t> t^%. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // :/. ^ 1.0 t^ 1^ I.I I "^ n^ L25 IIIIII.4 111.6 <^ /A / ^^>l Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 872-4503 4^ i/.A / 12X lex 20X 24X 28X 32X ■^'sa^i^' tails du odifier une nage The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: Seminary of Quebec Library The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility o? the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. L'exemplaire filmi fut reproduit grdce d la g6n4rosit4 de: S^mlnaire de Quebec BIbliotheque Les images suivantes ont ixi reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nattetd de l'exemplaire film^. et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. 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Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mithode. irrata to pelure, n d D 32X 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 4 6 6 m. ^■'^ I K C^ 3>3 COMPENDIUM or ANCIENT AND HISTO iDitl) €ttte0tton ADAPTED TO THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND ALSO AN APPENDIX, THK DECLARATION OV INDEPENDENCE, THE CQNSTITDTION OV THE tTNICED •TAnS, A BIOOBAPHICAL SKSTCH OV EMINENT PEBSONAOBS, HWl A OHRONOLOOICAL^BV OF BEMABKABLE ETENTS, DISCanOn^MPBOYBMENTS, ETC., FBOM ^ ta^^BB^ION TO THE TEAB ISif. ...0^.^ ^e^_ ^#^ u^cC^ >:^^Y M. J. KERNEY FOURTH RRVieaO KOI ^(VW'WNiXWWWWWW» BALTIMORE: PIUNTED AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN MURPHY. NO. 178 MABKBT STBBBT. PITTSBURG: GEORGE QUIOLEY. ■OLD BT TRB norCIPAL BOOKULUtU THBOUOBOUT THB MUVtWD BTATBib 1861. according to the Act of Congresi, in (ut year 18M^ by M. J. KBR^BY, in the Cork's Office of the District Court of Msryland. W ts wo tyu e a by I» JohascB ft Co., PhUslilgWs PrinMb; J. Mmpl^ \\ PREFACE. Iir presenting this Compendium to the public, tlie author would beg leav* to make a few brief remarks. The great utility to be derived from a work of this nature, will be evident, on the least reflection. To the man whase time is limited, it will afford an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the moat important events, the manners, customs, and institutions of vanoua nations, without the labor of reading more extensive works. On the other hand, it will prove highly u&eful to those who have passed through a coanw of his- torical study ; serving as an expeditious means of refreshing the memory, by recalling events which time had partially obliterated. In some respects, the Compendium possesses an advantage over the mon copious history. In the latter, the memory is frequently overcharged with a multiplicity of drcum* stances, >,hich often obscure the most important fricts ; while, in the £>rmcr, the most important events are only presented, and easily retained. A number of works of this nature have ahready appeared, and many ot them highly approved. Yet, in point of arrangement, and in the general matter of contents, it would seem that some improvement might still be made. The division of history into periods, a i^stem which has been Allowed by many respectable historians, vould appear, upon the whole, rather to obscure than aid the memory. The author, therefore, has thought proper to pursue the history of the various nations and institutions, by preserving an unbroken series of events in regular succession, from their earliest authentic records to their decline, or to the present time. In treating his subjects, it has been the studied design of the author to avoid all sarcastic remarks, and all useless invectives, making, in general, no further use of original comments than merely necessary to give a dear view of the facts related. By thus curtailing observations, which frequently make up a material portion of works of this nature, he has been enabled to insert a much greater amount of historical matter than is usually met with in the same number of pages. In speaking of religion, the n>ost respectful hngoaga has been employed, and no expression has been used that could, in the re- motest degree, wound the feelings of the professors of any creed. In order to render this Compendium more valuable to the private reader, and at the same time more useful to the student of hutory, the author has thought proper to add an Appendix, containing the Declaration uf Indepen- dence and the Constitution of the United States, thus placing these docu- ments, so interesting in themselves, and so important in their nature, par- ticularly the Constitution, to every American citizen, vnthin the reach of every individuaL Few indeed, in the community, have over seen or read a copy of the Constitution, owing to the scarcity of hooks which ctrntain it. It would seem, moreover, a desirable object to render the youth of our country early acquainted with the principles of the Constitution. This, H is hoped, will be accomplished by placing it in a vrotk. designed for the use of schoob 4 PAEFACS. •nd academiei. Biographical notices ara at all times interesting and instnie- tive. But as ttie introduction of these notices in the body of the work would too much interrupt that close connection of events, so important in a Compendium of History, the author has added a riiort Biographical Sketch of Distinguished Personages. By this means, he has been enabled to notice the Bres and actions of many eminent characters, who could not otherwise have been convenientiy introduced. The Chronological Table, which fixes the date of all important events, discoveries, &c., will be found both interesting and useful, as it will often save hours of labor and anxious research. In a work which professes to be a compilation, and which, from its nature and design, must consist of materials chiefly selected from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which the author has made of the labora of his predecessors. He has, in general, omitted the names of the authors from whom he has made his selections, because he frequenUy thought proper to change their style, and alter their language, in order to suit the connection, and adapt them to the nature of the Compendium. The author is well aware that much improvement might be made in the pre sent edition, and regrets, exceedingly, that several errora will be found upon its pages, but generally of a typographical character. But those who are acquainted with the arduous tai^ of passing the first edition of a work of this nature through the press, will readily overlook its many imperfections. In orthograjrfiy, Webster has generally been followed as the standard. If the present Compendium will be found, in the remotest degree, to belle* fit any portion of the community, or tend to facilitate the acquisition of hi» torical knowledge, the most ardent desires^of the author will be realized. M. J. K ADVERTISEMENT TO SECOND REVISED EDITION It has been a subject of much regret to the author, that various errora, generally of a typographical naturo, have occurred in the first edition of this work. The present edition, therefore, has been carefully revised and corrected. Several improvements, which time and experience have suggested, have been made in this edition. In order to render it more convenient, both for teachers and pupils, the Questions have been arranged at the bottom of each page, and the size of the work has been somewhat reduced, by enlarging the page. These improvements, it is hoped, will add much to the merits of the Com- pendium, and render it still deserving of that very liberal patronage which has been already extended to it. Bafttmort, /u/y 14, 1847. 1,^1 #11. CONTENTS. Page 80VBCX8 AHD D1TI8IOV Ot HlSTOBT . * • • • 9 CbBATIOX of TBI WOBLD • 10 Dbkvsb IS TomtB ot Babxx. .18 ASSTBIA AKD BaBTIOB 14' PXBSII. 17 PbBSIAB AlTTiaVITIIS 18 PaiBBiciAirt ......*. ^. • 10 BoTrr— Sect I. 10 IL Manners and CuBtoms of the Egyptians .... 83 ni. Pyramids, Labyrinth, Lake of Maris ... 83 Obxbck— SectL . 86 n. The Fabulous and Heroic Ages ..... 86 m. Republic of Sparta .88 lY. Republic of Athens 80 v. From the invasion of Greece by the Perrians, to the Pelo- ponnesianWar 31 YL From the begging of fhe Peloponnesian War to the reign of Philip of Macedon 86 Vn. Philip of Macedon. The Exploits and Death of Alex:- ander 80 VHL From tho death of Alexander to the Subjugu^ -Ain of Gtfeece by the Romans 43 IX. Gredan Antiquities . 46 Philosophy 47' Seven Wise Men 47 PublicGames 47 Literature and Arts 48 PrivBta and Domestio Lift 49 Origin of Tragedy. . 60 Roxs— Se^ I. From the Foundation of the City, to tfafe'SkpnUmt of Taiqofai . ... . . . . .61 n. From the Abolitbn of the Rigil Power to thi^ filet Ponib War . . .66 fit Fxonr the first Punic War to the^ Coriquelt of atUoi . 63 .IV. The Sedition of tiie Gracchi ; CivU Wars ; OeHiffiMqr of Catiline . . 60 !• 6 6 CONTENTS. Paf« Sect V. From (he firat Triumvirate to the Dissolution of the Com- monwealth n VI. Rome under the Emperors . . ' . . , . 78 VII. From Nerva to Constantine the Great . . . .83 VIII. From the Accession of Constantine to the Extinction of the Western Empire 87 Roman Antiquities ....... 91 Jkwish Histort— Sect. I. The History of the Jews, until their Deliverance from Egypt 95 n. The Government of the Judges ; the Regal Government ; the Restoration of the Jews from Captivity . . .101 III. From the Restoration, to the Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans 105 Antiquities 109 Manners and Customs .110 Mttholoot or Ancient Nations Ill MoDsaK History 117 MlDDLS Aoss— Sixth Age 117 Seventh Age 118 Eighth Age 119 Ninth Age 181 Tenth Age 123 Eleventh Age 138 Twelfth Age 134 Thirteenth Age ISA Fourteenth Age 136 Monasteries 137 ^ARAGZir Empire 127 iFxvsAL Ststxx ....•• t ..- . 181 Crubasss 133 First Crusade 184 Second Crusade . . . . • • . . . 136 Third Crusade 137 Fourth and Fifth Crusade 138 Sixth Crusade ; .139 Seventh and Eighth Crusade 139 The effect of the Crusades . . . . . . . 140 *CaiTALRT . . . 143 Tournaments and Jousts ....... 144 The Origin of Duels 146 SFrakcx — Sect I. Foundation of the Monarchy ; MeroTing^ and Carlovin- gian Kings 147 n. Capetian Kings . . . . . . . . 160 In. Branch of Valots 163 IV. Fromthe Accession of Louis Xn. to the Reign oiHeniy in. 155 V. House of Bourbon; from Henry IV. to the Death of Louis XV. 160 VI. Louis XVI.; Revolution; Buonaparte; Louis XVIU.; Charles X. . . . . ^ . . . .164 t: CONTEITTS. / 7 EveiAirs— ^*t* SecL I. From the Conqaeat by the Komans, A. C. 55, to A. D. 827 174 n. The Foundation of the Monarchy 177 m. Norman Family ; William the Conqueror ; William II. ; Henry I.; Stephen of Blois 182 IV. Family of Plantagtnet ; Henry 11.; Richard I.; John; Henry III. ; Edward I. ; Edward II. ; Edward III. ; Richardn. 184 V. Branch of Lancaster; Henry IV. ; Henry V.; Henry VI. 193 VL Branch of York,- Edward IV.; Edward V. ; Richard HI. . 195 Vn. Tudor Family ; Henry VH. ; Henry VIII. ; Edward VI. ; Mary ; Elizabeth 198 Vm. Stuart Family; James I. ; Charles I.; the Commonwealth ; Cromwell ; Charles IL ; James II. ; William and Mary ; Anne 306 IX. Branch ofBrunawiek ; George I. ; George 11. ; George III. ; George IV. ; William IV 215 SCOTIASD— • Sect I. 218 n. Houtt of Stuart 219 Ibuaks— . Seet. I. 230 n. The Invasion of Ireland by Heniy U 235 m. Insurrection of 1798 243 The Society of United Irishmen 244 The Orange Association 244 The Legislative Union with Great Britain . . . 249 Spiiir 248 The Inquisition 250 POBTUSAK ........... 252 PoKAirs 253 Russia 256 Pbvssia 267 GsmxART 269 SwxDxir 262 DiirxABK 264 Nbthiblakss Airs Hollabb 265 Itaxt 266 TVBKXT 270 MODXBB Gbxbcb . . . . . • . • • . 273 AXXBIOA— « Sect. I. Discovery of the Country 279 Conquest of Mexico 284 The Manners and Customs of the Indians .... 286 n. Settlement of Virginia and New York .... 288 m. New England Settlements 293 Maryland 299 Pennsylvania 800 Delaware and New Jersey 801 The Carolina* • • 'SOI Gm>rgia 803 8 CONTENTS. Sect IV. The Ftench War; Conquest of Canada; Oppresriye **•«• Meararea towards the Colonies ; Commeneetnent of HostUitiea; Battle of Lexington; BtmkerHiH; De^ chiration of Independence . . . . . . 302 UviTSD Stati*— Sect. V; The War of the ReTolation continaed . . .311 VI. The Three Years* War 323 Tub CHBisTfiir Cbvbcb — Sect I. F^om the Bhrthof Christ to the Triumph of Christianity . 329 n. From the Triamph of Christianity tc the Reformatlim . 337 m. From the Refbrmation to the present time . . .344 APPENDIX. The Declaration of Independence, with: the Names of the Signers 347 The Constitution of the United States, with the Names of the Dele- gates to the Federal Convention 850 Biogrtphy of Distinguished Personages S61 Thelaventionofthe Art ofPriBtiBg ... . 869 Chfonological Table ..... • SSS ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. SOURCES AND DIVISION OF HISTORY. ^ History is a written narrative of past events, in regular succes sion. The principal sources of history, independent of authentic records, are those; which follow : 1. Oral tradition, which existed before the invention of the art of writing.^ From this source, Herodotus, one of the earliest pro- fane historians, derived the greater part of the facts which he relates. 2. Historical poems, such as the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, which comprised the only history of the heroic ages of Greece. 3. Visible monuments and ruins; such as the F'viamids of Egypt, the ruins of cities, as those of Balbec, Palmyra, and Persepolis, which serve to give an idea of the power, opulence, and taste of those by whom they were built. 4. Coins and medals have always been of great utility in illus- trating history, and of giving some insight into the manners and customs of those nations to which they belonged. 5. Inscriptions on marbles. The most celebrated collection of marbles are those in the University of Oxford, in England, called the Arundelian Marbles, from the Earl of Arundel, by whom they were brought from Greece. Of these inscriptions, the most important is the Chronicle of Paros, which contains the chro- nology of Athens from the time of Cecrops, A. C. 1582, to A.C.264. 6. History is divided into Ancient and Modem. Ancient His- tory embraces the history of the world from the creation to the Christian era. Modern History comprises all the time subse- quent to that period. There is, however, a difference of opinion with regard to the line which separates Ancient and Modern his- tory. Some historians adopt the Christian era for the commence- ment of Modern history $ others take the subversion of the Western Empire of the Romans, A. D. 476; while others again carry it down as far as the establishment of the New Empire of the West, under Charlemagne, A. D. 800. 7. Ancient History is distinguished by the four great Empires of Assyria or Babylon, Persia, Greece or Macedon, and Romet 1. What is history? What is the first sooree of history? the second? the third? the fourth ? the fiAh ? Where is the most celebrated of marbles? Which is the most important, and what does it contain?— 6. How is history divided? What is ancient history? What is modern history? What do some historians adopt as the division between Ancient and Modern history ?— 7. What is ancient history distinguished for t / 10 THE CREATION. which successively rose and declined. Modern History is dis- tinguished by the invention of gunpowder, and consequently a change in the mode of war^ the discovery of America; the in- vention of the art of printing j the revival of letters; the Reforma- tion, and many improvements in the social condition of man. The Midfdle Affes embrace a period of time extending from the subver- sion of the Western Empire of the Romans, to that of the Eastern Empire, and are characterized by the rise and progress of Mahometanism and the Saracen Empire, the prevalence of the Feudal system. Crusades, and Chivalry. 8. History is also divided into Sacred and Profane, Ecclesi- astical and Civil. Sacred History is that which is contained in the Scriptures. Profane History is the history of ancient pagan nations. The earliest profane historian is Herodotus, who is styled the Father of Histor]r. He compiled his works about 445 years A. C. and extends his accounts back as far as the year 713 before the christian era. Ecclesiastical History is the history of the Church of Christ, from the promulgation of Christianity to the pref-ent time. Civil History is the history of the various nations, states and empires that have appeared in the world, and exhibits a view of their wars, revolutions and changes. For a period of nearly three thousand three hundred years subsequent to the crea- tion of the world, there exist no documents, with the exception of the Scriptures, that really deserve the name of history. Our knowledge, therefore, of the early history of the world, the first settlements of the different parts of it, the primitive state of so- ciety, and the progress of mankind towards civilization, is ex- tremely limited. , THE CREATION. The Creation qf the Worlds Deluge; Tower qf Babel ; IHa- peraion of Mankinu. 1. From the sacred Scriptures alone, we are enabled to derive the authentic history of the creation of the world. According to the account handed down to us by those sacred annals, respecting that remarkable event, it appears that about five thousand eight hundred and forty-nine years from the present time, God called this visible universe into being, by the word of his power j that a determined length of time was occupied in the completion of the work, the various parts being produced in six successive days; that on the last of the six days, God formed the body of man from the dust of the earth, and breathed into it an immortal soul, and constituted him lord of the animal creation^ and finally, that God, For what is modern hens, according to the divine command. Immediately after this, the fountains of the deep were broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened; during forty days and forty nights, with- out intermission, the waters were pourea upon the surface of the globe. In the mean time, the ark rose with the rising flood, and 6. When was Cain born ? When wbs Abel born ? and what is related of the two brothers? — 7. W^hal is said of Enoch? and the descendants of Cain? — 8. What did the Deity determine to do? Who was exempted from the sentence? — 9. Describs *he ark ? When completed, what did Noah do ? How long did the waters continue U) f»U? TOWER OF BABEL. 13 rode triumphant over the raging water, which soon buried be- neath if ■ swelling waves all iiviiig creatures, without distinction. IC 4en the waters began to subside, the ark rested on the top oi riount Ararat, in Jirmenia, and after it had remained there iov four months, Noah being anxious to know whether they had disappeared from the earth, opened the window of the ark, and sent forth a crow, which did not return; after this he sent forth a dove, which, not finding a place on which to rest its feet, again returned to the ark. At the end of seven days, the dove was sent out a second time, and in the evening returned bearing in its beak a green olive branch, which Noah joyfull v received, not only as a proof that the Hood had abated, but liKewise as a sign that God was reconciled with the world. 11. By the command of God, Noah then went out of the ark with his family, taking with him all the living creatures, after they had been shut up for the space of a year, and immediately afterwards he built an altar, and oftered sacrifice to tlie Lorn. God blessed Noah and his sons, and made a covenant with him, engaging no more to destroy the earth with a flood, in confirma- tion of which, he set his bow in tlie heavens. Shortly after this period, iVb«/t engaged in pursuits of husbandry, and having been intoxicated with the juice of the grape, was discovered in this situation by his youngest son Ham, who with indecent levity, in- formed his brothers of the circumstance ; they, however, treated their father with the highest degree of filial respect. Noah, as soon as he awoke, being informed of all that had Eassed, condemned the action of Ham, pronounced a curse upon is posterity, declaring that they should be the slaves to the slaves of his brethren, while at the same time he highly commended the piety of Shem and Japhet. 12. The descendants of Noah soon became very numerous in the vicinity of Mount Ararat, where they first settled after the deluge, and finding the place loo small, they began to think of extending their territories, and of making new settlements in different parts of the globe. Before their separation, they pro- posed leaving some monument behind them that might make their memory famous in after ages. With this view they undertook to build a city, and in it to erect a tower, the top of which mi^ht reach to heaven. Their intention was not merely to signalize their name, but also to provide themselves with a place of security against any future deluge that might happen. At this time, all mankind spoke the same lanj^uage, and thereby more effectua)'y encouraged each other in their impious undertaking. God being offended at their presumption, resolved to stop the pro^rress of their labor. ^ By a stroke of his divine power, they all m a mo- ment lost their uniformity of accent, and were surprised to hear nothing but a confused and discordant sound of words which no one could understand. The tumult and disorder that ensued, 10. Where did the ark re»t? What is said of the crow nnd the dove ?— 11. What did Noah now do? What promise did God make? In what did Noah cnffogo? What happened to him? What sentence did he pronounee on Ham?— 12. Whatisiaidof the descendants of Noah ? What did they undertake ? What did God do ? What ensued ? Where did the descendants of the sons of Noah settle ? 14 ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. caused them to desist from their design, and the tower which they had be^n was, on that account, called the Tower of Babel, or Confusion. After this event, mankind separated and dispersed into differ- ent nations. The descendants of S/iem are said to have settled in the south of Asia; those oi' Ham in Syria, Arabia and Africa, while the posterity of Japhet peopled the w est of Asia, and also £urope. ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. ^ I. Assyria, the first of the four great empires of antiquity- de- rived its name from ^shur, the son of Shem, who is said to nave been the founder of Nineveh, its capital. The foundation ot Babylon is ascribed to Nimrod, the grandson of Ham^ who is believed by many to be the same as Lelus of profane history. These two cities are supposed to have been founded about the same time, shortly after the dispersion of mankind ; but their history for many ages is involved in obscurity. It is commonly supposed that Assyria and Babylon were originally two distinct kingdoms, and continued separate until Babylon was conquered by ISfinus and annexed to the Assyrian empire. 2. Ninus is represented as a great and powerful sovereign 5 he is said to hjive built, or at least to have enlarged and embellished the city of iWncrcA, which stood upon the eastern bank of the Tigris. His design was to immortalize his nan^c by the building of a city, which, in point of extent and magnificence, could not be surpassed by any other in after times. Nor was he much de- ceived in his view. The city of Nineveh was built in the form of an oblong square, measuring eighteen miles and three quarters in length, eleven and one quarter in breadth, and sixty miles in circumference. The walls were one hundred feet higli, and of . ^such thickness that three chMJfljta might stand abreast upon them ^v,4Vith ease. They were fortitiea and adorned with fifteen hundred towers, two hundred feet high. 3. Ninus having made extensive conquests, married Semira- wijs, who succeeded him in the throne. She is described not only as surpassing all her sex in wit and beauty, but also possessing unbounded ambition and extraordinary talents for government and war. She enlarged Babylon and rendered it the most mag- nificent city in the world. The description of Babylon, given by ancient historians, seems almost incredible. The walls are said to have been eighty-seven feet in thickness and three hundred and fifty in height. They were drawn round the citv in the form of an exact square, each side of which was fifteen miles in length, all built of brick cemented together with bitumen. On every side 1. What is said of Assyria ? Who founded Babylon ? What is supposed concern. ing Assyria and Babylon?— 2. What is said of Ninus? What was his design? De- •oribc Nineveh.— 3. what is said of Somiramis ? Describe Babylon. ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 15 of tliis great square, there were twenty-five gates which were all made ot solid brass. From these twenty-live gates, the same number of streets ran in parallel lines to the gates on the opposite side of the wall, thus forming hfty streets, each fifteen miles long, each street one hundred and fifty feet broad. Round these squares, on every side, stood the houses, all built three or four sto/ies high and beautified by all manner of ornaments towards the streets. The space within the middle of each square was void ground laid out in beautiful gardens. 4. Semiramis, after a reign of great splendor for forty-two ye-1.3, left the throne to her son Ninyas. - From the time of Nin- yas to the overthrow of the monarchy under Sardanapahts^ a period of several centuries, little or nothing is known respecting the history of Assyria and Babylon. The name of ISardanapahis is almost a proverbial reproach. He is said to have so degraded himself as to adopt the dress and occupation of a female, and to have passed his life in the most disgraceful effeminacy and voluptuousness. At length Arbaces^ governor of Media, with Belesis^ governor of the city of Babylon, and several others, disgusted with his inglorious and shameful life, formed a conspiracy against him. Sardanapalus having sus- tained a defeat, in order to avoid falling into the hands of,his enemies, caused a pile of wood to be made in his palace, and burnt himself with all his women and treasures. 5. On the ruins of this vast empire were founded three new kingdoms ; that of Media under Jirbaces^ and that of Babylon, under Belesis, and a third of Assyria, whose first king was named Nimts the younger. Ninus was succeeded by Tiglath-pileser, who invaded Juuah during the reign of Ahaz, and took possession of that part of the kingdom of Israel which lies east of the Jordan. Under the reign of his successor, Shalmaneser, an end was put to the kingdom of Israel, and its inhabitants were carried into captiv- i y. Tne next sovereign was Senacherib, who laid siege to Jeru- ealem in the reign of Hczekiah, but he was compelleato return to his own dominions in disgrace, having lost 185,000 men of his army^ who were destroyed m a miraculous manner in one night. The tourth king, Esarhaddon, defeated Mcinasseh,kmg of Juddh, and carried him captive into Assyria. 0. After the death of Esarhaddon, Nahopolassar ov Nebuchad- nezzar, king of Babylon, assisted by Cynccnres, king of Media, besieged Nineveh, and having taken it, killed Saracus the king, and utterly destroyed that mighty city, and put an end to the Assyrian monarchy. He was succeeded by his son Nebuchad- nezzar II., who took Jerusalem and carried the Jews captive to Babylon. The particulars of this sovereign's reign are recorded in the book of Daniel. God, to punish his pride, reduced him to a state of insanity, but after wandering in the forest and feeding \. IIow lonfT did Semirnmis rcipn? V/hnt is said of Sardnnnpnlus? ond what wns his end?— -^'3. Wliiit empires were now founded ? Whnt was done in the rcipn of Shal- maneser? Wlio was tlie next Rovcre;p:n, nnd what did he do? Whnt did Esarlinddon do? — O.Whnt happened durinpr the rl^'gn of Nabopolassar? What did Nebuchadnezzar do ? How did God punisli him ? 16 ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. t'-- on grass like a wild beast for twelve months, he again recovered his mind, and being restored to his throne, by a solemn edict, published throughout his dominions the astonishing things that Uod had wrought in him. - 7. During the reign of IJelshazsar, who succeeded to the throne a few years after the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the Persians under Cyrus, after a siege of two years, by turning the course of the Euphrates, entered the city of Babylon through the dry chan- nel, and took it while the inhabitants were engaged in feasting and riot. JBelshazzar was slain, and with him ended the Baby- lonian empire, after it had continued for about two hundred and ten years. 8. An riQuiTir.s. The government both of Assyria and Baby- lon was strictly derjpotic and the sceptre hereditary. The whole was centered in the king; all decrees emanated from nim,and lie even claimed the worship which belonged only to tne divinity. The laws of the empire were in general vague and uncertain, depending wholly upon the will of the sovereign; but there was one, however, fixed and irrevocable, which obliged all, particu- larly the poor, to marry. And in this a singular custom prevailed. No man had any power over his own daughters, but as soon as they were marriageable, they were put up at auction; and the IJrice obtained for the more beautilul was assigned as a dowery lor the more homely. In consequence of this practice, all the young women were disposed of in marriage; the beautiful for their charms, and the homely for their wealth. 9. The Babylonians, and particularly the Chaldeans, were early famed for their learning. They were the first who cultivated astronomy and discovered the exact motion of the planets; they jretenden to be able to foretell future events from the heavenly )odies, which was imbodied into a kind of science called astro- ogy. They built temples to the stars as being the subordinate agents of the divine power, and by worshipping them they hoped to obtain the good will of the deity. Fi-om this tliey descended, by a natural process, to the worship of objects on earth as the representatives of the stars or the deity. It is evident that this was the orig-in of idol worship, from the fact that the names of the principal gods of the heathens in general are those of the sun, moon, and the five primary planets — Saturn, Jypitcr, Mars, Mercury and Venus. The horrid custom of sacri- ficing human victims to conciliate their gods was first practiced by the Bjjbylonians, and from them it was communicated to the surrounding nations. The Babylonians applied themselves only to the more useful arts. Their immense buildings prove them to have been well skilled in architecture and geometry. They never attained to any superior excellence in painting and statuary; music and poetry were probably but little attended to. 7. Whfit was done duri.iff tlie reign of nelplmzznr? What wns his end?— 8. What is said of the government and laws of Assyria nnd Pnbylon? What sinpfular pustom prevailed?—!). AVhnt is said of the learninpr of the Babylonians nnd Chaldeans? To vrhnt did they build temples? What is said concerning the origin of idol worship? To what did tlie nabylonians apply themselves? PERSIA. 1. Persia was the second of the four great empires of antiquity. Its history, prior to the reign of Cyrus the Great, is involved m obscurity and fable. It was originally called £lam, and the in- habitants Elamites, who were the descendants of Shem. We are informed by the Scriptures that one of the kings of Elam con- quered the king of Sodom, but was pursued and defeated by Mraham. In the early ages, it was ot very limited extent, but under the reign of Cyrus, who was the founder of the great Per- sian empire, it became the most powerful and extensive monarchy in tho world, comprising Persia, ^iedia. Babylonia, Syria and Asia Minor j to these Egypt was added by Ctmibyses. 2. Cyrus is represented as a prince of an excellent character, and obtained the suinaine of Great, from his heroic actions and splendid achievements. Having subdued all the nations from the iEgean sea to the Euphrates, he together with his uncle Cyaxares, the second king of the Medes, took Babylon and conquered the Assyrian empire. After the death of Cyaxares, Cyrus united the two kingdoms and reigned over them for seven years, in the first of which he published the famous edict for the return of the Jews and rebuilding of Jerusalem. ^ 3. Herodotus, Xenophon and other ancient authors, differ mate- rially in the accounts they give of the exploits and character of Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Cyrus possessed all the abilities ot an illustrious and able sovereign, with all the more amiable virtues that adorn humanity ; and according to the same author, he died like a philosopher, discoursing of death with tranquillity, and giving the most admirable instruction to his children, by which to form their character and regulate their future conduct. Dy a stratagem oi tne enemy, ihe account given by Xenophon has been followed by Rqllin aud other modern writers, yet it is supposed by some that it was not the design of that author to exnibit a faithful record of facts, but rather to delineate the model of a perfect prince and a well organized government. 4. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Camoyses, who was arbi- trary and cruel : his principal exploit was the conquest of Egypt; he made himself master of Pelusium by placing in front ot nis army a great number of those^ animals considered sacred by the Egyptians, who not daring to injure them, made no opposition to the Persians. On the death of Cambyses, Smerdis usurped the crown; but after enjoying the regal dignity for seven months, he was assassinated, and Darius was elected to fill the vacant throne. 1. What is said of Persia? What did it become in the reig:n of Cyrus ?— 2. What is said of Cyrus? What did he do? What edict did he publish?— 3. How do Herodotus and Xenophon differ In their accounts of Cyrus?— 4. Who succeeded Cyrus? How did he make himself master of Pelusium? On the death of Cambyses, who usurped the throne? a* 17 18 PERSIA. The history of Persia, from the reign of this sovereign until the overthrow of the monarchy, is much connected with that of Greece. 5. Darius was succcened by his son Xerxes I., who conducted the second invasion of Greece, but returned to his own dominions in shame and disgrace, after sustaining a series of defeats, with immense loss. He was succeeded by his son ,drtaxerxes, who enjoyed a long and peaceful reign. The only sovereigns of dis- tinction who reigned after this r>eriod, were Jirtaxerxes II., and Darius Codomanus. the last of the Persian monarchs. Codo^ manus was defeateu by Jllexander the Great, and finally assas- sinated : and with his death the ancient empire terminated, A. C. 336. 6. Antiquities. The government of Persia was an absolute monarchyj the crown was hereditary, and generally bestowed on the eldest son of the deceased king. The sovereigns received almost divine honors from their subjects. No one could approach the seat of majesty without prostrating himself upon me ground, or remain in his presence without holding his hands within his sleevesj a violation of this ceremony was punished with death. The royal palace at Persepolis was extremely maffnificentj the ceiling and walls of the apartments were covered with ivory, silver, gold or amberj the throne was also of fine gold adorned with precious stones. 7. The Persians arc said to have paid more particular regard to the education of tjjeir children than any other nation. We are told that a son was never admitted into the presence of his father, until he arrived at the age of five years, lest the parent might be too heavily afflicted by the loss, if the child should die before that period. At the age of five years, the children, at least of the iliigher order of the state, were placed under the care of learned and virtuous masters, who bestowed on their pupils the utmost attention. 8. The mode of punishment among the Persians was generally severe: it consisted in cutting off the right hand, decapitation, pressing to death between two large stones, and the like. The most severe and inhuman was that of fastening the culprit in such a manner that he was unable to move hand or foot. His lace, exposed to the rays of the sun, was smeared with honey, which invited innumerable swarms of flies and wasps to torment him; the executioners compelled him, by thrusting sharp instru- ments into his eyes, to receive nourishment, for the purpose of prolonging his agonies. We are told of one victim, who lived seventeen days under these torments. The Persians were trained to all the militaiy exercises, but particularly to the use of the bow. They never fought in the night, nor used any stratagem inde- pendent of their valor. 