house and gaol supplies . Ferries Pensions ..... Legislative contingencies . Judicial, civil, and revenue department Ship-building (in aid of) . In aid of lighthouses, repairs and maintenance ^Vestern herring fisheries protection In aid of cleansing St. John's streets In aid of gas companies, St. John's and Harbour Grace ...... Dols. Cts. 142,350 110,700 20,000 10,853 84 91,800 108,000 20,000 05,797 03,000 4,700 5,500 9,000 2,931 15,889 61 31,000 128,395 10,000 8,000 2,500 4,000 2,900 438 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PABT VI. 1 ! \ ' ^ 1 1 1 ' f i ' ■: 1 u Repairs of public buildings Printing, postage, telegraphs, and shipwrecked crews For sundry other sources .... To defray expenses for general election 1882 To defray expenses for vaccination . For encouragement of home industries Railway subsidy and c( ntingent expenses DgIs. Cta. 7,540 1 I 3,650 . 17,522 7,000 3,000 1,500 . 20,000 The following extracts from the customs tariff will show the nature of the duties levied on imports : Agricultural implements . Apples, per barrel . Bacon, hams, tongues, etc., per cwt Butter, per cwt. Candles .... Cheese, per cwt. Coal brc'ight into St. John's, per ton Confectionery, per cwt. . Eggs .... Flour, per barrel Fresh meat and poultry . Horses, each . Indian meal, per barrel . Lumber, per thousand feet Manufactures of wood Oats, barley, rice Oxen, cows Oatmeal, per barrel Pig iron .... Pork, per barrel of 200 lb. Ready-made clothes Steam-engines, boilers, etc. Tobacco, manufactured, per lb. Free. 30 cents. $o $1 20 cents. 20 per '^cnt. $1 50 cents. 25 cents. $3 50 cents. Free. 20 cents. 5 per cent. $2 30 cents. 15 cents. $1. 20 per cent. 8 per cent. 5 per cent. 20 cents. Free. $1. 20 per cent. Free. 12 cents. CHAP, :.] POPULATION AND TRADE. 439 a'i£f will show Goods, wares, raerchandiao not other- wise enuineratod lirandy, per gallon. Gin „ Whisky „ Hum „ Wines — Champagne per gallon „ Port, Madeira ,, „ Spanish red, claret, per gal. „ llheuish » 1 ti per cent. $1 20 cents. $1. $1. 75 cents. $2. • $1 50 cents. •V6 cents. (30 cents. The exports of Newfoundland, with the exception of copper ore, are fish products of various kinds. The follow- ing Table shows the giadual progress in the values of the exports during each group of five years, from 1852 to 1881 : Group of five years. $5,100,129 0,132,392 0,080,445 7,011,407 7..847,6G1 7,159,522 While the foregoing Table shows an actual advance in the value of exports since 1852, yet when the increase of population is taken into account there appears an actual decline in the j)e)' cajrita value of the exports, and also of the imports, as the following comparative statement sufficientlv shows : Average value of exports 1852 to 1850 . 1857 1802 . 1862 1807 . 1867 1871 . 1872 1876 . 1877 1881 . Year. Value of exports per head. Value of imports per boad. 1860 . . $47 82 cents . $44 52 cens 1870 . . 49 09 „ . . 45 42 „ 1874 . . 53 56 „ . 45 57 „ 1879 . . 39 90 „ . . 40 74 „ 1880 . . 37 33 „ . 38 33 ,, llil I t ; i ■ ; 1 , l!*l! ' -l i ( ( 1 1! a. 440 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part VI. Tliese figures indicate a gradually decreasing average in the earnings and incomes of the people, showing that the lisheries, hitherto the chief reliance, are inadequate to meet the wants of a growing population, and that other industries, especially agriculture, are essential. The Table of exports and imports shows that for the years 1879 and 1880 the average annual volume of the trade of Newfoundland amounted in value to $14,077,971. The Customs returns for 1881 show the value of the ex- ports for that year to the different countries named, as follows: Value of exports Value of imports Country. thereto. D.ols. therefrom. Dols. The United Kingdom . 2,255,704 2,390,421 Brazil .... 2,120,773 Portugal 1,183,235 47,210 Spain .... 029,409 152,038 United States 309,080 1,931,741 Italy .... Hamburg 207,281 48,480 1,744 Spanish West Indies . 47,491 08,387 Sicily .... British West Indies 15,710 310,124 9,920 259,088 Dominion of Canada Gibridtur 380,833 103,834 1,950,52 L The total exports and imports for 1881 are grouped as follows : Value of exports Value of imports Country. thereto. therefrom. Dols. Dols. United Kingdom . . 2,255,704 2,390,424 British Colonies . 905,010 2,234,077 Foreign Coantries . 4,593,991 2,233,207 7,755,360 0,803,708 The foregoing figures demonstrate that the largest volume of ti*ade is between Newfoundland and the United Kingdom; CII.U'. I.) POPULATION AND TRADE. 441 ing average in wing that the ciuate to meet ;her industries, s that for the irolume of the $14,077,971. alue of the ex- tnedj as follows: faliie of imports therefrom. Dole. and that the best customers for the fish products, next to the United Kingdom, are Brazil, Portugal, Spain, British IVest Indies, Canada, and the United States. Of the whole volume of trade, about 17 per cent, is with Canada, and iibout 15 per cent, with the United States. The following comparative statement will be found interesting as showing the trade of the colony forty years ago, and affording data for comparing that period with the present, in regard to the revenue imports and exports : LOMPARATIVI ST ATE me; NT OF THE QUANTITY AX'> VALUE OF THE STAPLE ARTICLES OF PRODUCE EXPORTED IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS : Years. Dried flsli. Oils. Seal nkins. Salmon. HerrinjfB. Quintals. 915,795 Gallons. 3,206,583 No. Tieroes. Barrels. 14,686 1840 631,385 1 3,396 1841 1,009,725 2,673,574 417,115 3,642 9,965 1842 1,007,980 2,262,031 341,683 4,715 13,839 1843 \ 936,202 3,111,312 651,370 4,058 9,649 t*. 1844 ' 8,>2,162 3,605,868 685,530 3,753 13,410 ■■S / 1845 1,000,333 2,219,301 352,202 i 3,515 20,903 d 1817 837,973 2,22 1,233 436,831 ' 4,917 9,908 o> 1848 920,366 2,610,820 521,001. ; 3,822 13,872 1849 1,175,167 2,282,496 306,072 5,911 11,471 1850 ; 1,089,182 2,636,800 440,828 4,600 19.556 1851 1 1,017,674 2,741,910 511,630 4,025 36,259 11852 973,731 £576,245 2,931,767 534,378 3,473 42,716 i /1840 £305,197 £39,408 £12,939 £9,036 1841 1 605,014 266,832 29,961 12,302 6,36?. 1S42 i 561,950 233 :U3 23,200 13,078 7,119 1813 ■ 532,194 335,1175 40,497 12,216 4,570 . 1844 ! 482,480 316,690 39,018 11,915 6,065 a 1845 , 536,990 243,640 40,123 12,794 11,234 t? 1847 ! 489,911) 229,172 46,280 9,782 5,111 1848 491,924 350,579 58,426 6,fi97 7,644 1849 688,728 213,712 33,780 10,815 5,671 1850 , 532,969 309,928 66,350 9,200 9,779 1851 493,014 319,977 I 76,596 12,021 18,261 V1852 1 403,741 363,607 ' 76,790 10,252 14,411 COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF THE COLONIAL REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS : 1850 1851 1852 Colonial duties Light (lues From other sources ... Totals Expenditure £59,381 19 2,390 16 11 5,142 8 £66,915 3 11 £71,807 1 5 £74,205 4 1 2,467 18 8 3,722 11 5 £80,395 14 2 £75,770 5 1 £62,300 11 8 2,781 3 19,241 11 6 £84,323 6 2 £90,409 8 10 ir <: ) .-. S 1/ ' 1 1 1 1 i i i ; M U2 NEWFOUNDLAND. (PAKT VI. VALUE OE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN THE FOLLOWINO YEARS: 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 Imports Experts £769,628 887,581 £770.190 876,567 £867,316 975,770 £943,191 959,751 £795,758 965,772 SHIPPING, On Decem'ber 31st, 1881, the registered tonnage of the colony W!i8 1,895 vessels, having a tonnage of 89,G55 tons. Of these, 1,8()(3 were sailing vessels, and 29 were steamers. In addition, GO vessels were engaged in the foreign carrying trade, which, though owned in Newfoundland, were re- gistei'ed in Britain. The following Table shows the increase in the tonnage since 1859 : Vessels. Tons. In 1859 . . 1,312 . . 89,G70 „ 1869 . 1,459 . . 75,145 1879 1881 1,718 1,895 82,564. 89,655 The number of vessels entered at the various ports in 1881 was 1,3GG ; their tonnage, 158,345 ; their crews, 7,991. The number of vessels cleared at tho various ports in 1881 was 1,018 ; their tonnage, 132,743 ; their crews, 6,630. The number of steamers entered in 1881 was 190 ; their tonnage, 162,285 ; their crews, 7,338. The number of steamers cleared at the vai'ious ports in 1881 was 181 J their tonnage, 160,268; their crews, 7,183. The number of vessels built in the colony in 1881 was 76; their tonnage, 3,361. The bounty paid on them was $10,013. Twenty-seven vessels were built on which no bounty was paid : their tonnage was 582. [VKKf VI. YEARS : .1 1852 191 751 £795,758 965,772 )nnage of the [ 89,G55 tons, rere steamers, -eign carrying md, were re- n the tonnage Tons. 89,070 75/145 82,564 89,655 Li-ious ports in fr crews, 7,991. Lrious ports in Ir crews, 6,630. 'as 190 ; their xrious ports in Icrews, 7,183. |y in 1881 was on them was Ion which no CHAPTER II. GOVERNMENT. The constitution — Exccntivo and public officers — The electoral districts — Saliiries of officials — Tlio judicial department — Constitution and character of the law courts. In 1832 the boon of a representative government and a constitution was gran^^ed to Newfoundland. The island was divided into nine electoral districts, each of which was to have one or more representatives, according to its popu- lation, the whole number of members to be fifteen. The right of voting was conferred on every man who for one year immediately preceding the day of election had oc- cupied a dwelling-hou"ie within the island, either as owner or tenant. A legislative and executive council, composed of seven persons, appointed by the Crown, was also created. The system did not work well, and in 1842 the constitution was suspended, and the council abolished as a distinct branch of the Legislature, and its members were authorised to sit and vote in the House of Assembly, on the same footing as if they were elected members. This was known as " The Amalgamated Legislature." At length, in com- pliance with the strongly expressed desire of the people, " Responsible Government " was conceded to the colony in 1855. This was simply the application of the principles of the British constitution to the government of the colony. i J' ill 1 1 ! i 1 444 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAKT VI. » \ i :. ! 1 i' ! , 4 _ . - ■ ■^ i 1 ,i' It provided tliat the country " sliould be governed ac- cording to the well-understood wishes of the people." The party who were sustained by a majority in the Logislatnre had at their disposal the appointment to the principal offices in the colony. 13y then., too, the Executive Council was selected. Two legislative Chambers were appointed The House of Assembly, to be elected, the Legislative Council to be nominated by " The Governor in Council." This form of government, which has worked satis- factorily, is that by which the affairs of the colony are at present regulated. It consists of a Governor, who is appointed by the Crown, an 4 whose term of office is usually about six years ; an Executive Council, chosen by the party commanding a majority in the Legislature, and consisting of seven members ; a Legislative Council, or Upper House, of fifteen members, nominated by the Governor in Council, and holding office for life ; and a House of Assembly of thirty-one members, elected every four years by the votes of the people. The chief public officers of the Government, selected from the party who command a majority in the Legislature, are the Colonial Secretary, who is also Secretary of the Executive Council, the Attorney- General, the Receiver-General, the Solicitor-General, tlie Surveyor-General, Financial Secretary, Chairman of the Board of Works, and Auditor of Public Accounts. There are fifteen electoral districts, sending 31 members, divided as follows : St. John's East St. John's West Harbour Grace Carbonear . . . Harbour Maine Port- de- Grave Bay de Verds Members. 3 a 2 1 2 1 1 ciivp. It] GOVERNMENT. Members Trinity 3 Bonavista ... 3 Twillingate and Fogo 3 Fenyland ... 2 Placentia and St. Mary's ... 3 Burin 2 Fortune Bay 1 Burgeo and La Poile 1 ur> I The qualification of persons to be elected to servo as members of the House of Assembly is a net annual income, arising from any source whatever, of $480, or the pos- session of property, clear of all incumbrances, exceeding $2,400. They must have resided in the island for two years previous to each election, be over twenty-one years of age, and be British subjects or lawfully naturalised. The members of the House of Assembly are elected by a household suffrage. All persons who, either as owners or tenants, have occupied a dwelling-house for two years next before the day of election, are entitled to vote. In addition to the electoral districts enumerated already, there will be two others on the western coast, each entitled to elect a representative at the next general elections, in November, 1882. The Act enfranchising the so-called "French Shore," ha^ received at length the royal assent; thus the next House of Assembly will consist of thii'ty-three members. The members of both branches of the Legislature are paid. Members of the House of Assembly, if resident in St. John's, receive $194 per session; if resident elsewhere, $201 per session. The members of the Legislative Council receive $120 per session ; the president, $2 10. The Speaker of the House of Assembly receives $1,000 per session. The Legislature is usually summoned to meet " for the ^i' II 44G NEWFOUNDLAND, [part VI despatch of business " about the bef^inni'npf of February, and the session generally lasts till the end of April. The Governor receives a salary c $12,000 per annum, paid by the colony; Ms private secretary, $021; his orderly, $300; keeper of the lodge, $277 ; and light and fuel are provided for Government House. The salaries of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney- General, the Receiver-General, and the Surveyor-General are each $2,400 per annum. The Chairman of the Board of Works receives $2,000 per annum ; the Financial Secretary, $l,38i.; the Auditor of Public Accounts, $1,000; Solicitor- General, $1,200. The legislative contingencies average $27,000 per annum. The Supreme Court was instituted in 182G by the pro- mulgation of a Royal Charter. It is composed of a Chief Justice and two Assistant Judges, appointed by the Crown. The Chief Justice has "rank aud precedence above and beyond all persons within the colony and its dependencies, excepting the Governor or Acting Governor for the time being, and excepting all such persons as by law or usage take place in England before the Chief Justice of the King's Bench." The Chief Justice may accept the office of Ad- ministrator of the Government of the Colony, and also of Judge of the Vice-Admiralty Court, with the emoluments and fees belonging to each office. The Supreme Court holds two terms or sessions each year, in St. John's, one of them commences on the 20th of May, and the other on the 20th of November. There is a Chief Clerk and Registrar of the Supreme Court. There are circuits of the Supreme Court held in the northern and southern districts of the island, at such times and places as may be fixed by the proclamation of the Governor. These are presided over by the Chief Justice, or one of the Assistant Judges, in rotation. The salary of the Chief Justice is $5,000 ; of each of the Assistant Judges, $4,000. They hold their appointments for life. ot February, April. lO per annum, Y, $024; his and liglit and the Attorney- •vey or- General )f the Board of icial Secretary, 300; Solicitor- encies average 26 by the pro- ised of a Chief by the Crown, nee above and IS dependencies, r for the time law or usage e of the King's office of Ad- ly, and also of noluments and e Court holds 1, one of them er on the 20th egistrar of the lupreme Court the island, at proclamation by the Chief •otation. The the Assistant a for life. CHAP. II.] GOVERNMENT. 447 The Court of Labrador has civil and criminal jurisdiction over such parts of Labrador as lie within the Government of Newfoundland. It is presided over by one Judge, who is nominated by the Governor in Council. His salary is $1,154. The Central District Court is a Court of Record, held in St. John's, for the said district, for the adjudication of civil causes, and sits whenever business requires. There are two Judges, appointed by the Governor in Council; the salary of each is .