9. Their religion was idolatrous, but not so gross as that of some of the surrounding nations. They professed to worship the 6. AVhat is said of Xerxes? Who was the lost of the Persian monarchs, and what was his end ? — 6. What is said of the government of Persia? and of those who approached •the sovereign? Describe the palace at Persepolis? — 1. To what did they pay pecu Jiar rcRard? "What custom prevailed?— 8. What is said of the mode of punishment* tDescribe one severe form? 0. WTint is said of their religion ? What do they adore? PH(ENICIANS. — EGYPT. 19 one all-wise and omnipotent Godj but they held fire to be holy, and the purest symbol of the divine nature. In connection with this they adored the sun, and paid a superstitious regard to other elements, such as the earth, air and water. In ancient times tliey were destitute of temples, and erected altars for the preservation of the sacred fire, on the tops of the mountains. At length Zoro- aster persuaded them, for the sake of convenience, to build over each a pyreum or fire temple. The priests were called Magi, and were held in great esteem on account of their learning. PHCENICIANS. 1. The Phoenicians wereamon^ the most remarkable and early civilized nations of antiquity. They were styled Canaanites in the scripture, and seem to have been a commercial people in the time of Abraharn. The two principal cities, and the most ancient we read of in history, were Tyre and Sidon. Tlie Phoenicians are reputed inventors of glass, purple, letters, and coinage; they are regarded as the earRest navigators and merchants in the world; they carried on trade, not only over all the coasts of the Mediterranean, but even visited the shores of Britain, from which they exported tin. 2. To Hiramj king of Tyre, both David and Solomon applied, when proposing to build the temple at Jerusalem; he furnisheu them not only with precious materials, but also with a great num- ber of workmen. They sent out a number of colonies to Cyprus, Rhodes, Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spaing the foundauon of Carthage is attributed to Dido, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, with a company of adventurers. The city of Tyre sus- tained two memorable sieges and was twice taken: first by Nebu- chadnezzar, and again by Alexander the Great. EGYPT. SECTION I. X 1. Egypt holds a conspicuous place in history, on account of its early civilization and high attainment in the arts. It was con- sidered by the ancients as the most renowned school of wisdom and politics, and the source from which most of the arts and sciences are derived. Even the most illustrious men of Greece, such as Homer and Plato^ Lycurgus and Solon^ travelled into 1. What is said of the Phoonicians? Of what were they inventors?— 2. What it wid of Hiram? AVhere d.d they send colonieo? "What is said of Tyre? 1. What ii said of Ejypt ? How was it considered by the ancients ? EGYPT. Egypt to complete their studies and draw from thence whatever was rare and valuable in learning. 2. The ancient history of this country is greatly involved in obscurity : historians, however, unanimously agree that Mizraim^ the son oi Ham, was the founder of the Egyptian monarchy; hs is supposed to be the same as Menes. who is said to have ins' ■ tuted the worship of the gods, and the ceremonies of the sacn fices ; he was succeeded in the throne by his posterity, for several generations. Egy|)t was next governed by a race of foreign princes from Arabia, styled Siiepherd Kings, who invaded the country, and retained possession of the greater portion of it for the space of two hundred and sixty years. 3. The ancient Egyptians seem never to have been a warlike nation. The only king of the country whose name stands re- corded as a great conqueror, is Sesostris, who is said to have maintained a numerous army, and conquered a great part of Asia : but little is known of his achievements, or the extent of his con- quests. Towards the close of his life, he is said to have renounced tiie profession of arms, and to have devoted himself to the inter- nal improvement of his kingdom. Having become blind in his old age, he died by his own hand, after a reign of thirty-three years. >£. 4. The next sovereign who is partirularlv distinguished in the histoiy of this country, was^ NeclmSy styled in the scripture, Pharaoh- Nccho. He patronised navigation, and fitted out a fleet, which, leaving the Red Sea, sailed around the coast of Africa, and returned to Egypt through the Straits of Gibraltar ; he waged a successful war against the Medes and Babylonians, and defeated Josia/t, king of Judah, in the battle Megiddo, and imposed an annual tribute upon the country. 5. Egypt was invaded by the Persians under Cr/mbyses, about the year 525 before the Christian era; the cities of Pehisium and Memphis were taken, and the whole country reduced to a pro- vince of the Persian monarchy. Egypt was wrested from the do- minion of Persia by Mexanaer the Great, and after his death it fell to tlie share of Ptolemy ; under him and his successors, the country regained its ancient lustre, and rose to eminence in science and commerce; the dynasty of the Ptolemies continued from the death of Alexander to that of Cleopatra, embracing a period of two hundred and ninety-three years. 6. Ptolemy Lagus, surnamed also Soter, is said to have been the natural son oi Philip, king of Macedon, and half brother of t^exander the Great. At the time of Alexander's death, he was governor of Egypt, and afterwards became king of the country. He was a man or ^great ability, equally eminent as a general and a statesman, distinguished for his learning, and a munificent patron of literature. He founded the famous library of Alexandria, established a 2. Who was the founder of the Egyptian monarchy? By whom was Eprypt next grovernccl? — 3. What is said of the ancient Egyptians? of Sesostris? — 4. Who was the next sovereign, and what is said of him? — 5. Who invaded Egypt? By whom wa? it wrested from the Persians? How long did the dynasty of the Ftolemies con- tinue ?— 6. What is said of Ptolemy Lagus ^ What did h&bliged t'> do ? What was allowed? What custom prevailed? — 3. To what was erieur < -spe- nnid? '"'^hat virtue was held in the highest esteem? — 4. Besides Osiris am'. \J.\ V f.jit did the Egyptians worship ? EGYPT. 23 objects. It was death for any one to kill one of these animals voluntarily. Diodorus relates the circumstance of a Roman, who fell a victim to the i'a y of the populace of Alexandria, for having accidentally killed a cat. The Egyptians hela the doctrine ot the transmigration of souls; and believet! that at the death «)f a man, his soul entered into some '>th' r human body; and (hat it' he had been vicious, his soul was confined in the body of some beast to expiate his forme* transgr< -ions; and that after soum centum ries it would again aimnatc another human bi>dy. 5. No people paid greater respect to the bmfies of the de&«\ than the Egyptians. As soon as any person in a family died, ail th*-, relations and friends laid aside their usual habits and put on mourning, which they continued to wear for forty days or longer, according to the quality of the person. The body ^Nas then em- 'oalmed, by which process it was preserved from deciy; after this, l.e corpse was put into a kind of an open chest, an had died in debt, he was left unburied, and was supposed to be deprived of future happiness. The kings themselves were not exi mpted from this trial after death; if their lives were vicious, they wc re deprived of funeral rights and the honor of the sepulchre. SECTION III. The Pyramids, Labyrinth, Lake qfMaeris, fyc. 1. The Pyramids of E^pt are the most celebrated of those works of ffrandeur for which that country has been renowned. Of these pyramids, there were three near the city of Al^mphia, more famous than the rest; one of which was justly ranked among the seven wonders of the world. According to several ancient authors, each side of the base measured eight hundred feet, and as many feet in height. A hundred thousand men are said to have been employed for the space of twenty years in erecting this vast edifice. The Pyramids were designed as tombs for the What does Ditx'orus relate ? What doctrine did they hold ? — 5. When a member of a family difi, ^hat did the relations do? Describe the ceremony of embalnaing.— 6. What is said of the power of the laws ? If a man had lived vicious, or died in debt, what was done ? J Whai is said of the Pyramids? What was the length of each side of the base of the Pyram, 1 near IVIemphis ? For what were they designed? 24 EGYPT. kings, and there is still to be seen in the middle of the largest, an empty sepulchre, cut out of one entire stone, about three leet wide and six feet long. 2. The Labyrinth of Egypt, was an enormous structure o. mar- ble, built under ground; it comprised twelve palaces with a com munication leading to each other, and divided mto fifteen hundred rooms or apartments. These subterraneous structures were de- signed as aburying-place for kings, and also for keeping the sacred crocodiles. The Obelisks with which Egypt abounded, were quadrangular spires, terminating in a point, often wonderful on account of their beauty and height. S'esostris erected two near the city of Heliopolis, each one hundred and eighty feet in height. Several of these obelisks, with immense labour, were transported ) Rome, where they form at the present davthe chief ornaments of that city. Manv of them were covered with hieroglyphics, that is, mystical characters used by the Egyptians before the invention of letters, and afterwards to conceal the mysteries of their theology. 3. The noblest and the most wonderful of all the structures of the kings of Egypt, was the lake of Maeris, which Herodotus considers as even superior to the Pyramids. This lake was in circumference about one hundred and eighty French leagues, and three hundred feet deep. Two pyramids, on each of vniich was placed a colossal statue, seated upon a throne, raised their heads to the height of three hundred feet, in the midst of the lake, above the surface of the water. It is generally believed that this im- mense reservoir, with its pyramids, was completed in the reign of one monarch, from ^yhom it takes its name; and was designed to regulate the inundations of the Nile. When that river rose too high and fatal consequences seemed likely to follow, the water was let into the lake and covered the lands no longer than was necessary to enrich them. On the con- trary, when the inundation was too low and threatened a famine, a sujfficient quantity of water was let out of the lake upon the land. 4. The rums of a few of the ancient cities and palaces of Egypt still excite the wonder and admiration of the traveller. The glory of Thebes, the capital of Upper Egypt, famous for its hundred gates, was the theme of admiration oi poets and historians at a period prior to the commencement of authentic history. Strabo and Diodorus describe it under the name of Diospolis, and give such magnificent descriptions of its monuments as to cause their fidelitv to be called in question, until the observations of modern travellers have proved their accounts to have fallen short of the reality. The ruins of one of the palaces of this city are especially admired, and seem to have remamed only to eclipse the glory of the most pompous edifices of modern times. There were four avenues or great extent which led to four porticoes of amazing ^ff 2. What wns thn Labyrinth? For whnt desifrned ? VThai is said of the Obelisks ? With what were innny of them covered? — 3. What wns the noblest work? What was its circumference? What was in the midst of tlie lake? For what was it designed? — 4. What is said of the ruins of cities. &c.? Describe Thebes? Tlfiscrihe oaeof the palaces of this city? What is said of Memphis? - - -. -. M GB££CK« 25 height; they were bounded on each side with statues, composed of materials as rare and extraordinary as their size was remark- able. Within the middle of this stately palace, there ^yas a hail supported by one hundred and twentjr pillars, thirty-six feet in circumference and of proportionable height, which the lapse of so many ages has not been able to demolish. Before the time of Herodotus, Memphis had supplanted Thebes, which seems to have been particularly noted for its stately temples, and among them, that of the god Apis was the most remarkaole. GREECE. SECTION I. 1. Among the various nations of antiquity, Greece de-^ervedly holds the most distinguished rank, both for the patriotism, genius and learning of its inhabitants, as well as the high state of perfec- tion to whicn thev carried the arts and sciences. Greece formerlv comprised various small independent states, differing from eacn other in the forms of their government, and in the character of the people, but still united in a confederacy for their mutual defence, by the council o( t^mphicfyons, and by their common language, religion and public games. 2. The ancient name of Greece was Hellas, and the inhabitants were called Hellenes; but by the poets they were distinguished by different namesj such as tne Danai, Pelasgi, Jlrgivi, Achivi, &c. The original inhabitants, who are generally considered as the descendants of Javan, the son of Japnet, lived in the lowest state of barbarism, dwelling in huts, feeding on acorns and berries, and clothing themselves in the skins of wild beasts, when Cecrops with a colony from Egypt, and Cadmus with a body of Phoeni- cians, landed in Greece, and planted on its shores the first rudi- ments of civilization. The early form of government of Greece was a limited mon- archyj which was finally abolished, !«nd a republican form generally prevailed. 3. The history of Greece may je divided into two parts? Ist, the period of uncertain history, A'hich extends from the earliest accounts of the country, to the first Persian war in the year 490 B.C.: 2d, the period of a' iientic history extending from the invasion by Persia, to \}\\^ AnoX subjugation of Greece by the Romans, A. C. 146. The first period is generally reckoned from the founda1;ion of Sicyon, the most ancient kingdom of Greece, and comprises a space of about sixteen hundred years. This long succession of ages, though greatly involved in obscurity and 1. "Wlmt is said of Greece? 'What did it formerly comprise? How wore they wnited ? — 2. What was its ancient name ? From whom were the inhabitants descended! What was their condition when Cecrops landed in Greece?— 3. How is the history of Greece divided ? How do these periods extend ? What is said of the first period t 3 nr 26 GA££CC. fable, is still interspersed with several interesting particulars : it contains no records, however, that properly deserve the name of history. . 4. The Grecian history derives some authenticity at this period, from the Chronicle of Faros, preserved ainon^ the Jlrun- delian marbles at Oxford. The authority of this chronicle has been much questioned of late ; but still, by many, it is thought to be worthy of considerable credit. It fixes the dates of the most important events in the history of Greece, from the time of Ce- crops down to the age of Alexander the Great. 5. Sicyon, the capital of the ancient kingdom of that name, was founded by ^gialus} Argos by Jnachus^ the last of the Ti- tans: Athens, which afterwards bore such a distinguished part in the history ot Greece, was founded by Cecrops, with a colony from Egypt.. He was an eminent legislator, and instituted the court of Areopagus. Thebes was founded by Cadmus^ y/ho is said to have introduced letters into Greece from Phoenicia; the alphabet, however, only consisted of sixteen letters, and the mode of writing was alternately from right to left, and from left to right. 6. In the time of Cranatis^ who succeeded Cecrops, happened the deluge of Deucalion : this delude, though much magnified by the poets, was probablj' only a partial inundation. The other memorable institutions that distinguish this period, were the Elmsinian mysteries, the Olympic and other games, of which we will speak hereafter : also the marvellous exploits of Hercules and 'Ilieseus. SECTION II. The Fabulous and Heroic Ages: 1. The fabulous age comprises the period from the foundation of the principal cities, to the commencement of civilization, and the introduction of letters and arts into Greece. The first great enterprise undertaken bj^ the Greeks, was the Argonautic expe- dition, which appears in its details to partake more of fable than of history. It was commanded by Jason, the son of the king ot lolchos, who was accompanied by many of the most illustrious men of Greece, among whom were Hercules, Theseus, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus, ^^sculapius the physician, and Chiron the astronomer. 2. They sailed from lolchos, in Thessaly, to Colchis, on (he eastern coast of the Euxine Sea : they received the name Argo- nauts from the ship Argo in which they sailed, said to have been the first sea vessel ever built. This famous voyage, which was 4. From what does the Grecian history derive authenticity ? Of what does this chroaicle fix the date ? — 6. By whom was Sicyon founded ? Argos ? Athens ? Thebes? What is said of Cadmus ?— 6. In the time of Cranai!ks, what happened ? What insti- tutions distinguished this period ? 1. What do the fabulous ages comprise? What was the first great enterprise? Who commanded it? and who accompanied him ? — 2. From whnra did thev sail? GREECE. 27 probably a military and mercantile adventure, is commonly re- presented to have been undertaken lor the purpose of recovering the golden fleece of a ram, which originally belonged to their country. The fleece is pretended to have been guarded by bulls that breathed fire, and by a dragon that never slept. 3. The Heroic Age was particularly distinguished by the Tro- jan war, the history of which rests on the authority of Homer, and forms the subject of his Iliad, the noblest poem of antiquity. According to the poet, Hellen, the daughter of 7\jndarus, king of Sparta, was reputed the most beautiful woman of her age, and her hand was solicited by the most illustrious princes of Greece, Her father bound all her suitors by a solemn oath, that they would abide by the choice that //e/Zen should make of one among thctn ; and that, shuuld she be taken from the arms of her husband, they would assist, to the utmost of their power, to recover her. 4. Hellen gave her hand to Menelaus, and after her nuptials, Tyndarus her father resigned the crown to his son-in-law. Paris, the sjon of Priani^ king of ZVoy, a powerful city founded by Bar- danus, having adjudged the prize of superior beauty to J'^cnus^m E reference to Juno and Minerva, was pi'omiscd by her the most eautiful woman of the age for his wife. Sliortly after this event, Paria visited Sparta, where he was kindly received by Menelaiis; but in return tor the kind hospitality tendered to him, he per- suaded Ilellen to elope vv^ith him to 7Vo?/, and carried off with her a considerable amount of treasuie. 5. This act of treachery and ingratitude produced the Trojan war. A confederacy was immediately formed by the princes of Greece, agreeable to their engag-^ment, to avenge the outrage. An army of one hundred thousand men was conveyed in a fleet of twelve hundred vessels, to the Trojan coast. Agamemnon, king of Argos, brother of Menelaus, was selected as commander- in-cliief. Some of the other princes most distinguished in this war, were Achiljes, tli i bravest of the Greeks j also ^jax, Mene- laus, Ulysses, Nestor, and Diome.ies. 6. The Trojans were commanded by IIecfor,t\\e sonof Pnaw, assistecl by Paris, Deiphobus, Jllneas, and Sarpedon. After a siege of ten years, the city was taken by stratagem, plundered of its wealth, and burnt to the ground. The venerable Priam, king of Troy, was slain, and all his family led into captivity. About eighty years after the destruction of Troy, the civil war of the Heraclida3 began; it is usually called the return of the Heraclidae into Peloponnesus. Hercules, king of Mycenae, a city of Pelo- ponnesus, was banished from his country with all his family, while the ci-own was seized by Atreus, the son of Pelops. After the lapse of about a century, the descendants of Hercules returned to Peloponnesus, and having expelled the inhabitants, again took possession of the country. For wliat was this famous voynge undertaken ? — 3. For what is the Heroic Ape dis- tiuffiiishcd? What \n said of Helon? How did her father bind all her suitors?— 4. To whom did Floien pive her hand? AVhat is said of Paris?— 5, What did this ".icachery produce? Who was commander-in-chief of the Orecinn forces? Mention tlie other p» inces.— (?. By whom were the Trojans commanded ? What is stiid of the oily? Of Priuni? Al)out eighty years after this, wlmt happened? What is said of Hercules ? r 28 GREECE. t SECTION III. Republic of Sparta. 1. Sparta, or Lacedaemon, was the capital of Laconia, in tne southern part of Peloponnesus. After the return of the Hera- clidse, the government was administered by the two sons of Aris- todemus, who reigned jointly, and this double monarchy was transmitted to the descendants of each for a period of eight hun- dred and eighty years. 2. This radical principle of disunion, and consequently of anarchy, made the want of a regular system of laws severely felt. jLycurgKs, the brother of one of the kings of Sparta, a man distinguished alike for his ^reat abilities and stern integrity, was invested, by the united voice of the sovereigns and the people, with the important duty of framing a new constitution for his country. The arduous task bein^at lengih completed, produced not only an entire change in the form of government, but also in (he intinncrs of the people. He instituted a senate, elective, consisting of twenty-eigJit members, whose office was to preserve a just balance between the power of the kings and that of the people. Nothing could come before the assembly of the people which had not received the previous consent of tfie senate; and, on the other hand, no action of the senate was effectual without the sanction of the people. The kings were continued, but were nothing more than hereditary presidents of the senate, and gene- rals of the army. 3. Lycurgns divided the territory of the republic into thirty- nine thousand equal portions among the free citizens; and for the purpose of banishing luxury, commerce was abolished^ gold and silver coin was prohibited, and iron money was substituted as a medium of exchange; a uniformity of dress was established, and all the citizens, not excepting the kings, were required to take their principal meals at the public tables, from which all luxury and excess were excluded, and a kind of black broth was the principal article of food. Among some of the admirable cere- monies which prevailed at these public meais, the following is interesting and instructive. When the assembly was seated, the oldest man present, pointing to the door, said, " No word spoken here, goes out there." This wise regulation produced mutual confi(l(Mice, and rendered them unrestrained in conversation. 4. The institutions of Lycurgits, thou^/h in many respects ad- mirable, had still many defects. Infants, shortly after their birth, underwent an examination, and those that were well formed were delivered to public nurses; and at the a^^e of seven years, they were introducexl into the public schools; but all those who were deformed or sickly, were inhumanly exposed to perish. The 1. \Vlmt was Sparta? AVhnt is said of the povrrnmcnt after the return of the TTera- clidre? — 2. What is ii 'vi 'jiators of his time. at did he say be- vtm. de& acci' . 4. An c\.>-^.'tion was next sent against the island of Sicily, undi4 the rtMumand of Alcibiades and Nicias, but the former being: accused of misconduct, was recalled, and the latter was totally defeated and slain. jJlcibiades, after some time, was again placed at the head of the Athenian army, and gained several important victories, but falling a second time into disrepute, he was baiushed from his country, and took refuge in Asia, where he died. 5. Ly Sander, the l4acedaeinonian general, having defeated the Athenian fleet, at ^^gos-Potamos, on the Hellespont, reduced Athens to the last extremity, by blockading the city both by sea and land. The wretched Athenians were at length compelled to accept the most humiliating terms of peace ; they agreed to de- molish their port, li limit their fleet to twelve ships, and to under- take for the future no military enterprise, but under the command of the Lacedaemonians. Thus ended the Peloponnesian war, by the submission of Athens, and the triumph of Sparta, which now became the leading power in Greece. A. C. 403. 6. Lysander, after the reduction of Athens, abolished the popu- lar government of that state, and established in its place an oligarchy, consisting of thirty niagistrates, with absolute power, who, from their atrocious acts of cruelty, were called the Thirty Tyrants. In the space of eight months we are told that fifteen hundred citizens fell victims to their avarice and vengeance, while many others fled from their country. At length Thrasv- bulus, aided by a band of patriots, expelled the tyrants from the seat of their power, and restored the democratic form of govern- ment. 7. An event, which happened about this time, reflected indeli- ble disgrace upon the fickle-minded Athenians, which was, the persecution and death of the illustrious philosopher, Socrates, a name, at once the glory and the reproach of his country. The sophists, whose (utiTe logic he derided and exposed, represented him as an enemy to the religion of his country, because he attempt- ed to introduce the knowledge of a supreme Being, the Creator and Ruler of the universe, and to inculcate the befief of a future state of retribution; and bein? accused, moreover, of corrupting the youth, he was condemned by the assembly of Athens to die by poison. 8. He made his defence in person, with all the manly fortitude of conscious innocence, but the majority of his judffe8,"^einff his personal enemies, determined on his ruin. During the forty days of his inmrisonment, he conducted himself with the greatest dig- nity; refused to escape when an opportunity offered; conversed 4. AVhat expedition was next undertaken? What is said of Alcibiades? — 5. AVhat is said of Lysander? Of the Athenians? "What were the terms of peace ? How did the war end?— 6. What did Lysander do ? In eight months, how many citizens per- ished? What did Thrasybulus do?— 7. What event took p'.ace at this thne? How did the Sophists represent him? Why? — 8. How did he make his defence? What 18 aaid of him during his imprisonment? \\ 38 GREECE^ y/ith his fiiends on subjects of moral philosophy, particularly the immortality of the soul, and when the appointed time arrived, drank the fatal cup of hemlock, and died with the utmost compo- sure. After the fatal deed was accomplished, the Athenians began to see the error into which they had fallen ; his judges and accusers were either put to death or banished from the city ; a brazen statue was erected to his memory, the workmansliip of the celebrated Lysippus. Thus they endeavoured to repair, in some degree, the injustice they had permitted against the most virtuous of their citizens. 9. On the death of Darius, the Persian throne was left to his son, Artaxerxes II., but his younger brother, Cyrus, attempted to dethrone him, and for that purpose he employed about thirteen thousand Grecian troops; but both Cyrus and the Grecian com- mander were slain in a battle, which was fought at Cunaxa. near Babylon. The remainder of the Grecian army, which amounted to about ten thousand, under the command of Xenophon, effected a most extraordinary retreat, traversi^jg a hostile country of six- teen hundred miles in extent, from Bal)ylon to the shores of the Euxine. This celebrated return, usually called the retreat of Ten Thousand, is beautifully described by Xenophon himself, and is regarded as one of the most extraordinary exploits in military history. 10. The Grecian colonies in Asia having taken part with Cyrus, were assisted by the Spartans, under their king Jigesilaus. The Persian monarch, ho\yever, by means of bribes, induced Athena and other of the Grecian states, jealous of the power of the Lace- daemonians, to enter into a league against them. Agesilaus was obliged to return in order to protect his own dominions; he defeated the confederate forces in the battle of Coronea, but the Spartan fle^t was defeated by the Athenians under Conon near Cnidos. A treaty of peace was finally concluded, by which it was agreed that all the Grecian cities of Asia should belong to Persia, and all others should be independent, with the exception of the islands of Lemnos, Scyros and Imbros, which should remain under the dominion of Athens. 11. While Athens and Sparta were visibly tending to decline, Thebes emergt d from obscurity, and rose for a time to a degree of splendor eclipsing all the other states of Greece. The Spar- tans, jealous of its growing prosperity, took advantage of some internal dissension and seized upon the citadel. Pelopidas, with a number of Thebans, fled for protection to Athens, where he planned the deliverance of his country. Disguising himself ana twelve of his friends as peasants, he entered Thebes in the evening, and joining a patriotic party of citizens, they surprised the leaders of the usurpation amidst the tumult of a feast, and put them all to death; and pursuing his success in conjunction How did ho die? AVlmt is said of the Athenians?— 9. What did Cyrus attempt! '7hat did the remainder of the army effect after this event? — 10. By whom were the Grecian colonies assisted? What did the Persians effect by bribes? "Wliat is said of Agssilaj J ' What battles were fought ? "What was agreed by the treaty of peace ? —11. What state emerged from obscurity T What did the Spartans do ? What is said •fPelopidas? ,-,.■' ■-• "^ > ; " .r- . \ - . ghecce. 39 with his friend Epaminondas, who shared with hitn the glory of the enterprise, he finallj^ succeeded in expelling the Lacedaemo- nian garrison from the Theban territory. 12. A war necessarily ensued between Thebes and Sparta; the Theban army, under the command of Pelopidas and iE^«mi- nondas, gained the memorable battle of Leitctra, in which they lost only three hundred men, while the Spartan loss amounted to four thousand, together with their king Cleotnbroius, who was numbered amon^ the slain. The victorious Thebans, under Epaminondas, joined by many of the other Grecian states, entered the territories of Lacedacmon, and overran the country with fire and sword. The Spartans, who had long boasted that their wo- men had never btJield the smoke cf an enemy's camp, were mortified to see the invaders now encamped within the very sight of their capital. 13. Having humbled the power of Sparta, the Theban com- mander returned with his victorious army to his native city; but the war being again renewed, he gained another great victory over the Lacedaemonians and Athenians at the battle of Man- tinea: but he fell mortally wounded in the moment of victory. With the fall of Epaminondas, who was equally eminent as a philosopher, statesman, and general, fell the glory of his country. The battle of Manfinea was followed by a peace between ali the Grecian states, by which each city estaolished its inde- pendence. Philip of Macedon. SECTION VIL The E.rploits and Death of Alexander, From 360 to ^24. 1. Greece was now in the most abject situation. The spirit of patriotism appeared utterly lost, and military glory at an end Athens, at this time the most prominent state, was sunk in luxury and pleasure; yet she was distinguished for her cultivation of literature and the arts. Sparta, no less changed from the sini' plicity of her ancient manners, and her power weakened by the new independence of the state of Peloponnesus, was in no capa- city to attempt a recovery of her former greatness. Such was the situation of Greece, when Philip of Macedon formed the ambitious design of bringing the whole country under his do- minion. 2. The kingdom of Macedon had existed upwards of four hun- drnl years, but it had not risen to any considerable eminence; it formed no part of the Greek confederacy, and had no voice in the Jhnphictyonic council. The inhabitants boasted of the same origin with the Greeks, but were considered by the latter as 12. ^Vliat cnsuod ? Wlmt Ixitfle did the Thelmn army gain ? What was the loss on both sides? WhM is said of tlio Spartans?— 13. What is said of the Theban com- mandor ? What followed thn battle of IMantineu ? 1. What is said now of Greece? Of Athens? Of Sparta?— 2. llow long had the Kingdom of Macedon existed ? What is suiU of the inhabitants ? \\ V 40 GREECE. barbaiians. Phil'ip, who laid the foundation of the Macedoniai empire, or as it is sometimes called, the Grecian empire, because Greece in its most extensive sense included Macedonia, was sent as a hostage to Thebes, at the age of ten years, where he enjoyed the advantage of an excellent education under F^paminondas. At the age of twenty-four years, he ascended the throne of Macedon by the popular voice, in violation of the natural right of the nearer heirs to the crown. 3. Philip was possessed of great military and political talents, and was equally distinguished for his consummate artifice and address. In order to accomplish the subjugation of the Greciat states, he cherished dissensions among them, and employed agents in each with a view of having every public measure directed to his advantage. The attempt of the Phocians to occupy and cul- tivate a tract of land consecrated to the Delphian Jipollo, gave rise to a contest called the Sacred War, in which most ot the states of Greece were involved. The Thobans, Thessalians and other states, undertook to punish the Phocians, who were sup- ported chiefly by Athens and Sparta. 4. Philip prof)osed to act as arbitrator of the matter in dispute, and procured himself to be elected a member of the Amjjhictyo- nic council. Shortly after this event, the Locrians having en- croached upon the consecrated ground of Delphi, and having refused to obey the order of the Amphictyonic council, Philip was invited to vindicate their authority by force of arms. Philip began his hostilities by invading Phocis, the key to the territory of Attica. Jllscliines, the orator, bribed to his interest, endea» voured to quiet the alarms of the Athenians, by ascribing to him a design only of punishing the sacrilege and vindicating the cause of Jipollo. Demosthenes, \\\ih the true spirit of a patriot, exposed the artful designs of the invader, and with most animated elo- quence roused his countrymen to a vigorous eftbrt for the preser- vation of their liberties. The event, however, was unsuccessful : the battle of Cheronaea decided the fate of Greece, and subjected all the states to the dominion of the king of Macedon, A. C. 337. 5. It was not the policy of the conqueror to treat the several states as a vanquished people; they were allowed to retain their separate independent governments, while he reserved for himself the direction and control of all national measures. Convoking a general council of the states, he laid before them his project for- me invasion of Persia, and was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces of all the Grecian states. On the eve of this great en- terprise, Philip was assassinated by Fausanias, the captain of his guards, while solemnizing the nuptials of his daughter, in the forty-seventh year of his age. The news of the event caused the most tumultuous joy among the Athenians, who indulged the vain ~^f Philip? At what nge did he ascend the throne of Mncrdon?— .?, AVhat did he possess? What did lie rlicvish? What gave rise to the Sacred War? — 4. What did Philip propose? After this event, wlint took plnee? Mow did he commence I os'ili- ties? What is said of jl-'schlnos and Demosthenes? What is said of the battle of CheroPi.Mi? — .'>. What was tlic policy of the conmieror? Having convoked a counci; of tiie stnifs. whnt did he lay before them? On the eve of this enterprise, what hap- pened to Philip? What did the news qf this event cuuso among the Athenians J H GREECE. 4r N 4: hope of again recovoiing their liberty; but the visionary prospect was never realized; the spirit of the nation was gone, and in all their subsequent revolutions, they only changed their masters. 6. On the death of Philip, his son Alexander, surnamed the Great, succeeded • the throne of Macedon at the age of twent)r years. The young king, having reduced to subjection some of the states to the north of Macedon, turned the whole power of his arms against tne revolted states of Greece. He defeated the Thebans with immense slaughter, caused their city to be razed to the ground, and thirty thousand of its inhabitants to be sold as slaves. These acts of severity so intimidated the other states of Greece, that they immediately submitted to his dominion. Alex- ander then assembled the deputies of the Grecian states at Corinth, and renewed the proposal of invading Persia, and was appointed, as his father had been, the commander-in-chief of their united forces. 7. With an army of thirty thousand foot and five thousand horse, with the sum of onlv seventy talents and provisions for a single month, he crossed the Hellespont, and traversing Phrvgia, pro- ceeded to the site of Troy and visited tiie tomb of Achilles, whom he pronounced the most fortunate of men in having Patrodes for his friend and Homer for his panegyrist. Darius Codomanus, resolving at once to crush the youthful hero, met him on the banks of the Granicus, with an army of one hundred thousand foot and twenty thousand horse. Here an obstinate battle was fought^ in which the Persian monarch was defeated with a loss, according to Plutarch, of twenty -two thousand men, while the Macedonian loss was only thirty-four. In this battle, Alexander escaped nar- rowly with his life-^being attacked by an officer, who was about to cleave his head with a battle-axe, wher the blow \vas prevented by Clytus, who cut off the hand of the oflBcer with his cimiter and tnus saved the life of his sovereign. 8. The success of this battle was important to Alexander, as it put him in possession of Sardis with all its riches; he generously gave the citizens their liberty, and permitted them to live under their 9wn laws. He soon after took Miletus, Halicarnassus, and other important places. The next important victory was obtained in the great battle of Issus, The Persian army, consisting of six hundred thousand men, was defeated with prodigious slaughter, no less than one hundred and ten thousand being killed, while the Macedonians numbered only four hundred and fifty amon? the slain. The mother, wife and two daughters of Darius fell into the hands of the conqueror, who treated them with the great- est delicacy and respect. Darius, on hearing of the kindness of Alexander towards his family, offered for their ransom the sum 6. Wlio succeeded Philip? How did he treat the Thebans? Having assembled the deputies of the Grecian states, wliat proposals did he renew?— 7. What was the num- ber of his army ? Where did he proceed? By whom and where was he met ? What was the issue of the battle, and the loss on both sides? In this battle, what is said of Alexander?— 8. What places did he next take? WTiere was the next victory ob- tained? What was the number of the Persian army? The number of the slaTu on both sides? Who fell into the hands of the conqueror? How were they trei. ted t What did Darius offer for their ransom ? 4« .5\ 42 GREECE. often thousand talents, fabout £2,000,000 sterling,) and proposed a treaty of peace and alliance, with the further oner of his daugh- ter in marriage and all the country between the Euphrates and the ^ffean sea. 9. When the offer was laid before Alexander's council, Par- menio is reported to have said, " If I were Mexander, I would accept the terms;" "And so would I," replied Alexander, *' were I Parmcnio.'^ After this he overran Syria, took Damascus, and laid siege to Tyre, which surrendered after a noble defence of seven months. On this occasion, the conqueror exercised an act of barbarous cruelty by causing two thousand citizens of Tyre to be crucified, besides all those who vyere put to the sword or sold into slavery. He then directed his march towards Jerusa- lem, which he entered without opposition. Having taken the city of Gaza, he inhumanly sold ten thousand of its inhabitants into slavery, and dragged «etis, its illustrious defender, at the wheels of his chariot, in imitation of Achilles, after the taking of Troy. 10. Alexander next proceeded to Egypt, which readdy submit- ted to his arms; and with incredible fatigues, he led his army through the deserts of Libya to visit the temple of Jupiter-. Am- nion ^ and caused himself to be proclaimed the son of that deity. On his return, he commenced the building of the city of Alexan- dria, afterwards the capital of Lower Egypt, and for a time, one of the greatest commercial cities in the v.orld: he is said to have founded twenty other cities during the course of his conquests. Returning from Egypt, he again received proposals from Darius, who offered to surrender to him the whole of his dominions to the Avest of the Euphrates ; but he haughtily rejected the offer, saving, that " the world could no more admit of two masters than of two suns." 11. Having crossed the^Euphrates, he was met at the village of Arahela by Darius,, at the head of seven hundred thousand men. A tremendous battle ensued, in which the Persians were defeated with a loss of three hundred thousand men, while that of Alexander .vas only about five hundred. This great battle decided the fate of Persia. Darius first escaped to Media and alter yards into Bactria, where he was betrayed by Bessus, the satrap of that province, and murdered ; and shortly after this event the whole Persian empire submitted to the conqueror. 12. Alexander now projected the conquest of India, and having penetrated beyond the Hydaspes, he defeated Forus, the illus- trious king of that country. He still continued his march to the East ; but when he arrived at the banks of the Ganges, his soldiers seeing no end to their toils, refused to proceed any further, and Remanded that they might be permitted to return to their coun- try. Finding it impossible to overcome their reluctance, he re- 9. "When the offer was laid before the council, what was said by Parmenio, and what was Alexander's reply? After the siege of Tyre, what act of cruelty did he exercise? Having taicen the city of Gaza, what did he do?— 10. Wliere did he next proceed? On his return, what city did he commence? What reply did he make to the proposals of Darius ? — 11. Where was he met by Darius? What ensued ? "What ■was the loss on both sides ? What was the fate of Darius ?— 12. What did Alexan- 'i«r next project ? When he arri'-ed on the banks of the Ganges, what happened ? ■ 5S GREECE. 4a turned to the Indus, and pursuing his course southward by that river, he arrived at the ocean, and sending his fleet to the Persian Gulf, he led his army across the desert to Persepolis, which in a fit of frenzy he ordered to be set on fire. From Persepolis he returned to Babylon, which he chose as the seat of his Asiatic empire ; here giving himself up to every excess, he was seized with a violent fever, brought on by excessive intemperance, and thus died in the thirty-third year of his age, and thirteenth of his reign, A. C. 324. 13. Perceiving that his end was approaching, he raised himself upon his elbow ami presented his dying hand to !iis soldiers to kiss. Being asked to whom he left his empire, he answered, " To the most worthy." Alexander was the most renowned hero of antiquity. He possessed talents which mioht have rendered him distmguished as a statesman and a benefactor of mankind, but it was to his military exploits alone that he is entitled to the surname of Great. In the early part of his career, he was distin- guished for self-government, and exhibited many noble and gen- erous traits of character. But when intoxicated with his extra- ordinary success, he gave himself up to unboumkd indulgence and to deeds of cruelty and ingratitude. He caused Parmenio, his most distinguished general, who had assisted him in gaining all his victories, to be assassinated on mere suspicion. His friend ClytuSy who had saved his life in the battle of the Granicus, he struck dead upon the spot, because he contradicted him when heated with wine. He caused the philosopher Callisthenes to be put to death for refusing to pay him divine honours. (See par- ticulars of his character in the Biography.) ■4 4 SECTION VIII. From the Death of Jilexander to the subjugation of Greece by the Romans. From Ji. C. 324 to 146. 1. Alexander having named no successor, his v st empire was divided into thirty-three governments, and distributed among as many of the principal officers. Hence arose a series of intrigues, fierce and sanguinary wars, which resulted in the total extinction of every member of Alexander's family, and finally terminated in a new division of the empire into four kingdoms : namely, that of Egypt under Ptolemy ; Macedonia, including Greece, under Cassander; Thrrce, together with Bithynia, under Lysimachiis ; and S^ria, under Seleucus. 2. From the period of Alexander's death, the history of the Grecian states, to the time of their subjugation by the Romans, ^Vliere did he die ? What was his age, and the length of his rejgn ?— 13. Perceiving that his end was approaching, what did he do ? What is said of Alexander ? In the early part, of his career ? When intoxicated with success ? Whom did he cause to be assassinated ? Who did he strike dead ? 1. How was the empire divided? What arose? Name the four chief empires.— 2. From Alexander's death, what is said of the history of th? Grecian states! 44 GRECCC. presents only a series of uninteresting revolutions. When the news of this event reached Athens, Demosthenes once more mad* a noble effort to vindicate the national freedom, and to arouse his countrymen to shake off the yoke of Macedon. His counsels so far prevailed, that the Greeks formed a confederacy, for the pur- Eose of recovering their liberty ; but they were finally defeated y Antipater, and Athens was obliged to purchase a peace by the sacrifice of ten of her public speakers, among whom the renowned orator Demosthenes was included. But to avoid fall- ing into the hands of his enemies, he put an end to his own life by taking poison. 3. Under the administration of Polyspcrchon, who succeeded Antipater in the government of Macedon, indepe ^ence for a short time was restored to the Grecian states. Scenv. of turbulence were soon renewed among the Athenians; they put to dpath many of the friends of Antipater, and among the rest was the venerable Fhocion, now upwards of eighty years of age. He was eminent in his public character and private virtues, and had been forty-five times governor of Athens. To a friend who lamented his fate, he said, " This is only what I long expected : it is tl us that Athens has rewarded her most illustrious citizens." Cassander, who succeeded Polysperchon, appointed Demetr.'us Phalereus governor of Athens. Under his wise administration, which continued twelve years, the city enjoyed a considerable degree of prosperity, and the Athenians, to testify their gratitude, erected no less than three hundred and sixty statues to his memory. 4. The last effort made to revive the expiring liberty of Greece, was the formation cf the ^chsean League, which was a union oi twelve of the smaller states for that object. The government of this confederacy was committed to Jlratus, a yoiing man of emi nent abilities, who took the title of praetor. He formed the noble design of liberating his country from the dominion of Macedon, and establishing the independence of all Greece ; but the jealousy of some of the principal states, particularly of Sparta, rendered the plan abortive. Aratus was succeeded by PhilopcKmen, Avho triumphed over th*^ Spartans and jEtolians, but in an expedition against the Mes- senians^ who had revolted, he was defeated and slain. Philo- pcemen was styled the " last of the Greeks," because after him Greece produced no leader worthy of her former glory. 5. The Macedonians having declared war against the ^tolians, the latter applied for aid to the Romans, wno now became the most powerful nation in the world. The offer was joyfully accepted by the Romans, who had long wished for an opportunity of aading to their dominion this devoted country; their army. When the news reached Athens, what did Demosthenes do ? What was his end ? —3. Umlsr the administration of Polysperchon, what was said? What is said of Phocion ? What reply did he make to a friend '' Who was appointed governor of Athens ? What is oaid Of his administration ? — 4. What was the last effort to revive :he liberty of Greece ? To whom was the governme.it committed ? What did he form? Who succeeded Aratus ? What was he styled ?— 5. What is said of the Mace- donian* f ^Yhttt was done by their army ? f \ GBEECE. 46 hen the ire madf ^ouse his msels so the pur- defeated jeacc by horn the Old fall- own life jccecded or a short irbulcnce to death i was the He was had been lamented it is tl ,us )emetr'us listration, isiderable gratitude, es to his ►f Greece, I union of •nment of in of emi the noble Macedon, e jealousy rendered phed over the Mes- n. Philo- after him !^tolians, ecame the 8 joyfully pportunity leir army, wns his end ? lat is said of [1 governor of ffort to revive What did he 1 of the Mace- nnder the command of Qmntus Flaminius, defeated Philip, king of Macedon,- and proclaimed liberty to all the Grecian states. About thirty years after this event, the Romans, under the com- mand of Paulus JEmilius, again invaded Greece, in a war with Perseus, the son of Philip, who was entirely defeated in the battle of Fvdna^ and falling into the hands of the conqueror with all his family, he was led captive to Rome, to grace the triumph of the general, and Macedonia was reduced to a Roman province. A. C. 167. 6. The Romans, already jealous of the power of the Achaean League, endeavoured to weaken it by cherishing divisions among the states, and sought the earliest opportunity of again unsheath- ing the sword against Greece. At length the Spartans, in a contest with the Achaean states, applied for assistance to Rome. The Romans, under the command of Metellus, marched into Greece and gained a complete victory over the Achaean army. The consul Mummius completed the conquest by taking and destroying the citv of Corinth, in which the remainder of the Achaean torces had taken refuge. The Achaean constitution was dissolved, and all Greece was reduced to a Roman province, under the name of ^chaia. A. C. 146. 7. In reviewing the history of this extraordinary people, we find much to admire and much to condemn. In point of genius, taste, learning, patriotism, and valor, the Greeks far surpassed all the other nations of antiquity. With regard to their forms of government, they were far from corresponding in practice with what they expressed in theory. Even in the palmiest days of Greece, we look in vain for that beautiful idea presented by a well-regulated commonwealth. The condition of the people fre- quently partook more of servitude than of liberty. Slaves formed the great majority of the inhabitants of the Grecian states ; and bondage being a consequence of the contcaction of debt^ even by free men, a great proportion of these were subject to the tyranni- cal control of their fellow-citizens. They were perpetually divided into faciions, and torn by internal dissensions, which finally led to the subversion of their liberties. 8. In pursuing he history of Athens, the mind is forcibly struck with the injustice and ingratitude freauently manifested towards the most illustrious of her citizens. Miltiades, Aristides, T/iemistocles, Fhocion, Cimon and Socrates, were all sentenced to death or banishment, yet the Athenians, with their charac teristic fickleness and inconstancy, did ample justice to their merits, and sought to punish those by whom they were accused. The most remarkable circumstance which strikes us, in com- paring the la*ter with the more early period of Grecian history, is the total change in the genius and spirit of the people. The * When did the Romans invade Greece? What is said of Philip? What was hia fate? — 0. What is said of the Romans? Wiio completed the conquest of Greece? To what was it reduced? — 7. In reviewing the history, what do we find? What is said of the forms of government? Of the people? Of slaves ?— 8. In pursuing the history of Athens, liow is the mind struck ? Who were sentenced to death or banish- ment ? What remarkable circumstance strikes us ? AVhat declined ? It 46 GREECE. ardor of patriotism, the thirst for military glory and love of liberty, decline with the rising grandeur ol the nation ; while q taste for the fine arts, a love of science and the refinements ol luxury are introduced. SECTION IX. Grecian Antiquities. Philosophy. Philosophy among the Greeks was divided into various sects or schools. Of these, the Ionic ect was the most ancient, founded by Thales, A. C. 640. He was eminently dis- tinguished for his knowledge of geometry and astronomy, and taught the belief of a first cause, and overruling Providence, but supposed the Deity to animate the universe, aj the soul does the body. 1 he Italian or Pythagorean sect was founded by Pythagoras, who tai|ght the transmigration of souls through different bodies, and believed the earth to be a sphere, the planets to be inhabited, and fixed stars to be the suns and centres of other systems. The Socratic school was founded by Socrates, who was esteemed the wisest and most virtuous of the Greeks, afld the father of moral philosophy He taught the belief of a first cause, whose beneficence is equal to his power, the Creator und Ruler of the universe. He inculcated the immortality of the soul, and a future state of rewards and punishments. The Cynics, a sect founded by Antisthenes, and supported by Diogenes, condemned knowledge as useless, renounced social enjoyments and conveniences of life, and indulged themselves in scurrility and invective. The Academic sect was founded by Plato, a philosopher whose doctrines have had a more extensive influence over the minds of mankind than those of any other of the ancients. Plato had the most sublime ideas of the Deity and his attributes. He taught that the human soul was a portion of the divinity, and that tnis alliance with the eternal mind might be improved into actual intercourse with the Supreme Being, by abstracting the soul from all the corruptions it derives from the body. He gave his lectures m the grove of Academus, near Athens. The Peripatetic sect was founded by Aristotle, who established his school in tho Lyceum, at Athens. His philosophy was taught in the schools for sixteen hundred years. The Skeptical sect was founded by PyrrJio, who inculcated universal doubt as the only true wisdom. There was, in his opinion, no essential difference between vice and virtue, further than as human compact f.ad discriminated them. Tranquillity ol PmtosoPiiT. — AVlmt is said of philosophy nmong the Greeks ? Who was the founder of the Ionic sect? What is said of him ? Who was the founder of the Pythagorean sect? What did he teach? Who was the founder of the Socratic sect? Wliat did he teach and inculcate ? Who founded the Cynic sect ? What did he condemn ? Who founded the Academic sect? What did he teach? Where did he give his lectures'' Wlio founded the Peripatetic sect? Who founded the Skeptic sect ? What dH he nculcate? GREECE. 47 livided into as the most linently dis- onomy, and vidence, but ioul does the Pythagoras, ?r«;nt bodies, t)e inhabited, ^sterns, vas esteemed he father of cause, whose Ruler of the , and a future supported by unced social hemselves in sopher whose the minds of Plato had the . He taught and that this J into actual the soul from e his lectures 10 established ly was taught 10 inculcated was, in his irtue, further ranquillity ol o was the foundjir f the Pythagorean ct? Wliatdidhe condemn? Who ffive his lectures ' t ? What dH he mind he considered to be the greatest happiness, and this was to be attained by absolute indifference to all dogmas or opinions. The Stoic sect was founded by Zeno. The Sioics inculcated fortitude of mind, denied that pain is an evil, and endeavoured to raise themselves above all the passions and feelings of human- ity. They taught that virtue consists in accommodating the dis positions of the mind i^ he immutable laws of nature, and vice in opposing these laws ; thev regarded vice, therefore, as folly, and virtue the only true wisdom. The Epicureans, named from Epicurus, the founder of the sect, maintained that the supreme happiness of man consisted in pleasure. The principle of all things was a subject of special research by the philosophers of Greece. Tholes taught that this principle consisted of water; ^fiiuixagoras, of infinite a.\r; Hcraclllus, of fire ; Democrilus, of atoms ; Pythagoras, of unity ; Plato, of God, idea, and matter; ^flristotte, of matter, form, and privation; Zeno, of God and matter; Epicurus, of matter and empty space. The Seven Wise Men. Tne seven wise men of Greece were, Thales, of MilAus; Solon, of Athens; Bias, of Priene; Chilo, of Lacedaemon ; Pittacus, o^ M'ltyXene; Cleobulus, o( lAndoSt and Periander, of Corinth. Instead of Periander, some enume- rate Mtjson, and others Anacharsis. The Council of the Amphictyons. This council is supposed to have been instituted by Jimphictyon, the son of Deucalion, king of Thessaly, at an early period of the history of Greece. It consisted, at first, of twelve deputies, f.om the twelve ditterent cities or states; but the number was afterwards increased to thirty. They met twice a year ; in the spring at Delphi, and in the autumn at Thermopylae. The objects of this assembly were to unite in strict unitv the states which were represented ; to consult for their mutual welfare and defence ; to decide all differ- ences between cities, and to try offences against the laws of nations. Public Games. There were four public and solemn games in ''Greece, namely, the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, oThe exercises practised at these games were, leaping, running, throwing, boxing, and wrestling; also the horse and chariot i| races, and contests between the poets, orators, musicians, phi'o- ^isophers, and artists. The Olympic games were instituted by Hercules, in honor of ^Jupiter Olympus, ^^. C. 1222 years; they were celebrated in the |town of Olympia, in the first month of every fifth year, and pasted five days. The space between one celebration to another was called an Olympiad, by which the Greeks computed their time. The prize bestowed on the victor wa« a crown of olive ; Who was th« founder of the Stoic sect ? What did they inculcate ? What did thcjr Iteach ? AVhat is said of the Epicureans ? What was a subject of special research T ^ What were the various opinions of the philosophers on this subject? Tub Sbve»» Wiok Men. — "Who were the seven wise men of Greece ? Tub Council of ihe AMPHiciTom.r— By whom was it instituted? Of what did it Iconsist ? Where did they meet? What was the object of this assembly ? I FubuaCambb. — What wore the four public games? What were the ezeroiMe? iBt wbom were the Olympic games instituted ? what was the prize of the rictos T 48 GREECE* yet trifling as was this reward, it was considered as the highest honor, and was sought for with the utmost eagerness. The vic- tor was greeted with loud acclamations, and his return home was in the style of a warlike conqueror. The Pythian games were celebrated every fifth year, in the second of every Olympiad, near Delphi, in honor of Apollo. The reward of the victors was a crown of laurel. The Nemean games were celebrated in the town of Nemea, every third year. The victors were crowned with parsley. Tno Isthmian games, so called from being celebrateu on the isthmus of Corinth, were instituted in honor of Neptune, and observed every third or fifth year ; they were held so sacred that even a public calamity could not prevent their celebration. The victors were rewarded with a garland of pine leaves. Literature. No nation of ancient or modern times surpassed the Greeks in literary taste and genius. In subsequent ages, great advances have been made in science, and in some of the branches of polite learning; yet in chaste and beautiful composition, in brilliancy of fancy, in sweetness of periods, in various forms of intellectual efforts, under the name of poetry, oratory, and his- tory, they are still unrivalled. Poetry in Greece was extremely ancient ; it was even cultivated before the introduction of letters. In epic poetry. Homer stands unrivalled in ancient or modern times. In lyric poetry, the names of AnacreoUy Sappho, and Pindar, have attained imperishable fame. Oratory was cultivated among the Greeks, particularly the Athenians, with the utmost care. The study of eloquence formed the principal employment of the young citizens at Athens. It was that which opened the way to the highest ofiices, reigned ab- solute in the assemblies, decided the most important affairs of the state, and an almost unlimited power to those who had the talent of oratory in an eminent degree. Music was cultivated with ^reat success, and was considered an essential part in the educa- tion of the youth. The ancients ascribed to it wonderful effects; they believed it well calculated to calm the passions, soften the manners, and even to harmonize nations naturally barbarous and savage. Dancing was also cultivated with much attention and care. Arts. In the more useful and necessary arts of life, the Greeks were never greatly distinguished. But in those which are termed the fine arts, Greece far surpassed all other nations of antiquity ; and those specimens which have survived the wreck of time are regarded as models of imitation, and are acknowledged as stan- "What is said of it ? How often were they celebrated ? How often were the Pythiam games celebrated ? In honor of whom ? What was the reward of the vii;tor8 ? At what place were the Nemean -celebrated ? W.nh what were the vutors crowned? Why were the Isthmian games so called? What is said of them? Vhat was the reward of the victors ? LiTXKATURK. — What is said of the Greeks in literary taste ? In what are they still unrivalled ? What is said of poetry ? Of Homer ? Of Anacreon, &c. ? What is said of Oratory? The study of Eloquence? Of Music? What did they ascribe Ho it! What is said of Dancing? Abts. — In what were the Greeks never greatly distinguished? In what did thcT ■urpaev all others 7 GREECE. 49 iiem? Vhat was the I? In what did they dards of excellence, in the judginentof the most polished nations of modern times. During the administration of Pericles^ which is called the golden age of the Grecian arts, architecture, sculp- turt, and painting were carried to the summit of perfection. The architecture consisted of three distinct orders, the Doric, the lonict and the Corinthian. The Doric has a masculine grandeur, and a superior air of strength to both the other orders. It is, therefore, well adapted to works of great magnitude. Of this order is the temple of Theseus, at Athens, built ten years after the battle of Marathon, and is almost entire at the present day. The Ionic is distinguished for its elegance and simplicity, the latter quality being essentially requisite in true beauty. Of this order were the temple of Apollo, at Miletus, the temple of the Delphic oracle, and the temple of Diana, at Ephesus. The Co- rintliian affected the highest magnificence and ornament, by uniting the characters of all the orders. In sculpture, the Greeks excelled no less than in architecture. Specimens of their skill in this respect are perfect models. The Dying Gladiator, the Venus, and the Laocoon of the Grecian sculptors have an imperishable fame. In painting, though very few specimens have descended to us, they are supposed to have excelled. The productions of Zeuxis, ^pelles, IHmanthes, Bind others which penshed, were highly ex- tolled by the writers of antiquity. Private and Domestic Life. The dress of the Greeks dif- fered much from that of most of the modern nations. The men were an inner garment called a tunic, over which they threw a mantle ; their shoes or sandals were fastened under the soles ot their feet with thongs. The women, particularly at Athens, wore a white tunic, whicn was closely bound with a broad sash, and descended in graceful folds to the ground ; also a shorter robe, confined rouna the waist with a ribbon, and bordered at the bot- toiTi with stripes of various colours. Over this they sometimes put on a robe, which was worn much like the present scarf. In the earlier ages of Greece, the inhabitants usually wore no cover- ing on their neads, but in after times, they made use of a kind of hat, tied under the chin. The women, however, always had their heads covered. The Athenians wore in their hair a golden grass- hopper, as an emblem of the antiquity of their nation, intimating that they sprung from the earth. In Sparta, the kings, magis- trates, and citizens were but little distinguished by dress. The military costume wa& of a red color. The meals of the Greeks were usually four in number. The breakfast was taken about the rising of the sun ; the next meal at mid-day; then came the afternoon repast, and lastly, the sup- per, w'hich was the principal meal. Every thing capable of sus- taining life was used as food, though they were generally fond of What were the three orders of architecture ? Wliat is said of the Doric ? How was the Ionic distinguished ? ^A^at did the Corinthian effect ? ^Vhat is said of sculp- ture ? V^at have an imperishable fame ? What is said of painting ? PRnrATK AND DOMESTIC LiFE.— What was the dress of the men ? Of the women r >Vhat did the Athenians wear? What was the number of their meals, and when were they taken ? What was used ? 00 GREECE. 'I fish ; water and wine were the usual drink. At first they sat up- right at their meals ; but as luxury prevailed, couches were intro- duced, on which the guests reclined while at table. Marriage among the Greeks was only lawful as the consent t»t' he parents or other relatives could be obtained. Polygamy was allowed only after great calamities, such as war or pestilence. The Grecian women seldom appeared in strange company, but were confined to the remote parts of the house, into which no male visitor was admitted. When they went abroad, they wore veils to conceal their faces. It was disreputable, however, for them to appear much abroad. Children were required to main- tain their parents in old age; but, according to the laws of Solon, parents wno did not bring up their children to some useful em- ployment, could not exact a support from them. The funerals of the Greeks were attended with many cere- monies, showing that they considered the duties belonging to the dead to be of the highest importance. In their view, it was the most awful of all imprecations, to wish that a person might be deprived of funeral honours. [^For Oracles ana Religion of the Cfreeks, see Mythology.^ Of some of the peculiar institutions of Greece, the court of tSreopagtts and Ostracism were most remarkable. The Sreopa- gus, which signifies the Hill of Mars, from the place where it was held, was the most distinguished and venerable court of jus- tice in ancient times, and took cognisance of crimes, abuses and innovations, either in religion or government. The Areopaffites were the guardians of education and manners, and inspected the laws. To laugh in this assembly was an unpardonable act of levity. One of the absurd peculiarities in the government of Athens, was the practice of the Ostracism; this was a ballot of all the citizens, m which each wrote down the name of the individual most oifepsive to him ; and he who was marked out by the great- est number of votes, was banished from his country for a specified time, often for a number of years. It was not necessary that any crime should be alleged : neither the property nor the honor oT the exile sustained the least injury. By this institution the most flag;rant injustice was often committed against the most virtuous citizens. Origin of Tragedy. Tragedy owes its origin to the feasts of BaccJms, usually celebrated at the time of the vintage, and at first consisted of a few rude ctmiic scenes, intermixed wiUi songs in praise of that god. TTiespis, owing to several improvements which he made in tragedy, is generally esteemed its inventor, although there were seveial tragic and comic poets before his !' How did they Bit at their meaU t What is said of marriage ? What was allowed ^ .What is said of the Grecian w««r»cn ? What was dfsreputoble ? What were chil- dren required to do ? What is »«id of funerals ^ What Wtis thought the most awful unprecation? What were some of the peculiar institutions? What is said of the Areopagus ? Of what were ther the guardians? What was deemed an unpardonab.e act of levity? What was the Ostracism? By this institution, what was often eommitted ? Quoni or TmAM»T.— To what does tragedy owe U8ori|{tB? What is said of Thevpui? ROME. M time. He carried the actora about in carta, whereas before, they were accustomed to sing or recite in the streets, wherever chance led them ; he also caused their facea to be smeared over with lees of wine, instead of acting without disguise, as at first : and he mtroduced a character among the chorus, who, to give the actors time to rest, repeated the adventures of some illustrious person. The alterations which Thespis made in tragedy, gave room for ^schylns to make still further improvements. He was a man of superior genius, and took upon himself to reform rather than to create tragedy in the new. He gave masks to his actors, adorned them with robes and trains, and made them wear bus- kins. Instead of a cart, he erected a stage of a moderate ele- vation, and entirely changed their style, which, from being merely burlesque, became majestic and serious. But the most important and essential addition of ^schylus consisted in the vivacity and spirit of the action, sustained by the dialogue of the persons of the drama, introduced by him — in the artful working up the stronger passions, especially of terror and pity, which by alter- nately afflicting and agitating the soul with mournful and terrible objects, produces a grateful pleasure and delight from that very trouble and emotion ; and lastly, in the choice of his subjects, which were always great, noble, interesting, and contained within due bounds by the unity of time, place, and action. Of the ninety tragedies composed by ^scnylus, only seven are now extant. j33schylus was in the sole pjossession of the gloiy of the stage, when a young rival matle his appearance in the person of . "'ants before they were able to accomplish their design. 16. Another transaction, equally atrocious, in&pi red the citizens wilh a resolution to break all measures of obedience. While AppiuSf who remained in the city, was seated on his tribunal to dispense justice, he saw a young female of exquisite beauty, named Virginia, passing to one of the public schools, attended by a matron, her nurse. Her charms, heightened by that modest glow which innocence and virtue lend to nature, inflamed his heart J but being himself unable to gratify his desires, he era- , ployed a profligate dependent to claim her as his own, on the i pretence of her being the daughter of one o** his female slaves. iThe claim being referred to his tribunal, Appius pronounced an infamous sentence, by which the innocent victim was torn from the embraces of her parents, and placed within the reach of his |own power. 17. In the mean time, VtrginiuSf her father, did all that a [parent could, to save the liberty and honor of his daughter, but I finding that all was over, askea permission to take his last fare- well of one whom he had so long considered as his child. With ; this Appius complied, on condition that their endearments should I pass in nis presence.; Virginius, with the most poignant anguish, \ took his almost expiring daughter in his arms, for a while sup- 's ported her head upon his breast, and wiped away the tears that What did they throw off?— 15. "What is related of Appius ? What were the soldier* ,^ «r bo ibrmed the escort of Dentatus? How many did ne kill and wound? — 16. Wh»t other iriuwaoiion is related of Appius while seated on his tribunal ? What sentence ; did he pronounce ?— 17. In the mean time, what did Virginius do ? What did he a«K T 60 ROME. rolled down her lovely face, then seizing a knife that lay on_one of the shambles in the forunij he addressed his daughter, saying, *' My dearest child — this, this only can preserve your freedom and your honour." Thus saying, he buried the weapon in her breast, then holding it up, reeking from her wound, he exclaimed, *' By this blood, Appius, I devote thy head to the infernal gods." He then ran through the city wildlv calling on the people to strike for their freedom, and thence to the camp to spread the flame of llbertv throughout the army. Appius and Oppius died by their own hands in prison j their colleagues were driven into exile, and the decemvirate was abolished, after it had continued for tiiree years, and the consuls were again restored. <\ 18. Unfortunately for Rome, there always appeared some cause left for internal dissensions. By an earlv law of the state, plebeians were prohibited to intermarry with the j»atricians, ana the office of consul Nvas limited to the latter. After a long con- test, the law prohibiting intermarriage was repealed. This con- cession, it was hoped, would satisfy the people, but it only stimulated Ihem to urge their claim to be admitted to have a share in the consulship ; and on the occurrence of war, refused to en- list their names unless their demand was granted. At length it was agreed on both sides, that instead of the consuls, six military tribunes should be chosen, three from the patricians, and three from the plebeians. This institution was soon discontinued, and the consuls were again restored. 