$2,000. They may jointly or severally hold such Court, or when business requires, may sit separately. There is also a District Court in Harbour Grace, with jurisdiction over the electoral district of Conception Bay. It is presided over by one Judge, who is ex. officio a Justice of the Peace. There is a Sheriff for each judicial district of the island, who is appointed by the Governor in Council. Courts of General and Quarter Sessions are held in the island, at such places as may be determined by the pro- clamation of the Governor. They are presided over by Stipendiary Magistrates or Justices of the Peace. "The Law Society of Newfoundland" is constituted by Statute, and is under the inspection of the Judges of the Supreme Court for the time being. " No person is admitted by the Supreme Court to practise as an attorney unless upon actual service of five years with some practising attorney of the island ; or, if a regular graduate of any college in Her Majesty's Dominions of four years, or who, having been entered on the books of 'The Law Society' as a student at law, shall have been subsequently called to the Bar in England, Scotland, or Ireland, or any of Her Majesty's Colonies." Any person who has been called to the Bar in England, Scotland, or Ireland, or any of the Colonies, upon producing evidence thereof, and undergoing a satisfactory examination, may be called by the Law Society to the degree of barrister. I fflSf i CHAPTER III. ROADS, RAILWAYS, AND STEAM COMMUNICATION. I< lit :' i:,. I I I !M ' ■ ■ i ■ 1 i \' >" ' J i '. 1^ The first highway — Postal roads and mail routes — Preliminary survey for the first railroad — Subsidy of money and lands offered by Government for construction of the road — Progress of the work — Turning of the first sod, and running of tlie first locomotive. Owing to tte mistaken policy pursued by the Britisli Government, in connection Avith Newfoundland, as detailed in our historical sketch, it was not till the year 1825, or fifty-seven years ago, that the first road was constructed iu the island. The cultivation of the soil was not regarded as a legitimate pursuit in Newfoundland, so that the idea of making roads to reach and open up good lands for settlement and cultivation was not entertained. At length a better era dawned, and the firrt step in progress was taken by Sir Thomas Cochrane, Governor, who in 1825 constructed a good road, nine miles iu length, from St. John's to Portugal Cove, on the shore of Conception Bay. Opposite the village of Portugal Cove, on the northern side of the bay, was the second largest settlement in the island. Harbour Grace, the centre of a considerable popu- lation. By establishing regular boats to cross this bay, .a route was established by which nearly half the population cn.vp. m.] ROADS, RAILWAYS, ETC. 449 [UNICATION. I then living in the country were provided with a rougli means of intercommunication, A road to Torbay, a village north of St. John's, and another along a beautiful valley through which flows a small stream falling into St. John's harbour, to a spot now called Waterford Bridge, speedily followed. Then the more distant settlements began to connect themselves with each other by roads and finally with the capital. In several directions roads radiating from St. John's were constructed, along which farms and neat farmhouses were soon visible. One of these roads extended first to Topsail, on Conception 13ay, thence to Holyrood at the head of the bay, and onward to Salmonier, St. Mary's, and Placentia. It is eighty miles in length to Placentia, and the St. Mary's branch is twenty-two miles additional. Road-making has been carried on ever since, and of late about $100,000 per annum have been devoted to making and repairing roads and bridges. At the present time there are about seven hundred and twenty-seven miles of postal roads, and one thousand seven hundred and thirty miles of district roads. The Great Northern Mail route, when com- pleted, will be one hundred and thirty-seven miles in length ; and one thousand two hundred miles are in process of making. The Allan Line of steamers call at St. John's on their outward and homeward voyages between Liverpool and Halifax. Thus the colony has fortnightly communication with Great Britain and America. During three months of winter these steamers run from Liverpool to Halifax without calling at St. John's, the connection during this time being kept up fortnightly by a mail steamer, plying between St. John's and Halifax. A subsidy of $G9,120 per annum is paid by the colony to the Allan Company for these services. In addition, two local steamers ply between St. John's and the settlements north and south, carrying passengers, mails, and goods. In the summer season, the steamer plying 2 G ill I i 1 ,1 1 ' 1 ■ ^ 1* llt'l 1 ■ ' 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 M (■ ' 1 ':- 1 1 * ^ " i 1 111; 450 NEWFOUNDLAND. [past VI. northward connects with tho Labrador steamer at liattlo Harbour. Another mail steamer pUes on Conception liay. Tho amount of subsidies for local steam service is $52,300 per annum, and for both oceanic and local steam services $121,420 per annum. The first stop towards the construction of a railway was taken in 1875, when a preliminary survey of a line from St. John's to St. George's Bay, distance about two hundred and sixty miles, was made, under the direction of Mr. Sandford Fleming, who was then engincer-in-chief of Canadian railways. In a valuable paper which he published some years previously, ho had pointed out that the shortest and safest travel-route between America and England was across Newfoundland. He suggested a fast lino of steamers from Valentia, Ireland, to St. John's, Newfoundland, carrying only mails, passengers, and light express matter. Thence a railway to St. George's Bay, and another lino of steamers between that point and Shippegan in the Bay of Chaleurs, New Brunswick, where connection with Canadian and American railways could be established. By this route ho calculated that the ocean passage would not exceed four days, and that passengers and mails from London would reach New York in seven days. The Government of New- foundland obtained from the Legislature a money grant for a preliminary survey of a railway from St. John's to St. George's Bay, being the land portion of this route. This survey was made in 1875, and the result showed that there were no serious engineering difficulties in the way, and that the line could bo constructed at a moderate cost. Two years elapsed before any further steps were taken. At length, in 1878, the Hon. W. V. Whiteway, Premier (now Sir William V. Whiteway), undertook to grapple with the matter in earnest. With the concurrence of the government of which he was leader, he introduced a series of resolutions, which were warmly received and accepted by :-l it [r\BT VI. cuxv. III.] ROADS, RAILWAYS, ETC. 451 iier at Battle mcoption Bay. vice is $o2;J00 steam services a railway was of a lino from it two hundred ■cction of Mr. oer-in-cliiof of zh ho published lat the shortest id England was lino of steamers Newfoundland, express matter, another line of ,n in the Bay of 1 with Canadian By this route lot exceed four London would ■nment of New- noney grant for John's to St. Liis route. This iwed that there le way, and that lost. sps were taken, [teway, Premier lok to grapple Icurrence of the •educed a series ,nd accepted by the Legislature, Among other things it was resolved that an annual subsidy of $120,000 per annum and liberal grants of Crown lands along the lino should be given to any company which should construct and continue in operation a line of railway across Newfoundland, con- necting by steamers with Britain on the one hand, and with the Intercolonial and Canadian lines on the other, across the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Steps were imme- diately taken by the Newfoundland Government to havo this proposal advertised in England and elsewhere. But an unexpected difficulty arose. The Imperial Government declined to sanction the undertaking, on the ground that the terminus on the western side of tho island, at St. George's Bay, would be on that part of the coast on which the French had fishery rights secured by treaty, and that negotiations in regard to those rights were then in progress. Thus the hopes of tho colony were blighted in regard to this project. The Government waited patiently two years, in expectation that diplomacy would remove the difficulty, but without result. Sir William Whitcway and the Government then resolved to take the matter up in another form. Instead of constructing a line across the island, which would be a link in the chain of communica- tion between the old and new worlds, they proposed to build a narrow-gauge railway suited to local requirements, and such as would bo within the means of the colony. The resolutions which Sir William Whiteway submitted to the House of Assembly proposed the construction of a narrow-gauge railway from St. John's to Hall's Bay, the centre of the mining region, with brr.nches to Harbour Grace and Brigus, the total length of which would be about three hundred and forty miles. Such a line. Sir William pointed out, would open up for settlement the most fertile agricultural and the best timber lands in the island more especially the great valleys of the Gander and ;!;:!! II t G 2 (Mi fi i I i i I i'( 1 i'l: ■ ■ 1 V 452 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAUT VI. Exploits. It would placo the mining region in connection with tlio capital, and thus impart a great impetus to mining industry hy increasing facilities for its prosecution ; and it would also traverso and open up a largo extent of mineral lands which there was every reason to believe was of great value, and which was as yet almost unexplored. His pro- posal was that the colony itself should undertake the work, and ho showed that the finances of the country were in Buch a healthy condition as to warrant the enterprise. A joint committee of both bx'anchos of the Legislature was appointed to consider the proposal, and their report was strongly in favour of the construction of the railway. The report dwelt on the necessity which existed for opening up new industries for tho employment of the increasing population, for whoso support tho fisheries were now utterly iiiadeciuato. It referred to tho immense mineral wealth of tho country, which only required capital for its development ; to tho vast extent of fertile lands which the geological survey of tho island had made known; to the large im- portations of agricultural produce and live stock, all of which could bo raised in tho country ; to tho advantages tho island possessed as a grazing country, and to the facilities of exporting live-stock to England; and to the benefits that would flow from the remunerative employ- ment furnished to tho people by the construction of a railway. It concluded by recommending the passing of an Act authorising a loan of the an'ount required to construct the line, within the limits of one million pounds sterling and in sums not exceeding half-a-million of dollars in any one year. This report was adopted by the Legislature by an overwhelming majority of both branches. Railway commissioners were appointed, and engineers were employed in the summer and autumn of 1 880 in making a survey of tho first hundred miles. According to this arrangement then, the colony, through ^ CUAF, III ] UOADS, RAILWAYS, ETC. 453 tho Govermnciit, was to construct tho proposed lino o£ railway, tho necessary funds to bo raised by a loan on tho credit ot tho colony. When, however, tho Le<,MHlaturo met in February, 1881, two offers cauio boforo it, ono from a Canadian, and another from an American syndicate — to build and operate the proposed lino of railway. 'J'liis at once raised the question whether the railway should be carried out through a contract with a company instead — " ^w- i FIRST EXCCHSION THIP ON TlIK NEWKOU.NULAXl) KAILWAY. " TUAIN ABOL'T TO START." of by the Government itself. There were weighty objec- tions of a political character to the work being placed under the control of Government, and it was considered that the construction of the line would bo more economically carried out by contract. The Legislature, therefore, proceeded to formally consider tho two propositions. The result was that the proposal of tho American syndicate was accepted by an overwhelming majority in the House of Assembly. The leading features of the contract entered into between the colony and this company are as follows : IS!; ft ,1 I f , 1 » 1 1 yHtt ^ j 1 1 1 1: 4 11 ( > j ' ■ I 454 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT VI. Steel rails of the best quality to be used; the line of railway to run from St. John's to Hall's Bay, with branches to Brigus and Harbour Grace; the distance estimated at three hundred and forty miles. A money subsidy of $180,000 per annum, to be paid half- yearly by the Government, for thirty-five years conditional on the efficient maintenance and operation of the road, the proportions of this subsidy to attach while the road is in course of construction, and as each five miles are completed and approved, land grants of five thousand acres per mile of good land are secured to the company in alternate blocks along the lino in quantities of one mile along the line, and eight miles in depth; and if not obtainable along the line, to be selected eisewhere. The company bind themselves to build a substantial, leliable, and efficient road, subject to approval by a government inspector, and to complete it within five years. The first sod of the railway was turned on the 9th of August, 1881, and so rapidly has the work been pushed on that in September, 1882, thirty-five miles were completed and in running order ; one hundred miles were located, and the remainder of the lino northward under survey. Including outlay for labour, purchase of rails and sleepers for future use, rolling stock, construction of wharf and waterside premises on the hax'bour, the company had expended over a million dollars on the enterprise in July, 1882. All the engagements of the company have been faithfully complied with. At the present rate of progress the work will probably be completed within three yeai's. When the Legislature met in February, 1882, an appli- cation came before it for a " Charter of Incorporation for the Great American and European Short-line Railway Company." The object of this company is to carry out the project already referred to, of making the great travel- cni.F. III.] ROADS, RAILWAYS, ETC. 455 route between America and Europe across Nowfoundlund. Their plan, however, is a vast improvement on that of Mr. Sandford Fleming. They propose to construct a first- class railway, standard gauge, from the eastern coast of Newfoundland to a point in the neighbourhood of Cape Eay ; thence a steam ferry is to carry mails and passengers to a point near Capo North, in Cape Breton, a distance of fifty-six miles ; from which point a railway is to be built to the Strait of Canso. This being crossed, the railway system of Canada and the United States is reached, and travellers can proceed to all quarters. A line of the swiftest steamers is to ply between a port on the west coast of Ireland and the Newfoundland port at the eastern terminus of the railway. The company calculate on shortening the time of travel between London and New York by two days. They claim that " the short ocean passage, the great saving in time, together with the superior comforts and safety of this line, will soon make it the most popular route for first-class ti*ans- Atlantic travel, and will also attract a very large part of the emigration that now goes direct to New York and other United States and Canadian ports." A select committee of the House of Assembly was appointed to consider and report on his application. Their report was highly favourable. In it the committee said : " The value of our geographical position in the direct line of travel between Europe and America receives in this scheme its due recognition, and the importance of this fact can hardly be exaggerated. When the project is realised this island will occupy a proud place in the economy of trans-Atlantic travel, for the advantages of the short sea route will assert themselves, and will become permanently accepted. The voyage between the Irish coast and this island is free from all unseen d-" ngers, and no steamer running be- tween these limits has ever met with serious disaster. The \r I fi! Hi 456 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAIIT VI. distance of sea voyage is but one thousand six hundred and forty mileSj and experience shows that the approach to the Newfoundland coast is rarely affected by the presence of fog, despite the popular theory in this respect. On the score of safety no other trans- Atlantic route presents equal attractions, and it is matter of record that the losses of ships and life by stranding on Atlantic voyages have, in almost every instance, taken place to the westward of this island." The report further enlarges on the immense benefits such a line of railway would confer on Newfoundland, as it would com- plete the line now under construction, unite the eastern and western coasts, open up the fertile lands and mineral treasures of the latter, and promote its settlement, lead to a very large monetary expenditure among the people, and bring the island into daily communication with the great centres of trade and civilisation of Europe and America. The charter asked for was readily granted by the Legislature. A land-grant of five thousand acres per mile along the line, in alternate blocks, and an exclusive right of way for forty years, were secured to the company by the chartei'. The importation, free of duty, of all materials for the construction and maintenance of the line, was also permitted. The project is supported by a large number of wealthy and intelligent capitalists. Developing, as is pro- posed, what is claimed to be the shortest and safest route between the two hemispheres, its establishment is only a question of time. CHAPTER IV. EDUCATION. Rise and progress of educational movements — Legislative enact- ments — Denominational appointments — Government grants — The Colonial and Continental Church Society. It was not till tlie year 1813 tliat the Legislature took any action in connection witli the promotion of education in the colony. Previous to that date all educational efforts pro- ceeded from reliyious bodies or individuals, and being thus dependent on mere desultory and unorganised labours, education was in a low condition, and in the widely- scattered settlements many of the young had grown up ignorant of the very rudiments of knowledge. Taking into account the disadvantages under which the people laboured in regard to education, it must be admitted that the educa- tional progress made during the last thirty-nine years is of a very gratifying character. The interest in education is deepening and extending, and its importance is more fully realised among the great body of the people. A very liberal provision is made for it by the Legislature, and gradually improvements have been introduced. No doubt very much yet remaiiis to bo done, but the advances already made, and the enlightened zeal .n the cause of education now awakened afford sufficient guarantees of future progress. In 1843 the initiatory step Avas taken by a Legislative Act granting a sum of 5,100Z. annually for the promotion !l:;fl[) { „l 1 ;l . i 1^ ^ '' ! 1 N 1 '* 1 : . ■ 1 i i. ' 458 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT VI. of education, ono half the amount being appropriated in support of Protestant and one half in support of Roman Catholic schools. Educational districts were defined, and a board, appointed, for each. Where the majority of the population were Protestants, the schools were to be under a Protestant board; where Catholics preponderate, the schools were to be under a Catholic board. An effort was also made to provide for the higher education by voting 3,000Z. for the erection of an academy in St. John's, with salaries for three teachers. From a variety of causes this academy, in Avhich all denominations were to receive an united, education, proved, an entire failure. After a trial of six years it was broken up; and in 1850 three academies were founded on the denominational principle, one Eoman Catholic, a second Church of England, and a third in which Wesleyans, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists were united. At a later date the Wesleyans obtained a separate academy for themselves, so that now academic education is conducted in four distinct establishments in St. John's. This may seem a waste of power, but in the present state of denominational feeling separate education is perhaps unavoidable. Denominational zeal perhaps fui'nishes a stimulus to educational efforts which would otherwise bo wanting. In the elementary schools the denominational principle has also been carried out, and each religious denomination now receives a grant for education from the public funds in proportion to its numbers. Separate boards of education in the different districts have charge of the schools. Three inspectors are appointed by Government, one for Roman Catholic schools, one for Church of England schools, and one for Wesleyan schools. The gentlemen who hold these appointments are zealous and able educationists, and are using every effort to advance the cause of education. Their annual reports show a decided progress in recent years, and the system appears to be working well. [PABT VI. ippropriatecl ia port of Koman ) (lefinod, and a lajority of the re to bo under jpondorato, the An effort was ition by voting it. John's, with f of causes this ) to receive an After a trial of hree academies pie, one Eoman I third in which .tionalists were ,ined a separate nic education is in St. John's. e present state ion is perhaps furnishes a otherwise bo enominaiional each religious ation from the eparate boards charge of the Government, ch of England ontlemeu who educationists, of education. ■ess in recent ell. cnip. IV.] EDUCATION. 459 Instead of a normal school, an arrangement is in opera- tion for the training of pupil teachers in the academies. After going through a certain course of education, these pupil teachers have to undergo examinations, are graded according to their merits, and on passing receive certificates, without which they are not eligible to be appointed to take charge of schools. This, in due time, will elevate the standard of education, and incompetent teachers will gradu- ally disappear. No doubt normal schools will be the next step. The drawback under a denominational system such as this is that the salaries of teachers are lower than they would bo were there an united system of education in operation. More money, too, is required for the erection of school houses. Denominational lines are drawn more deeply by the education of the young in separate schools. The state of religious feeling, however, does not at present admit of an united education, whatever the future may bring about ; and the denominational system is working to the satisfaction of those interested. A brief account of the present condition of education will be interesting, and will show the progress already made. The total amount of the annual legislative grant for elementary schools and academies for the whole of New- foundland and Labrador is $93,952. Taking the population as given in the last census of 1874 at 101,000, this would be a j)er capita amount of 58 cents for the entire population for academic and elementary education. The Elementary Education Grant is $70,311 For Pupil Teachers . . . 4,061 For the Encouragement of Teachers 2,000 For Inspection .... 4,000 ^1 Total . $80,372 f t[ ■ 1 • ^' i 1 ( i 1 ( rlHl I 1 \ V 1 ! ^( ' i '^' If! r 1 460 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABT VI. This gives a per capita grant of 49 cents for elementary education. The four academies and two grammar schools receive $9,880 per annum, or 6 cents per capita of the entire population. The education grant is divided among the different religious denominations in proportion to their numbers as follows : Church of England $32,144 Church of Rome . 35,571 Methodists 20,350 Presbyterians . 898 Congregationalists . 214 Harbour Grace Grammai ' School 924 Tho amount distributed among teachers of elementary schools as sahiries is $55,418 per annum, Tho teachers of academics receive as salaries $10,588. Denominationally the salaries are distributed as follows : Salaries op Elementary ScnooLs. Church of England . $24,820 Roman Catholic . 10,083 Methodists ... . 14,230 Congregationalists . 285 Total . $55,418 Salaries of Academies. Church of England . $3,115 Roman Catholics . . 1,160 Methodists .... . 3,400 General Protestants . 1,100 Carbonear Methodist Grammar School GOO Harbour Grace Grammar School . 1,213 V cn.ip. IV.] EDUCATION. 4G1 r capita of the )uted as follows : The total number of elementary schools in 1881 was ilG. Of these 157 belonged to the Church of England, 158 to the Eoman Catholics, 99 to the Methodists, and 2 to the Congregationalists. There are 4 academies and 2 grammar schools. The total number of pupils in the olementary schools in 1881 was 24,292. Of these 9,1G3 belonged to the Church of England, 9,014 to the Church of Rome, 5,284 to the Methodist Church, and 92 to the Congx'egational Church- The total number of pupils in the academies and grammar schools in 1881 was G74. Thus the total number of scholars is 24,971. The total number of pupil teachers in 1881 was 84. Since the denominational principle was fully carried out, in the subdivision of the education grant, the increase of schools has been 59, the increase of teachers, 89; the amount spent in erecting school houses and teachers', houses, $100,095, The per capita cost of the education of scholars is $3 61c., exclusive of fees. The salaries of teachers under the Methodist boards are as follows : Male. Female. 1st Grade . . $300 1st Grade. . $200 2nd Grade . 250 2nd Grade . 180 3rd Grade. . 180 3rd Grade. . 160 Maximum . . 400 Maximum . . 250 Minimum . . 160 Minimum . . 160 No return of salaries is given under Church of England and Roman Catholic boards. The census of 1874 showed that there were then 18,935 children attending school. This gave an attendance at school of about one in eight of the population. Estimating the population in 1882 at 185,000, then, the number attend- ing school being 24,971, the attendance is about one in II i'l m h\ !i 462 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PABI VI. seven of the population. There is, therefore, an increase of attendance at school during the last eight years in propor- tion to population. As the colony is increasing in population and wealth, educational improvements will no doubt keep pace with the material prosperity. The great desideratum at present is a more perfect training for the teachers, and an increase of their salaries. In connection with the cause of education in Newfound- land grateful acknowledgment is duo to " The Colonial and Continental Church Society," by whose instrumentality schools have been maintained in the island for more than half a century, and most valuable educational work has been done, especially at a time when the need of the poor in- habitants was sorest. These schools have been maintained mainly by the liberality of the members of the society, their efforts having been acknowledged and aided by an annual grant from the funds of the colony. In fact, the beginning of common school education in the island may be said to date from 1823, when "The Newfoundland School Society" was founded in London by Samuel Codner, a Newfoundland merchant. It began by opening schools in St. John's, Harbour Grace, Trinity, and other places ; and under the supervision of the teachers at these principal places branch schools Avei'o opened in the smaller settlements. The society afterwards extended its operations to other parts of British North America, and in 1851 it united with the "Colonial Church Society," taking the new name of "The Colonial Church and School Society." The amalgamation seems to have led to a rapid growth of means and extension of operations. Having established a large number of chaplaincies on the continent of Europe for the benefit of English travellers and residents, its name was again changed in 18G1 to "The Colonial and Continental Church Society." It is worth remembering that this important missionary society, with a present annual income of over 40,000Z., \ [PABI vr. CHAP. IV.] EDUCATION. 4G3 3, an increase of years in propor- ng in population no doubt keep eat desideratum le teachers, and tn in Newfound- ^he Colonial and instrumentality '. for more than ,1 work has been of the poor in- jeen maintained he society, their d by an annual fc, the beginning- may be said to school Society" - Newfoundland in St. John's, and under the 1 places branch ;s. The society )arts of British the " Colonial 'The Colonial imation seems and extension tre number of tlie benefit of again changed arch Society." nt missionary over 40,000^., began with the formation of the Newfoundland School Society in 1823. Since the Legislature undertook the work of public education, the position in the island of this old society has become less prominent. At the present time it has twenty schools in operation, and, taking the average of the last five years, the number of scholars attending them is 2,295, and the average expenditure on their account about 2,000/. The Legislature aids the society in its educational work in the island by a grant of 500Z. sterling, taken out of the Church of England share of the education grant, the remainder of the expenditure being furnished from the funds of the society, and also in part from subscriptions in Newfoundland and from a portion of the school fees. The central schools in St. John's are used by the Church of England Boards of Education as a training school for their teachers, male and female, nearly twenty teachers being sent out every year. Honourable mention is also due to the Christian Brothers, who have in operation a school in St. John's attended by 350 pupils. Their schoolrooms are the finest and best arranged and equipped in the island, and the character of the instruction imparted by them is deservedly spoken of in the highest terms. They are doing an excellent educational work in St. John's. ! \ i 1 • 1 i ' 1 i 4 i i' ! ! i I'! il^ CHAPTER V. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. Protestant and Roman Catholic settlers — The Church of England — The early missionaries and the first bishopric — Wesleyan Method- ism and Congregationalism — Progress of Presbyterianism. The census of 1874 showed that there were at that date 97,057 Protestants, and 61,317 Eoman Catholics. Of the Protestants 50,561 belonged to the Church of England; the Wesleyans numbered 35,702 ; the Presbyterians, 1,168 ; the Congregationalists, 461 ; other denominations, 165. According to the census of 1857 the denominations stood as follows : Protestants . 65,748 Catholics . . 56,895 3 Protestant denominations stood thus : Church of England . . . 44,285 Wesleyans . 20,229 Presbyterians . 838 Congregationalists . 347 Other denominations 44 Besides, there were in Labrador 1,331 adherents of the Church of England and 319 Eoman Catholics. cnAP. v.] IIELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. 4G5 ch of England— i^'esleyan Method- ytcrianism. Q at that date lolics. Of the 1 of England; terians, 1,168; linations, 1G5. enominations 43 >5 44,285 20,229 838 347 44 erents of the The great bulk of the original Protestant settlers who arrived year after year were English from the south-western counties, and nearly all of them belonged to the Church of England. The Roman Catholic settlers came from Ireland. A number of Scotch mercantile establishments have boon for about eighty years engaged in the business of tho country, and are among tho most extensive and prosperous of the exporting firms. In connection with them came tho original representatives of the Presbyterian Church, whoso numbers in 1874 did not much exceed 1,000. English dissent was represented as early as 1775 by a Congregational Church iia St. John's, whoso adherents in 1874 numbered 401. It was not till 1703 that any organised effox't Avas made on the part of the Church of England to supply tho spiritual ■wants of its adherents, who, in considerable numbers, were settled on the shores of the island. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was established in 1701, and their attention was at once directed to New- foundland. At that time there was but one Protestant clergyman in the island — a Mr. Jackson, who was in St. John's. The society adopted him as its missionary, and gave him a salary of 50L per annum. Tho efforts of the society were gradually extended year after year, and more missionaries were sent as the population increased. Conception, Trinity, and Bonavista bays were the seats of tho early missions of the Church of England. Churches were built in St. John's, Harbour Grace, Carbonear, Old and New Perlican. In 1787 a memorial was presented to the society from the inhabitants of Placontia Bay, asking for a missionary, and promising to contribute to his support. His Royal Highness Prince William Henry, afterwards King William IV., then in command of a ship of war on the station, contributed handsomely to the erection of a church at Placentia, and presented it with a sot of communion plate, which is still preserved. 2 H M I I j:i ! i 1 li . 1' 466 NEWFOUNDLAND. [I'Aiir v[. Tho hnrd.ships, perils, and privations oncoiintorod by these early missionaries were very great, and too much praise cannot be accorded them for their self-denying labours. In carrying tho consolations of religion to tho poor fishermen of those days, in their •widely-scattered settlements, their journeys had io bo made by sea in open boats or small fishing vessels, as there were no roads ; and in these frail barques they had to ci'oss wide arms of the sea, and double headlands and promontories exposed to tho great swell of the Atlantic. Tho cold of Avinter had to bo encountered in rude wooden houses of the poorest descrip- tion, and through tho blinding snowstorm they had often to make their way from one fishing hamlet to another. Like Goldsmith's curate, they were "passing rich on 40/. a-year,'' tho liirgest salary tho society could give them being 50/. per annum. One of them, a Mr. Langman, a most laborious missionary, who had 50/. a year from the society, represented that the little gratuities ho received from his flock were quite inconsiderable, and that " ho had to go and beg for them as a poor man would for alms." It was not till 18M that tho salaries rose to 100/. per annum. It is not wonder- ful that under such discouraging circumstances the progress of tho Church of England in the colony should have been very slow. In 1787 tho first colonial bishopric was created, that of Nova Scotia, "with ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, New Brunswick, and the Island of Newfoundland.'' It was not till 1827 that Bishop Inglis, of Nova Scotia, was able to visit this portion of his immense diocese. He found but nine clergy- men and missionaries in the whole island. There were six hundred communicants and twenty-three schoolmasters. At length in 1839 Newfoundland was erected into a separate diocese, including the Bermudas, and the Rev. Aubrey S. Spencer, archdeacon of Bermuda, was consecrated to the i i ! [PAttT VI. RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. 467 countered by lid too niucli self-denying .'lig-ion to the dc'ly-scatterod jy sea in open no roads ; and 3 arms of the jxpoHed to the iter had to bo Dorost doscrip- y had often to mother. Like u 40/. a-year," cm being 50/. most laboriouf^ ty, represented his flock -were and beg for IS not till 1814 is not wonder- !S the progress uld have been created, that Lion over the \v Brunswick, not till 1827 to visit this t nine clergy- There were schoolmasters, nto a separate iv. Aubrey S. crated to the new see. lie found but eight clergymen in the island, and the church in a very disorganised and dispirited condition. Through his zealous labours a great change for the better was eifected, and the church speedily made marked progress. In two years ho was able to report that a theological seminary for training missionaries was opened, that there were twenty-five clergymen, thirty thousand church members, three thousand two hundred scholars in the Sunday schools, and between two and three thousand in day schools. In 1843 ho laid tho foundation of a cathedral in St. John's, which was consecrated in 1850. Bishop Spencer was succeeded in 1841- by Dr. Edwai-d Feild, of (Queen's College, Oxford, who continued bishop for thirty-two years, till his death in 1870. Under his zealous and devoted labours the church prospered and extended itself ; a cathedral was built ; orphanages were erected ; Sunday and day schools increased in numbers ; and the Church was thoroughly organised. Bishop Feild was most abundant in labours, never shrinking from toil or peril in the discharge of his duties. By all denominations his self-denial and devotednoss were admired and appre- ciated. Dr. J. B. Kelly was appointed coadjutor in 18G7, but failing health compelled him to resign in 1877. He was succeeded, in 1878, by the Rev. Llewellyn Gomes, D.D., who is now the bishop of the diocese. The diocese is now divided into eight deaneries, and tho number of clergy is fifty. A diocesan synod was established in 1873. A theological college for the education of candi- dates for holy orders has been in operation for a length of time, and is now endowed. Orphanages for destitute children of both sexes have been founded on a secure basis. The cathedral in St. John's, of which only tho nave was completed, is now advancing towards entire completion, and will be a very beautiful and spacious structure. The total number of churches belonging to the Church of 2 H 2 lii ' i||i i " i \;\U} ^1 ill !l. Ill < i ! ( i ■ • i \ 4G8 NEWFOUNDLAND. [part VI. England in Newfoundland and Labrador is at present one hundred and two. In 1874 the Roman Catholic inhabitants of Newfoundland numbered 64,317. Catholicism was founded in the island as early as 1623, by 8ir Georj^e Calvert, an Englishman, who, as described in the Historical sketch, settled at Ferry- land. During the occupation of portions of the island by the French, priests of the Franciscan Order acted as chaplains to the French ships of war, and to all forts manned by over forty men. In 1689 the Catholic bishop of Quebec visited Placentia, then in the occupation of the French, and brought with him several priests from the Franciscan convent in Quebec. The church there was placed under their care, and a royal licence was obtained for the establishment of a convent of Francisca-is in Placentia. When, in 1713, Newfoundland was aced entirely under the jurisdiction of England, and the French retired, all ecclesiastical records were taken to France. Unhappily the reign of religious intolerance commenced soon after, and continued for more than sixty yeai'S. For an account of the persecutions endured by Homan Catholics in those days reference is made to the Historical portion of this work. The disabilities of Roman Catholics came to an end in 1784, when liberty of conscience and the free exercise of their religion were granted to all the inhabitants of the island. In that year the Roman Catholic Church in Newfoundland Avas publicly organised by the appoint- ment of Dr. O'Donnell as prefect apostolic, by pope Pius VI. In 1796, the population having increased, and episcopal superintendence being needed, Dr. O'Donnell was appointed vicar apostolic and bishop. Under his superintendence numerous churches were built, and the ministrations of religion carried out in localities where previously they were unknown. Bishop O'Donnell retired from oflBice in consequence of age and infirmity in 1807, [part VI. i at present one if Newfoundland id in the island an Englishman, lettled at Ferry- •f the island by Drder acted as ,nd to all forts Catholic bishop jcupation of the iriests from the urch there was :e was obtained Fi'ancisca'is in nd was ,aced and the French ken to France. ace commenced xty years. For loman Catholics toi'ical portion liolics came to e and the free jho inhabitants atholic Church )V the appoint- olic, by pope increased, and Dr. O'Donnell Under his built, and the ocalities where Donnell retired •mity in 1807, J CHAP. T.] EELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. 469 and died in Waterford in 1811, in his seventy-fourth year. He was succeeded by Bishop Lambert, who held office till 1817, when Dr. Thomas Scallan was appointed bishop. He died in 1830, and was succeeded by Bishop Fleming, who held office till 1850. In 1847 Newfound- land was erected into a diocese, and Dr. Mullock became coadjutor bishop, and in 1850 he succeeded Bishop Fleming. The cathedral, which was commenced by Bishop Fleming in 1841, was consecrated September 9th, 1855. With the adjacent episcopal residence, convents, and college, it cost over 120,000Z. In 1856 Newfoundland was divided into two dioceses — St. John's, comprising the southern part of the island from Bay of Islands to Spaniard's Bay ; and Harbour Grace, all the northern portion, and Labrador. These boundaries have since been altered to a slight extent. Dr. Dalton was the first bishop of Harbour Grace, and the Right Rev. Henry Carfagnini the second. By a decree of 17th September, 1871, the western portion of the island was erected into a prefecture apostolic. Dr. Mullock died in 18G9, and in 1870 the present bishop, the Right Rev. Thomas Joseph Powei', was consecrated in Rome by His Eminence Cardinal Cullen. In the diocese of St. .John's there are now a cathedral, twenty-six churches, besides a number of chapels, twenty- nine priests, a college, thirteen convents, and a female orphanage. In the dioceso of Harbour Grace, of which Dr. McDonald is now bishop, there are a cathedral, fourteen churches, besides a number of chapels, sixteen priests, and five convents. In the prefecture apostolic of St. George's, West Newfoundland, of which the Very Rev. Monsignor Seal's is prefect apostolic, there are three churches and three priests. Wcslcyan Methodism presents an honourable record in Newfoundland, and has been characterised by zeal, activity, 1 , nr 1 1 I t . , fi li. 470 NEWFOUNDLAND. I^PAHT TI. and usefulness. It dates from 17G5, when tlic Rev. Lawrence Cougldan, a travelling preacher in connection with the Rev. John Wesley, was ordained by the Bishop of London, at the request of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, that he might be qualified for the office of a missionary in Newfoundland. At that time the state of religion and morality among a people who had been long neglected, and left almost without rcHgious instruction and education, is described as deplorable. Immorality of the worst description abounded, and religious worship Avas maintained in but a few localities. Mr. Coughlan's labours were mainly in Harbour Grace, Carbonear, and other places in Conception Bay. He encountered a great amount of opposition and bitter persecution, especially from some of the wealthier classes, till at last he was cited to appear before the Governor, who declared in his favour and appointed him a justice of the peace. This ended the persecution, and ho continued to labour quietly and with marked success. Three churches were built, and in these he ministered, till failing health compelled him to return to England, where he published a book, dedicated to the Countess of Huntingdon, in which he gave an account of his work in Newfoundland. In 1780 three missionaries were sent to the colony by the Wesleyan organisation, to prosecute Mr. Coughlan's work. Ten years later there was but one Wesleyan missionary in the island, and in 180G two missionaries, and 508 members. The work went on and extended as the popu- lation increased. In l81i Newfoundland was constituted a separate district, with a superintendent. In 1829 there were twelve missionaries and 1,147 members. In 1840 there were labouring in the island fourteen ministers and ten local preachers; there were 2,738 members, and 15,000 adherents. Sunday and day schools were conducted in connection with the missions. The census of 1857 gave na [I'AHT TI. Rev. Lawrence jtion with the lop of London, )agation of the t be qualified land. At that long a people ilmost without described as tion abounded, 11 but a few tily in Uarbour inception Bay. ion and bitter althier classes, Governor, who justice of the he continued Hiree churches failing health he published untingdon, in 'I^owfoundland. le colony by Coughlan's ne Wesleyau isionaries, and 1 as the popu- is constituted u 1829 there rs. In 1840 isters and ten and 15,000 conducted in 'f 1857 gave cnAP. v.] PvELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS. 471 the number of Wcsleyans in the island as 20,229 ; ministers seventeen, and churches thirty-seven. The census of 1874 states the number of Wesleyans as 35,702, and the number of churches as forty-two. At present Newfound- land is constituted a separate Conference, with a president, and is divided into three districts — St. John's, Carbonear, and Bonavista. The total number of ministers is forty- nine, and of churches forty-four. Congregationalism in Newfoundland dates from the year 1775, when a church was formed under the Rev. John Jones. He had been originally a soldier in the artillery stationed in St. John's, and having been led to engage in religious work, his ministrations proved so acceptable that on his discharge from his regiment he was Oi'dained in Enijland to be minister of the church in St. John's, which had been planted under his auspices. Ilis labours extendec^ over twenty- one years. He died in 1800. The single church thus organised has maintained itself ever since, and has always sustained a high character for useful- ness and zealous Christian work. Its ministers and members have liberally aided other denominations, and shared in efforts to advance the best interests of the community. There are now, in addition to the church in St. John's, a congregational church at Twillingate, another at Rendell Harbour, Trinity Bay, and two mission stations in Fortune Bay. The census of 1874 gives the number of congrega- tionalists in the island as 4(31. Of late years they have taken an active part in education in proportion to their numbers, having in operation five elementary schools, with an average attendance of 207, and expending $884 per annum in the support of these schools. The first Presbyterian church was organised in 1842. Previously the Presbyterian residents of St. John's had worshipped with the members of other Christian churches, but they then formed themselves into a distinct body, and 1 '1 1 i , ■ ( 1 i i li 1 1 472 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAET TI. erected a cliurch, wliich was opened for public ■worsliip on December 3rd, 1843. Their first minister was the Hrr. Donald A. Fraser, a man of considerable gifts and attain- ments, whose labours were cut short by death in 1845. The congregation numbered about five hundred persons, some of the most intelligent, influential, and wealthy residents being members. The causes which had led to the disruption of the Established Church of Scotland at length produced a division among them ; and the portion sympathising with the Free Church of Scotland separated in 1848, and erected a second Presbyterian church, which was opened for worship in 1850. In 1855 a third Pi'esbyterian church was erected in Harbour Grace. In 187G both the Presbyterian churches in St. John's were destroyed by fire. The two congrega- tions being now under the same ecclesiastical jurisdiction, namely the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Canada, resolved on union, which was effected in 1877. On the 18th of June, 1878, the corner-stone of St. Andrew's church was laid. It is a handsome structure, and was completed at a cost of $40,000, and opened for worship on the 30th of November, 1879. In addition to the foregoing, there is a Presbyterian church and mission station at Little Bay Mine, also a mission church at Bay of Islands. The total number of Presbyterians, according to the census of 1874, is 1,1G8, i [PABT TI. iublic worship on er was the a i.