19. The consuls being thus restored, in order to lighten the weight of their duties, two new magistrates were created , styled censors, to be chosen every fifth year. Their duty was to esti- mate the number and the estates of the people, to distribute them into their proper classes, to inspect the morals and manners of their fellow-citizens. The office was one of great dignity and importance, and was exercised for nearly one hundred years by the patricians, afterwards by men of consular dignity, and finally by the emperors. 20. The senate, in order to avoid the evils which frequently arose from the people's refusing to enlist in the army, adopted the wise expedient of giving a regular pay to the troops. From this period, the Roman system of war assumed a new aspect. The senate had the army under its immediate control ; the enter- prises of the republic were more extensive, and its success more signal and important. As the art of war now became a profes- sion, instead oi an occasional employment, it was in consequence greatly improved, and from this penodthe Roman territory began rapidly to extend. 21. The inhabitants of the city of Vdi had repeatedly com- mitted depredations on the Roman territorie? ; it was at length decreed by the Roman senate, that Veii should be destroyed, How did he address his daughter ? What did he then do ? "What was the fate of Appius and Oppius? — 18. By a law of the state, what were the plebeians prohibited? Wliat was done after a long contest ? At length, what was agreed on both sides ? —19. What two new magistrates were now created ? What was their duty ? — ^20. What wise expedient did the senate adopt ? What were the consequences of this measure ?— 21. what was at length decreed ? IIOME. 61 whatever it might cost. Accordingly, a siege was commenced, which continued with various success for ten years. At length, in order to give greater vigour to the operations, Cainillus was created dictator, and to him was intrusted the sole management of the long protracted war. He caused a passage to be opened under ground, which led into the very citadel, and giving his men directions how to enter the breach, the city was taken and de- stroyed. Camillus was honored with a splendid triumph, in which his chariot was drawn by four white horses; but being afterwards accused of having appropriated a part of the plunder of Veii to his own use, indignant at the ingratitude of his coun- trymen, he went into voluntary banishment. 22. It was not long before the Romans had cause to repent of their injustice towards the only man who was able to save their country from ruin. The Gauls, a barbarous and warlike people, having crossed the Alps into the northern part of Italy, under Brenmis, their ki.ig, laid siege to Clusium, a city of Etruria. The inhabitants of Clu- sium having applied for assistance to the Romans, the senate sent three patricians of the Fabian family on an embassy to Brennus, to inquire into the cause of offence given by the citizens of Clu- sium. To this he sternly replied, (hat " the riffht of valiant men lay in their swords : that the Romans themselves had no other right to the cities they had conquered." The ambassadors, on entering the city, assisted the innabitants against the assailants. This conduct so incensed Brennus, that he i:..;rediately raised the siege of Clusium, and marched directly for Rome, and in a great battle on the banks of the Allia, he defeated the Roman army with great slaughter. 23. After this victory, the Gauls entered Rome, put to the sword all the inhabitants that feU in fheir way, pillaged the city, and then burnt it to ashes. They next laid siege to the capitol, which the Romans defended with the utmost bravery. At length, having discovered a way which led to the top of the Tarpeian rock, a body of Gauls undertook the difficult task of gaining the summit under the cover of the night, and even succeeded in ac- complishing their design, while the Roman sentinel was asleep. At this moment, the gabbling of some sacred geese in the temple of Juno roused the garrison, and through the exertions of iWanws Manjius, the Gauls were instantly thrown headlong down the precipice. 24. As the Gauls now gave up all hope of being able to reduce the capitol, they agreed to quit the city, on condition that the Romans would pay them one thousand pounds' weight of gold ; but after the gold was brought forth, the Gauls endeavored, by fraudulent weights, to impose upon the Romans; and when the latter offered to complain, Brenpus, costing his sword and belt Who wo.s created dictator? 'NVhat did he cause? How was he honoured? Of what was he accused ?— 22. What is said of the Gauls ? \Viiat reply did Brennus make to the embassy sent by the Romans ? What did one of the ambassadors do ? HowdidBrennusreseut this conduct?— 23. On entering Rome, what did the Oauli do ? Having discovered away to the Tarpeian rock, what did the Gauls do? How was tlie garrison reused?— 24. To what did the Gauls agree? 62 ROMF. into the scale, replied, that it was the only portion of the van- quished to suner. At this moment, CamiUus^ who in the mean time had been restored to favor and again appointed dictator, entered the gates of the city at the head of a large army. Havinff been informed of the insolence of the enemy, he ordered the gold to be carried back to the capitol, saying, tJiat it had been the man- ner of the Romans to ransom their country by steel, and not by ^old. Upon this a battle ensued, in which the Gauls were en- tirely routed, and the Roman territories delivered from those for- midable invaders. 25. After the defeat of the Gaulsy throuj^h the exertions of Ca- millusj who was honored as the lather of his country and the second founder of Rome, the city soon began again to rise from its ashes. Shortly after this, Manlius. whose patriotism and valor had shone so conspicuous in defending the capitol and saving the last remains of Rome, abandoned himself to ambitious views ; and being accused of aspiring to the sovereign power, he was sentenced to be thrown headlong from the Tarpeian rock. Thus the place which had been the theatre of his glory, became that of his punishment and iufainy. 26. The Romans next turned their arms against the Samnites, who inhabited an extensive tract of country in the south of Italy. During this contest, w hich lasted for about fifty years, the Romans were generally successful, with the exception of a defeat sus? tained near Caudium^ when their whole army was compelled to pass under the yoke, formed by two spears placed upright and a third placed across them. But roused by this defeat rather tlian discouraged, the Romans, the following year, having created Papirius Cursor, dictator, gained a signal victoiy over the Sam- nites, and compelled them m turn to undergo the same disgrace: and pursuing their good fortune under Pabiiis Maximus and Decius, they finally brought them under subjection. 27. A war shortly afterwards followed between the Romans and Latinsj but as their clothing, arms and language were simi- lar, the most exact discipline was necessarv in order to prevent confusion in the engagement. Orders were therefore issued by Manlius, the consul, that no soldier should leave his ranks under the penalty of death. When the armies were drawn out in order of battle, Melius, a Latin, challenged to single^ combat any one of the Roman knights. Upon this, Tiius Manlius, the son of the consul, forgetful of the orders of his father, accepted the chal- lenge, and slew his adversary. Then taking the spoils Of the enemy, he hastened to lay them at the feet of the consul^ who, with tears in his eyes, told him that as he had violated military discipline, he had reduced him to the deplorable extremity of sacrificing his son or his country, but added, that a thousand lives would be well lost in 'iuch a CcAUsej and accordingly ordered him At this moment who appeared at the gales of the city ? What did he order ? AVhat ensued? — Z5. AAer the defeat of the Gauls, what took place? AVhat is related of Manlius? — ^26. Against whom did the Romans next turn their arms? Where did they tuffer a defeat? who was created dictator? — 27. ^Vhat war next followed? What orders were issued by Manlius? AVhat is related of Titus, his son? ROME. 63 to be beheaded. In the mean time the battle ensued, in which the Latins were vaiuiuished, and submitted to the Romans. 28. The Tarentines, who were the allies of the Samnites, being unable to defend themselves, applied for aid to Fyrrhus, king of Epirus, the most celebrated general of his age. Having accepted the invitation, Pyrrhus immediately sailed for Tarentum, with an army of thirty thousand men and twenty ele- phants. The consul, Lavinus, hastened to oppose him: but the Uomans, unaccustomed to the mode of fightmg with elephants, were defeated with the loss of fifteen thousand men; but the loss on the side of the Grecian monarch was nearly the same, and he was heard to say, that another such victory would compel him to abandon his enterprise. Struck with admiration at the heroism of the enemy, he exclaimed, " O with what ease could I conmier the world, luiu 1 the Uomans for soldiers, or had they me for their kin^." 2U. The conduct o^ Fabric his, the Roman general, during this war, claims universal admiration. On one occasion, having re- ceived a letter from the physician of Pyrrhus^ importing that for a proper reward he would poison the king, the noble Roman, in- dignant at so base a proposal, gave immetiiate information of it to Pyrrhus, who, admiring the generosity of his enemy, exclaim- ed, '* It is easier to turn the sun from its course, than Fabricius from the path of honor." Pyrrhus, after suffering a total defeat near Bcneventum, vvithdrew to his own dominions, and the Ro- mans, shortly after his departure, became masters of all the south- ern part of Italy. SECTION III. From the Jirst Punic War to the conquest of Greece, A, C. 264 to 133. 1. As the history of Rome now becomes connected with that of Carthage and Sicily, it may not be improper to introduce here a short account of those states. Carthage is said to have been founded by Dido, with a colony of Tyrians, about nine hundred years before the Christian era. The government was at tirst monarchical, but afterwards became republican; it is highly com- mended by Aristotle as one of the most perfect of antiquity, but according to tlie same author, it had two great defects: the first, was the investing the same person with different public employ- ments; and the second, was that a certain income was required before a man could attain to any important office, by which means poverty might exclude a person of the most exalted merit from holding a civil employment. 29. To whom did the Tarentines apply for aid ? "WHio was sent to oppose him ? AVhat W(is the issue of the battle? What did Pyrrhus exclaim ?— 89. What is related of Fiibricms ? What did Pyrrhus say of him ? I. "SYhat is said of Carthag^e ? Of the government ? What were its defects ? 64 ROME. 2. The supreme power was placed in the senate; there were two inao-istrates annually elected, called Seftetes, whose autho- rity in Carthage answered to that of the consuls at Rome. Com- merce was the chief occupation of the Carthaginians, to which they were indebted for their wealth and power. Their religion was a degrading superstition; the cruel practice of offering human victims was exercised among them. At the time of the Punic wars, the city of Carthage had risen in wealth and commercial importance surpassing any other city in the world. It had under its dominion a number of towns in Africa, bordering on the Mediterranean, besides a great part of Spain, Sicily, and other islands. 3. From Egypt, the Carthaginians brought flax, paper, corn, &c.; from the coast of the Red Sea, spices, perfumes, gold, pearls ana ftrecious stones; from Tyre and Phoenicia, purple, scarlet and the ike: in a word, they brought from various countries all things that contribute not only to the convenience, but even to the lux- ury and pleasures of lite. They are represented as being greatly wanting in honor and integrity; cunning, duplicity and oreacn of faith seems to have been a disting'uishiri"' feature in their cha- racter; hence the phrase — Punica Mihs — Punic Faith, was used to denote treachery. 4. The Carthaginians seem never to have«excelled as a literary people; there were, however, among them several distinguished scholars. The great Hannibal, who in all respects was the orna- ment of the city, was not unacquainted with polite literature. Mago, ar.oiher celebrated general, wrote twenty-eight volumes upon husbandry, vvhich were afterwards much esteemed by the Romans. There is still extant a Greek version of an account written by Hanno, relating to a voyage made by him with a con- siderable fleet round Africa, for the settling of different colonies. Clitomachus, called in the Punic tongue ^^sdrubal, was a great philosopher. Carthage produced scverm eminent generals, among whom Hamilcar, ^sdrnbnl, and Hannibal were the most distin- guished. 5. Sicily is said to have been settled by a colony o^ Phoenicians, previous to the Trojan war; but the Qreeks at a later period made settlements on the island. It contained many large and populous cities; of these Syracuse was the most populous and commercial. This city, at an early period, was under a democratical form of government, which in the course of time was overthrown, and a monarchy established in its stead. Gelon, one of its sovereigns, is represented as possessed of every virtue; but the tyranny and cruelty of his successors caused a revoluticVn in the state, and the regal government was abolished. After a period of sixty years, it was again restored by Bionysius, a man of great abilities ; but his son Bionysius, the younger, a weak and capricious tyrant, 2. In what was the power placed? What were the magistrates called? What is said of religion? Of Carthage, at the time of the Punic wars? — 3. What did the Car- thaginians bring- from Egypt? From Tyre? IIovv are they represented? — 3. Did they ever excel as a literary people? What is said of Hannibal? Of Mago? What is ■till extant? What did Carthage produce? — 5 What is said of Sicily? AVhat did it contain? What is said of Gelon? What was the fate of Dionysius the younger? HOMC. 65 )? What is ?" What did h was dethroned by the aid of Tlmoleon, an illustrious Corinthian, and banished to Corinth, where he ended his life in poverty 6. The Romans, being anxious to extend their conquests, soon found an opportunity ot indulging in their design. Ine Mamer- tines, a people of Campania, obtained assistance of the Romans in a war with Hiero, king of Syracuse; the Syracusans, in their turn, assisted the Carthaginians; a war was thus brought on be- tween the latter and the Romans, called the first Punic ffar. The first object of both powers was to obtain possession of Mes- sina, a city which commanded the passage of the straits, but it finally became a contest for the dominion of the whole island. 7. But there seemed an insurmpuntable obstacle to the ambi- tion of Rome; she had no fleet; while Carthage was sover ' 'n of the sea. The Romans, however, resolved to overcome, ./ery obstacle that lay in their way to conquest. A Carthaginian ves- sel which happened in a storm to be driven on the coast, served as a model ; and in the short space of tw« months, a flee' consist- ing of one hundred vessels was constructed and ready for sea. The consul, DuiUms^ was appointed to t!»e command of the arma- ment, and though much inferior to the enemy in tht management of liis fleet, yet he gained the first navui victor ', defea<^"d the Carthaginians, and took fifty of their vessels. 8. At the commencement of the war, the Syracusans '^^ ho had confederated with the Carthaginians, changed their ctJiSe and joined the Romans. The Carthaginians, novi^f r, after a lon^: siege, took the city of Agrigentum. A second nival engagement soon afterwards took place, in which the Romans were again victorious; the Carthaginians, under //anno and Hamilcar, lost sixty of their vessels. The consul, liegulus^ in the mean time, was sent by the senate to carry the war into Africa; and having landed on the coast, defeated the Carthaginians, and carried his victorious arms to the very walls of their capital. But here his good fortune seemed to forsake him ; he was signally defeated by the Carthaginians under the command of Xanthippus, a Spartan general, and fell into the hands of the enemy. 9. The Carthaginians, weary of continuing the war, became desirous of treating for peace, and with this view, they sent am- bassadors to RomCj and among their number was Regulus, who had now been detained four years a i^-'son^r, having previously exacted a promise on oath, that he .^a\A return to Carthage if the negotiation should fail. But Regulus, not deeming the terms of peace sufficiently advantageous to his country, strenuously opposed their being accepted, auU returned to Carthage, where, after the most cruel tortures, he was finally put to death, by being placed in a barrel driven lull of nails, pointing inwards, and in ih'^ painful situation he continued until he died. 6. What occasioned the first Punic War? "What was the object of both powsrs'— u "^.?* ^** ^" obstacle to the ambition of Rome? How did the Romans surmount the difficulty? Who was appointed to command the fleet? What was the issue of the enffagement?— a What is said of the Syracusans? "Wliat was the result of the second naval engagement? What is related of Regulus?— 9. ^Vl^om did the Cartha- ginians & id to Rome to negotiate a peace? What did Regulus do? How was ha put to death ? 6* 66 ROME. 10. The war was now renewed on both sides with more than former animosity ; at length the perseverance of the Romans was crowned with success. Peace was granted to the Carthaginians on the most humiliating conditions ; it was agreed that they should abandon Sicily, pay the Romans three thousand two hundred talents, and release their captives. Thus terminated the first Punic War, after it had continued twenty-four years. Sicily was now declared a Roman province, but Syracuse still maintained its independent government. After this war, the Romans com- pleted the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul ; and now being at peace \yith all mankind, they closed the temple of Janus tor the first time since the reign of'^Numa. 11. The Carthaginians had made peace only, because they were no longer able to continue the war ; they therefore took the earliest opportunity of breaking the treaty. They besieged Sa- guntum, a city in Spain, then in alliance with Rome; and although requested to desist, they refused to comply : this refusal led to a second Punic War. To Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar, the Carthaginians intrusted the command of their army. This extra- ordinary man, whilst very young, was brought before the altar and made to take an oath that he never would be in friendship with the Romans, nor desist from opposing their power until he or they should be no more. Being now raised to the chief com- mand of the forces of his country, tliough only in the twenty-sixth year of his age, he formed the bold design of carrying the war into Italy, as the Romans had before carried it into tlie dominions •of Carthage. 12. For thii purpose, leaving Ilanno to guard his conquest in HSpain,he crossed tlie Pycnean mountain, entered Gaul, and with ^n army of fifty thousand foot and nine thousand horse, in a short time appeared at the foot of the t/?/ps. It was now in the midst xif winter; the prodigious height of the mountains, their steepness, and summits covered with snow, presented a picture that might have discouraged an ordinary individual. But nothing could subdue the resolution of the Carthaginian general : at the end of fifteen days, he effected the passage of the Alps and found himself on the plains of Italy ; but with only a half of his numerous army. 13. Scarcely had he an\ved in Italy, when the Romans hastened to oppose his progress, over whom he gained four memorable vic- tories, — ihe first, over Sdpio ne&r Ticinus; the second, over Sempronius, the consul, in which twenty-six thousand Romans were destroyed ; the third, near lake Thrasimenus over JFYami- nius', and the fourth at Cannae, over ^milius and Varro. The last was the most memorable defeat the Romans ever sustained. More than forty thousand of their troops were left dead upon the field, together with the consul .^milius.^ Among the slam were so many Roman knights, that Hannibal is said to have sent to 10. On what conditions was peace granted to the Carthaginians? After the conquest ^f Cisalpine Gaul, what did the Romans do ?— 11. What led to the second Punic War T To whom did the Carthaginians intrust xha command of their army ? What is said of him whilst young? What bold design did he form?— 18. Leaving Honno in Spain, •what did Hannibal do? IIow many days did he occupy in crossing the Alps?— 13. "AVhat four momorabls victones did he now gain ? f\ ROME. 67 Carthage three bushels of gold rinffs. which they wore on their fingers. In the mean time, Hannwatj either finding it impracti- caole to march directly to Rome, or wishing to give his forces rest after so signal a victory, led them to Capua, where he resolved to spend the winter. 14. The chief command of the Roman forces was now given to Fabius Maximus, styled the Shield, and to Marcellus, the Sword, of Rome. After the battle of Cannae, the good fortune of the Carthaginian general seemed to forsake him. At the siege of Nola he was repulsed with considerable loss, bjr Marcellus, and his army was harassed and weakened by Fabius. Marcel Ivs took tne city of Syracuse after a siege of three years, during which time it was chiefly defended by the genius of the cele- brated Archimedes. The inhabitants were put to the sword, and among them Archimedes himself, who was found by a Roman soldier engaged in his study. - 15. A large army of Carthaginians, sent from Spain into Italy, under the command of Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was defeated, and their general slain by the Romans, under the com- mand of the consuls, Livy and Isero. The very night on which Hannibal was assured of the arrival of his brother, Asdrubal's head was cut off and thrown into his camp. Scipio, the younger, surnamed Africanus, after his return from the conquest of Spain, was made consul at the early age of twenty-nine ; out instead of opposing Hannibal in Italy, formed a wiser plan which was to carry the war into Africa. On his arrival at the very walls of their capital, the Carthaginians, alarmed for the fate of their empire, immediately recalled Hannibal from Italy. On receiving this order, he hastened to return to his native country, after having kept possession of the most beautiful parts of Italy for about fifteen years. 16. Having arrived in Africa, he marched to Adrumetum, and finally upon the plains of Zama he vt^as met by Scipio at the head of the Roman army, and after a fruitless attempt to negotiate a peace, a tremendous battle ensued, in which the Carthaginians were totally defeated, with the loss of twenty thousand of their' troops, which were left dead upon the plain, and as many more taken prisoners. This victory was followed by a peace, on con- ditions that Carthage should abandon Spain, Sicily, and all the 'islands in the Mediterranean, surrender all their prisoners, give up their whole fleet, except ten galleys, and in future undertake [no war without the consent of the Romans. To these hard con- iditions, the Carthaginians were compelled to subscribe. Thus [terminated the Second Funic War, after having continued for I seventeen years. I 17. Hannibal, after this event, passed the last thirteen years of his life in exile from his native country, and finally took refuge [ WTiat is said of the last ? How many rings did he send to Carthnge ?— 14. To whom was (the command of the Roman forces now given? What were they styled ? By whom [was the city of Syracuse defended? What was his fate?— 15. What is said of the Car- jthaginian army? What plan did Scipio, the younger, form? On his arrival what Idid the Carthaginians do ? How long had he remained in Italy ?— 16. WTiero was the met by Scipio ? AVhat was the issue of the battle ? What were the condit:ons of jihc peace?— 17. "Where did Hannibal finally take refuge? How did he 3iel 68 ROMB. in the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia. The Romans, who were bent on his destruction, sent ^milius, one of their most celebrated generals, to demand him from this king, who, fearing, the resentment of Rome, determined to deliver up his guest. The unfortunate general, in order to avoid falling into the hands of his enemies, destroved himself by poison. ^ 18. While the Romans were engagjed in hostilities with the Carthaginians, they also carried on a vigorous war against Philip, king ofMacedonia, which finally terminated in favour of Rome. After this, the Romans turned their arms against Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, who was defeated by Scipio, surnamed Asiaticus, in the great battle of Magnesia. A ^^econd war fol- lowed with Maceclonia, which terminated in (he defeat of Pei'seus, the last king of that country, at the battle of Pydna ; after which Macedonia was reduced to a Roman province. 19. About this time, Massinissa, the Numidian, made incur- sions into a territory claimed by (he Carthaginians, who at- tempted to repel the invasion. The Romans pretending this as a violation of (heir treaty, laid hold of it as a pretext for com- mencing the third Punic War, with a determination not to desist until (he city of Carthage should be destroyed. Porcius Cato, one of the most prominent members of the senate, strongly in- sisted on this measure, and usually concluded his speeciies in these words: Delendacst C«r//i«5"o, Carthage must be destroyed. The Carthaginions, conscious of the superiority of the Romans, endeavored by every species of submission to evert the impend- ing ruin of their country. They yielded to the Romans their ships, their arms, and munitions of war ; but they were still re- quired to abandon their capital, that it. might be levelled to the ground. 20. This demand was received with mingled feelings of sorrow and despair; but finding no alternative, the wretched Carthagi- nians began to prepare to suffer the^ utmost extremities, in order to save m^ seat of their empire. The vessels of gold and silver which adorned their luxurious banquets, w-ere now converted into arms ; even the women parted with their ornaments, and cut off their hair, to be made into bow-strings. After a desnerate re- sistance for three years, the city was taken by Scipio, also called Africanus, and destroyed. Thus was Carthage, one of the most renowned cities of antiquity, with its walls and temples razed to its foundntion. Such of the inhabitants as refused to surrender themselves prisoners of war, ei(her fell by the sword, or perished in the ruins of their city. The scenes of horror presented on (he occasion, it is said, even forced tears from the eyes of the Roman general. 21. The destruction of Carthage was succeeded by the con- quests of several other states. Corinth was taken and destroyed 18. "What other war did the Romans carry on at this time ? Against whom did they next mm their arms? What happened nQer the battle of Pydna? — 19. What led to the third Punic war? How did Cato usually conclude his speeches? What did the Carthaginians do? — ^20. How was this demand received? What did he make of their vessels of gold and silver? How long did the siege last? What is said of the scene? —21. What was the reduction of nnrthaice succeeded by ? What is related of the in- hibitontf of Numantia^ ROME. 69 ans, who eir most ), fearing, est. The hands of with the st Philip, of Rome, ochus the surnamed 1 war fol- f Perseits, ter which ide incur- , who at- ng this as t tor com- 3t to desist mis Cato, trongly in- peeclies in destroyed, le Romans, he impend- Imans their ;re still re- jlled to the _ of sorrow i Carthagi- es, in order I and silver iverted into and cut off ssperate re- als© called of the most es razed to ) surrender or perished mted on the the Roman by the con- d destroyed whom did they 9. What led to J AVhat dirt the le make oftheiT ,d of the scene ? elated of the m- by t^'e consul Mummius, and Greece reduced to a.Roman pro- vmi . Scipio having laid siege to Numantia, a city in Spain, the inhabitants, to avoid ialling into the hands of the enemy, set fire to the town, and perished in the flames. After this event, Spain fell under the dominion of Rome. SECTION IV. The Sedition of the Gracchii f Civil TVafs ; Conspiracy of Catiline. A. C. 133 to 63. 1. The Romans, who had been long distinguished for tempe- rance and military enterprise, were not as yet a literary people; the arts and sciences had been but little cultivated among them After the conquest of Greece, a favorable change took place ; with the luxury of that nation was introduced at Rome a taste for literature. But as they grew in power, luxury and a corrup- tion of manners began to prevail. By the destruction of Carthage, Rome was left without a rival ; her arms were everywhere suc- cessful. ^ * 2. But when she had triumphed over all her enemies abroad, domestic dissensions began to prevail at home. 7%enus ana Caius Graccnus, men of eloquence and influence, distinguished themselves by declaiming against the corruptions which began to prevail among the great, and by asserting the claims of the people. Tiberius^ the elder of the two brothers, while tribune, with a view of checking the power of the patricians, and abridging their immense estates, endeavored to revive the Licinian law, which ordained that no citizen should possess more than five hundred acres of public land. In consequence of this proposal a tumult followed, in which Tiberius, together with three hundred of his friends, was slain in the streets of Rome by the partisans of the senate. 3. When this tragical event took place, Caius Gracchus, in the twenty -first year of his age, was yet in retirement, engaged in the quiet pursuit of study. The fatal example of his brother did not deter him from following a similar career. Having been elected to the tribuneship, he procured an edict granting the free- dom of the city to the inhabitants of Latium, and afterwards to all the people on that side of the Alps ; he also procured that the price ot corn should be fixed at a moderate rate, and a monthly distribution of it among the people. He then proceeded to an inspection into the late corruptions of the senate, the whole body of which being convicted of bribery, extortion, and sale of oftices. These measures did not fail to enkindle the resentment of that bod> ; Gracchus was marked out for destruction, and he finally 1. AVliat i» said of the Romans ? After the conquest of Greece, what took place ? —2. What now began tO prevail ? What did Tiberius Gracchus endeavour to revive ? In consequence of this, what followed ?— 3. Having b<;en elected to the tribuneship, wliat did Caius Gracchus procure? What did he then proceed to do? Wliat WM the consequence of these measures ? •K) ROMC. fell a victim to their vengeance, with three thousand of his parti- sans, who were slaughtered in the streets of Rome, by the consul Opimius. 4. Jugurtha, the grandson of the famous Masinissa, attempted to usurp the throne of Numidia, bv destroying his cousins, Hiempsal and Adherbal, the sons of tne late \i\ngMicipsa. The elder fell a victim to his treachery, but Adherbal, the younger, having escaped, applied for assistance to the senate of Rome, out that body bein? bribed by Jugurtha, divided the kingdom between the two. Jugurtha haying invaded the territories of Adherbal, defeated and f lc\y him in battle, then seized upon his whole king- dom; but by thi , act he drew upon himself the resentment of Rome. Wat having been declared against him, the command of the army was at first confided to Metellus, but when on the point of gaining a complete triumph over the king of Numidia, he was supplanted in the command by the intrigues of Cuius Marius, who had the honor of terminating the war. Jugurtha wa3 defeated and taken prisoner, and led to Rome in chains, and having adorned the triumph of the conqueror, was cast into prison and starved to death. 5. About this period the Roman republic was again convulsed by domestic dissensions. The Italian states being frustrated in their aims of gaining the freedom of Rome, by the in+rigues of the senate, resolved to gain by force what they could not obtain PS a favour. This gave rise to the Social Wcr, Wiiich continued to rage for several years, and is said to have involved the destruc- tion of three hundred thousand men. It was finally terminated by granting the rights of citizenship to all who should lay down their arms and return to their allegiance. ' 6. This destructive war bein^ concluded, the Romans next turned their arms against 3Iithridates, king of Pontus, the most powerful monarch of the East, who caused eighty thousand Ro- mans, who dwelt in the cities of Asia Minor, to be massacred in one day. In this celebrated contest, styled the Mithridatic war, the Roman generals, Sylla^ Lucullus, and Pompey^ successively bore a distinguished part. The chief command in the war against Mithridates was first given to Sylla, a man of great talents and an able general ; but Marius^ who had been distinguished for his warlike genius and exploits for nearly half a century, now in the seventieth year of his age, had the address to got the command of the army transferred from Sylla to himself. 7. Sylla, on receiving this intelligence, finding his troops de voted to his interest, marched directly to Rome, which he entered as a place taken by storm, and proceeding to the senate, compelled that body to issue a decree declaring Marius to be a public enemy. Marius, in the mean time, fled to Africa, and Sylla, after some delay, entered upon the Mithridatic war. Cinna, a partisan of Marius, having collected an army in his favor, re- 4. What i3 said of Jugiirtha? Who fell a victim to hi» treachery'? How uid he incur the resentment of Rome? What was his fate? — 5. What is said of the Italian states? What did this give rise to? How was it terminated? — 6. Against wliom did the Romans next turn their arms? What generals took part in the Mithridatic war' What is said pf Mfljrius ?— 7. Ou receiving this intelligence, what did Sylla do ? Il02i£. tl ry? How uid he called the veteran warrior, and they soon presented themselves at the gates of Rome. Marius refused to enter the city, alleging that having been banished by a public decree, it was necessary that another should authorize his return. But before the form of annulling the sentence of his banislnnent was concluded, he entered the citv at the head of his guards, and ordered a general massacre of all who had ever been obnoxious to him. Many of those who had never offended him were put to death ; and at last, even his own officers could not approach him without terror. He next proceeded to abrogate all laws made by his rival, and associated himself in the consulship with Cinna. Thus having ffratified his two favourite passions, vengeance and ambition, his bloody career was shortened by death, and shortly afterwards, China was cut off by assassination. 8. In the mea.i time, these accounts were brought to Sylla, who was pursuing a victorious campaign against Mithridates ; but having concluded a peace with that monarch, he liastened to Rome to take vengeance on his enemies. Having entered the city, he caused a more horrible massacre than that which took place under Marius. He ordered eight thousand men, who sur- rendered themselves to him, to be put to death, while he, without being the least discomposed, harangued the senate. The day following, he proscribed forty senators and sixteen hundred knights I and after a short interval, forty senators more, with a much greater number of the most distinguished citizens of Rome. He then caused himself to be proclaimed perpetual dictator, but after having held it for nearly three years^ to the astonishment of all mankind, he resigned the dictatorship, and retired to the country, where he passed the remainder of his days 'n the society of licentious persons, and the occasional pursuit of literature. After his death, a magnificpnt monument was erected to him, "vith the following epitaph written by himself : — " I am Sylla, the Fortunate, who, in fne course of my life, have surpassed Doth friends and finemies ; the former in the good, and the latter in the evil I have done them." In the civn war between Marius ap^d Sylla, one hundred and fifty thousand Roman citizens are said to have been sacrificed, including among them more than two hundred senators and persons of distinguished rank. 9. While the commonwealth was yet distracted by the old dis- sensions, new calamities were added. Spartacus, a Thracian, who had been kept at Capua as a gladiator, placing himself at the head of an army of slaves, laid waste the country, but was at length totally defeated by Crassus, with the loss of forty thou- sand men. A few years after this event, a conspiracy, vyhich threatened the destruction of Rome, was headed by Catiline, a man of courage and talents, but of ruined fortune, and of the most profligate character. A plan was concerted for a simulta- What did Cinna do in favour of Marius ? What did Marius refuse ? Having; en- tered the cily, what did he order ? What did he next do?— 8. What did Sylla do on entering the city ? Wliat did he cause to bo proclaimed ? What was the epitaph written by himself? How many citizens perished in the civil war ? — 9. What is re- lated of Spart'.eus ? AVliat took place aAer ihis event T What plan was formed ? By whom was it detected ? fW" ', f !i II 72 ROME. neous iiisuri('cti«>ii throughout Italy; that Rome should be firea in different plac* 3 at once, and that in the general confusion, Catiline, at the ho.ad of an army, should enter the city and mas- sacre all the senators. The plot was fortunately detected and suppressed by the vigilance and energy of Cicero, the great Ro- man orator, who was consul at the time. Crstilirc, at the head of an Jirmy of twelve thousand men, was deitated and slain ia the battle. SECTION V. . : From the First Triumvirate f;) the Blssoluli on of the Common" wealth. JL C. 60 to 31. 1. PoMPEY, who, or. accouru. of his military exploits, was pur- named the Great, having been appointed to conduct tJie MiUM'i- datic war, brought it to a successful ternunation. He tJefeated Mithridates and Tigrunes, king of Armenia, rpK^Tc^d Syria, to- gelhtM- with Judea, to a Roman proyi; set On K's ret s i to Oome, he was honored with a splendid triumph, ^vhiclj continued three dai ' ,, duting which the citizens gazed with astonishment on the spoils of cistern grandeur which preceded his chariot. 2. F uH'^pey, however, found a great rival in Crassus, who was the rici»ejinan m Rome, and courted popularity by his extensive patron;. ge and great liberality. As they both aspired to the first place in the republic, a mutual jealousy existed between them. Such w^as the state of things, when Julius Caesar, a young man, who had already distinguished himself \}\,^ his military achieve- ments, had the address to affect a reconciliation between them, and to ingratiate himself into the favor of e:ich. They agreed to appropriate to themselves the whole power of the state, and enter- ed into that famous league, styled the First Triumvirate. 3. They immediately proceeded to divide the Roman provinces among themselves. Pompey, who had remained at Koine, re- ceived Spain and Africa ; Syria fell to the lot of Crassus, and Csesar chose Gaul for his portion, and as^ soon as time permitted, proceeded to lake possession of his province. Crassus, in a war with the Parthians, was defeated, and slain, leaving the empire to his two colleagues. The brilliant career of victory which attended the arms of Csesar, in Gaul, his high military reputation, and in- creasing popularity, did not fail to awaken a spirit of jealousy in the breast of Pompey. Caesar, desirous of trying whether his rival would promote or oppose his pretensions, applied to the se- nate for a continuation of his authority, \v^hich was about to expire. That body, being devoted to the interests of Pompey, denied his request, and finally ordered him to lay down his government, and disband his forces, within a limited time, under the penalty of being considered an enemy to the commonwealth. 1. What is said of Pompey ? How was he honoured on his return to Rome? — ^2. In whom did Pompey find a rival? Who effected a reconciliation between them? What did they agree to do ? — 3. Where did Pompey remain ? Whai fell to the lot of Crassus? What didCcesar choose? AVhat happened to Crassus? What was the effect of CcBsar's career of victory ? What is said of CiEsur ? \\ ROiME. 73 le Common' 4. This hasty measure detevmined the course of Csesar. He now resolved to support his claim by force of arms, and finding his troops devoted to his interest, he immediately commenced his march towards Italy. Having crossed the Alps, he halted at Ravenna, and wrote again to the seriate, offering to resign all command, if Pompey would follow his example; Tsut that body refused to listen to his demand. Proceeding on his march, he soon arrived on the banks of the Rubicon, a small river separating Italy from Cisalpine Gaul, and forming the limits of his coinmancT. The Romans had always been taught to consider this river as the sacred boundary of their domestic empire; Caesar, therefore, when arrived on the banks of this famous stream, stopped short, as if impressed with the greatness of his enterprise, and its fearful consequences ; he pondered for some time in fixed melancholy, looking upon the river, and then observed to Pollio, one of his generals, " If I pajs this river, what miseries shall I bring upon my country; and if I now stop short, I am undone." Thus say- ing, he exclaimed, "The die is cast;" and putting spurs to his horse, he plunged into the stream, followed by his troops. 5. The news of Cstsar^s movement excited the utmost conster- nation at Rome. Pompey, who had boasted that he could raise an army by stamping his foot upon the ground, finding himself unable to resist Caesar in Rome, where he had many partisans, led his forces to Capua, where he had a few legions, thence he proceeded to Brundusium, and finally passed over to Dyrrachium," m Macedonia. In his retreat, he was followed by the consuls and the greater part of the senators; among them was the famous Cato^ and Cicero, the orator. 6. Caesar, in the mean time, having made himself master of all Italy in the space of sixty days, marched to Rome, entered the city in triumph, amidst the acclamations of the citizens, seized the public treasury, and possessed himself of the supreme authority. On every occasion, he manifested the greatest liberality and clemency ; he said that he had entered Italy, not to injure, but to restore tne liberties of Rome. After a stay of only a few days, he proceeded to Spain, where he defeated Fompey^s lieutenant, made himself master of the whole country, ana again returned victorious to Rome. The citizens received nim with fresh demon- strations of joy, and created him consul and dictator, but the latter office he resigned, after he had held it eleven days. 7. While Csesar was thus employed, Pompey was equally assi- duous in making preparation to oppose him. All the monarcha of the east had declared in his favor, and sent him large supplies : his army was numerous, and his fleet consisted of five hundred vessels. Caesar, remaining only eleven days in Rome, led his forces in pursuit of Pompey. But before coming to any general 4. ^Vhat did he now resolve ? When he arrived on the banks of the Rubicon what IS related of Caesar ? What did he say ?— 5. What is said of Pompey? Where aid he proceed? By whom was he followed?— fl. In the mean time what did CaeMT S ^ruY '"'* ^® manifest? Where did he proceed ? What was he created?— 7. While CtEsar was thus employed, what is said of Pompey ? Befce comingr to ant •ngageraent, what did Cajsar do ? 74 ROME. engagement, he once more made an effort to bring his rival io an accommodation, oifering to refer all to the senate and people of Rome ; this overture was rejected, on the ground that the people of Rome were too much in Caesar's interest. 8. The two armies came in sight of each other near Dyrra- chium, where an engagement took place, which terminated in favor of Pompey, who afterwards led his forces to the plains of jPharsalia, where he determined to await the arrival oi Caesar, and decide the fate of the empire by a single battle. This was what Csesar had long and ardently desired; and now, learning the resolution of Pompey, hastened to meet him. Every thing con- nected with the contest abcut to follow was calculated to excite the deepest interest ; the armies were composed of the bravest soldiers in the world, commanded bv the two greatest generals of the age, and the prize contended for was nothing less than the Roman empire. Pompey *s army consisted of upwards of fifty thousand men, while the forces of Ciesar were less than half that number, yet under much ^Detter discipline. 9. As the armies approachea, the two generals went from rank to rank, encouraging their men, ?nimatinff their hopes, or lessen- ing their apprehensions. Pompey uifec' ♦n** j-^niice of his cause, declaring that he was about to engage in the defence of liberty and his country. Csesar, on the other hand, insisted on nothing so strongly to his soldiers as his frequent and unsuccessful en- deavors for peace; he spoke of the blood he was about to shed, with the deepest regret, and only pled the necessity which urged him to it. There was only so much space between thft two armies as to give room for fighting. The signal for the battle was given ; Caesar's men lushed to the combat with their usual impetuosity ; (he dreadful conflict had now raged with unabating fury, from early in the morning till noo"; when the scales of victory turned in favor of Ca?*ar, whose loss only amounted to two hundred men, while fifteen thousand of Pompey' s troops were ieft dead upon the plain, and twenty-four thousand surrendered themselves pri- soners of war. ^ 10. Caesar, on this occasion, manifested his usual characteristic disposition of clemency and humanity. He set at liberty the sena- tors and Roman kniglits, and incorporated with his own army the greater number of the prisoners ; and committed to the flames all Pompey's letters without reading them. When viewing the field strewed with his fallen countrymen, he seemed deeply affected at the melancholy spectacle, and wa heard to say : " They would have it so." 11. The situation of Pompey was deplorable in the extreme For thirty years he had been accustomed to victory, and ruled the councils 01^ the commonwealth ; a single day beheld him precipi- tated from the summit of power, a miserable fugitive. Escaping 8. "Where did a slight engagement take place ? Wliere did Pompey lead his forces? What is said of CtEsar? What of the armies? — 9. As the armies approached, what was done? What did Pompey urge? On what did Cajsar insist? What was the issue of the battle ? What was the number of the slain?— 10, "What is said of Caesar on this occasion ? On viewing the field what was he heard to say? — 11. What wai the situation of Pompey ? ROME. 76 _ the beautiful vale of "Lesbos, where he met meeting was deeply aft'ecting ; at the news of his reverse of fortune, she fainted ; at length recovering, she ran through the city to the sea side. Pompey received her without speaking a word, and for some time supported ht'r in his arms in silent anguish. But time would not permit him long to indulge in grief. Accompanied by Cornelia, he sailed for Ugypt with a few friends, to seek protection of Ptolemy, whose father he had befriended. But as he approached the shore, he was basely murdered while yet within sight v»f his wife, and his body thrown upon the sand. His freedman burnt the corpse and buried the ashes, over which was placed the following inscription : '* He, whose merits deserve a temple, can now scarcely find a tomb." 12. In the meantime, Caesar lost no time in pursuing his rival to Egypt, but on his arrival there, the first news he received was the account of Pompey's unfortunate end ; and shortly aftiirwards he was presented with the head and ring of the fallen general, but turning his face from the sight, he gave vent to his feelings in a flood of tears ; and shortly afterwards ordered a splendid monu- ment to be erected to his memory. The throne ot Egypt at this time, was disputed hy P/oIemy and his sister, the celebrated Cleo- pitra ; but Csesur, captivated by the charms of the beautiful queen, decided the contest in her favor, and at length reduced Egypt to the dominion of Rome. Cajsar, after this event, abandoned him- self i > pleasure in the company of Cleopatra, but was soon called to suppress the revolt of FharnaceSytUe son of Mithridafes, who had seized upon Colchis and Armenia. Csesar defeated him in a battle at Zela, with so much ease that in writing to the senate at Rome, he expressed the rapidity of his victory and suppression of the revolt in these words: f^eni, vidi, vici: '^ J came, I saw, 1 conquered.^* 13. Leaving the scene of conquest in the East, Cresar hastened to R)ine, where his presence was much required by reason of the disorders occasioned by the bad administration of Antony, who governed the city during his absence ; but tranq^uillity was soon restored. Cassar's stay at Rome was short, being called into Africa to oppose an army raised by the partisans of Jrompey, under th? command of S'cipio and Calo, assisted by Jiiba, king of Mau- ritania ; he, however, defeated their united forces in the battle of Thapsus. Upon this Cato, who was a rigid Stoic and stern repub- lican, fled to Utica, where he resolved to resist the power of Csesar, but finding that all was lost, determined not to survive the liberty of his country, and therefore killed himself in despair. 14. At the conclusion of the \yar in Africa, Csssar returned to Rome, and celebrated a magnificent triumph, which lasted four days; the first was for Gaul, the second for Egypt, the third for How did lie receive his wife ? Whore did he sail ? What was his fate T What in- scription was placed on his tomb? — 12. In the meantime what did Cccsar do? W'hat is said of the throne of Ef?ypt at this time? Of Ctcsar ? After the battle of Zela, how did Ca.sar express the rapidity of his victory? — 13. What was Owsar's next course? What called him into Africa? What is related of Calo ?— 14. At the con- clusiou of the war what did Caesar do ? 76 ROME. his victories in the East, and the fourth for his victory over Juha. He distributed liberj^Uy rewards to his veteran soldiers and offi- cers; the citizens also* shared his bounty; after distributing a certain quantity of corn, oil and money, among them, he entertained them at a public feast, at which twenty thousand tables were set, and treated them to a combat of gladiators. The senate and the people, intoxicated by the allurements of pleasure, seemed to vie with, each other in their acts of servility and adulation towards the man who had deprived them of their liberty. He was hailed as the father of his country, created perpetual dictator, received the appell.ition of emperor, and his person was declared sacred. 15. Having restored order in Rome, he again found himself obliged to go into Spain, wliere Lahienus and the two sons of Pompey had raised an army Hffainst him ; but he completely defe.ited them in an obstinate uattle, fought on tlie plains of Munda. Caesar, by this victory, having triumphed over all his enemies, devoted the remainder of his life t(» the benefit of the commonwealth. As clemency was his favorite virtue, he readily pardoned all who had at any time bore arms against him; without any distinction of party, he seemed only to consider the happiness and prosperity of the people ; he adorned the city with magnifi- cent buildings; rebuilt Carthage and Corinth, sending colonies to both these places ; he corrected many abuses in the state, re- formed the calendar, undertook to drain the Pontine marsh, and intended to cut through the isthmus of Peloponnesus. 16. But while he thus inedilated projects beyond the limits of the longest life, a deep conspiracy was formed against him, em- bracing no less than sixty senators, among whom were Brutus and C^assiMS, whose lives had been spared by the conqueror after the battle of Pharsalia. It had been rumoured that a crown would be presented to him on the ides of March, namely the fifteenth of that month : the conspirators therefore fixed upon that day for the execution of their design. * Accordingly, as soon as 6^y?6«rhad taken his seat in the senate- house, they assembled around him under the pretence of solicit- ing for the pardon of a certain individual who had been banished by Caesar's order, and assailed him with their daggers. He defended himself for some time with great vigor, until seeing Brutus, his friend, whom he tenderly loved, among the conspira- tors, he exclaimed, et tu Brute, " jSnd you too, Brutus^^^ then resigning himself to his fate and covering his face with his robe, he fell, pierced with twenty-three wounds, at the base of Pom- pej's statue. Thus perished Julius Caesar, \n the fifty-sixth year of his age, whose ruling passion was ambition, and wnose redeeming virtue was clemency. [^See particulars of his character in Biography.'] How did lir entertain the people ? How wns lie hailed ? &'c — ^15. Why was he ngaiii obliged to go into Spain ? Having triumphed over all his enemies, what did he re- solve to do '.' Mention some of the acts he now performed. — 16. What was formed against him ? What had been rumoured ? W ' U happened as Ca?8or took his seat in the senaie-house ? How did he defend himself . On seeing Brutus, what did he say' What WPS his age? f\ noME. 77 Lse of Pom- 17. No sooner was tli'^ death of Caesar known, than the whole city was thrown into utmost consternation. His bleeding corpse was exposed in the forum ; liis friend, Mark Antony, pro- nounced over it a funeral oration, and by his eloquent appeals to the sympathy of the people, so inllamed their resentment against his murderers, that tney were obligetl to escape from the city. Mark Antony, who was a man of great military talents, but of a most profligate character; Lcpidus, who was possessed of im- mense wealth ; and Octavius Ciesar, afterwards surnamed Jhigiis- Ins, who was Caesar's grand-nephew and adopted heir, formed the design of dividing among themselves the supreme authority, and thus established the second Triumvirate, which produced the most dreadful calamities in the republic. 18. They stipuhited that all their enemies should be destroyed, each sacrificing his nearest friends to the vengeance of his col- leagues. Thus Antony consigned to dealh his uncle Ztr«t/«; Lepidus his brother Paiilus ^ and Octavius gave up his friend, the celebrated Cicero, to whim he was under the most binding obligation, in order to gratify (he hatred of Antony. The illus- trious orator was assassinated in the sixty-fourth year of his age, by Popiliius Lanus, whose life he had saved in a capital case. Ilome was again deluged in the blood of her citizens; in the hor» rible proscription that followed, three hundred senators, with two thousand kriights, besides many other persons of distinguished rank, were sacrificed. 19. In the mean time, P.rutus and Cassius, having retired into Thrace, collected an Jirniy of one hundred thousand men, and made the last and expiring effort to restore the commonwealth. t^nthony and Octavius inarched against them with an army supe- rior in number. The empire of the world again depended upon the issue of a single battle. The two armies met on the plains of Pliilimi, and after a dreadful conflict, which lasted for two days, the death-blow was given to Roman liberty, by the total defeat of the republican army. Brutus and Cassius resolving not to survive the liberties of their country, avoided the vengeance of their enemies by a voluntjiry death. 20. The power of the Triumviri being thus established upon the ruins of the commonwealth, they began to think of enjoying the honors to which they had aspired. Lepidus was shortly after deposed and banished. Antony we~< unto Greece, and having made some stay at Athens/he passed ia\ > Asia. He pro- ceeded from kingdom to kingdom, attendf 'Ji hj a crowd of sove- reigns, exacting contributions and givir?^ .way crowns with capricious insolence. He summoned Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, to Tarsus, to answer to the charge of having aided the conspira- tors. She accordingly came, decked in all the emblems of the queen of love j her galley was covered with gold ; the sails of Vq ^■**?'?'?o"6 ^y M"'^ Antony? "Who composed the second Triumvirate? 1 • 1 i'U ^^^ 1***^^ stipulate ? VV^hat was the fate of the illustrious orator ? What IS saia ot Kome ?— 19. What was done by Brutus and Cassius ? By whom were they opposed f Where did thfl armies meet? What was the issue of the battle? What * -M,f ? ^^S.'"'^^ *'?'' Caitius ?— 20. What was tlie fate of Lepidus ? Where did Antony go ? AVhat is related of Cleopatra ? ; 111 1 78 ROME. purple floating to the wind ; the oars of silver swept to ihe sound of nutes and cymbals; she reclined upon a couch • in/ji^id with stars of gold, and such ornaments as the poets usuuily ascribe to Venus. Antony, captivated by her charms, forgot to d xide upon her cause, and giving up all the pursuits of ambition, aban- doned himself to pleasure in the companv of the Egyptian queen. He lavished on her the provinces of the Roman empire ; and having on her account divorced his wife Octavia, the sister of h'xn colleague, an open rupture took place between him and Odavius. 21. Tiie great battle of Actium decided the contest in favor of Octavius, who, by this victory, was left sole master of the empire. After this defeat, Antony put an end to his life by fall- ing on his sword; and Cleopatra, to avoid being led captive to Rome to grace the triumph of Augustus, procured her own death by the poison of an asp. SECTION VI. Rome under the Emperors. The Caesars: ^iignstus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho^ Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. A. C.^\,to A. D. 96. 1. By the death of Antony, Octavius, now styled Augustus, became sole master of the Roman empire. Having returned in triumph to Rome, he endeavored, by suujptuous feasts and mag- nificent shows, to obliterate the impressions of his former cruelty, ;and resolved to secure, by acts of clemency and benevolence, that throne, the foundation of which was laid in blood. Having -established order in the state, Augustus found himself agitated by different inclinations, and considered for some time whether he should retain the imperial authority or restore the republic. By Agrippa he was advised to pursue the latter course; but fol- lowing the advice of Miecenas, he resolved to retain the sovereign authority. 2. Augustus, in his administration, affected an appearance of great moderation and respect for the public rights, and having gained the affections of tne people and his soldiers, he endea- vored by every means to render permanent their attachment. As a general, he was more fortunate than eminent; though the general character of his reign was pacific, still several wars were successfully carried on by his lieutenants; he seemed to aim at {gaining a character by the arts of peace alone : he embellished the city, erected public buildings and pursued^ the policy of maintaining order and tranquillity in every portion of his vast dominions. During his reign, the temple of Janus was closed for What did he lavish on her? What took place betwreen him and Octavius?— •21. What is said of the battle of Actium ? What was the end of Antony and Cleo- patra? 1. Who now became sole master of the empire? What did he endeavour to do ? By ■what was he agitated ? Whf 3 advice did he follow ?— 2. What did Augustus effect f 'VVhat is said of him as -1 gfentral? During hia reign, what was closed ? (\ ROME. 79 the first time since the commencement of the second Punic tvaty and third time from the reign of A't/wm. Augustus having accompanied Tiberius in his march into lUyria, was taken dangerously ill, and on his return, died at Nolla, near Capua, in the seventy-sixth year of his age, after an illustrious reign of forty -four years. 3. Augustus was possessed of eminent abilities, both as a \yar- rior and a statesman; but the cruelties and treachery exercised by him while a member of the triumvirate, have left an indelible stain upon his character, and rendered it doubtful whether the virtues which he manifested in after-life sprung rather from Kolicy than from principle. The emperor ana his chief minister, laccenas, were both eminent patrons of learning and the arts ; and the Augustan age .of Roman literature has been justly ad- mired by all succeeding ages. Among those who distinguished his reign were the celebrated poets Ptrgil, Horace, antl Ovid^ with Livy, the historian. But the most memorable event which took place during the reign of Augustus, was the birth of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, which happened, according to the best authorities, in the twenty-sixth year of his reign, and four years before the period commonly assigned for the Chris- tian era. 4. Augustus, previous to his death, had nominated Tiberius to succeed him in the empire. The new emperor, at the commence- ment of his reign, exhibited a show of moderation and clemency; but he soon threw off the mask and appeared in his natural cha- racter, as a cruel and odious tyrant. The brilliant success of his nephew Germanicus, in Germany, excited the jealousy of Tiberius, who recalled him to Rome, and is supposed to have caused his death by poison. Having then taken into his confi- dence Sejanus, a Roman knight, who became the minister of his cruelty and pleasure, he retired to the island of Caprere, and abandoned himself to the most infamous debaucheries. Sejanus, now possessed of almost unlimited power, committed the most fearful cruelties against the citizens of Rome ;iVero and Drusus, the sons of Germanicus, were starved to death in prison; Sabinus, Gallus, and other distinguished persons were executed upon slight pretences; but his career was of short duration^ being ac- cused of treason, he was suddenly precipitated from his elevation and executed by order of the senate; his body was afterwards dragged ignominiously through the streets. 5. This event seemed only to increase^ the emperor's rage for cruelty; now weary of particular executions, he gave orders that all the accused should be put to death without further examina- tion. When one Carmdius had killed himself to avoid the tor- ture, "Ah," exclaimed Tiberius, "how has that man been able Where did he die ? "What was his age, and length of his reign ? — 3. What is said of the abilities of Augustus ? Of what was he patron ? Who were distinguished in his reign ? ^Vhat was the most memorable event that took place during it ?— 4. Whom did Augustus nominate? How did he commence his reign? What excited his jea- lousy? Whom did he take into his confidence ? What is said of Sejanus? AVhat was his fate? — 5. What orders did the emperor give now? What exclamation did he make * 80 HOME. to escape me." He died in the seventy-eighth year of his age and twenty-second of his reign; his death was hastened either by strangling or poison. In the eighteenth year of this emperor's re:gn, Jesus Christ suffered death upon the cross. 6. Tiberius adopted for successor, Caligula, who commenced his reign under the most favorable auspices, and his first acts were even beneficent and patriotic : but his subsequent conduct was marked by every species of human depra.vity. He assumed divine honors, and caused temples to be built and sacrifices to be oft'ered to himself as a divinity. He took such delight in cru- elty, that he wished that all the Roman people had but one neck, that he might despatch them at a single blow. Happy for man- kind, his reign was of short duration; he was assassinated in t!.c twenty-ninth year of his age and fourth of his reign, A. D. 41. 7. After the death of Caligula, his uncle Claudius^ and grand- son of Mark Antony, was raised to the throne. He was a man of weak and timid character, and a slave to the most degrading vices. The only remarkable enterprise during his reign, was his expedition into Britain. Caradacus, the illustrious king of that island, after a brave resistance, was taken prisoner ancl carried captive to Rome. As he passed through the streets and observed the splendor of the city, he exclaimed, " How is it possible that men possessed of such magnificence at home, should envy Carac- tacus in an humble cottage in Britain.'^ Claudius was poisoned by his wife Agrippina, in the fourteenth year of his^ reign and sixty-fourth of nis age, in order to make room for Nero, her son by a former husband, A. D. 55. 8. Nero, now in the seventeenth year of his age, began his reign with universal approbation; he was even so much inclined to clemency and forgiveness, that when obliged to sign a warrant for the execution of a criminal, he would exclaim, " Would to heaven that I had never learned to write." He had received an excellent education under the philosopher Seneca, and while he followed the counsels of his illustrious preceptor, he governed with general applause. But as he advanced in age, every trace of virtue vanished with his increasing years. Abandoning the advice of his virtuous counsellors, he soon gave himself up to every species of depravity, and rendered his name proverbial in all succeeding ages, as a detestable tyrant. The first alarming instance of his cruelty was the execution of his own mothei JIffrippina. Among others who fell victims to his cruelty, were Seneca, the philosopher, JBurrhus, the prefect of the pretorian guard, and Liican, the poet. 9. In his wild extravagance he caused the city of Rome to be set on fire, that it might exhibit the representation of the burning of Troy, and stood upon a high tower that he might enjoy the Wlien did he die? What took place in the eighteenth year of his reign ? — fl By whom was he succeeded ? What is said of liim ? "Wliat did he assume ? How did he die? — 7. Who was next raised to the throne? What was his character? AVlio was \cd captive to Rome ? What did he exclaim? What was the end of Claudius?— 8. Who '■ucneedcd him ? What is said of Nero ? By whom was he educated? What was the first alarming instance of his cruelty ? Who were some of the other victims ?— 9. What did he cause ? \\ ROME. 81 Bcene. The conflagration continued for nine days, and a great part of the city was burnt to ashes. But in order to avert from himself the public odium of this action, he openly charged it upoji the Christians, who had now become numerous at Rome, and published against them a violent persecution, during which the two illustrious apostles St. Peter and AV. Paul suffered martyr- dom; the former was crucified with his head downivardsj the latter being a Roman citizen, had the honor of dving bv the sword. Nero having rendered himself contemptible by his follies and crimes, was soon destined to finish his career by a tragical end. The arnjy in Spain having declared against nim, raised Galba to the throne; the unhappy tyrant, finding himself deserted by all and condemned by the senate, avoided falling into the hands of his enemies by a voluntary death, in the fourteenth year of his reign and thirty-second of his age. 10. On the death of Nero, Galba was acknowledged emperor by the senate, as he had been previously declared by the legions under his command. He was a man of much prudence ana vir- tue, and had acquired a high military reputation, but he was now in the seventy-second year of his age, and soon became unpopular with th? army by his severity and parsimony. At length, finding himself unatJle to sustain the duties of the government alono, he adopted for his successor the virtuous Piso. This measure, however, gave rise to a revolt in the army headed bv Of/io, which terminated in the death both of the emperor and Piso, after a reign of seven months. Tacitys says of him, that " had he never ascended the throne, he would have been deemed by all capable of reigning." 11. Otho was now declared emperor by the army; but in Vilel- lius he found a formidable rival, who now aspired to the imperial throne. Otho being defeated, slew himself, after a reign of ninety- five days. Upon this event, ViteUius was proclaimed emperor, but having rendered himself odious to the people by his profligacy and tyranny, he was assassinated before he had completed the first year of his reign; at the same time Vespasian, who was now at the head of the army in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor by his troop. On the arrival of the newly elected emperor at Rome, he was received with universal joy. He had Hsen from an humble orijgin to the highest station in the state; he was equally distin- guished for his affability, clemency, and firmness. He ornamented the city by erecting various edifices, built the amphitheatre or coliseum, cherished the arts, and was a patron of learned men, among whom were Josephtts, the Jewish historian, Quintilian, the orator, and Pliny, the naturalist. 12. The most memorable event of the reign of Vespasian was the destruction of Jerusalem by his son Titus; after a tremen- riow long tliil the conflaffration last? How did he avert the odium from liimself? Duriiip; the porpecution, who suflcrpd martyrdom? What did the army in Spain do? Wliot wna tlie end of Nero ? — 10. Wlio was now acknowledged by the senate ? What is said of Gallm? What did he adopt? What was his end? What did Tiicitns say of l>im? — 11. AVlio was now declared emperor? AVhat was his fate? Who succeed- ed ? V/lint was the end of Vitelliiis? Who was next? From wliat had lie risen ? or what was lie the patron? — 12. What wos the most memorable event of his reign? 82 ROME. ,1 dous siege of six months, tlie city was taken and razed to the ground, verifying the predictions of our divine Saviour, that " not a stone should remain upon a stone." According to Josephus. the number of the Jews that perished during the siege exceeded one million, and the captives amounted to almost a hundred thousand. Vespasian having reiffned ten years, beloved by his subjects, died at Campania, in the seventieth year of his age, A. D. 79. 13. The late emperor was succeeded by his son Titus, who, ou account of his amiable virtues, justice and humanity, obtained the appellation of the " Delight of mankind." Recollecting one evening, that he had done no act of beneficence during that day, he exclaimed, "My friends, I have lost a day." His reign is memorable for the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which Over- whelmed the cities o^ Hercidaneum and Pompeii, and caused the death of Pliny, the naturalist, whose curiosity led him too near the scene. Titus died in the third year of his reign, and in the forty -first of his ago; but strong sus|)icion was entertained that he was poisoned by his brother Domilian, who succeeded to the throne, A. D. 81. 14. JDomitian was another Nero in his character. He caused himself to be worshipjied as a god; many of the most illustrious men of Rome fell victims to his cruelty. He banished the philo- sophers from the city, and raised a dreadful persecution against the Christians. He frequently shut himself up in his chamber, and amused himself by catching flies and piercing them with a bodkin, hence his servant being asked if any one was with the emperor, replied, " No, not even a fly." His reign was signal- ized by the success of the Roman arms in Britain, under the command of Agricola, a distinguished general who had been sent to the country By Vespasian, and conquered all the southern por- tion of the island. Domitian was assassinated at the instigation of his wife, in the fifteenth year of his rei^n, A. D. 96. He was the last of those emperors called the Twelve Caesars; Julius Caesar, the dictator, being considered the first; although Augus- tus was the first who was generally styled emperor. SECTION VII. From Nerva to Constantine the Great, From A. D. 96 to 306. "^ 1. After the death of Domitian, iVerya was elected to the throne. He was a man distinguished for virtue and clemency, but did not possess sufficient energy to suppress the disorders of the empire ; and having adopted Trajan for his successor, he died after a short reign of sixteen months. ■"Vlmt mimbor of Jews perished daring the siege? AVlicn did he die? — 13. By whom wna lie succeeded? Wliiit is suid of Titus? For wha» is iiis reign memorable? When did he die? — 14. Wliat is said of Domitian, his snccessor? What instnnee Jt given of his cruelty ? By what was his reign sigiinlized ? How did he die ? Of whom was he tlie last? %, "Who was tiow elected to tlie throne T ^Vhat is said of him T, ItOMfi. ds 2. Trajan, a native of Seville, in Spain, is esteemed one of the greatest and mist powerful of the Roman emperors ; he was equally distinguished for affability, clemency, and munificence ; on presenting the sword to the prefect of the pretorian guard, he made use of these remarkable words : " Make use of it for me, if I do my duty ; if not, use it against me." The senate con- ferred on him the fitle of Optimus, the Best, and that body was long accustomed to salute c^verv newlv elected emperor with this expression : "' Reign fortu'.iately as Augustus, ana virtuously as 7'rajan.''