\ i,nfts and attain- death in 1845, undred persons, vealthy residents to the disruption sngth produced a npathising with ^18, and erected 'ned for worship rch was erected terian churches two conofrecra- 3al jurisdiction, yterian Church 'ected in 1877. )f St. Aui^rew's iture, and was for worship on I Presbyterian Mine, also a ial number of h is 1,1 G8. CHAPTER VI. THE POST-OFFICE, CONSTABULARY, LIGHTHOUSES BANKS, ETC. ' The mail service-Cost of tlie postal department- The police force --iliirty-two lighthouses and beacons-The light dues-Bank statistics. Postal communication between St. John's, Britain, and America is maintained by the Allan Line of steamers which touch at St. John's fortnightly, on their outward and homeward voyages between Halifax and Liverpool. During three winter months these steamers omit calling at St. John's, and run direct between Liverpool and Halifax. A fortnightly steamer during those months runs between St. John's and Halifax, carrying passengers and mails. There is thus fortnightly mail communication throughout the year with Britain and America. Local postal communication between St. John's and the various towns, villages, and settlements is maintained by coastal steamers, waggons, boats, and messengers. During summer communication is maintained between St. John's and the principal northern ports by a fortnightly mail steamer, which connects, during part of the season, with the Labrador mail steamer at Battle Harbour. In winter there is an overland mail monthly. Another coastal steamer i ' ( 1 u ■, 474 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PAKT vr. runs fortnightly between St. John's and the southern and western ports during the year. A steamer plies on Conception Bay during nine months of tho year. In the post-office, St. John's, the staff consists of the postmaster-general, four clerks, an assistant-clerk, and mail agent for Labrador, two assorters, and two letter-carriers. There is also a superintendent of the money-order office. There are throughout the island twenty-six postmasters and ninety-two way officers. The annual cost of the postal department is $28,334. Tho constabulary consist at present of one general superintendent, one sub-inspector, four head-constables, twelve sergeants, ninety constables, and six cavalry, including a mounted sergeant. The force is organised, equipped, and disciplined in every respect similar to the Royal Irish Constabulary ; and, properly speaking, it is a military as well as a civil force, being thoroughly drilled in tho use of arms, etc. This force was first organised after the withdrawal of the military in 1871, by the late general-superintendent, Mr. Foley, selected by the Home Government, who died when the force was only in its infancy. The present general-superintendent, Mr. Carty, who was also selected by the Home Government, and succeeded Mr. Foley in 1873, has carried out the organisation so successfully that, at the present moment, the Newfoundland Constabulary is a splendid body of men, and considered far superior to any other force in any of Her Majesty's colonies, and second only in efficiency, zeal, and intelligence to the Royal Irish Constabulary, The constables are drilled and instructed in their various police duties at Fort Townsend, which is the headquarters ; and the best and most efficient men are always selected for the out-harbour stations, which number at present thirty- four. cHAP.Ti.] THE POST-OFFICE, CONSTABULARY, ETC. 475 The force is increasing in numbers from year to year, and the greatest confidence is placed in their zeal and efficiency by the inhabitants of the colony in general, so much so that almost every settlement in the colony is loudly demanding their services. The permanent force at St. John's consists of fifty men; and on all public occasions a guard of honour is furnished from the force of cavalry and infantry. The annual cost of the magisterial and police department is $G4,702. The coast of Newfoundland is now well lighted, and every year witnesses an increase of lighthouses and other valuable means of securing the safety of its large seafaring population. At present there are thirty-two lighthouses and beacons, and four fog signals at the most dangerous points around the shores. During the last eight years the Government have erected no less than seventeen lighthouses and fog alarms, with other appliances for preserving the lives and property of the jieople, at a cost of $80,100. Tho erection of all these thirty-two lighthouses has been tho work of the last forty-seven years. In 1813 a lighthouse was placed at Fort Amherst, at the entrance of St. John's harbour. No further effort was made to light the coast till 1835, when tho local Legislature passed an Act for the erection of a lighthouse on Cape Spear, five miles south of St. John's, and for another at Harbour Grace. Cape Bona- vista lighthouse was built in 1843; Cape Pine in 1851; Cape Race in 1856; Baccalieu in 1859; Cape St. Mary's, 1860. In 1872 a powei-ful steam whistle was placed at Cape Race; in 1877 a powerful siren trumpet at Cape St. Francis; and at Cape Spear a compressed air trumpet. These are sounded day and night during the continuanco of thick weather or snow-storms. A 32-pounder gun is placed at Fort Amherst, and discharged every hour during daylight when the cape is enveloped in fog. , 1 ; i 1 1 J r'i ¥fr Si I 1 1 J ' ! • ■ 1^ i ) i ■ 1 i.ii! ^ i7G NEWFOUNDLAND. [past ti. To sustain tlio liglitliouse and alarm system light duos are collected to the extent of one sliilling per ton on all vessels entering any port or harbour of the colony, except coasting, sealing, or fishing vessels, but not to be levied more than once a year. Sealing and coasting vessels pay sixpence per ton on registered vessels of forty tons and upwards ; vessels under forty tons pay fifteen shillings per ton. No greater sum than 251. can be levied in any year on any steamer or vessel entering any port of the colony ; and no steamer plying between Europe and any port of North America and entering any port of the colony, as a port of call, is liable to pay any light dues or any port charges except pilotage. The amount of light dues collected in 1881 was $31,289. A sum of $40,000 per annum is required to sustain the system. There are three banks, all in St. John's — the Savings Bank, the Union Bank, and the Commercial Bank. They are all well-managed and successful institutions. The Savings Bank is a Government establishment, and it is enacted by statute that " the general revenue of the colony is liable for all monies deposited in the bank, and all interest payable thereon," This gives absolute security to depositors. Being thus a colonial institution, the Governor- in-council appoints the cashier and eight governors, five of whom are selected from the members of the House of Assembly, and three from the Legislative Council. Three directors are annually elected by these governors from among themselves, and by them the affairs of the bank are superintended. Depositors of not less than four dollars, or over two hundred and fifty dollars, for a period of not less than six months, receive interest at the rate of three per cent, per annum. Larger sums may be received as ordered and defined by the Governor-in-Council ; and the amount on which interest will be paid is regulated in the same way. T) [part VI. Dm light dues er ton on all 3olony, except to bo levied ig vessels pay arty tons and shillings per d in any year d£ the colony ; [ any port of e colony, as a i or any port I was $31,280. to sustain the — the Savings I Bank. They IS. ishment, and Dvenue of the hank, and all e security to ho Governor- rnors, five of ho House of uncil. Three vernors from the bank are )ur dollars, or d of not less of three per ed as ordered le amount on ame way. CHAP. VI.] THE POST-OFFICE, CONSTABULARY, ETC. 477 On the 31st December, 1870, the amount of deposits in the Savings Bank was $l,13t,505. The profits of the year amounted to $17,301. The reserve fund at the end of the year amounted to $101,010. By an Act of the Legislature, this is now constituted a sinking fund for the liquidation of the public debt of the colony, the annual profits of the Savings Bank being added to it from year to year. In the first instance, this fund will be applied to the payment of all debentures of the colony hold by the Savings Bank, amounting to $505,810, or nearly half of the entire public debt. This will be cleared off in about sixteen years. The Savings Bank has a branch in Hai'bour Grace. On the 31st December, 1880, the amount of deposits in tho Savings Bank was $1,210,787. On the 31st December, 1881, the deposits amounted to $1,201,102, being an increase of $71,374 on those of tho previous year. The profits of the year were $13,213. The profits of 1880 were $10,000. Tho Union Bank of Newfoundland is one of the most prosperous banking institutions now in existence. It was established in 1854. During the first eighteen years it paid an average dividend and bonus of eleven and a half percent, per annum. The reserve fund was then so large that the directors declai'ed a special bonus of fifty per cent., which was taken by the shareholders in paid-up shares. On this increased capital the dividends and bonuses have of late years been twenty per cent, per annum, or to original shareholders equivalent to twenty-seven per cent, on their investment. The original $200 share now sells for $800. Last session the bank obtained an amendment of its charter enabling it to increase its capital and note circulation. The Commercial Bank is also a very prosperous institu- tion. It was established in 1857. Its original $200 share now sells for $520. In dividends and bonuses its rate of interest now averages twelve per cent, per annum. Its 1; |) f ! i 1 .: i .- ( ■ 1 i ' 478 NEWFOUNDLAND. [PARI TI. capital is 50,000Z. Both banks have been conducted with great skill and prudence. Neither engages in any specula- tive business, all transactions being of the safe and solid order. The following newspapers are published in St. John's : The Royal Gazette — weekly. The Patriot — weekly. The Public Ledger — bi-weekly. The Times — bi-weekly. The Newfoundlander — bi-weekly. The Advocate — bi-weekly. The Evening Telegram — daily. The Evening Mercury — daily. In addition there are three papers published elsewhere : The Harbour Grace Standard — weekly. The Carbonear Herald — weekly. The Twillingate Sun — weekly. [PAM TI, conducted with in any specula- safe and solid in St. John's : INDEX ■iH led elsewhere: "Across Newfoundland with tho Governor "... . 335 Agricultural Development, Ob- Btacles to ... . ggi Agricultural Koaources . . 3G3 Sir John Ilarvey on tho . 397 Agricultural Keturns. . . 402 Amalgamated Assembly, Tho . 107 American Fisheries, The . . 274 American Fishing Privileges, under the Treaty of Paris . 95 American and European Short Lino Eailway Company . 129, 454 Amusements, Winter . . . 228 Animals, Indigenous . . . 230 Anser Canadensis . . . 250 Auriferous Quartz, Discovery of 421 Auroral Phenomena . . , 195 -^valon .... 31, 135 Baccalaos . Baccalicu . 5, 47S p.ioa Bacon, Lord, Letters Patent to, and others . . , Bait-fishes .... Balm Tree, Tho Baltimore, Lord — Letters Patent from James I. Claim of , , , , Bank Weather .... Banking Institutions . " Banks," The . Bannerman, Sir Alexander, Political Troubles under " Barrens," The. Basaltic Rocks of Labrador Bay do Bois (see Bay of Bulls). Bay of Islands . . . 1G3, 378 Beauclerk, Lord Vore, Eepresen- tationsof.totheBoard of Trade 48 Benevolent Institutions . . 89 Beriy -bearing Plants — Of Newfoundland . . 245 Of Labrador . . . 355 26 28» 37G 30 57 197 476 286 113 376 348 [iill ! I ■ i > if 1.' 1 . 1 i ; (it. . 1 ! 480" INDEX. 200 Bothuks, The . . . Ethnology of . . . 203 Efforts to Civiliso . . 210 Traces of i Vanished Nation 212 pGOuliaritios and Customs . 215 Personal Appearance . . 218 Bett's Cove Mine . . • 411 Bishopric, The First Colonial . 406 Bcoothic {see Bothuks). BoDothio 8001017, A . . 210 Bonavista .... ' 165 Blo-nii.don Ilills, The , 178 Bonnycastlo, Sir Richard — On tho Colonists , . . 108 On tho Climate . . .190 On tho Agricultural Ro. sources .... 398 Boulton, Chief Justice, Charges against ..... 105 Buohan, Lieutenant, Ezpodi- tion of . . . .90, 208 Bulls, Bay of . . . .159 French Attack on the Set' tlettient of . , . 78 Bnrgco Islands .... 162 Burin 161 Burying.places and Modes of Burial of tho Native Tribes . 213 Cabot, John — First Arrival off Newfound- land .... 5 Cabot, John — Probable Courao of his Voyage .... 8 Letters Patent from Ilenry VII 8 Gratuity from tho King . 9 Cabot, Sebastian — Second Voyage ... 8 Third Voyage ... 9 Ilis Death .... 11 His Only Monument . . 12 Cabots, The— Letters Patent from Ilenry VII 3 Departure from Bristol . 4- Calvert, Sir George (see Balti- more, Lord). Campbell, Vice-Admiral John . 70 Canoe, Bethuk . , . .217 A Native .... 174 Caplin, The . . . .288 Carbonier . ... 50, 166 Caribou (see Reindeer). Cartier, Jacques ... 14 Catalina 166 Cephalopods, tho Giant . . 238 Christian Brothers, The . . 463 Church of England, The, Pro- gress of 467 Climate of tho Interior . . 173 Coal, Workable Seams of . . 423 Coal and Mineral Indications in tho Codroy Valley . . . 869 INDEX. Courao of his 8 Coalfield, A Promising , Cochrane, Sir Thomas, Energy of PAOB 377 102 ent from Ilonry 8 Cod, The- Its Ilaunts .... 280 )m tho King . 9 Its Food .... 283 1 — General Ilabits . , 284 ago . . . 8 Mode of Curing . 289 ?o . . .9 Various Uses . , 291 . 11 Mode of Capture 291 onumont . . 12 Cod Fishery, The- - First Established 13 nt from Henry First Admiralty Jurisdiction 3 over .... . 27 •om Bristol , 4 I. (vornment Legislation 35, 43 orgo (see Balti- French Claims . 51 Condition in 1763 61 idmiral John . 70 Growth of . . . 65, 71 . 217 Statistics of, in 1799 . 82 . 174 Progress of 95 . 288 Government Bounty . 123 50, 16G Breeding Grounds of tho deer). Cod .... 135 . 14 Exports of Cod-fish . 259 . 165 History of . 261 Giant . . 238 General Statistics . 265, 271 3, Tho . , 463 Present Condition and Pro- nd, The, Pro- spects .... 268 . 467 Value of the Fishery . 271 terior . . 173 Value and Statistics of the ams of . . 423 French Fisheries . 272 [ndications in Value of the American 3y . . . 369 Fisheries 275 481 PAOB Cod Fishery, The— Comparison with Norway and other Fisheries. Labrador Fishery . Cod-liver Oil . Colinet Colonial and Continental Church Society, Tho . . . Colonisation, First Attempt at, by the English Colonisation, French efforts at 25, 38 Colville, Lord, Blockade of tho French Fleet by . . Commercial Disasters Conception Bay, Congregationaliam in Newfound. land Constitution, Amendment of tl'e Convention between the English and French Governments Cook, Captain James — Naval Survey by Eclipse of tho Sun observed by Copper, First Discovery of Copper and Nickel Ores ex. ported. Quantities and Values of Copper Mines . . . 165,409 Copper-mining Industry, The Future of the ... 42O 2 I 276 351 291 160 462 16 58 95 166 471 107 111 60 162 410 427 III I ■■-■ I !i I 482 INDEX. FAOB Oormaok, Mr. — Journey Across the Island 169 Meeting with a Labrador Indian .... 178 Cortoreal, Gasper, Discoveries of 13 Courts of Law .... 446 CuBtom.Honse, Establishment of a 61 Castoms Taiiff .... 438 Cuttle-fish- Mr. Harvey's Discovery of a New Species of . 238 Capture of a . 240 Dailing, Governor, Despatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies to . . . 112 Darrell's, Governor, Proclama- tion against the Irish . . 63 Deer-fences .... 9Ai Docks, Proposed Construction of 131 Dogs ...... 231 Drake, Sir Francis ... 24 Duckworth, Sir John Thomas, Activity and Intelligence of 89 Dunraven, Lord, on Sport in Newfoundland . . . 254 ' 1 ' |i J:l- 4. Education Bill, An . Education Grants • Educational Statistics 106 457 461 FlOB 444. Electoral Districts . . Exploits Eiver .... 140 Captain Kennedy's Desorip- tion of the Grand Falls . 141 The Valley of the . . 388 Exports, Statistics of. . . 434 Falkland, Viscount ... 32 Feild, Bishop . . . .467 Ferryland . ... 31, 159 Fertility of the Codroy Lands . 368 Ferulam (see Ferryland). Financial Position . • .435 Fire-stones .... 215 Fish, Price of, in 1814-16 . 94, 95 Fishery Eights, Disputed . . 833 Fishes, The Commercial . . 237 Fishing Admirals . . 42, 44 Fishing Grounds, Area of the ..... 284 Pishing Privileges, Policy of conceding, to Foreigners . 264 Fishing Season . • . . 288 Flowering Plants and Ferns . 