^ 3. Trajan was one of the greatest generals of his age; he en- larged the boundaries of the empire, subdued the Parthians, brought under subjection Assyria, Arabia Felix and Mesopo- tamia ; and in commemoration of his victory over the Dacians, he erected a pillar at Rome, which bears his name, and which still remains as one of the most remarkable monuments of that city. He was a munificent patron of literature, and in his reign Pliny^ih^ younger, Juvenal, and Plutarch flourished. Although this prince was much celebrated for his virtues, still his character has been tarnished by a want of equity with regard to the Chris- tians who were persecuted during his reign. He died of apoplexy, in the sixty-third year of his age, and the twentieth of his reign, A. D. 117. 4. Trajan was succeeded by Adrian, his nephew, who, in some respects, was the most remarkable of the Roman emperors. His administration was generally equitable and beneficent; he was highly skilful in all the accomplishments of the age : he composed with great beauty, both in prose and verse j he pleaded at the barj and v/as one of the best orators of his time. Deeming the limits of the empire too extensive, he abandoned the career of conquest, and devoted himself to the arts of peace. He spent thirteen years in visiting the provinces 'f the empire, and during his progress he reformed abuses, reliev* ' iiis subjects from many burdens, and rebuilt various cities. While in Britain, he caused a turf wall to be erected across the island from Carlisle to New- castle, in order to prevent the incursions of the Picts. 5. He rebuilt the city of Jeru'^?.'em, and changed its name to ^lia Capitolina. In consequence of an insurrectio*; of the Jews, he sent against them a powerful army, which destroyed about one thousand of their towns, and nearly six hundred thousand of these unfortunate people ; he then banished all those who re- mained, and by a public decree, forbade them to return within view of their native soil. He passed several wise regulations, among which was a law prohibiting mf»stersto kill their slaves, as had been before allowed, but ordaineu that they should be tried by the laws enacted against capital offences. Adrian having 8. "Wliot is said of Trajan ? What words did he make use of on presenting the pre- fect of the pmrd ?— 3. What was Trajan? Wlmt did he erect '! Of what was ho th« patron? What has tarnished his character ? "When did he die? — 4. By whom waa he ■uccceded? In what was he skilful ? What did he abandon? In wliat did he spend thirteen years of liis reign? What did he do in Britain? — 5. What city did he robu'"'d* What ieverity did he exercise against the Jews ? 11 ROME. adopted for his successor T^tus Antoninus, died after a prosperous reign of twenty -two years, and in the sixty-third year of his age, A. D. 138. 6. Antoninus, surnamed the Pious, was eminently distinguished for his public and private virtues, although his reign was miuked by few striking events. He showed himself one of the most ex- cellent princes for justice, clemency, and moderation. During his reign, St. Justin, the martyr, wrote his Apology for the Chris- tians, and directed it to the emperor, the senate, and the people of Rome ; still many Christians continued to suffer for their faith. Having aJaopted Marcus Aurelitis Antonimis for his successor. Ins expired at Lorium, near Rome, in the twenty-third year of his reign, and in the seventieth of his age, A. D. 161. 7. Marcus Aurelius was esteemed as a model of pa^an virtue, and was greatly attached, both by nature and education, to the Stoic philosophy, which he exemplified in his life, as well as illustrated in his book, entitled " Meditations." While engaged in a war with ihe Germans, his army experienced a lemarkable deliverance, through the prayers of a Christian legion then serving under his command. The emperor, in a letter to the senate, after stating the distressed situation of his arniy, says, "I put up my fervent prayers to the gods for our relief; but the gods were dear. I knew there were many Christians in the army. I called them around me and commanded them to address their God in our be- half. No sooner had they fallen upon their knees to pray, than a copious and refreshing rain fell from the heavens. But while the ram was refreshing to us, it drove furiously against our enemies, like a tempest of hail, attended with vivid nashes of lightning and dreadful claps of thunder. Wherefore, since the prayers of these people are so powerful with their God, let us grant to the Christians full liberty of professing theinselves such, lest they employ their prajrers against us. My will is that their religion be no longer considerea a crime in them." 8. The Christian soldiers who had saved the Roman army by their prayers, were afterwards distinguished by the name of the Thundering- Legion. Notwithstanding the humane disposition of Aurelius. many Christians suffered during his reign, ovving chiefly to tne violence of Verus, his colleague in the empire. Among the most illustrious who received the crown of martyr- dom, were St. Justin and »S'/. Polycarj), bishop of Smyrna. Aurelius died in the nineteenth year of his reign, and the nfty- ninth of his age ; he was the last of those styled the Jive good emperors, A. D. 180. 9. Aurelius was succeeded by his degenerate son, Commodus, whose whole reign was a tissue of folly, crueliy, and injustice ; but his crimes finally brought him to u tragirrl endj he was Whom did he adopt for his successor ? When did he die?— 6. What did Antoninus •how himseJ/? Who wroto an apologj' for the Christians ? When and wliere did he die ?— 7. What is said of Marcus Aurelius ? In a war witli the Germans, what did he experience ? Can you relate, in substance, his letter to the senate ? — 8. \Vliat is said of the Christian soldiers? Of the Christians during his reiijn? Who were the most illustrious of the sufferers ? At what age, and when did he die ?~9. What is said o* Commodus? \\ ROME. 85 peroua lis age, ruished iiiuked lost ex- D'lring ; Chris- I people iirfaitb. ssor, htt tr of his 1 virtue, I, to the well as engaged [larkable 1 serving ate, after t up my ere deaf, [ed them n our be- y. than a wnile the enemies, lightning rayers oT nt to the lest they religion army by me of the isposition rn, owing empire. ' martyr- Smyrna, the Bfty- five good jmmodnSy injustice ; he was id Antoninus where did he 1, what did he What is said rere the mosl bat is said ot assassinated in the thirteentli year of his reign, and thirty-second of his age. Pertinax, a man of humble birth, who had risen by his merit, and was styled the '* tennis-ball of fortune," on account of the various conditions through which he had passed, was pro- claimed emperor by the prctorian guards. But having given oftence by his seventy, in correcting abuses, he was put to death by the hands of the very soldiers who had raii^'.d him to the throne only three months before. 10. The empire was now put up for sale by the soldiers, and purchased by I)idius Jidianus, for the ^m of nine millions of dollars. But the new emperor only enjoyed the honours of roy- alty for the space of five months, being assassinated by the order of Septimus Severus, who was proclaimed emperor in his stead. Severus having triumphed over his two competitors, Niger and Albinus, governed with great ability. He made an expedition into Britain, and built a stone wall extending from Sohyay Frith to the German Ocean, and nearly parallel with that of Adrian. He died at York, in the e^hteenth year of his reign, and in the sixty- Jxth of his age, A. D. 211. 1 1 . Severus left trie empire to his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, but Caracalla resolving to govern alone, murdered his brother in his mother's arms. His tyranny and cruelty at length excited against him the resentment of macrimis, the commander of his forces, who caused him to be assassinated, in the sixth year of his reign. Macrinus was immediately declared emperor in his place, bnt after a reign of fourteen months, was in his turn supplanted by Heliogabalus, by whose command he was put to death. Helio- gabalus was only in the fourteenth year of his age when he suc- ceeded to the throne, yet he showed himself to be a monster of vice, extravagance and cruelty ; he was murdered by the soldiers, and his: body thrown into the Tiber, after a short reign of four years, having in that short period married and divorced six wives. 12. Alexander Severus, his cousin, who was chosen to succeed him, was a mild and amiable prince, whose excellent character shines with redoubled lustre w;hen contrasted with those who preceded and followed him. His acquirements were equal to hia virtues ; he excelled in music, painting, sculpture, and poetry. During .in expedition against the Germans, who had made an irruption into the empire, he was murdered by a mutiny of his" soldiers, in the fourteenth year of his reign, and twenty-ninth of his age, A. D. 235. 13. On the death of Alexander, Maximin^ who had headed the mutiny against him, was elevated to the throne. Maximin was the son of a herdsman of Thrace ; he was no less remark - What was his end? By whom was he succeeded? What was the fate of Perlinai "* — ^10. What was now done with the empire ? Ry whom was it purchnsfd ? What was his end? Wlio succeeded? Where and when did Severus die? — 11. Towliom did Severus leave the empire ? What is related of CarncuUa? What was liis fate? Who was declared emperor ? By whose command was he put to death, ai\'l wlio suc- ceeded? What is said of Heliogaiialus ? AVhat \va» his end ?— 12. Who was chosen to su'jceed him ? WTiat is said of Alexander Severus ? How and when did he die ?— i3 Who succeeded to the throne 8 86 HOME. I able for the symmetry of his person and extraordinary strefigth, than for his gigantic stature, being eight and a half feet in height; he was also distinguished for his military talents. Previous to his elevation, he was remarkable for his simplicity, discipline and .virtue ; but after his accession to the throne, he became a monster of cruelty, and seemed to sport with the terrors of mankind. He was finally assassinated by his soldiers, in the third year of his reign. 14. The interval from the reign of Maximin^ and that of Bio- cletian, was filled by sixteen reigns, which furnish little that is pleasing or interesting. Of all the emperors who successively occupied the throne during that period of fort^-six years, Claudius and Tacitus alone died a natural death. The emperor Valerian^ in a war witli Sapor, king of Persia, was defeated and taken prisoner. The Persian monarch treated his captive with the greatest indignity and cruelty. He used him as a footstool for mounting his horse, and finally ordered him to be put to death, then caused him to he flayed, and his skin to be painted red, and suspended in one of the Persian temples, as a monument of dis- grace to the Romans. 15. The reign oi ^urelianwAS distinguished for bi iiliant military achievements. He defeated the Gotlis, and repelled the incur- sions of the Germans; but his most renowned victory was that over Zenobia, the fiimous queen of Palmyra, who fell into his hands; her secretary, Lon^inus, the celebrated critic, was put to death by the irder of the conqueror. On his return to Rome, Aurelian was honored with a most splendid triumph; Zenobia was reserved t\> grace the scene, bound in chains of gold, and decked with a profusion of pearls and diamonds. 16. Diocletian, who was the son of a Dalmatian slave, rose by his merit from the rank of a common soldier to that of an eminent commander, and was finally elevated to the throne, on the death of Numerian, A. D. 284. Two years after his. accession, he associated with himself, in government, his friend Maximin; and in 292, they took two other colleagues, Galerius and Constantius, each bearing the title of Caesar. The empire was now divided into four parts, under the government of two emperors and two Caesars, each nominally supreme, but in reality controlled by the superior talents of Diocletian. 17. At this ti.^ie happened the tenth and last persecution of the Christians, which continued for several years with so much violence, that the tyrants boastt : that they iiad extinguished the Christian name. Diocletian and Maximin^ in the midst of their triumphs, sur- prised the world by resigning their dignities on the same day. For what was Maximin remai kable ? How did he d'c ? — 14. How many reigns be- tween that of Maximin and Diocletian? AVhat is related of the emperor Valerian ? —16. For what was the reign of Aurelian tlistiniraishod? What was his most re- nowned victory ? What is said of Zciiobia ? — 10 What is said of Diocletian ? A\Tiom did he associate with 1-imself in the government? Mow was the empue now divided? — 17. What happened at this tjsne ? How did Dioclotian and Maximin surprise tha world? Where (lid Diocletian retire ? AVhat is taid of Maximin ? ROME. 87 and both retiring into private station. A. D. 304. It is generally believed that they were compelled to take this step by ualerius, who, together with Constantivs, was immediately afterwards acknowledged emperor. Diocletian seems to have been content- ed with his lot ; he retired to Salona, in his native country, Dal- matia, where he lived ei^ht years, and amused himself in culti- vating a small garden. Maximin attempted several times, but in vain, to resume the sovereign power, which he had abdicated, and even to murder his son-in-law, Conslaniifie ; but being detected, he slew himself in despair. / SECTION VIII. Fi'om the ^^ccession of Cons/antine to the Extinction of the IVestem Empire. Jl. I). 306 to 476. 1. CoNSTAXTius died at York, in Britain, having previously appointed his son Constantine, surnained the Great, his succes- sor ; Constantine had several competitors for the crown ; of these, Maxentius wfss the most formidable, who had made him- self master of Italy and Rome. As the emperor was on his march, at the head (*f his army, against his rival, he saw in the heaven, after inid-tlay, a luminous cross, bearing this inscription in Greek, ev rovrw rixa,, Conquer by this. The cixcumstance is related by several historians .)f that period, particularly by Euse- bius, in his life of Constantine. In consequence of this vision, the emperor avowed himself the friend and supporter of Chris- tianity; and caused a splendid banner, called the Labarum, to be canied before his anny, bearing a representation of the cross he had seen in the lieavens. He now prosecuted the war against Maxentius wilh redoubled enerjgy. A final battle was fought on the banks of the Tiber, in ^vh^ch Constantine was victorious ; Maxentius himself perishevith a weak and ineffi- cient hand. Favoring tlie Arian heresy, he threw the provinces into confusion and contention, and at the ^ame time exposed his dominions to the inroads of the barbarians. He was defeated and slain in an expedition against the Goths, in the fifteenth year of his reign. Gratiarif the son and successor of Valentinian, associated with himself T/ieodoskis^ afterwards surnamcd the Great. The reign of this illustrious monarch was signalized by the complete triumph of Christianity and the downfall of paganism throughout the Roman dominions. By his great military abilities he success- fully repelled the encroachments of the barbarians, and by his wise administration he strengthened in some measure the empire, which had been already hastening to its ruin. After an illustri- ous reign of eighteen years, he left his dominions to two sons, Hononus in the west, and Jlrcadiiis in the east, A. D. 395. 8. Theodosius was the last monarch who presided over both divisions of the emp! :. By all the authors of that period, with the exception of Zosimus, a Pagan writer, he is represented as a model 01 everv public and private virtue, and vvorthy of the imita- tion of all Christian princes. His inclinations were naturally violent; but if he "committed any fault contrary to his usual clemency and meekness, he soon repaired it in a manner worthy of his character. On one occasion the populace of Thessalonica, in a tumultuous insurrection j stoned their governor to death. Theo- dosius, on receiving intelligence of this outrage, in a momeift of irritation, gave orders for the soldiery to be let loose on the in- habitants of the city for three hours; the commission was executed .with so much fury, that seven thousand persons were put to the sword. No sooner was Si. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, in- formed of this awful deed, than he declared to the emperor that he could not admit him into the church until he had atoned, by a public penance, for the enormity of the massacre he had occa- sioned. Theodosius humbly submitted to the decision of the prelate, and remained excluded from the church for eight months. 9. During the weak rei^n of Honorius and Arcadius, the bar- barians made a successful irruption into the empire, and possessed ■\Vhat is said of the barbarians? How did Valentinian die? — 7. ■V\Tiat is said of Valens? How did he die? Whom did Gratlan associate with himself? To whom did Theodosius leave his dominions? — 8. What is said of Theodosius ? Of his incli- nations? On one occasion what is related of him? Wliat did St Ambrose do?— 9. What happened during the reign oCHonorius and Arcadius ? 8* 90 ROME. themselves of several of the most fertile provinces. The Goths, under the famous jllaric, spread their devastations to the very walls of Constautincplo, and filled all Greece with the terror of their arms. Alaric then penetrated into Italy at the head of a powerful army, it was defeated with great loss by the Roui is under the conim.ul of Slilico. After me death '^t this general, Alaric invaded Italy a second time, and having »:u".en pnd pil- laged several cities, he at IcMigth pitched his camp before the walb ot^Rome. This famous city, which had for ages been the mistress of the world, and had enriched herself by the spoils of vanquished nations, was now reduced to the greatest extremities by famine and pestilence. 10. Rome was finally taken by Alaric, who gave up the city to be Clundered by his soldiers, with a charge to spill the blood of none ut those whom thev found in arms, and to spare all those who took refuge in the cnurches. The fearful devastation continued for six days, during which the fierce barbarians, notwithstanding the injmcti')n3 of the chieftain, indulged their cruelty and fero- city without pity or restraint. Alaric now prepared to invade Si- cily and Africa, but death suddenly put an end to all his ambitiouu projects ; but the Goths having elected Ataulphus for their lea Jer,^ took possession of the southern part of Gaul, and laid the founda-\ tion of their kingdom in Spain. 11. A fevy years after the sacldng of Rome by Alaric, the coun try was a^ain devastated by the Iluiis, a barbarous people of Scy thian origin, under the command of Jltlila, their king, styled the •scourge of God. Having overrun the eastern empire, he invaded Gaul with an army of fivc' hL.iidred thousand men ; but he was de- feated on t i;<^ i, ' '.'"^ ^f Chalons, by the combined forces of the Ro- iinans unJ. r /s' ius and the GQths under Theodoric, with a loss ot one hua.'l. V •S5 :\ \ 4. \^ ROME. and towards the latter days of the republic, it consisted of one thousand. The senators were at first nominated by the king, but afterwards chosen by the consuls, and finally by the censors. They usually assembled three times a month, but oftener if spe- cial business required it. A decree passed by a majority of the senate and approved of by the tribunes of the people, was termed a senatus consultum. The senators were styled patres, or fa- thers, on account of their age, gravity, and paternal care of the state, and from them the patricians derived their designation. The magistrates of the Roman republic were elective, and pre- vious to their election they were called candidati or candidates, from the v/hite robe which they wore while soliciting the votes of the people. 4. The consuls had the same badges as the kings, with the ex- ,ception of the crown; and their authority was nearly equal, ex- cept that it was limited to om year. In dangerous conjunctures, they were clothed with absolute power by the solemn decree, '• that the consuls take care that the commonwealth sustain no harm." In order lo be a candidate for the consulship, the person was required to be forty-three years of ago. The prretors were next in dignity to the consuls, and in their absence supplied their place ; it was their duty to preside at the assemblies of the people, and to . convene the senate upon any emergency. ' 5. The office of censor was esteemed more honorable than that of consul, though attended with less power. There were two censors, chosen every five years, and their most important duty was to take, every fifth year^ the census of the people, after which they made a solemn lustration, or expiatory sacrifice in the Campus Martius. The tribunes were officers, created to protect the plebeians against the patricians. The ediles were officers whose duty it was to take care of the public edifices, buths, aque- ducts, roads, markets, &c. . The questors were elected by the people to take care of the public revenue. They were of two or- ders; the military questors who accompanied the army, and took care of the payment of soldiers, and the provincial questors, who attended the consuls into the provinces and received the taxes and tribute. 6. The assemblies of the people, in order to elect their magis- trates, or to decide concerning war or peace, and the like, were called a comitia ; of which there were three kinds, the curiata^ centunata, and the tributa. The comitia curiata consisted of an assembly of the resident Roman citizens, who were divided into thirty curias. ^ The comitia centunata were the principal assembly of the people, in which they gave their votes according to Jhe census. They elected, during these comitia, the consuls, praetors, and cen- sors; important laws were enacted, and cases of high treason How often did they assemMe ? What was a decree termed ? What were senators called? — 4. What is said of the consuls? In danioperous conjunctures, with what were they clothed? What age was required? Who were next in dignity? — 5. What is said of the ofRce of censor ? Who were tlie tribunes f Who were the ediles ? The questors? Of how many orders were they?— 6. What was the assemblies of the peo|)le called ? Of what dia tke comitia euriata consist? What was done at the comitia etnttmnta ? What was the oomttia tributa t than ROME. 93 were tried ; and they were held in the Campus Martius. The comitia tributa were an assembly in which the people voted in tribes, according to their regions and wards ; and they were held to create inferior magistrates, to elect certain priests, &c. The comitia continued to be assembled for upwards of seven hun- dred years, until the time of Julius Caesar, who abridged that liberty, and shared with the people the right of creating the ma- fistrates ; Augustus infringed still further on this right, and Ti- erius finally deprived the people altogether of the privilege of election. 7. The priests among the Romans did not form a distinct order of the citizens, but were chosen from the most honorable men of the state. The pontifices, fifteen in number, were priests who judged all causes relating to religion, regulated the feasts, sacrifices, and all other sacred institutions. The pontifex maxi- mus, or high priest, was a person of great dignity and authority ; he held his office for life, and all other priests were subject to him. The augurs were fifteen in number, wnoseduty it was to foretell future events, to interpret dreams, oracles, prodigies, &c. The haritspices were priests, whose business it was to examine the beasts offered in sacrifice, and from them to divine the success of any^ enterprise, and to obtain omens of futurity. The quindecem- viri, were fifteen priests who had*the charge of the Sibylline books, which were three prophetic volumes, said to contain the fate of the Roman empire ; they were procured from a woman of extra- ordinary appearance, during the reign of Tarquin the Proud. The Vestal virgins^ were females, consecrated to tne worship of Vesta. 8. The g'/ac?ia/or« were persons who fought with weapons in the public circus or amphitheatre, for the amusement of the peo- ple. These combats were introduced about four hundred years after the foundation of the city, and became the most favorite entertainment. The combatants were at first composed of cap- tive slaves and condemned malefactors; but in the more degene- rate period of the empire, free-born citizens, and even senators engaged in this inhuman and disgraceful amusement, in which .numbers were destroyed. After the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, spectacles were exhibited for one hundred and twenty- three davs, in which eleven thousand animals o^ difterent kind^ were killed, and ten thousand gladiators fought. 9. The toga and the tunica were the most distinguished part of the Roman dress. The toga, or gown, worn by the Roman citizen only, was loose and flowing, and covered the whole body ; it had no sleeves, and was disposed in graceful folds, which gave the wearer a majestic appearance. The toga virilis was assumed by young men at the age of seventeen years. The tunica^ or tunic, was a white woollen vest, which came down below the knees and was fastened about the waist by a girdle. The dress How long did they continue to assemble ?— 7. "What is said of the priests ? Of the pontifices? V/ho waa the ponti/ex maximus ? The augurs? The haruspices? The quindecetnviri ? The vestal virgins ? — 8. Who were the gladiators ? When were these conribats introduced? What is said of them after the triumph of Trajan?— 0. What was .he toga ? The toga virilis t The tunica ? 94 ROME. of the women was similar to that of the men; their tunic, how- ever, was longer and furnished witli sleeves; they wore jewels, bracelets, rings, and various other ornaments in great profusion. Hats and caps were worn by the Romans only on journeys, or the public games; in the city they usually went without any covering on the head. 10. The principal meal among the Romans was their supper, which they took about four o'clock in the afternoon; their break- fast was not a regular meal, it was taken by each one separately and without order, and their dinner was only a slight repast. In the early ages, the diet of the Romans consisted chiefly of milk and vegetables, and they sat upright at the table on benches; but in the latter days of the republic, when riches were introduced by their conquests, luxury was carried to excess, and they then reclined at their meals on sumptuous couches. These couches were similar to the modern sofa, and generally calculated to hold three persons; they so reclined upon them that the head of the one was opposite the breast of the other, and in serving them selves thev used only one hand. 11. Fathers at Rome were generally invested with the power of life and death over their children. The exposure of infants was at first somewhat frequent, but at length entirely ceased. Slaves constituted a large portion of the population of Rome. Their lives were at the disposal of their masters. They were not only employed in domestic service, but also in various trades and manufactures. They were considered as mere property, and were publicly sold in the market-place; and if capitally convicted, their punishment was crucifixion. At the feasts of Saturn and at the Ides of August, the slaves were allowed great privileges, and masters at those periods waited on them at table. 12. The system of education among the Romans, which was in its highest state of improvement during the reign of Augustus, was much admired. Tlie utmost attention was ' lowed on the early formation of the mind and character. Th. man matrons themselves nursed their own children, and ne^^^ lO the care be- stowed on their morals, a remarkable degree of attention seems to have been given to their language. From the earliest dawn of reason, a regular course of aiscipH..e was pursued by some matron of the family, and as the children grew towards manhood, they were habituated to all the athletic exercises that could impart agility or grace, and fit them for the profession of arms. Eloquence and the military art were the surest road to prefer- ment. Oratory, which led to the highest honors in the state, M'as the favorite study at Rome, and was taught as a science in the public schools. Poetry among the Romans, as with most of other nations, appears to have been the earliest intellectual efforts. The names that adorn the Roman drama are those of Liviua Wlmt 18 sold of tbe dress of women? Of hnts, &;c.?— 10. What was the principal meal? "What is said of breakfast? In the early ages, what was the diet of the Ro- mans ? How did they sit at table ? Whot is said of these couches ?— 11. What is said of fathers? Of infants? What is said of slaves?— 12. What is said of education? Of the Roman matrons ? What was pursued ? Wliat U said of eloquence, &c ? Of oratory? Of poetry? Ic, how- jewels, 'ofusion. neys, or out any ' supper, r break - parately •ast. In of milk hes ; but Toduced hey then couches d to hold id of the ig them le power f infants ^ ceased; >f Rome, were not •ades and srty, and mvicted, i-n and at jges, and :h was in ugustus, on the matrons care be- n seems st dawn )y some lanhood, it could |of arms. prefer- ic state, lience in Imost of efforts. Livius ! principal J)f the Ro- Ihat is said IducationT I, &c? Of JEWISH HISTORY. 95 Andronicua, Ennius, Plautus end Csccilius. In epic poetry, Virgil has excelled all other poets of ancient times, with the exception of Homer. Philosophy was first taught at Rome, about the end of the third Punic war, and was introouced from Greece. The system of the Stoics was at first most generally received ; the philosophy of Aristotle was afterwards greatly cultivated; but with the introduction of luxury, the philosophy of Epicurus became fashionable. JEWISH HISTORY. SECTION I. The Early History qf the Jeirs, until their deliverance fronim Egypt. 1. The Jews, commonly called the people of God, derive their origin from Abraham, the son of Zerah, the tenth in lineal de- scent from /S^em, the son of iVb«A. ^ The call of Abraham is a remarkable event in his historjr, and' took place 1921 years before the Christian era. Abraham intended to settle in Haran, but in obedience to the will of God he removed to the land of Canaan, which was appointed to be the inheritance of his posterity. After his arrival there, his first care was to erect an altar for the wor- ship of Gcd, who appeared to him and confirmed the promise, which he had before made, of giving the country to his children. When he had lived some time in Canaan, a famine compelled him to remove his family into Egypt, where he resided until the famine ceased, and then again returned. 2. Shortly after this time, happened the remarkable visitation of the divine wrath on Sodom and several other cities. The crimes of these cities cried aloud to heaven for vengeance ; ac cordingly three angels, in the form of young men, were sent to destroy tnem. Abraham having entertained the heavenly visitors in^ his tent, accompanied them on their way to Sodom, and ob- tained from them, that Lot and his family should be spared. Lot was therefore admonished to depart with his wife and his two daughters, and they were ordered not to look upon the city. But scarcely had he reached a place of safety, when Sodom and Go- . morrah, with two other cities, were consumed by fire that fell from" heaven, leaving the site on which they stood, and the coun- try in the vicinitv, a jake^ called at the present time, the Dead Sea, the water of which is clear and heavy, but extremely nau- seous and bitter to the taste. When the noise of the falling fire was heard. Lot's wife, forgetful of the injunction of the angels. Mention some names that adorn the drama? What is said of Virgil? 'What it said of philosophy ? 1. What is said of the JewsT When was the call of Abraham? Where did he settle ? Where did he remove ? Where did he remove with his fbmily ?— 2. After this time, what happened ? What is said of Abraham ? Who was admonished to depart t What is the site on which it stood now called'' What is related of Lot's wife? 96 JEWISH HISTORY. looked back upon the city; but her curiosity was punished on the spot ; she was changed into a pillar of salt, to serve as a warning to those who, at any time, cast back a wishful look on the sinful objects which they have once forsaken. 3. Sarah, the wife of Abraham, when far advanced in year , brought him a son, who was called Isaac. When Isaac had grown up) God^ to try the faith of Abraham, commanded him to offer his son in sacrifice on a mountain which he should point out to him. The holy patriarch obeyed without hesitation, but at the moment when his hand was raised to strike the victim, an angel was sent to stop his arm, and to assure him that God was satisfied with the readiness of his obedience. Isaac was afterwards mar- ried to Rebecca, the mother of Esau and Jacob. Jacob, by the command of the Lord, took the name Israel, hence his posterity were called Israelites, or children of Israel. 4. Jacob had twelve sons, of whom Joseph was particularly loved by his father, and on that account hated by the rest of his brothers. On a certain occasion, as they were tending their flocks, at some distance from home, Joseph was sent by his father to see how they conducted themselves ; they inmediately seized and sold him as a slave to some Ishmaelite merchants, and told his father that he had been devoured by wild beasts. The mer- chants carried him into Egypt, and sold him to Potiphar, an officer of the court. Joseph served Potiphar with so much fidelity, that he soon committed to him the care of his household. The wife of Potiphar repeatedly attempted to seduce Joseph to the commission of a flagitious crime, but the virtuous youth rejected her proposals with disdain ; but she, incensed at this, maliciously accused him of an attempt against her honor. On this false accusation Joseph was thrown into prison, where he languished for several years. 5. At length Pharaoh, the king of Egypt, had two dreams that greatly perplexed him, and could find no one in Egypt able to interpret them. Finally he was informed of a Hebrew servant, then in prison, who had wisely interpreted the dreams of two of his officers ; this was Joseph, who, on being introduced to the king, explained his dreams, and told him that they predicted an abundant product of the earth for seven years^ and afterwards a famine for the same space of time. Upon this he was not only released from prison, out appointed to administer the affairs ot Egypt under Pharaoh. 6. During the famine which followed, ell his brothers,^ with the exception of Benjamin, went into Egypt for the purpose of buy- ing provisions. Joseph knew them, but ne was unknown to them; he therefore asked them, as if strangers to him, from whence they had come, and whether they were spies. They answered him with profound respect, that they had come into Egypt with the honest intention of^ buying corn; that they were twelve brothers; 3. When Isaac had grown up, what did God command ? What did the holy pati «arch do T Whom did Isaac marry ?— 4. How many sons had Jacob T On a certain occa* ■ion, what took place 7 Where was Joseph carried ? What is said of the wife of Potiphar ? What happened to Joseph ?— 6. What is said of Pharaoh ? Of what was he informed? What did Joseph tell him?— 0. During the ikmine, what took place? What did Joseph ask them ? JEWISH HISTORY. 97 fidelit> , d. The i on the krarning i sinful I year, , i grown to offer t out to it at the n angel satisfied ds mar- I, by the ►osterity icularly st of his ig their is father y seized Eind told "he mer- ihar, an h to the [rejected iciously lis false tguished ams that ; able to servant, two of to the cted an wards a lot only ffairs ot with the of buy- to them; ice they red him ^th the rothers; pati tarch tain occa- he wife of what waa ok place? that one of them no longer existed, and that the youngest, called Benjamin, was left at home with his father Jacob in Canaan. The name of Benjamin touched the inmost feeling of Joseph's breast; he therefore determined to have liim brought into Egypt. For this purpose he seemed to give no credit to their words, and said, that to assure himself of the truth of their account, one of them should remain as a hostage, until their younger brother should be brought into Egypt. Therefore retaining Simeon, the rest were permitted to depart. 7. Upon their return home, they informed their father of all that had passed, and particularly of the engagement they were under of taking Ber\jamin into Egypt, where Ximeon was de- tained as a plecfge of their promise. Nothing could exceed the grief of the aged father on receiving this intelligence; he be- inoaned his misfortunes; he spoke of his children, and became inconsolable at the thought of parting with the last and dearest of his sons. Joseph, said he, is no more, Simeon is in chains, and must Benjamin, also, be taken from me? No, I will not consent ; to part with him would wring my very soul with grief, and carry my gray hairs in anguish to the grave. 8. Jacob, liowever, at length consented to the departure of Benjamin, who accompanied his brothers on their return to Egypt. They were kindly received by Joseph, who finally made himself kno^yn to them in these words: " I am Joseph; does my father yet live ?" Struck silent with amazement, they were for yome time unable to reply. Joseph wep*- and tenderly embraced them fA\ ; but with greater feeling he threw himself upon the neck of Beiyamin, and pressed him to his breast. He then told them to hasten to their father and let him know that his son Joseph was still alive, and to bring him down into Egypt. Jacob accordingly removed >yith all^ his family into Egypt, and Joseph assigned them a residence in the land of Gushen, a fertile district situated between the Nile and the Red Sea. 9. Jacob lived seventeen years after his removal into E^pt. patriarch approach, and spoke to him of the inheritance which God had promised to his seed in the land of Canaan, where he desired his remains to be removed after his death. He called his other sons around his bed, and gave to each a special blessing : the most memorable was that which he spoke of Judah, in which he ex- pressly declared, that from his race the Messiah, the expected of all nations, should be born, and that this great event should take place tit or near the time when the sovereign power should be entirely taken away from the Jewish nation. Jacob died in the\ one hundred and forty-seventh year of his age. How did the name of Benjamin affect Joseph ? What method did he adopt to brin«f im.mto Egypt?— 7. What did they inform their father? What is said of the nged Uher ? What did he say ?— 8. To what did Jacob at length consent ? In what words did Joseph make himself known ? What did ho* tell them ?— 9. How long did Jacob live ? What is said of Joseph ? AVhat did the patriarch do ? What did he say of the Messiah ? him fa 98 JEWISH HISTORY. 10. Joseph, after the death of his father, continued to rule over Egypt until his death, which occurred about the vear 1635 A. C. In less than forty years after this event, a total change took place in the affairs of Egypt ; a new king occupied the throne who knew not Joseph, and forgetful of his administration, cruelly op- pressed the Hebrew people. To check their increase and pros- perity, the most rigorous measures were adopted ; their lives were embittered by hard service at public works, and all their male children were ordered to be thrown into the river Nile. 11. After much suffering, God raised up a deliverer of his chosen people, who should rescue them from a state of cruel ser- vitude, and biing them out of the land of bondage. This de- liverer was Moses, the most distinguished personage of ancient times. In consequence of Pharaoh's inhuman decree, Moses was exposed by his mother on the baoks of the Nile, and was found by the king's daughter, who compassiopately adopted him and thus saved nis life. Before the obdurate heart of Pharaoh could be induced to consent to the departure of the Hebrews, a number of extraordinary and supernatural events took place, called the ten plagues of Egypt. The first of these plagues was the change of the waters of the Nile, and of all the wells of Egvpt, into blood ; and by the last the whole land was covered with darkness for three days. 12. Pharaoh at length consented to allow Moses to conduct the Israelites into the wilderness for three days, to perform their re- ligious duties. At the expiration of this time, nnding that they did not return, he put himself at the head of his army and re- solved to pursue them. Moses retreated until he came to the shore of the Red Sea. where, seeing the hosts of Egypt pressing forward, he extended his arm over the profound abyss, as God commanded him ; the waters suddenly divided and opened a passage to the opposite shore. The Israelites immediately entered the dry hollow of the deep, amazed at the watery bounds that stood suspended as walls upon their right and on their left. 13. Pharaoh, insensible of the miracle, and thinking the pas- sage as safe and as free for him as the Israelites, entered precipi- tately after them, with all his army, and advanced to the middle of the abyss before he became sensible of his danger. By this time, Moses, who, with all his followers, had reached the other shore, stretched forth his hand again over the sea, and called back the waters to their natural state. Shut up within the bosom of the deep, the whole Egyptian host perished, with the loss of their chariots and arms. 14. The Israelites, after their deliverance from Egypt, wan- dered tiirough the desert for forty years, during which time they received many signal proofs of tne divine favor in their regard. 10. What ia now said of Joseph ? Of the new king? To check their increase, what was adopted ? — ^11. 'What did God raise up ? Who was this deliverer ? What is re- lated of Moses? Wliat was the first and last plague of Egypt?— 18. To what did Pharaoh at length consent ? At the expiration of this time, what did he do ? What did Moses do? Where did the Isaaehtes enter?— 13. What is related of Pharaoh? When Moses had reached the other shore, what did he do? What happened to th« Egyptian host?— 14. What is said of the Israelites? JEWISH HISTORY. 99 rule over 35 A. C. )ok place •one who nelly op- ind pros- eir lives all their >^ile. sr of his ruel ser- Thisde- f ancient loses was ras found him and loh could a number ailed the le change jvpt, into darknesB nduct the 'dieir re- that they y and re- ae to the pressing ), as God opened a y entered mds that eft. : the pas- i precipi- e middle By this the other lied back )osom of s of their ^t, wan- time ther r regar d. rease, what What is re- To what did doT V^at f Pharaoh ? enedto the They were supplied with food by manna, which fell regularly every morning, except on the Sabbath. On one occasion, when they were greatly in want of water, Moses supplied them with that element, by striking a rock with his rod ana causing a stream to*issue from it. In the second year after their deliverance from Egypt, Moses numbered the children of Israel, and found them to amount to six hundred and three thousand five hundred and fifty men, besides women and children. When they arrived at Mount SinaL God gave them his divine law, amidst thunder and lightning. Moses M'as the only person allowed to ascend the mountain, and during his absence the ungrateful Israelites fell into idolatry, and worshipped a golden calf; _ 15. Moses, after forty days and nights spent in his secret inter- view, received two tables of stone from God, who had engraved upon them, as the Scripture expresses it, with his own hand, the ten commands. In these ten fundamental precepts are contained an admirable summary of our various duties to God and to man. We are directed to acfore one only Deity, the author of all bless- ings ; we are commanded to reverence his holy name, and are reminded of the dreadful vengeance denounced against those who shall transfer to idols, or to the creature, that worship which is due only to the Creator. To prevent the neglect of those sacred obligations, we are commanded to abstain from work one day in each week, that it nm' be more immediately devoted to the duties of religion. Four of the precepts of the Mosaic code compre-» hend the principles of universal jurisprudence. Thou shalt not kill : Thou shalt not commit adultery : Thou shalt not steal : Thou shalt not bear false witness. They have formed the basis of criminal law in all civilized nations, and are essential to the good order of society. 10. When Moses descended from the mountain, and found the people worshipping a golden calf, transported witn holy indigna- tion at the sight, he threw down the tables of the law, find broke them into pieces : then seizing the idol, he immedi?! ly broke it down and cast it into the firej and placing himsei:' .tt the en- trance of the camp, he proclaimed aloud that all those who still retained a sense or their duty to God j should come forth and join him. The faithful tribe of Zevl, having arranged themselves by his side, Moses ordered them to march through the camp and put to death all who came in their way. The order was immediately executed, and above twenty thousand men were put to death, to expiate the guilt of those who remained. 17. Moses, by the express command of God, having prepared two tables of stone, like those he had broken « went again to the summit of Sinai, where he received the same words engraved on With what were they supplied ? On one occasion, what is related ? In the second year, what was the number found to be ? At Mount Sinai, what was given ? What IS said of Moses ? — 15. What did Moses receive ? In these, what are contained ? What are we directed. &c. ? To prevent, &c., what are we commanded? What do four of these precepts comprehend ? What are these four precepts ? — IG. \Vhat is now said of Moses? What did he do with the idol? \Vliat did Moses order them? Hpw many were put to death? — 17. AVhat did Moses now do? 100 JEWISH HISTORY. them which had been engraved on the first. When he came down from the mountain and approached the camp, the Israelites perceived a bright halo of glory which encircled his countenance, and made them afraid to approach him. Being told the cause of their dread, he covered his face with a veil, which he afterwards continued to wear. Moses then caused the tabernacle to be built, which was a auadrangular tent, thirty cubits in length, and nine in breadth. The inside of the tabernacle was hung with richly embroidered tapestry, and was divided into two parts by foui pillars, before which was suspended a veil of the most exquisite needlework, variegated with the biightest coloring of purple and scarlet. The apartment enclosecf behind the veil M'as called the holy of holies, and the space between the veil and the en trance was called the sanctuary. The tabernacle being finished, the ark of the covenant was made. ^ It measured two cubits and a half in length, one and a half in breadth, and the^ same in heiff|it; it was made of incorruptible wood, plated within and without with the purest gold, and covered with a lid, also of solid gold, which was called tnc mercy-seat. On the mercy-seat were placed two cherubs face to fiice, with their wings extended^ so as to cover the ark. The ark, when finished, was placed m the tabernacle. 18. About this time Moses sent twelve men to survey the land of Canaan; all, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, gave an unfavorable report, which caused the people to murmur. In 'consequence of this oflEence, God condemned all those who were twenty years of age, when they left Egypt, to die in the wilder- ness, except Joshua and Caleb. The earth opened and swallowed Korah, Dalhan and Miram^ for heading a revolt against Mosos: at the same time fire descendea and destroyed two hundred and fifty of ihose who had partici- pated in their offence. Moses at lenffth died at the age of one hundred and twenty years, on mount IVebo^ in the land of Moab, having first taken a view of the promised land, which he was not permitted to enter. After the death of Moses, Joshua was ac- knowledged his successor in the supreme temporal command, who, having conquered the various nations that opposed him, and having surmounted innumerable obstacles, finally conducted the Israelites into the land, of promise. Whon he cnme down, what is related of him? What did he cause to be bnilt? Describe the tabernacle? The tabernicle beiujr finished, what was made? "What did it measure ? On the mef cy-seat w lat was placed ? — 18. At this time, what was done ? "NVhat was their report ? In conseqifence of this, to what were they con- demned? What is related of Korah? At what age did Moses die, and where? AAer the death of Moses, what did Joshua, his successor, do ? JEWISH HISTORY. 101 be bnilt ? I? ^Vhat Iwhat was llhey con- where T SECTION II. 77ie government of the Judges f the regal government^ the reitO' ration of the Jews from captivity, 1. The period during the ffovernment of the judges was ex- tremely turbulent, and marked by an almost uninterrupted series of hostilities with their warlike neighbours. We are not informed for a certainty as to the manner of choosing the judges, and what was the extent of their power. They appear to have been mili- tary chiefs for the command of the army, and some of them acquired a distinguished fame by their successful expeditions against the enemies of their country. The most distinguished of those who filled the office of judge were the two last, £li and Samuel. Eli, who united in his person the duties of judge with the functions of high-priest, appears to have been incapable of discharging the obligations dependent on these two important offices. ^ The people fell into idolatry, and, in punishment of their crimes, were subjugated by an ancient nation called the Philistines. In a great battle with the Philistines, the Hebrew army was defeated with dreadful slaughter, the two sons of Eli were slain, and the ark of the covenant fell into the hands of the enemy. At the news of this disaster, the venerable high*priest, Eli, now sightless with age, fell backward from his seat and ex- pired on the spot. 2. The next and last judge of the Hebrews, was Samuel the prophet, A. C. 1112. He brought back the people to a sense of their duty, and soon restored the fallen glory of Israel by a sig- rtal victory over the Philistines. Peace was restored, public virtue again flourished, and Samuel for twenty years governed the Hebrew nation with wisdom and prudence. When ajge had rendered him incapable of executing his laborious duties, he united his two sons with him in the administration of the govern- ment. Rut the conduct of Samuel's sons, who did not inherit their father's virtue, ffave offence to the Israelites, and they desired to be governea by r. king, like the other nations around them. . Samuel at length yielded to their request, and privately anointed Satd^ the son of Cis, of the tribe ot Benjamin, as king of Israel. Samuel then assembled the tribes, that they might elect a person to rule over them, and havin|f cast their votes, the lot fell upon the very person of Saul. 3. 'This event confirmed what had already passed in private, and^ indisputably proves that God presides over and directs the affairs of man. The name of^ Saul was immediately echoed through the tribes; anfl on being presented before them, the whole multitude exclaimed, God save the king. This event took 1. What was the period during the government of the judges ? 'What do they ap- pear to have been 7 Who were the most distinguished ? What is said of Eli? Into what did the people fall? In a great battle, what took place? At the news of this disaster, what happened ?— ^. Who was the last judge ? What is said of him ? Why did the Israelites desire to Ifl governed. by a king? Who was the first king?—* 3. What is said of this event? What did the multitude exclaim ? 9* 102 JKWISH HISTORY. place after the government of the judges had subsided, with some intermission, for three hundred and fifty-six years from the time of Joshua, A. C. 1091. 4. The beginning of the reign of Saul was auspicious, and dis- tinguished by a complete victory over the Philistines, Amonites, and other nations, lie was at length ordered by Almighty God, through the prophet Samuel, to destroy the Amalekites, an idola- trous and perndious nation, the ever-declared enemies of the Hebrew peoplej and not to reserve the least thing that b 'jnged to them. In obedience to this order. Saul put himself at th ^ead of his armv and marched against that devoted people; buc for from complying with the letter of his instructions, he spared the life of their king, reserved the choicest of the flocks, and took to himself the most precious of the spoils. On account of ''his and other acts of disobedience, Samuel, on the part of God, declared to Saul that the kingdom of Isi>iel should be taken from him and transferred to another. Accordingly Samuel, by the divine direc- tion, privately anointed David kmg, and appointed him to suc- ceed to the throne, which Saul had forfeited by his crimes. The whole reign of Saul was a continued series of foreign or domestic troubles j being at length defeated in a war with the Philistines, he killed himself by falling upon his own sword, after a reign of forty years, A. C. 1051. 5. David, who had been anointed king by Samuel before the death of Saul, and held his title by divine appointment, was there- fore acknowledged by the powerful tribe of Judah. He found, however, a powerful rival in Ishbosheth, the son of Saul, who found - <»d his claim on the ri^ht of descent, and was supported by many of the tribes. A civil war ensued, which continued for seven .years, and was finally terminated by the death of Ishbosheth; after this event all the tribes submitted to David, and the crown be- came hereditary in his family. ' 6. The reiffn of David was illustrious and interesting. He enlarged the oounds of his kingdom, took Jerusalem, which he made the capital of his dominions, and enriched himself and his subjects by the spoils of his^ enemies. He revived among the people an attachment for religion, by the institution of solemn ceremonies; and he introduced a taste for the arts by inviting into the country able artists^or the completion of the magnificent edifices which ne erected. The latter part of his reign was imbit- tered by severe affliction. The kingdom was ravaged by pesti- lence, ramine, and disastrous wars. His mind was harassed by domestic misfortunes. Some of his sons were disobedient and wicked. His favorite son, Msalomt excited a rebellion against his father, with a design of dethroning him; but he was defeated and slain. David caused^ his son Solomon to be crowned in the year 1011, before the Christian era, and died the following year, When did this take place? — 4. What is said of the beginning of the reign of Saul? What was he ordered? What did he do? On account of this, what did Samuel do? ■Whom did he anoint as king? How did Saul die ? — 5. What is said of Dayid ? What «did he find ? What ensued ?— 6. What is said of the reign of David ? WTiat did h* do ♦ 'What is said of the latter part of his reign? Of his favorite son Absalom T , with om the \d dis- onites, jrGod, 1 idula- of the 'mged buc far red the took to his and cclared litn and e direc- tO 8UC- i. The omestic ines, he of forty fore the IS there- e found, B found - ►y many ir seven th; after )wn be- T. He lich he and his ong the solemn inviting nificent s imbit- r pesti- ssed by ent and against feated d in the ig year, of Saul? amuel dot d? What didhadoT le JEWISH HISTORY. 103 having reigned seven years and a half over Judah, and thirty- thn*e years over dl Israel. 7. During the reign of Solomon, the kingdom of Israel rose to a higher degree of prosperity, felicity, and g'^^ry, than it enjoyed at any former or subsequent period. He dii vcted the councils of all the pettv states situated between the Euphrates and Mediter- ranean, and held the balance of power between the two great monarchies of Egypt and Assyria. Commerce was in a nigh degree flourishing; the vessels of Israel, under the direction of Tyrian' mariners, traded to the land of Ophir, which is supposed to be a district of Ethiopia, on the eastern coast of Africa. By these lucrative voyages they augmented the wealth of the nation, which David had alreadv enriched by the spoils of war. But this prosperity began at length to decline. Solomon, elated by the uniform prosperity which attended his reign, set no bounds to his magnificence and luxury, and in order to support his profuse expenditure, laid heavv taxes upon the people; this finally alien- ated the affections of nis subjects, and towards the close of his reign gave rise to a powerful faction, headed by a young man called Jeroboam. 8. The most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon wa? fhe building of a magnificent temple at Jerusalem, which was com- Eleted m the space of seven years. The plan had been formed y David, and materials, workmen, and money provided for its erection.^ It was probably the most superb and costly fabric of ancient times. The wisdom of Solomon is proverbial. The books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes are ascribed to him, either as the author or collector; they abound with precepts and maxims applicable to every state and condition of life, ^ut notwithstanding the supe- rior wisdom for which Solomon has been so justly celebrated, he appears to have been immersed in sensual pleasures. He married no fewer than a thousand wives, seven hundred of whom held the rank and title of queens. The influence of these women, chosen for the most part from idolatrous nations, led him into effeminacy and neglect of his important duties to God and his people ; and their influence and superstitions at length drew him into idola- try. He died after an illustrious reign of forty years, leaving the world in doubt whether his memory be more worthy of praise or censure, whether he died a friend or enemy of his Creator. A. C. 971. 0. With Solomon expired the grandeur and tranquillity of the Hebrews. Upon the accession of his son Rehoboam to the throne, the faction of Jeroboam broke out into open rebellion, and termi- nated in the revolt of the ten tribes from their allegiance to the house of David, leaving only the two tribes of Judab and Benja- How long did he reign?— 7. During the reign of Solomon, what is said of the king- dom of Israel? What did he direct ? What is said of commerce ? What did Solo- mon do when elated by prosperity ? — 8. What was the most remarkable event of his reign? What was it probably? What books are ascribed to bim? In what does he appear to have been immersed? How many wives had he? Into what was h« drawn ? When did he di« ?— 9. On the accession of Rehoboam, what broke out? 104 JEWISH HISTORY. min loyal to their lawful sovereign. The revolted tribes elected Jeroboam for their king, and the monarchy was thus divided into two separate kingdoms of Israel and Judah. 10. The policy of Jeroboam produced a religious as welj as a political separation. Being persuaded that should he permit his subjects to go into the kingdom of Judah, in order to perform the duties of religion in the temple at Jerusalem, they would by de- grees lose their respect for his authority, and perhaps return to tne allegiance of their former sovereign ; he therefore ordered two new temples to be built, the one at Bethel and the'other at Dan; and in tnem two golden calves to be set up and divine honors to be paid to them, as to the God who had conducted the children of Israel out of the land of E^ypt. Jeroboam, after a turbulent reign of twenty-two years, finished a wicked life by an unhappv end. His name is never mentioned in holy scripture but with detestation, on account of his having set up the worship of idols, which was continued by all the lungs who succeeded to the throne of Israel, until an end was put to that kingdom by the Assyrians. 11. After this memorable epoch, the history of the two king- doms of Israel and Judah, for a period of almost four hundred years, exhibits a series of disunion, vice, wars, massacres, servi- tude, and affliction from famine and pestilence. At length, the kingdom of the ten tribes was extinguished. The people were transported into Assyria and dispersed into difterent parts of the country, from which they never returned. The few left in Canaan were intermixed with strangers, and from that mixture of different nations originated a race of people, who were after- wards known by the name of Samaritans. 1 his event took place about 720 A. C, after the kingdom had subsisted two hundred and fiftv-four years. ^ ♦ 12. The tottering kingdom «f Judah still continued to enjoy a Srecarious existence; it was invaded at different times by the labyionians; at length rendered tributary, and finally subju- gated ; its metropolis, the city of Jerusalem, was destroyed, the tempb was demolished by the order of the conqueror, Nebuchad- ney-zar; all the principal inhabitants were stripped of every thing valuable, and carried captives lo Babylon. Thus ended the king- dom of Judah, after it had subsisted four hundred and sixty-eight years from the beginning of the reign of David, and three hun- dred and eighty-eight years after the separation of the ten tribes. 13. The privation of liberty and the miseries of bondage seem to have1)rought the Jewish people to a sense of their past trans- gressions. Unable to resist the power of man, they now placed their sole confidence in the goodness and mercy of God, who heard their supplications and looked with compassion oh their ■Wliomdid the revolted tribes elect? — 10. What did the policy of Jerobonni produce? What did he order ? WTiy is his name mentioned with detestation in the Scripture ? — 11. Aftpr this epoch, what docs the history exhibit? "Wliat at length happened? What became of the peopio? AVhen did this event take place? — 13. What is said of the kinplom of Judah? AVliat at Icnprth happened to it? What became of the inhal it»'nt»' How long had it subsisted? — 13. Unable to resist the power of man, what did ihey do? JEWISH HISTORY. 106 slectetl ed into ell as a mit his )rm the by de- turn to red two it Dan; honors ;hildren irbulent inhappy )at with )f idols, to the 1 by the o king- lundred 3, servi- iffth, the ^le were parts of ' left in mixture •e after- jk place jundred enjoy a by the subju- yed, the juchad- ry thing lekini^- ;y-eight ee hun- n tribes. s:e seem trans- placed od, who ah their I produce? ripture? — •d? Whnt aid of the titiliU'iiU' did ihey sufferings. Cyrus, king of Persia, having conquered Babylon, published a decree by which the Jewish people were set at liber- ty, and permitted to return to their native country, after they had languished in captivity for seventy years; the decree, moreover, allowed them to rebuild Jerusalem and their temple, of which Cyrus gaye theni a new plan, and ordered that the expense of erecting it should be paid out of the royal treasury. He also restored to them all the sacred vessels which had been brought to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar ^ when the temple was destroyed. In consequence of this edict, about forty-two thousand ot the Jewish people commenced their march toward their native coun- try, where they arrived about five hundred and thirty-six years before the Christian era. From this period the Israelites, who returned from captivity, arc properly called Jews, because the tribe of Judah was by far the most powerful after their restoration to liberty. SECTION III. From the restoration of the Jews to their native country, to the Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, 1. Many of the Jews remained at Babylon, while those who returned to Palestine began the work of rebuilding the temple with alacrity and vigor. When it began to raise ab()ve the foun- dation, the young manifested their delight in tears of joy, whilst the ancients wept to see how far the outlines of the new edifice fell short of the old. The progress of the work suffered a tempo- rary obstruction, through the intrigues of their enemies u.nd the caprice of Cambyses, the successor of Cyrus. But in the begin- ning of the reign of Darius, the decree of Cyrus in favor of the Jews was ratined ; and that prince even contributed liberally towards the expense, and in the sixth year of his reign, the temple was completed and dedicated vyith great solemnity. 2. Darius, during the remainder of his reign, continued to manifest his favor for the Jews, and their privileges were con- firmed by his son Xerxes. Their interest was still greater with Ai'taxerxes, called Ahasuerus in the Scrioture, through the influ- ence of his queen, Esther, a Jewess, and also through the services of her uncle, Mordecai, who had discovered and frustrated a conspiracy against the king's life. From Artaxerxes, Ezra ob- tained liberal donations to be applied to the service of the temple, and full power to govern the Jews; and iVc/iemitt/t was after- wards commissioned to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, and to What did Cyrus publish? What did the decree allow? What did ho restore? In consequence of this edict, what w^as done? From this period, why are they called Jews ? 1. When the temple beffan to rise above its foundation, what is said of the young .' What did the progress of the work suffer ? In the beginning of the reign of Darius, what wos done? — '2. What did Darius continue to do? Throuch whose mduence wa» Uicir interest still greater with Artaxerxes? What did Ezra obtain from Artaxerxes ' 106 JEWISH HISTOHY. reform many abuses among the people. Ezra and Nehemiah seem to have been the two last governors of Judali, which proba- bly became subject to the governor of Syria, from whom the high- pnest derived his authority. 3. From this period, most of the calamities which befel the Jewish nation must be ascribed to the men who aspired to the sacerdotal dignity, through motives of ambition and avarice more than zeal for religion. For several centuries, the office of high- priest was the chief object of ambition among the leading men of the state. The candidates purchased the office from the Assyrian governors, and retained it by means of money. Hence they oppressed the people with taxes that they might meet their pecu- niary engagements, and the high-priest, Menelaus, sold some of the richest vessels belonging to the temple. ^ 4. About the year 328, A. C, Alexander the Great having be- sieged Tyre, was greatly incensed against the Jews, because they had refused to supply his army with provisions during the siege. After the taking of Tyre, he marched to Jerusalem with the in- tention of punishing the Jews for their disobedience to his orders. Juddica, the high-priest, was ordered in a dream to meet the threatening conqueror in his pontifical robes, at the head of all the priests in their proper haoits, and attended by the people dressed in white garments. ^ Alexander was struck with this religious pomp, md approaching the high-priest with the deepest respect, embraced him with a kind of religious veneration. He told his attendants, who expressed their surprise at this submis- sive- behavior, that he did not pay this profound respect to the high-priest, but to the God whose minister he was. 5. Alexander, on his departure, granted to the Jews the free- dom of their country, laws and religion, and exempted them from paying tribute every seventh year; and during his whole reign they enjoyed great tranquijlity ; but with him the prosperous con- dition of their country expired. Judea was successively invaded and subdued by the Syrians and Egyptians, and the people re- duced to bondage. The Jews kept the Sabbath so rigidly, that they would not, on that day, engage in battle nor defend them- selves, although attacked by an enemy. Ptolemy, king of Egypt, having invaded Judea, took advantage of this religious impedi- ment. He entered Jerusalem on the Sabbath-day without resist- ance, and carried away to Egypt one hundred thousand captives. 6. About the year 198, A. C.Antiochua the Great, king of Syria, aftui* taking the city of Jerusalem, and plundering the temple, sold forty thousand Jews to the neighboring nations, and established paganism through Judea. The sacrifices ceased, and for a season there scarcely existed the slightest external signs of religion. During the scene of desolation which stained the land "Who seem to have been the last governors of Judah ? — 3. From this period, to what must most of the calamities be ascribed? From whom did the candidates purchase the office? — 4. AVhat happened about the year 328? What is related of Juddica, the high-priest? "What did Alexander tell his attendants? — 5. What was granted to the Jews by Alexander? By whom was Judea now invaded? What did Ptolemy, king of Pgypt, do? — 0. AVliat was done by Antiochus the Great? During the scene of deso lation, what did Mattathias undertake ? \\ JEWISH HISTORY. 107 to whot )urchase dica, the id to tho my, king I of dead of Judea with ^ ~ blood of its best citizens, Mattathias, a man of the 8acerdoi«; rder, undertook the deliverance of his country. He retired ia. i the wilderness with his five sons, surnamed the Maccabees^ and was soon joined by a great number of the Jews, who wished to avoid idolatry and religious persecution. An army was shortly raised sufficiently strong to face the enemy in the field. Mattathias, placing himself at the head of his forces, led them against the troops of Antiochus, and forced them to retreat before him, and to fly for safety beyond the boundaries of Judea. 7. After the death of Mattathias, Judas Maccabees, his eldest son, was placed at the head of the army. The achievements of this distinguished man, the deliverance of his country from fo- reign oppression, his talents, bravery, and patriotism, have ranked him among the most illustrious heroes of Greece and Rome. His patriotism was only surpassed by his zeal for religion. Hav- ing vanquished the enemies of his country, his first care was to repair the devastations they had caused. The temple was in a desolate condition, the altar and sanctuary profaned, the gates burned, and court overgrown with shrubs. Having appointed Sriests of unblemished character for the performance of the sacri- ces, he repaired the holy places, threw down the altar on which the idol of Jupiter stood, and haying erected another, dedicated it with great joy and religious festivity. The sacred veil was again hung up, and the sacred vessels, golden candlesticks, and altar of perfumes, were again replaced. Judas Maccabees having thus, bv many signal victories, delivered his country from bondage and idolatry, was at last slain in battle, 157, A. C. 8. Ihe brothers of Judas, pursuing the advantage already gained, completely established the independence of their country, and the republican form of government afterwards changed to that of a monarchy. John Byrcamis, the son of Simon Macca- bees, united in his person the office of high-priest and that of commander-in-chief of the army, and possessing all the abilities requisite for the military and pontifical offices, he vanquished the enemies of his country and firmly established his authority. His sons assumed the title as well as the power of kings, and the suc- cession remained in his family for about one hundred and twenty- six years. The unfortunate dissensions of this family terminated ultimately in the conquest of Judea, by Pompey the Great, who took Jerusalem and sutyugated the Jewish nation to the dominion of the Romans, 69, A. C. 9. After this event the Jewish monarchy was re-established by the favor ajid under the protection of the Romans, who placed Herod the Great, son of ^ntipater, on the throne of David. This prince demolished the old temple of Jerusalem, and rebuilt in a very magnificent manner. He reigned with great splendor, but Where did he retire ?— 7. "NVho was now placed at the head of the army ? "What i» •aid of his achievements ? Of the temple t VSTiat did he throw down T How did Judas Maccabees die?