245 Flowers, Wild . . . .246 Fogo Island, Grievance of the Inhabitants of ... 87 Fogs 189 Food, Price of, fixed by Procla- mation 75 Forest Lands .... 401' Fortune Bay . • . 161 fi! A; INDEX. ots . . 444 • . 140 unedy'sDesorip. le Grand Palls . 141 of the . • 388 OS of. . 434 nt . . . 82 • • . 467 • • 31, 159 odroy Lands . 368 ryland). > . . . 435 • . 215 1814-16 . 94,95 isputed . . 333 ercial . . 237 • « 42,44 h Area of • • ■ 284 3, Policy ol reigners 264 • , 288 nd Ferns 245 * ■ • 246 'ance of the • 87 • • • 18» 1 by Procla- • • • 76 • • • 404 • « 161 Franciscans, Royal Lioenco to establish a Convent of French Ambition French, Expulsion of the French Fisheries, The French Fishing Privileges French Shore, The . PAOB 468 38 59 272 329 162, 331 483 paoe Gambler, Admiral, Efforts to Ameliorate the Condition of the People by . . , Game • • • • . Gander River Garden Vegetables . Geographical Position of New- foundland • • • • Geological Survey — The Earliest, by Mr. J. B. Jukes .... By Mr. Murray . . George III., Act of . Gilbert, Sir Humphrey — Letters Patent from Queen Elizabeth Annexation of tho Island by Return and Loss of his Ex- pedition .... Glover, Sir John Hawley . Gold Government, Civil, Cost of Governor, The First . , 85 171 392 247 134 178 179 71 17 18 . 20 123, 124 . 421 . 71 . 48 Gower, Sir Erasmus, Important Improvements under , , 86 Graving Dock at St. John's, Subsidy for .... 150 Grazing Country, A Vast . . 173 Great Auk, The. . . 29, 235 Great Codroy River, The Valley of the 36G Guy, John, The Establish- ment of a Colony Advocated by 26 Gypsum . . . . .423 HakluytMSS 14 Hamilton, Sir Charles . . 93 Harbour Grace .... 166 Hardy, Captain Campbell, on Newfoundland . . . 265 Hares, Arctic and American . 248 Harvey, Sir John, Efforts of, to promote the Settlement of the Country 106 On tho Prospects of Emi- gratio:: .... 897 Herring, Tho — As Bait for Cod . . . 324 Spawning-time , . . 824 Herring Fishery, The . . 826 Statistics .... 827 Its Importance . . . 328 Hill, Sir Stephen John . . 120 2 I 2 484 US'DEX. I i I n ji t' * .- rAQB PAQB HoUoway, Admiral — Labrador. . . .66, 89 ,339 P^^ess Censorship under 89 Its Discovery by Cabot 342 Be-annexation of Labrador . 89 A Voyage from St. John's . 345 Hospital Tax, A Voluntary 90 Tho Isles of Demons . Si7 House-building, DifiBculties in OhiUeauBay 348 the way of ... . 80 Its Fisheries 851 Honse of Commons, Select Com. Population . . . 353 ,359 mittee of the .... 98 Vegetable and Animal Life 355 Howley, Mr., on the Coal Seams 186 Bivers 865 Humber District, The . . 379 Exports . ; • . 857 Hunting Grounds, Favourite . 252 Labrador Fisheries, Value of the, Hunting the Caribou . .* 257 to Newfoundland . . 889 Labradorite .... 856 Lagopus alius . .' . 249 Imports ...... 434 Land Grants, The First . 91 Indian Camp, An 174 Land Licences .... 425 Innuits 352 Language, Vocabulary of Mary Irish Immigration . . 67, 83 March's 218 Law Society of Newfoundland, Jameson Lake .... 173 The . . . . 447 Jameson's Mountains . . 176 Lead 422 Judicature — Leake's, Captain, Expedition Establishment of a Supreme against the French 50 Court of. . .49,72,4-16 Legislature, Payments to the . 445 Act of 1824. . . 73 , 101 Le Marchant, Sir Gaspard 111 Jukes, J. B., Exploration by 178 Leonberg Dog, The . . • . 232 Light Dues .... 476 Lighthouses . ' . 476 Keats, Sir Eichard, Commercial Lobsters 828 Progress under ► 93 Logan, Sir William, on tho Eirke, Sir David . . 32 Mineral Wealth of the Island 181 Grant from Charles I. 33 Long Harbour, Disturbances at 161 mmm \i INDEX. FA OB • 60 s to the . 445 spard 111 • • 232 * • • 476 ■ 475 > • • 828 , on tho the Island 181 'bances at 161 Louieberg, Expedition against . 57 . 328 . 423 449, 473 163, 101 . 209 . 213 Mackerel . Magnetic Iron Ore . Mails, The Marble Beds March, Mary Burial-place of . McGregor, Mr., on Newfoand- land as a Nursery for Seamen 264 Milbanke, Governor, and the Roman Catholics . . .64 Minerals, Bight of Search fo"^ 426 Mineral Wealth . 119, 162, 181, 418 Mineralogical Characteristics of the Interior .... 176 Mining Prospects . , 184, 419 Missionary Labours , . . 466 Mollusoa, Herr T. A. Verkruzen'a Collection of, in the Geological Museum of St. John's . Montague, Rear-Admiral, Cap. ture of the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon by Moose-calling .... Mountain Ranges Mullock, Right Rev. Dr., on the Climate . . . ' , Murray, Alexander — Geographical Survey of Newfoundland by . . 179 243 70 255 137 197 485 PA OB Murray, Alexander— On the Mining Regions of Newfoundland 418, 421, 423 •.uiu. >u xuuiau, »^tipiure 01 a H Native Races, The . 202 Early Historical Notices . 204 Government Protection of . 208 Newfoundland Dog, The . 231 Newfoundlanders, The, of the Present Day .... 222 Newspaper, The First 88 Ne wspapers . ' . 478 Notre Dame, Bay of . . 105 384 Nova Scotia, Bishop of 75 O'Donnell, Bishop, Pension to . 84 Ornithology .... 233 Osborne, Captain Henry — Appointment as Governor . 48 Administrative Ability 64 Oyer and Terminer, Appoint- meat of Commissioners of 57 Palliser, Sir Hugh ... 65 Order of . . . .68 Palliser's Act . , . .66 Palmerstou, Lord, on the French Privileges , . . .333 Paris, Treaty of • • 59 95 486 INDEX. PAOB fi -m \> fi I pi.aE Pasqualio, Lorenzo, Letter of. Prince Regent, Memorial from concerning Cabot . • 10 the Merchants of St. John's Physical Foaturea . lU to the . . , , . 86 Pickmore, Adraii-al . • 98 Ptarmigan 249 Pinus atrohus . • 406 Public Debt . . . 435 Placentia — Besieged . • 89 Quebec Group, The . 414 Bay of . . . • 161 Planters .... • 226 Race, Cape . • . . 159 Planters of Newfoundland, Com- Railway Construction 450 pany of • . . • 261 Railway Enterprise, Projected . 121 Police Force, The • 474 Government Subsidy to 123 Political and Religions Dissen. Railway Loan, A . . . 125 sions • • t • 105 ,113 Rainfall 192 Population — Raleigh, Sir Walter . 19 In the Seventeenth Cen- Letters Patent from Queen tury • 33 Elizabeth 23 Limitation of Resident • 38 Reciprocity Treaty, The . 337 Depopulation proposed - 47 Reeves, Chief Justice — In 1763 . • 60 On th« Condition of the Social Condition . • 61 Country under the Fish- In 1785 . • 75 ing Admirals . , 45 Distress of . . 79 115 On the Civil Government of In 1804 . • 87 the Island . . 56 In 1816 . • 103 Appointment of . 72 Statistics of 267, 428 Reindeer .... 172,250 Distribution of . • 432 Description of, by Captain Postal Arrangements, The First 88 Kennedy. . , 252 Postal Department, Tho . • 474 Relic, A Solitary 200 Presbyterian Churches • 471 Religious Freedom . . . 83 Prescott, Captain • 106 Religious Intoloranco . 64, 67 Prima Vista {see Bonavista). Religious Statistics . . 430, 484 ri. vmi INDEX. t . 169 tion . , 460 86, Projected . 121 Subsidy to 123 • • ■ 125 • • • 192 3r . 19 t from Qaeen * • * 23 ', The . 337 ice — ition of the lor the Pish. a . 45 overnment of • • • 56 f . . . 72 . 172, 250 by Captain • • • 262 • • • 200 • • • 88 . 64, 67 . 430, 464 PA OB Bepresentative Government 102, 443 Besident Govornor, The First . 98 Eesponaible Government . . m Revenue . . 116, 120, 128, 434 Charges on, for 1882 . . 437 487 *kan Rivers Soads, The First Book Systems . Laurentian . Huronian « Silurian . Carboniferous Roman Catholics, Severity to. wards ... Cathedrals and ChuroLas , Royal Gazette, The . Royal Newfoundland Regiment, Mutiny in the . . . 139 102, 448 . 181 . 182 . 183 . 184 . 185 63 469 88 84 Rut, John, Letter of Ryawiok, Treaty of 14, 261 . 40 St. George's Bay . . 163, 372 A Settler's Exporienco of . 375 St. John's— Besieged . . .40, 50, 58 Population of . . 85, 157 Improvements undor Sir Erasmus Gowor . . 86 Destruction by Fire . 97, 109 Visit of H.R,H. the Prince of Wales . , . .113 The Harbour . . 147,159 St. John's— The City . . . . 148 Dock Construction . 150 Source of Water Supply . 152 The Cathedrals , . 152 Government House . . 154 The Athenaeum . . 155 Banks . , 156 Geographical Position 157 St. Mary's Bay . 159 St. Shotts . , . . . 159 Salmon, The— The Exports 317 Its Growth . . , . 320 Salmon Fisheries . 160 Salmon Fishery, The— Reckless Conduct of . 318 Future of . . , 321 Salmonior 160 Savings Bank, The . 476 Scenery of Grand Lake . 385 Seal, The— "White-coats" and "Ragged Jackets". 310 Varieties of the Seal . 233 ,312 Migratory Habits 313 Tabular Statement of the Number taken . , 316 Seal Fishery, The — Modes of Capture . 295, 29G Growth of the Fishery and Statistics , . , 297 i 'i li ■^^ p w 1 s ) I i ' 1 1 ! i • s 488 INDEX. FAOB Seal Fishery, The— The Hunting SeQiSon . 298 Equipment of a Sealing Steamer .... 304 Experiences of a Voyage . 306 "Sculping" 307 Seal Oil and Refuse . 308 Prospects of the Fishery . 314 Sea Trout 322 Sears, Right Rev. Monsignor, On the C.odroy Valleys , 369 Serpentine Rocks, Area of the . 417 Shanandithfet .... 209 Shield, The, of Society 225 Shipping 442 Shooting Season, The 249 Silver Thaw, The 194 Slate .%%••• . 423 Slime, A living 282 Society f orthe Propagation of the Go^elinForeignParts,The, 465,470 Star Chamber, The Policy of the 36, 42 Steam Communication 449 Stewart, Professor, on the Mineral Deposits . 419 Stone Implements 217 Strang, Richard 24 Sport 248 Squatters .... 52 Supreme Court, The . 446 Swile Huntin' . . 804 Tax on Roman Catholics . . 63 435 Taxation . ... Taxes on Spirits ... 91 Telegraphic Communication with the Old World. . , .113 Temperature .... 190 Thomson, Sir Peter, MSS, . 3 Tilt Cove Mine . . . .410 Timber 368, 376, 381, 389, 395, 404 Timber Lands, Area of the . 406 Trade Statistics . 103, 429, 434 Union with Canada, Proposed . United States, Treaties between Great Britain and the, in Re- gard to the Fisheries United States, Influence of War of Independence of the, upon the Interests of Newfoundland Utrecht, Treaty of . . . 117 336 68 51 Vapour Bath, A Primitive . 211 Vegetable Productions . . 398 Venerie 258 Versailles, Treaty of, French Privileges under the . . 73 Verulam (see Ferryland). Vespucci, Amerigo ... 2 Vicar Apostolic, The First . 70, 468 Waldegrave, Admiral, Humane Rule of 78 Wallace, Admiral, Defensive Measures of . . . .77 INDEX. 489 MM . 486 8 ... 91 umunication with 3. . . . 113 . 190 'etor, MSS. . 3 •■ . . . 410 176, 381, 389, 395, 404 Area of the . 406 .- 103, 429, 434 lada, Proposed . 117 ["reaties between and the, in Ee- isheries . . 336 [nfluence of War ace of the, upon f Newfoundland 68 of . . .51 Primitive . 211 tctions . . 398 . 258 ity of, French er the . . 73 rryland). go • . . 2 The First . 70, 468 miral, Humane ral, Defensive 78 77 PAOB "Washington, Treaty of . 123, 338 ■Wealeyan Methodism, The Pro- gress of Western Newfoundland, Climate of Whitbourne, Captain Eichard , "A Discourse and Dis- covery of Newfoundland " On the Produce of the Island .... Whiteway, Sir W. V Motion by, in the Lcgisla- ture, for Construction of a Eailway . . . 124 4G9 381 ' 27 i i 28 • 195 Whiteway, Sir W. V.— Virtual Settlement of the "French Shore Question" PAQB by Wigwam, A Bothuk . An Indian . William III., Statute of Order in Council of William Henry, Prince (after, wards King William IV.), Visit of Women, Exclusion of, from Newfoundland Working Classes, The 129, 332 . 211 174 13 56 71 43 226 iH^ CHABLKS DICKBHB AlfD BVAMS, CBTSIAL PALACB PBE8S. '-* * 1 N 1 1 ' 1 1 , 'i ! i^'Hii- f ii 1' \^ i wmmm \ "As a erulde to contemporary Joumaliam, Mr. Hatton's Information Is certainly more extensive, and, we venture to say, more accurate than any Jtlndred publication which has hitherto appeared."— Dai7y News. ii. In One Vol., Crown 8vo, Cloih extra, 12s. 6t?. JOURNALISTIC LONDON: By JOSEPH HATTON. " It would, perhaps, be idle — it would certainly bo late in the day — to complain that this scheme nocossarijy constitutes a rather extensive rent in that thick 'blanket of the dark' behind which the gentlemen, and we ought to add the ladies, of the Press of this country arc supposed to perform their duties. If Mr. John Morley's belief that the tinio is fast coming when there shall be no such thing as anonymous journalism bo well founded, Mr. Hatton may claim to haye merely helped in somo degree in bringing about tho inevitable ; while to the charge of being guilty of indiscretion, it is perhaps enough to answer that his chapters ])resont abundaut evidence of the fact that so far from resisting a little intrusion of this kind, ' Journalistic London ' has even lent somo amount of co- operation in tho work of betraying its own secrets." — Daily News. " Coming at the end of nearly a quarter of a century after tho beneficial change, Mr. Ilatton's book is as timely as it is attractive. Embellished with portraits of many of tho men best known in journalistic literature, this work will doubtless prove a very pleasant souvenir to tho friends of those who aro thus represented, the more so as a largo proportion of the likenesses aro exceptionally good. Much detail of tho history of the London Press is given, and tho names of many persons who had almost been forgotten aro advantageously recalled." — Daily Telegraph. " Despite tho generally anonymous nature of Press work, tho names of many illustrious writers are identified with particular journals, and much light is thrown upon the inner life of newspaper oiBces. Tho author adopts a picturesque stylo in tracing the vast journalistic progress of the past half-century." — Daily Chronicle. " Whatever Mr. Hatton's pen is engaged upon, tho genial and scholarly style of tho writer never fails to make it attractive. Simple newspaper paragraph, leading article, magazine essay, dramatic or artistic criticism, play or novel — and the author of this interesting volume has been successful in all these — never fail to make their mark when emanating from so bright a fancy as that which Mr. Hatton possesses. To affirm that the task of providing this scries of sketches of famous pens and papers of to-day was a congenial one is only to say that the writer has long been identified with tho Press as a journalist of the highest repute. Few men know so much of what may bo called the inner life of English journalism. . . . It reminds one of Dr. Johnson's ' Lot us take a walk down Fleet Street,' and in our author's company we find ourselves pleasantly strolling in and out of several news- paper offices, introduced to their respective editors, managers, proprietors, and chief contributors, and instructed on points of their not too familiar histories. The book is beautifully printed, neatly bound, and furnished with engravings from drawings by Mr. Ridley, and numerous original portraits of distinguished editors and writcra for the Press, taken from photographs." — The Weekly Times. " It is extremely interesting, and is sure of a wide circle of eager readers. All green-rooms have a fascination for tho outside public, but tho green-room of the Press most of all. Into this green-room Mr. Hatton introduces us, and shows us as much probably as it is good for us to know of the famous pens and papers who shako the world." — Truth. I.I f • t. .Ih j. : I •• 'I . 1 1; I 1 1 i.; f^^ r f ■ j t •I, t " "Very pleasant and readable, and should have a largo circulation."— World. " The history of tho newspaper Press is a subject of much interest both to British and Amoricau roadors, and Mr. Uivltoii's pleasant gossiping chapters will be welcomed by all who wish to inorenso their knowledge of the Fourth Estate." — Illustrated Lo7idon News. " Tact and taste wore peculiarly necessary in deciding what to say, and , particularly what not to say; aiul for his aooomplislimont of tho task he is to bo highly commended. The accuracy of his information, on many points concerning which information must have been difficult to find, is remarkable." — Sportincj and Dramatic News. " This is a reprint, with some additions and modifications, of certain articles originally published in ' Uarpcr's Magazine.' Thoy aro chiefly concerned witli tho history of tho greater London dailies, and with personal details of their most prominent contributors. Jlr. Ilntton is a fluent ^vritor, and it is likely that his book will interest many persons who spend an hour over their morning paper, but know little of tlio way it is published. . . . Groat pains soem to have been taken to give accurate information. Personal details, as might have been oxpooted, fill many pages. . . . The book is beautifully printed on ton'ed paper, and profusely illustrated with woodcuts in the best style of American periodicals. Tho portraits aro copied from photographs." — The Academy, " Mr. Hatton docs full justice to the merits of those who are living, and some pleasant chapters aro devoted to the rise and progress of periodicals of world-wide fame, such as Punch, Truth, The World, &c., full particulars being given of their characteristic peculiarities, their editors, contributors, &c."—Era. " Tho entire impersonality of our English newspaper is our peculiar institution, and there is a very rational curiosity to know something about the men who sink their individuality for such a wonderful result. Mr. Hatton's book ministers to this laudiblo desire, without, as far as we can Bee, hurting anyone's feelings, or betraying any secrets, except such as are justly described as open ones. Tho value of tho volume is much increased by the portraits." — Life, " Many persons desire to penetrate the veil of the anonymous which usually surrounds journalism, and to such inquiring minds there is afforded much both to interest and amuse in Mr. Hatton's book." — The Queen. " A really entertaining book, abounding in personal anecdotes and interesting information, and forming a valid, if somewhat fragmentary, addition to current literary and political history." — Nonconformist. " Tho ordinary reader could not easily have a more agreeable intro- duction to the great chiefs of tho London Press, and ho cannot fail to enjoy the brief interview with which he is favoured. Naturally tho book abounds in anecdotes, most of which we imagine are well authenticated." — Nottingham Guardian. " A journalist himself, he is still not so niucL u-\ iterary day labourer as to be wholly absorbed in the concerns of one journal, woi-king one set of ropes, and seeing only one set of faces. He works in the free atmosphere of his own study, and is brought into contact witli uU without being lashed to any. He has, besides, a broad general sympathy with all that concerns the craft, and commands the contidunce and friendship of its ornaments. The book shows that the author is deep in the secrets of tho profession, and has, besides, been specially entrusted with much new information about the various journals dealt with. All this is highly entertaining to the reading class of the lay public." — Sheffield Daily Telegraph. London ; SAMPSON LOW, MAESTON, SEAIILE, & EIVINGTON, 188, Fleet Strket. JO circulation." — inch intoroBt both oiisant gossiping loir knowlodgo of what to say, and of tho task ho is lation, on many fBcuIt to find, is itions, of certain rhoy aro chiefly md with personal is a fluent ^vriter, 10 spend an hour s published. . . . ato information, pages. . . . The • illustrated with ho portraits aro aro living, and ss of periodicals , full particulars ors, contributors, is our peculiar something about ■ful result. Mr. as far as we can copt such as aro much increased lonymous which tliere is afforded I'he Queen. anecdotes and it fragmentary, iformist. igreoable intro- not fail to enjoy rally the book authenticated." day labourer as •king one set of free atmosphere )ut being lashed 1 that concerns its ornaments, the profession, 3W information entertaining to ph. IIVINGTON, II, Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C. {Late 193, Piccadilly, IV.) November, 1882. CATALOGUE OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED, INCLUDING DRAWING EXAMPLES, DIAGRAMS, MODELS, INSTRUMENTS, ETC. ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT, SOUTH KENSINGTON, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ART AND SCIENCE CLASSES. (• M NEW NOVELS. New Novd by the Author of " Policy and Passion." NADINE, A Story of Modern Society, founded on Fact. 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N., 12S. 1 EDRICH THE Frederick the Great. 3, cloth, £1B. lions of Herr 3 vols., each 9S. CHAPMAN &^ HALL, LIMITED. 19 CARLYLES (THOMAS) WORKS— C, -,, The above are also to be had in cloth, is. F. 2 I I 30 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY n DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS. ORIGINAL EDITIONS. In Demy Svo. THE MYSTERY OF EDWIN DROOD. With Illustrations by S. L. Fildes, and a Portrait engraved by Baker. Cloth, 7s. fid. OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. With Forty Illustrations by Marcus Stone. Cloth, ;^ I is, THE PICKWICK PAPERS. With Forty-three Illustrations by Seymour and Phiz. Cloth, /^\ is. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz. Cloth, £1 IS. SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With Forty Illustrations by George Cruikshank. Cloth, £1 is. MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz. Cloth, £1 IS. DOMBEY AND SON. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz. cloth, £1 IS. DAVID COPPERFIELD. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz. Cloth, £i IS. BLEAK HOUSE. With Forty Illustrations by Phiz. Cloth, £1 IS. LITTLE DORRIT. \\*ith Forty Illustrations by Phiz. Cloth, £\ IS. THE OLD CURIOSITY SHOP. With Seventy-five Illus- trations by George Cattcrmole and H. K. Urowne. A New Edition. Uniform with the other volumes, £1 is. BARNABY RUDGE : a Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty. With Seventy-eight Illustrations by George Cattermole and H. K. Browne. Uniform with the other volumes, ^i is. CHRISTMAS BOOKS : Containing— The Christmas Carol ; The Cricket on the Hearth ; The Chimes ; The Battle of Lifu ; The Haunted House. With all the original Illustrations. Cloth, 12s. OLIVER TWIST and TALE OF TWO CITIES. In one volume. Cbth, £1 is. OLIVER TWIST. Separately. With Twenty-four Illustrations by George Ciuikshank. Cloth, i is. A TALE OF TWO CITIES. Separately. With Sixteen Illus- trations by Phiz. Cloth, 9s. •^* The remainder of Die! ens' s Works -vere not originally printed in DemySvo, tjia.»»4..<-j WORKS. With Illustrations 7s. 6d. itrations by Marcus -three Illustrations strations by Phiz, trations by George istrations by Phiz. Itrations by Phiz, strations by Phiz, by Phiz. Cloth, s by Phiz. Cloth, Seventy-five Illus- w Edition. Uniform with of 'Eighty. With C. Browne. Uniform with Christmas Carol ; ifu ; I'he Haunted House. CITIES. In one y-four Illustrations Vith Sixteen Illus- y printed in Dewy Svo, CHAPMAN &. HALL, LIMITED. 21 DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS- Continued. LIBRARY EDITION. In Post 8vo. With the Original Illustrations, 30 vols. , clc'h, £12. PICKWICK PAPERS NICHOLAS NICKLEBY 39 MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT 40 OLD CURIOSITY SHOP & REPRINTED PIECES 36 ...36 43 Illustrns., 3 vols. BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES BLEAK HOUSE LITTLE DORRIT DOMBEY AND SON DAVID COPPERFIELD OUR MUTUAL FRIEND SKETCHES BY " BOZ " OLIVER TWIST CHRISTMAS BOOKS A TALE OF TWO CITIES GREAT EXPECTATIONS PICTURES FROM ITALY & AMERICAN NOTES UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND EDWIN DROOD and MISCELLANIES CHRISTMAS STORIES from " Household Words," &c. 14 THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. By John Forster 40 40 3S 38 40 39 24 17 16 8 8 8 8 12 2 vols. 9 vols. s vols. a vols. 2 vols. 2 vols. 2 vols. 2 vols. 2 vols. I vol. I vol. I vol. I vol. 1 vol. I vol. I vol. I vol. 1 vol. 1 vol. d. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o With Illustrations. Uniforn? with this Edition. ' i vol. los. 6d. THE "CHARLES DICKENS" EDITION. In Crown 8vo. In 21 vols., doth, -with Illustrations, £j i6s. PICKWICK PAPERS 8 Illustrations MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT 8 DOMBEY AND SON 8 NICHOLAS NICKLEBY 8 DAVID COrPERFIELD 8 BLEAK HOUSE 8 LHTLE DORRIT 8 OUR MUTUAL FRIEND 8 BARNABY RUDGE 8 OLD CURIOSITY SHOP 8 A CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND 4 EDWIN DROOD and OTHER STORIES 8 CHRISTMAS STORIES, from " Household Words " ... 8 SKETCHES BY "BOZ" 8 AMERICAN NOTES and REPRINTED PIECES ... 8 CHRISTMAS BOOKS S OLIVER TWIST 8 GREAT EXPECTATIONS 8 TALE OF TWO CITIES 8 HARD TIMES and PICTURES FROM ITALY ... 8 UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER 4 THE LIFE OF CHARLES DICKENS. Numerous Illustrations, a vols. THE LETTERS OF CHARLES DICKENS.^ a vols. d. o o o o o o o o 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 o o o o o 22 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY \\ \\ \'- I I DICKENS'S (CHARLES) VJOKKS- ConHnuei. THE ILLUSTIMTED LIBRARY EDITION. Complete in JO Volumss. Demy 8vo, los. cack ; or set, £ij. This Edition is pf)r\tcd en a finer paper and in a larger type than has been employed in any previous edition. ^J'he type has been cast especially for it, and the page is of a size to admit of tl.e introduclion of all the original iL'ustrations. No such attractive issue has been made if the writings of Mr. Dickens, which, various as have been the forms of publication adapted to the demands of an ever widely-increasing i-opularity, Ir.ive never yet. been v.^orthily presented in a really handsome library form. The collection comprises all the minor writings it was Mr, Dickens's wish to preserve. SKETCHES BY " BOZ." With ,40 Illustrations by George; Cruikshank. Pi:CKVVICK PAPERS. 2 vols. "With 4a Illustrations bj- Phiz. OLIVER TWIST. With 24 Illustrations by Cruikshaak. NICHOLAS XICKLEBY, 2 vols. With 40 lUuslratiotis; by Phi;;, OLD CURIOSITY SHOP and RliPRINTED PIECES, a vols, With Illus- trations by Catterraole, &c. BARNABY RUDGE and HARD TIMES. ;2 vols. With Illu£;l:rations by Cattermole, Sc. MARTIN CIIL'ZZLEWIT, 2 vols. With 4 Illustration'; by Phiz. AMERICAN NOTES and PICTURES FROM 1TAItrations by Marcus Stone. CHRISTMAS BOOKS. With 17 Illustrations by Sir Edwin 1^-indseer, R.A., Maclise, R.A,, &c. &c. HISTORY OF EN(iLAND. With 8 Illusitrations by Marcus Stone. CHRISTMAS STORIES. (From "Household Words" and "All the Year Round.") With 14 Illustrations. EDWIN DROOD AND OTHER STORIES. With 12 Illustrations by S. L. Fildes. EDITION. type than has been :spe<;;ially for it, and al ilJ'ustratioDi;. Tr. Dickens, which, leiriands of an ever iseiited in a really ', Dickens's wish to Iruihshank. z. I'hiz., vols,. With Illus- b Illustrations by Phiz. I voi With 8 liiz. >s by Marcus Stone. Stone,. • Marcus Stone. n Landseer, R.A., iitone. id "All the Year strations by S. L. CHAPMAN &' HALL, LLMITED. h DICKENS'S (CHARLES) ViO^RKS-Continued. HOUSEHOLD EDITION. Complete in 22 Volumes, Crown 4/0, cloth, £4 8s. dd. MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT, with 59 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. DAVID COPPERFIIlLD, with 60 Illustrations and a Portrait, cloth, 53, BLEAK HOUSE, with 61 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. LITTLE DORRIT, with 58 Illustrations, cloth, 5s. PICKWICK PAPERS, with 56 Illustrations, cloth, 55, OUR MUTUAL FRIEND, with 58 Illustrations, doth, 55. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY, with 59 Illustrations, cloth, ss. DOMBEY AND SON, with 6i Illustrations, cloth, 55. EDVVIN DROOD ; REPRINTED PIECES ; and other Stories, with 30 Illustra- tions, cloth, 5s. THE LIFE OF DICKENS. By John Forster. With 40 Illustrations. Cloth, 53. BARNABY RUDGE, with 46 Illustrations, cloth, 4s. OLD CURIOSITY SHOP, with 32 Illustrations, cloth, 4s. CHRISTMAS STORIES, with 23 Illustrations, cloth, 4s. OLIVER TWIST, with 28 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. GREAT EXPECTATIONS, with 6 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. SKETCHES BY " BOZ," with 36 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVELLER, with 26 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. CHRISTMAS BOOKS, with 28 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND, with 15 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. AMERICAN NOTES and PICTURES FROM ITALY, with 18 Illustrations cloth, 3s. ' A TALE OF TWO CITIES, with 25 Illustrations, cloth, 3s. HARD TIMES, with 20 Illustrations, cloth, as. 6d. MR. DICKENS'S READINGS. Fcap. Svo, sewed. CHRISTMAS CAROL IN PROSE. IS. CRICKET ON THE HEARTH, is. CHIMES: A GOBLIN STORY, is. STORY OF LITTLE DOMBEY. is. POOR TRAVELLER, BOOTS AT THE HOLLY-TREE INN, and MRS. GAMP, IS. A CHRISTMAS CAROL, with tlie Original Coloured Plates, bejng a reprint of the Original Edition. Small 8vo, red cloth, gilt edges, 5*. ' I * ^ ^1 i ' BOOKS PUBLISHED BY DICKENS'S (CHARLES) WORKS— Co«//««rice £6; separate Vols. 4?. each. An Edition printed on good paper, containing Illustrations selected from the Household Edition, on Plate Paper. Each Volume has about 450 pages and 16 full-page Illustrations. SKETCHES BY "BOZ." PICKWICK. 2 vols. OLIVER TWIST. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY. 2 vols. MARTIN CHUZZLEWIT. 2 vols, DOMBEY AND SON. 2 vols, DAVID COPPERFIELD. 2 vols. CHRISTMAS BOOKS, OUR MUTUAL FRIEND. 2 vols. CHRISTMAS STORIES. BLEAK HOUSE. 2 vols. LITTLE DORRIT. 2 vols. OLD CURIOSITY SHOP ANi> REPRINTED PIECES. 2 vols. BARNABY RUDGE. 2 vols. UNCOMMERCIAL TRAVEL- LER. GREAT EXPECTATIONS. TALE OF TWO CITIES. CHILD'S HISTORY OF ENG- LAND. EDWIN DROOD AND MISCEL- LANIES. PICTURES FROM ITALY AND AMERICAN NOTES. THE The Cheapest and Handiest Edition of WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS. The Pocket-Volume Edition of Charles Dickens's Works. In 30 Vols, small f cap, Svo, £2 53. New and Cheap Issue of THE WORKS OF CHARLES DICKENS. In pocket volumes. PICKWICK PAPERS, with 8 Illustrations, cloth, as. NICHOLAS NICKLEBY, with 8 Illustrations, cloth, as. OLIVER TWIST, with 8 Illustrations, cloth, is. SKETCHES BY " BOZ," with 8 Illustrations, cloth, is. OLD CURIOSITY SHOP, with 8 Illustratioi*, cloth, as. BARNABY RUDGE, with 16 Illustrations, cloth, as. SIXPENNY REPRINTS. A CHRISTMAS CAROL and HAUNTED MAN. By Charles Dickens. Illustrated. (II.) READINGS FROM THE WORKS CHARLES DICKENS. THE [In November. OF As selected and read by himself and now published for the first time. Illustrated, [In November, m EDITION Vols. 4f. eack. ations selected from lias about 450 pages [TY SHOP ANi> PIECES. 2 vols. DGE. 2 vols. al travel- :tations. ^O CITIES. "ORY OF ENG- D AND MISCEL- OM ITALY AND OTES. Of DICKENS. s Works. DICKENS. IS. I 3S. D THE [In November, )RKS OF f the first time, [In November. CHAPMAN 6* HALL, LIMITED. 25 List of Books, Drawing Examples. Diagrams, IHIodels, Instruments, etc., INCLUDING THOSE ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT, SOUTH KENSINGTON, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ART AND SCIENCE CLASSES. CATALOGUE OF MODERN WORKS ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. 8vo, sewed, is. BENSON (W.)— PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. Small 4to, cloth, 15s. MANUAL OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. Coloured Frontispiece and Illustrations. i2mo, cloth, ss. fid. BRADLEY (THOMAS), of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich— ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. In Two Parts, with 60 Plates. Oblong folio, half-bound, each part i6s. Selections (from the above) of 20 Plates, for the use of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Oblong folio, half-bound, i6s, BURCHETT— LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. With Illustrations. Post 8vo, cloth, 7s. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. Post 8vo, cloth, 53. DEFINITIONS OF GEOMETRY. Third Edition. 24mo, sewed, sd. CARROLL {JOHN)— FREEHAND DRAWING LESSONS FOR THE BLACK BOARD. 6s. CUBLEV (W. H.)— A SYSTEM OF ELEMENTARY DRAWING. With Illustrations and Examples. Imperial 410, sewed, 8s. DA VISON (ELLIS A.)— DRAWING FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Post Bvo, cloth, 3s. MODEL DRAWING. i2mo, cloth, 3s. THE AMATEUR HOUSE CARPENTER : A Guide in Building, Making, and Repairing. With numerous Illustrations, drawn on Wood by the Author l3emy 8vo, los. 6d. a6 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY k I ^ \ 'W DELAMOTTE (P. H.)— PROGRESSIVE DRAWING-BOOK FOR BEGINNERS. i2mo, 3s. fid. DYCE— DRAWING-BOOK OF THE GOVERNMENT SCHOOL, OF DESIGN : ELEMENTARY OUTLINES OF ORNAMENT. 50 Plates. Small folio, sewed, 5s. ; mounted, i8s. INTRODUCTION TO DITTO. Fcap. 8vo, 6cl. POSTER (VERB)— DRAWING-BOOKS : (a) Forty-two Numbers, at id. each, (b) Forty-six Numbers, at d, each. The set b includes the subjects in a. DRAWING-CARDS : Freehand Drawing : First Grade, Sets I., IL, III., price is. each. Second Grade. Set L, price 2s. HENSLO W [PROFESSOR)— ILLUSTRATIONS TO BE EMPLOYED IN THE PRACTICAL LESSONS ON BOTANY. Prepared for South Kensington Museum. Post 8vo, sewed, 6d. JACOBSTHAL {E.)— GRAMMATIK DER ORNAMENTE, in 7 Parts of 20 Plates each. Price, unmounted, £3 13s. 6d. ; mounted on cardboard, ^11 4s, The Parts can be had separately. !/ElV/TT— HANDBOOK OF PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. i8mo, cloth, IS. 6d. KENNEDY (JOHN)— FIRST GRADE PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. i2mo,6d. FREEHAND DRAWING-BOOK. i6mo, is. LINDLF.Y (JOHN)— SYMMETRY OF VEGETATION : Principles to be Observed in the Delineation of Plants. lamo, sewed, is. MARSHALL— HUMAN BODY, Text and Plates reduced from the large Diagrams. 2 vols., cloth, £\ is. NEWTON (E. TULLEY, F.G.S.)— THE TYPICAL PARTS IN THE SKELETONS OF A CAT, DUCK, AND CODFISH, being a Catalogue with Comparative De- scriptions arranged in a Tabular Form. Demy 8vo, 3s. OLIVER (PROFESSOR)— ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 109 Plates. Oblong 8vo, cloth. Plain, i6s.; coloured, ,£1 6s. POYNTER (E. J.), R.A., issued under tin superintendence of— ELEMENTARY, FREEHAND, ORNAMENT : 13ook L Simple Geomet-ical Forms, fid. „ II. Conventionalised Floral Forms, &c., fid. ii i' m BEGINNERS. ENT SCHOOL AMENT. 50 Plates. !vo, 6cl. iubjects in a. each. :d in the or South Kensington 7 Parts of 20 cardboard, ^11 4s. TIVE. i8mo, Y. i2mo, 6d. :s. ciples to be rrom the large TONS OF A •■ Comparative De- KINGDOM. r— STT: CHAPMAN &. HALL, LIMITED. 27 POYNTER (E. 7.), R.A.-Continued. FREEHAND— FIRST GRADE: Book I. Simple Objects and Ornament, 6d. „ II. Various Objects, 6d. ,, III. Objects and Architectural Ornaments, 6d. „ IV. Architectural Ornament, 6d. „ V. Objects of Glass and Pottery, fid, I, VI. Common Objects, (A. FREEHAND— SECOND GRADE: Book I. Various Forms of Anthermion, &c., IS. ,, II. Greek, Roman, and Venetian, is. ,, III. Italian Renaissance, is. „ IV. Roman, Italian, Japanese, &c. is. THE SOUTH KENSINGTON DRAWING CARDS, Containing the same examples as the books : Elementary Freehand Cards. B'our packets, gd. each- First Grade Freehand Cards. Six packets, is. each. Second Grade Freehand Cards. Four packets, is. 6d. each. REDGRAVE— MANUAL AND CATECHISM ON COLOUR. Fifth Edition. 24mo, sewed, gd. ROD SON (GEORGE)— ELEMENTARY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Oblong folio, sewed, 8s. WALLIS (GEORGE)— DRAWING-BOOK. Oblong, sewed, 3s. 6d.; mounted, 8s. WORNUM (R. 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DIAGRAM OF THE COLOURS OF THE SPECTRUM, with Explanatory Letterpress, on roller, los. 6d. ■ a8 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY \ \ I ' COPIES FOR OUTLINE DRAWING: DYCE'S EI,EMENTARY OUTLINES OF ORNAMENT, 50 Selected PUtes, mounted back and front, i8s. ; unmounted, sewed, 5s, WEITHRICHT'S OU'ILINES OK ORNAMENT, reproduced by Herman, 12 Plates, mounted back and front, Ss, 6d. ; unmounted, 3s, MORGHENS OUTLINES OF THE HUMAN FIGURE, reproduced by Herman, 30 Plates, mounted back and front, 155. ; unmounted, 3s. 4d. OUTLINES OF TARSIA, from Gruner, Four Plates, mounted, 3s. 6d., un- mounted, 7d. ALHERTOLLIS FOLIAGE, Four Plates, mounted, 3s. 6d. ; unmounted, sd. OUTLINE OF TRAJAN FRIEZE, mounted, is. WALLIS'S DRAWING-BOOK, mounted, 8s., unmounted, 3s, fid. OUTLINE DRAWINGS OF FLOWERS, Eight Plates, mounted, 3s. 6d.; unmounted, 8d. COPIES FOR SHADED DRAWING: COURSE OF DESIGN. By Ch. Baroub (French), ao Selected Sheets, 11 at 3«. and 9 at 3s. each. £,1 9s. ARCHITECTURAL STUDIES. By J. B. 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Skeleton Cube in wood, 3s. fid. i8-inch .Skeleton Cube in wood, 12s. *Three objects of form in Pottery : Indian Jar, \ Celadon Jar, -t8s. fid. Bottle, ) , *Five selected Vases in Majolica Ware, /2 iis. *Three selected Vases in Earthenware, iSs. Imperial Deal Frames, glazed, without sunk rings, los. each. •Davidson's Smaller Solid Models, in Box, £1, containing Square Slabs. 9 Oblong Blocks (steps). 2 Cubes. Square Blocks. Octagon Prism. Cylinder. Cone. Jointed Cross. Triangular Prism. Pyramid, Equilateral. Pyramid, Isosceles. Square Block. Models, &C.' entered as sets, can only be supplied in sets. III 50 Selected PUtes, uced by Herman, roduced by Herman, lunted, 3S. 6d., un- imounted, sd. i. mounted, 3s. 6d. ; * :d Sheets, 11 at as, ,£1. ;d.; mounted, is. 3d. s in Her Majesty's :rial, £1 i6s. CHAPMAN &• //ALL, L/M/TED. 29 unted, gd. ch, or the set, £1 4s. : straight wire. One one. One Cylinder. SOLID MODELS, kc— Continued. * Davidson's Advanced Drawing Models, £g. — The foUowinR is a brief description of the Models : — An Obelisk — composed of a Oct.iKon.il .Slal)s, 26 and ao inches across, and each 3 inches high ; i Cube, 12 inches edge : i Monolith (forming the body of the obelisk) 3 feet high ; i Pyramid, 6 inches base ; the complete object is thus nearly 5 feet high, A Market Cross— composed of 3 Slabs, 24, 18, and 12 inches .icross, and each j inches high ; i Upright, 3 feet high ; 2 Cross Arms, united by mortise and tenon joints ; complete height, 3 feet 9 inches. A Step. Ladder, 23 inches high. .\ Kitchen Table, 14}^ inches high. A Chair to corre- spond. A Kour-legged .Stool, with projecting top and cross rails, height r4 inches. A Tub, with handles and projecting hoops, and the divisions between the staves plainly marked. A strong Treslle| 18 inches high. A Hollow Cylinder, 9 inches in diameter, and 12 inches long, divided lengthwise. A Hollow Sphere, 9 inches in diameter, divided into semi-spheres, one of which is again divided into iju.irters ; the semi-sphere, when placed on the cylinder, gives the form and principles of shading a dome, whilst one of the quarters placed on half the cylinder forms a niche. *Davidson's Apparatus for Teaching Practical Geometry (22 models), £$. ''Biftn's Models for Illustrating the Elementary Principles of Orthographic Projection as applied to Mechanical Drawing, in box, £1 los. Miller's Cbss Drawing Models.— These Models are particularly adapted for teaching large cl.isses ; the stand is very strong, and the universal joint will hold the Models in any position. IFooii Afoih'ls: Square Prism, 12 inches side, 18 inches high ; Hexagonal Prism, 14 inches side, 18 inches high ; Cube, 14 inches side : Cylinder, 13 inches diameter, id inches high ; Hexagon Pyramid, 14 inches diameter, i-i% inches side ; Square Pyramid, 14 inches side, 22j^ inches side ; Cone, 13 inches diameter, 22J4 inches side ; Skeleton Cube, 19 inches solid wood i}i inch square; Intersecting Circles, 19 inches solid wood 2j^ by ij^ inches. IVire Models : Triangular Prism. 17 inches side, 22 inches high ; Square Prism, I.J inches side, 20 inches high ; Hexagonal Prism, 16 inches diameter, 21 inches high; Cylinder, 14 inches diameter, 21 inches high ; Hexagon Pyramid, 18 inches diameter, 24 inches high ; Square Pyramid. 17 inches side, 24 inches high ; Cone, 17 inches side, 24 inches high ; Skeleton Cube, 19 inches side; Intersecting Circles 19 inches side ; Plain Circle, 19 inches side ; Plain Square, 19 inches side. Table, 27 inches by 21^ inches. Stand. The set complete, £n 13s. Vulcanite Set Square, 5s. Large Compasses, with chalk-holder, 5s. *Slip, two set squares and T" square, 5s. *Parkes's Case of Instruments, containing 6-inch compasses with pen and pencil leg, 5s. "Prize Instrument Case, with 6-inch compasses, pen and pencil leg, 2 small compasses, pen and scale, i8s. 6-inch Compasses, with shifting pen and point, 4s. 6d. angular Prism, ramid. Equilateral, ramid. Isosceles, jare Block. lets. LARGE DIAGRAMS. ASTRONOMICAL : TWELVE SHEETS. By John Drkw, Ph. Dr., F.R.S.A. Prepared for the Com- mittee of Council on Education. Sheets, £2 8s. ; on rollers and varnished, £^ 4s. BOTANICAL : NINE SHEETS. Illustrating a P1actic.1l Method of Teaching Botany. By Professor HuNSLow, F.L.S. £2; on rollers and varnished, £^ 3s. Dicotyledon ^ Monocotyledons J Angiospermous V. Gy mnospermous rPetaloid .. I Glumaceous SECTION. /"Thalamifloral . ) Calycifloral \ Corollilloral \ Incomplete DIAGRAM '.'. « & 3 4 S 6 7 , f Superior I Inferior 3 * Models, &c., entered as sets, can cn'y be supplied in iets. .V .%. ^,^. :^W IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ?^. /. t^^ / Ua 7r1 1.0 I.I *- IIIIIM |iO "'"= Itf IIIM 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 -a 6" — ► p> a ^^^ Pi o / f 71 /A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 #!5 iV s, 9) V ^^ i\ \ ;v ^%'^\ - ^..*' o^ s> \j V ^ \# V iP.r (/a 30 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CHAPMAN &' HALL, LIMITED. \ BUILDING CONSTRUCTION: By William J. Glenny, Professor of Drawing, King's College. IN TWO Sheets. DIAGRAM A Sheet, Bristow, F.R.S., F.G.S. TEN SHEETS. In sets, £,\ is. LAXTON'S EXAMPLES OF BUn.DING CONSTRUCTION DIVISIONS, containing 32 Imperial Plates, £,\. BUSBRIDGE'S DRAWINGS OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 2S. Qcl. Mounted, ss. fid. GEOLOGICAL : OF BRITISH STRATA. By H. W. 4s. ; on roller and varnished, 7s. 6d. MECHANICAL : DIAGRAMS OF THE MECHANICAL POWEPS, AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN MACHINERY AND THE ARTS GENERALLY. By Dr. John Anderson. 8 Diagrams, highly coloured on stout paper, 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches. Sheets £,\ per set ; iiiounted on rollers, ;^2. DIAGRAMS OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. By Professor Goodeve and Professor Shelley. Stout paper, 40 inches by 27 inches, highly coloured. Sets of 41 Diagrams (52^^ Sheets), £,(> 6s. ; varnished and mounted on rollers, ;^ 1 1 lis. MACHINE DETAILS. By Professor U.vwiN. 16 Coloured Diagrams. Sheets, £,■2 2s. ; mounted on rollers and varnished, ;C3 14s. SELECTED EXAMPLES OF MACHINES, OF IRON AND WOOD (French). By Stanislas Pettit. 6q Sheets, ^^3 5s. ; 13s. per dozen. BUSBRIDGKS DRAWINGS OF MACHINE CONSTRUCTION. 50 Sheets, I2S. 6d. Mounted, Cf 5S. PHYSIOLOGICAL : ELEVEN SHEETS. Illustrating Human Physiologj-, Life Size and Coloured from Naiure. Prepared under the direction of John Marshall, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., S:c. Each Sheet, 12s. fid. On canvas and rollers, varnished, {,x is. 1. THE SKELETON AND LIGAMENTS. 2. THE MUSCLES, JOINTS, AND ANIMAL MECHANICS. THE VISCERA IN POSITION.— THE STRUCTURE OF THE LUNC3. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. THE LYMPHATICS OR ABSORBENTS. THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION. THE BRAIN AND NERVES.-THE ORGANS OF THE VOICE. THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES. THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES. THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXTURES AND ORGANS. THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXTURES AND ORGANS. 3- 4- 5. 6. 7- 8. 9- 10. HUMAN BODY, LIFE SIZE. Bv John Marshall, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Each Sheet, I2S. fid. ; on canvas and rollers, varnished, £1 is. Explanatory Key, is. 5. THE SKELETON, Side View, fi. THE MUSCLES, Sid- View. 7. THE FEMALE SKELETON, Frgot View. 1. THE SKELETON, Front View. 2. THE MUSCLES, Front View. 3. THE SKELETON, Back View. 4. THE MUSCLES, Back View. ZOOLOGICAL : TEN SHEETS. Illustrating the Classification of Animals, £2 ; OTi cain-as and rollers, varnished, ^^3 los. The same, reduced in size on Royal paper, ing Sheets, uncoloured, 12s. By Robert Patterson. PHYSIOLOGY AND Two Diagrams. 7s, fid. ANATOMY OF THE HONEY BEE. ^1! i 1 L ^. iLL, LIMITED. rawing, King's College. RUCTION IN TWO AUCTION. II Sheets. STOW, F.R.S., F.G.S. PS, AND THEIR ^TD THE ARTS feet 6 inches by 2 on rollers, £,2. Professor Goodeve ;hes by 27 inches, i. ; varnished and id Diagrams. Sheets, ND WOOD (French). JCTION. 50 Sheets, zeand Coloured from F.R.S.,F.R.C.S.,&c. [S. [CS. OF THE LUNC 3. E VOICE. ES AND ORGANS. ES AND ORGANS. S., F.R.C.S. Each anatory Key, is. "ON, Side View. 2S, Sid". View. E SKELETON, OBERT Patterson. :d, I2S. ONEY BEE. MODERN ARTISTS. A SERIES OF ILLUSTRATED BIOGRAPHIES. Edited by F. G. DUMAS. T TNDER the above title a Series of Biographical Sketches, with Characteristic *^ Portraits, and of Critical Studies of the works of the Great Painters 01 the day, has been in preparation for so'-ie time. In the publication of the work the co-operation of the highest authorities on ."Vrt, and the most noted Etchers, has fortunately been obtained. The publication is divided into TWELVE BIOGRAPHIES, each containing 24 folio pages of Text (20 x 14 inches), profusely Illustrated with facsimile reproductions of original Dra-Mings by the Artists themselves, and vievvs of their studios and residences, printed on fine plate paper, numbered i to 1,200, and accompanied by 36 Lettered Proofs of the various Etchings stamped by the Printsellers' Association. The f'-r'^sf care has been exercised in the selection of the works for engraving, in order '-^ y - ♦'^c ci.b'"''ts more characteristic of tlie personality of each Artist. The fir..t - <.- •.' Thre-: Parts will consist of— SIR FREDERICK LEIGHTON, P.R.A. Portrait by ^ajon, after G. F. Watts, R.A. The Athlete Wrestling with a Python. A Group from The Arts of War, JOHN EVERETT MILLAIS, R.A. Portrait by Waltner, after the Artist. The North-West Passage. Forbidden Fruit. HUBERT HERKOMER, A.R.A. Portrait by himself. The Poacher's Fate. The Woodcutters. Artists' Proofs of the above, also stamped by the Printsellers' Association, may be had ; special attention has been paid to the selection of the proper materials for the printing of these Proofs. The Twelue Biographies (not sold separately), £12 12s. GRAND EDITION DE LUXE. There will also be printed Twenty-five Copies of this Edition, on paper from the Imperial Factories of Japan, and numbered in the press, from i to 25, containing Tliirt)'-si.\ Proofs before Letters of the Etcliings, stamped by the Printsellers' Association. Price for the Twelve Biographies, £63. AMATEUR'S EDITION. Fifty Copies of this Edition will be printed on the finest tinted Dutch paper of Van Golder, numbered in tiic press from i to 50, with the accompanying Etchings printed on Japan. Price for the Twelve Biographies, £31 10s. bMiat"il 3« BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CHAPMAN Sis' HALL, LIMITED. u THE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW. Edited by T. H. S. ESCOTT. \ \ 1 I 1 ' 'yHE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW is published on the ist of every month (the issue on the 15th being suspended), and a Volume is completed every Six Months. Tlie following are among the Contributors : — SIR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK. MATHEW ARNOLD. PROFESSOR BAIN. PROFESSOR BEESLY. DR. BRIDGES. HON. GEORGE C. BRODRICK SIR GEORGE CAMPBELL, M.P. J. CHAMBERLAIN, M.P. PROFESSOR SIDNEY COLVIN. MONTAGUE COOKSON, Q.C. L. H. COURTNEY, M.P. G. H. DARWIN. F. W. FARRAR. PROFESSOR FAWCETT, M.P. EDWARD A. FREEMAN. MRS. GARRET-ANDERSON. M. E. GRANT DUFF, M.P. THOMAS HARE. F. HARRISON. LORD HOUGHTON. PROFESSOR HUXLEY. PROFESSOR JEVONS. ^MILE DE LAVELEYE. T. E. CLIFFE LESLIE. RIGHT HON. R. LOWE, M.P. SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, M.P. LORD LYTTON. SIR H. S. MAINE. DR. MAUDSLEY. PROFESSOR MAX MULLER. PROFESSOR HENRY MORLEY. G. OSBORNE MORGAN, Q.C, M.P. WILLIAM MORRIS. F. W. NEWMAN. W. G. PALGRAVE. WALTER H. PATER. RT. HON. LYON PLAYFAIR, M.P. DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI. HERBERT SPENCER. HON. E. L. STANLEY. SIR J. FITZJAMES STEPHEN, Q.C. LESLIE STEPHEN. J. HUTCHISON STIRLING. A. C. SWINBURNE. DR. VON SYBEL. J. A. SYMONDS. W. T. THORNTON. HON. LIONEL A. TOLLEMACHE. ANTHONY TROLLOPE. PROFESSOR TYNDALL. THE EDITOR. &c. &c. &c. £', The Fortnightly Review is published at 25. 6d. CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED, xi, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN,. W.C. CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS,) [CRYSTAL FALACB rRBSS. II!' r! LL, LIMITED. lVIEW. led on the ist of I), and a Volume is N. INE. EY. MAX MULLER. HENRY MORLEY. VIORGAN, Q.C.M.P. RRIS. VN. WE. I'ATER. )N PLAYFAIR, M.P. LIEL ROSSETTI. ENCER. CANLEY. VIES STEPHEN, Q.C. HEN. N STIRLINa rRNE. EL. )S. TON. . A. TOLLEMACHE. lOLLOPE. rYNDALL. ^'. W. (>d. rXA STREET, iVSTAL PALACB FRBSS.