— 8. What is said of the brothers of Judas ? Of John Hyrca- nus ? What did his sons assume? Who conquered Judea? — 0. After this, by whom was the Jewish monarchy re-established T In whose favour? What did this princa 4ot 108 JEWISH HISTORY. was cruel and despotic ; his public life exhibits a continued scene of battles, tyranny, and violence. His reign is rendered memo- rable by the birth of our divine Saviour, Jesus Christ. When this remarkable event took place, thjB Wise Men, as the scripturt calls them, from the east came to Jerusalem to adore the new- born kinff of the Jews, and desired to know where he was to be found. Herod, aware that he had no other title to the crown ol Judea than that which the Romans had given him, was much alarmed at this inauiry which was made about another king. He therefore dismissea the Wise Men with a strict injunction to bring him back an account of the child when they had found it, that he mij^ht go, as he pretended, to adore it. The Wise Men, having paid their adoration to the infant at the manger of Bethlehem, were admonished, in their sleep* to return by another way to their country. Herod, finding himself thus deceived by the sages, with cruelty that would shock the most savage barbarian, gave orders that every male child born at Bethlehem within the two last years should be put to death. Herod died in the first year of the birth of Christ, or the fourth of the vulgar era. 10. During the reign of Herod II. St. John the Baptist was beheaded, because he reproved the monarch for the crime of mar- rying his brother's wife j it was also during the same reign that our Saviour's crucifixion, resurrection, ana ascension took place. In the reign of his son, Herod the Great^ the Apostle, St. James^ suffered martyrdom, and St. Peter was imprisoned ; but the un- happy monarch himself died a miserable death, being devoured by worms. Before his son, Agrippa, who was the last king of Judea, St. Paul pleaded in defence of the gospel. From this period the governors of Judea were appointed by the Roman emperors; in this condition it remained until the final extinction of tne Jewish nation. 11. The rapacity and cruelty of Florus, the last governor of Judea, caused a rebellion of the Jews, in which one hundred and fifty thousand persons are said to have perished, A. D. 66. The unhappy Jerusalem was now hastening to its downfall; while the sanguinary and violent factions among the Jews themselves, con- tributed towards this event. In the reign of Vespasian, Titus, the Roman general, was sent into Judea to suppress the revolt of t!ie Jews. He commenced the siege of the city about the festival of Easter, at which time an immense multitude of people was shut up within the walls. With so much ardor did Titus con- duct the operations of the siege, that the city was taken within the space of five months, and so completely demolished, that not a stone was left upon a stone, except a part of the western wall, and three towers preserved for the Roman garrison left in Judea. 12. The last siege of Jerusalem was attended with scenes of ■ For wha« is his reign memorable ? When this event took place, what is related? Finding h' nself deceived, what orders did he give ? — 10. Why was St. John beheaded? What took place in the reign of Herod the Grpat? From this period, how were the governors appointed? — 11. What did the rapacity ofFlorus cause ? In the reign ofVes- pasian, what took place ? How long did the siege last ? What iB said of the deatruo* lion of the cit) ? — 12. What is said of the siege of Jerusalem? JEWISH HISTORY. 109 scene nemo- When •ipturt ! new- s to be )wn ol I much r. He bring that he having ilehem, way to by the •barian, thin the he first ist was of mar- ign that k place. . James^ the un- evoured king of ■om this Roman :tinction ^rnor of [red and 16. The hile the fes, con- , THtus, fevolt of festival |ple was tus con- within •d, that Iwestern left in penes of la related? beheaded ? i were the Ign of Vet- le deatruo- carnage, famine, disease and desperation, far more horrible than anv to be met with in the annals of human misery. During the calamitous progress of the siege, Titus displayed many instances of humanity towards the besieged, and made every eftort for the preseiTation of the city and temple, but in vainj and viewing the disasters that befel tlie nation, he confessed that he was only the instrument of divine vengeance. The magnificent temple of the Jews perished with the general wreck ot the nation, thus lite- rally fulfilling the predictions of our Lord concerning the utter destruction of Jerusalem. This event took place about the year 72, A. D. , 13. According to the most accurate calculation, about eleven hundred thousand Jews perished during the siege of their capital, and ninety-seven thousand, who were made prisoners, were sold as slaves to different nations. Since that time the descendants of those who survived the dissolution of the Jewish nation have been wandering from nation to nation, objects of contempt rather than of commiseration. In but few countries have they enjoyed the same privileges as those among whom they were p^mitteu to reside. 14. Antiquities. The country of the ancient Hebrews was distinguished by several names, such as the land of Canaan, the Holy Land, Palestine, Judea, &c.; and the people themselves were variously called, as the people of God, Israelites and Jews. After the entrance of the Israelites into the land bf Canaan, it was divided into twelve different portions, which were assigned to the twelve several tribes into which they were separated. 15. Remains of AncieAt Works. Among the ancient works of Palestine, JacoVs well, the pools of Solomon, Gihon, and i?c/Ae*a, and sepulchral monuments, are the most remarkable. Jacob's well is highly venerated on account of its great antiquity. It is hewn out of the solid rock, about one hundred feet in depth, and nine in diameter, and is at present covered wi|h a stone vault. The pools of Solomon, supposed to have been constructed by the order of that monarch, appear to have been a work of im- mense cost and labor. They are three in a row, so situated that the water of the uppermost may fall into the second, and from second to the third. They are of equal breadth, being about ninety paces each; though they vary in length, the longest being two hundred and twenty paces. The pools of Gihon and Bethesa are similar works, and may be ranked among the ntost stately ruins. The sepulchral monuments are to be found in various partr of the country. The most magnificent remains of this kind are the royal sepulchres within the walls of Jerusalem; they are all hewn out of the solid marble rock, and contain several spa- cious apartments. OfTituat Of the temple? ■\\Tien did this event »ake place?— 13. How many Jew* perished during the siege? How many were sold as slaves? Since that time what IB said of the inhabitants ?— 14. What is said of the country ? How wns it divided ? —15. What are some of the ancient works of Palestine ? What is said of Jacob's well? Of Solomon's pools ? What are the pools Oihon and Bethesa? Which aro th« most magnificent of the sepulchral monumenta ? 10 110 JEWISH HISTORY. 16. Cities. Ofthese,./crMsa/em, the metropolis of the country, and the centre of the Jewish worship, was the most celebrated, and no place in the world recalls so many hallowed associations The city was built on several hills, the largest of which was Mount Zion. It was enlarged and embellished by David, Solo- mon, and other kings. On the east or lower city was Mount Moriah. on which stood the magnificent temple of Solomon. After the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, a new city was built in the reign of Jldrian, the Roman emperor, and called ,^lia Capitolina, but there was a considerable alteration in the site. Mount Zion, the principal quarter of the ancient city, was not comprised within the limits of the new one. It subsists at the present time in a deplorable condition, inhabited by Turks, Jews, and Christians. Gaza and Ascalon were the other two most noted cities. 17. Manners and Customs. The rite of circumcision has dis- tinguished the Jewish people from the earliest period of their history. It was always accompanied with great feasting and other demonstrations of joy. At this time, the child was named in the presence of the company assembled, among whom bread and wine were distributed. Their diet, except on festivals, seems to have been very plain , bread, water, and vinegar were in common use. Honey was es- teemed a peculiar delicacy, and the milk of goats was considere Mount lolumon. jity was i called 1 in the ;ity, was ibsists at r Turks, her two I has dis- of theit ind other ^d in the md wine ry plain, r was ea- nsiderec! jocial re karacter. r rending [ir heads, e pains nd theii calamit} thei) werf enius of probable erials on irds used F arch- war, m a war- ' defence their ing, and id; their rivalled. TTien vrin « stingn»hed ments con- lid of iheir im? What f e MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 1. All the nations of antiquity, except the Jews, were he:\thcns and idolaters. Their system of religion was called Polytheism, as it acknowledged a plurality of gjods, and thev worshippvd their divinities by various representations^ called itfols. The first objects of adoration among tne pagan nations, after they ha^l lost the correct knowledge of the true God, were the heavenly bodies. Henc'e we find that the names of the principal gods correspond with the names of the chief planets, such a? iSaturn, Jupiter, Venus, &c. Osiris and Isis, the principal deities among the Egyptians, are supposed to have been the sun and moon. In the process of time, they built temples to the heavenly bodies, as being subordinate agents of the divine power, and by worshipping them they supposed they would obtain the favor of the Deitv. From this they descended to the worship of objects on the earth, as they were thouglit to represent the stars or the Deity; thus idolatry arose shortly after the deluge. 2. In the course oi time, adoration was bestowed on those ob- jects which were thought to confer peculiar benefits on man. Thus the Ecryptians regarded the Nile as sacred, because by its inundations it fertilized the earth. Again, great heroes and per- sons, who, durinff their lives, had been benefactors to the human race, were deifiea after their death. From these they descended to the worship of the most degrading objects, and paid divine honors to beasts, birds, insects, and even to vegetables, such as leeks and onions ; moreover, temples were dedicated to evil de- mons and the most debasing passions. 3. The Babylonians adored the heavenly bodies, and among them Jupiter was worshipped, under the name of Bekis, to whom magnificent temples were erected at Babylon. The Canaanites and Syrians worshipped Baal^ Tummuz^ Magog, and Jlstarte. Moloch was the Saturn of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, to whom human victims, particularly children, were immolated. Baal-peor was the idol of the Moabites ; his rites were degrading and cruel. Dagon was the chief god of the Philistines : his figure was a compound of a man and a fish. Among the Celts, the sacred rites were performed in groves dedicated to their gods, to whom human victims were frequently offered ; colossal images of wicker-work were filled with human criminals and consumed by fire. 4. According to the pagan theology, there were twelve chief deities engaged in the creation and government of the universe. Agreeable to this theory, Jupiter, Neptune, and Ftre8ided lUs, who d others rho did not Wn» iheit .heJaioderu F st >•", styled tne Middle Ages, will claim our first attewtion. ,/-v-..' THE MIDDLE AGES. 1. The period intervening between the subversion of the Western Empire of the Romans, to the downfall of th* Eastern Empire, has been usually denominated the Middle Ages, * and by some writers, the Dark Ages. The great m^ority oi writers represent Europe, during those ages, as sunk in ignoran c and barbarism. How far they are correct in their estimate, w • leave for the reader to judge, after giving a summary view ol these ages separately. 2. The Sixth Age. During the early part of the preceding century, the Roman Empire of the West nad been rapidly on the decline, until its final overthrow in the year 470. The inunda^^on of the northern hordes of Goths, Vandals, and Huns, urder Alaric, Attila, and other leaders, had swept from the face of 1 aly almost evei-y trace of civilization, and planted on its once fertile plains a wild and savage race of barbanan». Under the oppres- sive reign of Anastasius in the East, insurrections prevailed in the provinces, and sedition at Constantinople itself. The empire was assailed n'om without by the Persians, Bulgarians, Arabians, and the barbarous tribes from the north. Under his successors, Justin and Justinian, an uninterrupted series of war continued to rage in different parts of the empire. Italy and the West had been severed from it towards the close of the preceding century. After a long and sanguinary contest, during wnich Rome was re- peatedly taken and retaken by the contending powers, Italy was again reconquered by Belisarius and Naraes, the generals of Justinian. 1. What period ha*: Hyever, towards the middle of this century, we find a taste for literature manifest itself again among the Greeks. It was owing to the efforts of Amon, the Saracen caliph, to attract Leo, the philosopher, to his court.'that the emperor Theophilus discovered the treasure he possessed in that great man. lie en- couraged his talents, and intrusted him with the charge of the public instruction. Bardes, who governed under the emperor Michael, undertook, with the aid of JPhotius, to revive learning in the Eastern Empire, by establishing professors of the various sci- ences and polite arts, and attaching to their functions honorary privileges and pecuniary compensations. 15. In_ the West, sacred and profane learning continued to flourish in the numerous schools established by Chariemagne, until the dreadful disorders of succeeding reigns partially ban- ished the light of science from the kingdom. After the death of that illustrious monarch, his vast dominions were inherited by Louis the Mild, who divided them between his three sons, who seem to have inherited none of the noble qualities of their father. They were continually engaged in hostilities with each other, while their kingdoms were rent with civil discords, and their Erovinces wer& inundated on every side, by the inuption of the >ane8, Normans and Saracens. 16. Amidst the evils that ensued, we are not surprised that ig- norance again prevailed, particularly among the nobles, who, fol- lowinff exclusively the profession of arms, had but little time to attend to literary pursuits, and even boasted of their want of knowledge. Hence we find that many^ of the deeds and legal documents of this period terminated in the following words: " And the aforesaid lord has declared that he did not know how to sign his name, owing to his being a nobleman." But while literature was neglected on the part of the nobility, the most strenuous efforts were made to keep alive the sacred name of sci- What is said of Alcuin, &c. ?— 13. What is said of the caliphs ? Of the liberal orts ander the Greek emperors ? — 14. Towards the middle of this century, what do wa ftnd ? '^Vhat did Bardes undertake ? — 16. In the West, what is said of learning ? In what were they continually engaged? — 16. Amidst the evils that ensued, what it aoid^ How were many of the documents of this period written ? By whom were lh« mMt •trenuoui efforts made? 11 122 THE MIDDLE AGES. ence, and to difTuee instruction among the people, by the clerfff and prelates of the church. By a reference to the decrees of the councils, during this period, it >vUi be seen that the ecclesiastics were unremitting in their zeal for the extension of knowledge. In the council oi Toul, held in 859, princes and bishops are earnestly recommended to establish public schools, for the pur- pose of teaching sacred science and polite literature. In all the nionlisteries^ and espiscopal houses, schools were estahlished, in which a relish for study and literary acquirements was carefully preserved. Besides the study of the Sacred Scriptures, the stu- dents in these institutions were taught what was termed the seven liberal arts; namely, grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. 17. In England, the incursions of the Danes, and the ravages of civil war, nad erased almost every monument of art, and ban- ished from the land every trace of learning ; the monasteries were burned, the monks murdered or dispersed, the libraries and schools destroyed ; ignorance and vice necessarily ensued. Hap- py for the island, at this n^oment of its greatest depression, Vlfred the Great was called to the throne. Having delivered his country from the dominion of the Danes, and driven the bar- barous invaders from his shores, he turned his whole attention to- wards repairing the evils which their ravages had caused. _ 18. To effect this object, he established throughout his domi- nions schools, in which were taught all the useful branches; repaired the^ University of Oxford, invited from foreign countries, men eminent for their learning, encouraged architecture, and laid the foundation of the British navy, which for so many centuries after maintained the empire of the sea. To this illustrious prince, Eng- land is indebted for many of the valuable laws which, at present, form tlie fairest feature in her constitution. Although this age was not productive of many eminent scholars, still it has left behind it a lew names that would do honor to literature even at this day. Lupus^ Abbot of Ferrieres, a writer of this centurv, is admitted by all impartial critics to have been a man of profound erudition ; and few ages can boast of a more distinguished scholar than Alfred the Great, of England. 19. The Tenth Age. The Greek emjMre, during this age, was distracted by a series of revolts and unnatural conspiracies. The emperor, Romanus, was dethroned by his son Constantine ; Con- stantino, in his turn, was deprived of his crown ind life, by his own ungrateful son, who, at the instigation of his wife, adminis- tered a cup of poison to his royal father. The parricide did not long enjoy the fruits of his impiety. The army declared their general, Nicephorus, emperor, who, after a short reign, was car- ried off by the hand of conspiracy, in order to make room for Zi- misces. This last emperor fell a victim to the treachery of his In the council of Toul, what was recommondedf In the monasteries, what were established? What were the students taught?— 17. In England, what had the incur- sions of the Danes erased? Who was called to the throne ? To what did he turn hi* attention?— 18. To eftect this object, what did he do? AVho was a writer of thi« afeT •--to. What it said of the Greek empire during this age ? Of Romanus T men e, was , The Con- y his . inis- d not their Is car- )rZi- >f his lit were incur* nil hw i* afo t THE MIDDLE AGES. 123 chief minister, Basil, who, dreading the punishment which his crimes had merited, contrived the death of his sovereign. 20. During these revolutions of the state, literature was not entirely neglected ; some of the emperors gave considerable en- couragement to science, and invited from other countries men of talents to teach at Constautinople. We do not, however, find that the Greek empire, during the tenth century, produced any dis- tinguished writers. Learning was still patronised by the Saracen caliphs, and by the sultans, who had usurped a great part of their authority. Many of their learned men were employed in trans- lating into the Arabic tongue the writings of the ancient philoso- phers; while others applied themselves with njuch diligence to the study of the translations, already set forth in the preceding age. 21. Italy, during this century, was greatly distracted by civil dissensions, and finally re-united to the Germanic empire by Otho F. France was exposed to the incursions of the Normans, in whose favor Charles Ihe Simple ceded apart of Neu stria, which from them was called Normandy. Tumult and disorder continued to convulse the state, until Hugh Capet was raised to the throne. The feudal system, during this period, had risen to its greatest Eower. During the [)receding century, the vassals of the crown ad been gradually increasing in power, so that at the present period, we find them possessetl ot almost unlimited authority. Each nobleman had his fortress and his castle, situated dn some commanding eminence, which overlooked the surrounding coun- try. Here, secure from violence, he oppressed the people, laid all travellers and merchants under contributions, and imposed upon them arbitrary tolls by way of tribute, and not unfrequently set at defiance the authority of his sovereign. 22. In Germany, the same state of things prevailed ; the great, continually in arms against each other, or at war with their sove- reign. Nor was England more favored than the nations on the continent ; it was either harassed by new incursions of the Danes, or implicated in domestic feuds. The monasteries during these evil times were almost the only asylums of learning. Here in the silence of the cloister, aloof from the turmoil of the camp, the peaceful monks continued-to cultivate a taste for science and classical literature. This century produced several men eminent for their talents; among these St. Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, and St Dunstan, in England, were paticularly distinguished. 23. The Eleventh Age. In the Eastern empire, during the greater part of this century, treachery, poison, and parricide, were the usual means employed in the advancement or deposition a fan emperor. Hence we may easily form an idea of the disor- ers of the government, and the deplorable condition of the people, who were, moreover, daily exposed to the incursions of 20. Diivlnar tlip«e revolutions, what was the state of literntnre? Hy whom was learninc still patronised ? In what were their learned men employed? — 21. What ia paid of Italy? Of Frnnee? Of the feudal system? What had each nobleman? What did he do ? — 22. In (iei innnv, what prevailed ? What is said of F^ngland ? Of the mon- nstericB dnrinp these times? What did this century produce ? — 23. What is said of the )K»stw I cini)ire during tliis century ? jif-:^- 124 THE MIDDLE AGES. the Bulgarians, Saracens, and Turks. The arts and sciences were totally neglected until towards the middle of the century, when the study of letters be^an again to revive. Grammar and philosophy were cultivated with much care, although the philoso- phy consisted chiefly in forming syllogisms and deducing sophis- tical conclusions ; an exercise calculated rather to contract than improve the mental faculties. 24. Literature continued to meet with patronage among the Saracens, who, after subjecting Persia, Syria and Palestine, granted protection to learned men, and founded several acade- mies. The extraordinary power exercised by the sovereign pontiflT, even oyer temporal princes, during this and several succeeding centuries, is no doubt a matter of surprise to the reader at the present day; of this subject I will speak more at large under the head of Italy ; suffice it to say at present, that this power, invested in the pope, although it may appear derogatory to the rights of princes, had, nevertheless, a salutary influence in correcting the abuses of the times, and of restraining the lawless passions of sovereigns. Fewer acts of violence were committed, the churches and monasteries were more respected, order and discipline better observed; the sciences were cultivated in peace; public acade- mies were opened for all who wished to improve ; the schools were crowded with students, full of noble emulation which dif- fused itself through all ranks and conditions of life. 25. During the eleventh century, the method^ of Alcuin was adopted in tlie schools under the name of Trivium and Quad- rivium. The Trivium included grammar, logic and dialectics; while arithmetic, ffeometry, astronomy, and music, constituted the Quadriviwn. But as the number of scholars multiplied, the works of Aristotle and Avicennes, with the categories attributed to St. Augustin, were very generally studied in the West. The most remarkable event towards (he close of this century was the commencement of the Crusades or sacred wars undertaken for the recovery of Palestine from the dominion of the Turks, A. D. 1096. This century, with the latter part of the preceding, was distinguished for several important and useful inventions. {See chronological table.) 26. The Twelfth Age. At the conamencement of this cen- tury, anarchy and confusion reigned in the East. The new states which the Christians had established in Palestine were subjects of continual war; the sultans were constantly in the field, to arrest the progress of the Crusaders. The emperors of Constantinople, unable to repel the invasion of the Saracens, and jealous of the success of the Crusaders, tampered with both, without being able to take advantage either of their victories or defeats. ^ ■\Vlmt is said of the arts, &c.? Of erammnr ?— 24. Where did literature still meet with patroiuige ? What will no doivbt t)e a subject of "urprise ? What is observed of this power? What is said of the sciences? Of public academies ?—2.';. Durinpr the clcvcnlh century, what method was adopted in the schools ? What did the Trivium include? What constituted the Quarlrivium ? As the number of scholars multiplird, what was studied in the West? What was the most remarkable event of this cca tury?_2G. At the commencement of this century, what reigned ill the East ? WL=.l is sai 1 of Jhe sultans ? Of the eippeyors of Constantinople ? si THE MIDDLE AGES. 125 cen- new were the s of and hout its. ^ The state of literature, notwithstanding the unfavorable aspect ofthinffs, wai» gradually improving. In the midst of the confu- sion of war, the caliphs and sultans, being generally men of learning, paid much attention to the advancement of science. The schools and academies established throughout the Mussul- man empire were highly flourishing. 27. Tne Greeks were somewhat improved from their frequent intercourse with the Saracens. The emulation which had been excited in the West during the preceding century, the patronnge of princes, combined with the propagation of the religious orders of Citeaux, Cluni, and the Carthusians, greatly multiplied the number of schools and academies; every abbey and almost evcrj monastery was an institutfon for i\ie diffusion of literary know- ledge. The art of writing was cultivated with greater applica- tion and success during this than at any former period ; and the manuscripts which have descended to the present time are stand- ing monuments of the perfection to which that art was carried during the twelfth and following centuries. The University of Padua, and that of Paris, was founded about the year 1180. The writersof this age most deserving of notice are St. Bernard, Peter, abbot of Cluni, Peter of Blois, and Pope Innocent III. , 28. The Thirteenth Age. The East, at the beginning of this century, was occupied by the Moguls, Saracens, and Turks, among whom an almost uninterrupted series of wars continued to rage. Gengis-khan and his successors reduced a consider- able portion of the Saracen and Turkish empires; while the Erinces of the West took Constantinople and established there a "s which passed through Arabia, for the purpose of trade, and thus enriched his soldiers with the booty. Encouraged b)r this success, he took the city of Mecca, which he enteretl in triumph, about the year 629. From this period until his death, he was constantly in the field ; he fought in person nine battles, subdued all Arabia, extended his conquest to Syria, and after a career of victory, died at Medina, at the age of sixty-three, ten years after his llight from Mecca to that city. 6. One of the principal causes of the success which attended the arms of Mahomet, was the inflexible severity he exercised to- wards the vanquished. It was his usual practice to propose to those whom he threatened with war, three conditions, natnoly, the adoption of his religious system, the payment of a tribute, or an appeal to the sword. If they chose the latter, no quarter was granted to them; only the women, the children, and aged persons were spared, and reduced to slavery. Another cause of his suc- cess was the absolute assurance of future bliss which he held out to his followers, whereby they were rendered equally happy, either to conquer or to die in the field of battle, for the propaga- tion of their religion. 7. Mahomet was succeeded by his father-in-law, Abubeker, a man of great repute among the Arabs; he is styled the first caliph, a title which signifies in Arabic, successor or vicar. lie, pursuing a career of conquest similar to that of his predecessor, invaded Syria, and took the cities of Bostra, Palmyra, and Da- mascus; the latter city was taken after a siege of six months, and most of its inhabitants inhumanly put to the sword by order of Kaled, who was at that time the commander of the Saracen forces. Abubeker died in the third year of his reign, and the sixty -third of his age, having previously named Omar his suc- cessor. 8. Omar, aided by the celebrated general, Obediah, in the course of one campaign subdued Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, and Chaldea; and in a second, reduced the whole^ or Persia. His army, under Amrou, took the city of Alexandria and sub- dued Egypt. Amrou being requestecl to spare the Alexandrian library, which at that time contained upwards of five hundred thousand volumes, wrote to the caliph for directions respecting the books. Omar answered, that if they agreed with the Koran they were useless, and if they differed from it they were danger- ous ; in either case, they were to be destroyed. The books were Jfow was he received at Medina? Shortly after this, what did he do? How many battles did he fight ? Where and when did he die ? — 6. What is one of the causes of his success ? What were the three conditions he proposed to those whom he threat* ened with war ? What was another cause of his success ? — 7. By whom was Ma ho-n'»t succeeded ? What did he invade ? — 8. What did Omar subdue ? V^Tiat city was taken ? What number of volumes was in the Alexandrian library ? Wh^t W«yi Omar's answers respcctmg it? What was done with (be books 7 130 MARACEN EMPme. accordingly distributed througho%c the city, and served, it U said, to warm the public baths for six months. 9. Omar, during a reign of ten years, reduced upwards of thirty thousand cities and villages to his dominion, ana is said to have demolished four thousand Christian churches, and to have erected fourteen hundred mosques for the Mahometan worship. lie was finally assassinated at Medina, in 644, by a Persian slave, whose complaints against his master he had refiused to hear. Othman was immediately chosen his successor, who added Bac- triana and a part of Tartarv to the dominion of the caliphs. On his death, Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, was chosen to suc- ceed him. Ali is regarded as one of the bravest and most virtuous of the caliphs ; his reign was illustrious, although it lasted only five years. In the space of less than half a century, the Saracen dominions were more extensive than what remained of the Ro- man empire; and in one hundred years from the flight of Maho- met from Mecca to Medina, the empire of his successors extended from India to the Atlantic, comprehending Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, north of Africa, and Spain. 10. During ihe reign of Ali, a schism took place among the followers of Mahomet, which continues to divide them to the pre- sent time. Abubeker, Omar, and Othman are regarded as usurpers by the partisans of Ali, and are branded by the name of Snyites, or schismatics. On the other hand, these three caliphs are held in the greatest veneration by the opponents of Ali, who style themselves Sonnites, be'''»]ise tney follow the traditions of their Mahometan ancestors, while the Shyites acknowledge the Koran only. The Persians are of the sect of Ali ; the Turks are the Sonnites and Ottomans, or the disciples of Othman. Between the two parties, a mutual hatred and animosity still exists. 11. Ali removed the seat of the Mussulman empire from Mecca to Citfa, on the Euphrates, and during the year 768 it was re- moved by Almanzor to Bagdad, which became the most illus- trious caliphate in the history of the Saracens. Next to Bagdad, ' the other most distinguished caliphate was that of Cordova, in Spain. Almanzor, who built the city of Bagdad, and transferred to it the seat of the Saracen empire, was a liberal patron of learn- ing and science, and the first caliph who introduced the cultiva- tion of them among the Saracens. The reign of Haroun al Raschld, the twenty -fifth caliph, who was contemporary with Charlemagne, was the most illustrious in the whole dynasty, and is regarded as the Augustan age of ^raftic literature. This prince distinguished himselt by his valor and generosity, also by his equitable government and his patrpnage of learned men. Schools at this period were established in the principal towns. The sciences chiefly cultivated were medicine, geometry, and astro- nomy ; also poetry and works of fiction commanded some attention. 9. Durine his reign, how many cities did he reduce? he demolish ? What was his end? Who succeeded him : How many churches did In less than half a cen- tury, what is said of the Saracen dominions ? — 10. During^ the reign of Ali, what took place ? Who are regarded as usurpers ? Of what sect are ti«e Persians ? The Turks?— 11. What did Ali do ? What is said of Almanzor? Of the reign of Roschid * Of schawls at this period ? rCUBAL SYSTEM. 131 ], it i« rds of said to :o have orship. •ersian hear, 1 Bac- s. On ;o 8UC- irtuoiis d only aracen heRo- Maho- tended El, Asia ng the he pre- led as 8 name caliphs li, who ons of ge the rksare stween Mecca I'as re- illus- igdad, • )va, in ferred learn- iltiva- »un al ' with jr,and )rince >y his hools The astro- ntion. hes did a cen- at took The ischid * 12. From tht line ol the removal of the seat of government to Bagdad, the importance of Arabia began to decline. Many chiefs of the interior provinces asserted their independence, and only regarded the caliph as the head of their religion. As the con- Suests of the Saracens extended, their states became disunited, pain, Egypt, Morocco, and India had at an early period their separate sovei igns, who continued to regard the caliphs of Bag- dad as the successors of the prophet, although they acknowledged in them no temporal Jurisdiction. Thirty-seven caliphs of the house of Abbas reigned in succession. For four hundred and ninety years, Bagdad continued to be the seat of the Saracer empire, during wnich time it sustained several obstinate sieges^ and was the seat of various revolutions. 13. In the six hundred and fifty-sixth year of the Hegira, A. D. 1256, Bagdad was taken by Hulaku. the grandson of the cele- brated Genghis Khan. Al Mostnsem, the last of the caliphs, was put to death, the caliphate abolished, and the Saracen empire terminated. The manner in which Al Mostasem was put to death was somewhat singular. He had been noted for his pride and ostentation ; when he appeared in public he usually wore a veil to conceal his face from the people, whom he considered as unworthy to look upon him. After the taking of the city, Hula- ku, with the design of punishing his pride, ordered the wretched caliph to be confined in a leather bag and to be dragged through the streets till he expired. At the present time, the Saracens, once so powerful, possess little other territory than the deserts of Arabia, and are usually known by the name of Arabs. FEUDAL SYSTEM. 1. The Feudal System had its origin among the Goths, Van- dals, Lombards, and other barbarous nations that overrun the continent of Europe on the decline of the Roman empire. It was adopted in France during the reign of Charlemagne, and is gen- erally supposed to have been introduced into England by PFU- Ham the Conqueror. 2. When the northern barbarians had overrun the Roman em- pire, the conquered provinces were divided by lot among the dif- ferent chieftains, without any other obligation existing between them than that of uniting their forces in case of war for their mutual defence. But the fundamental principles of the Feudal System were established in the following order: The king or chief who led his respective tribes to conquest, retained for Bm- 12. What is laid of many of the interior provinces? What had Spain, tec, at an early period? How long was Bagdad the capital?— 13. When and by whom was Bagdad taken? Relate the manner in which Al Mostasem was put to death. At present, what is said of the Saracens ? 1 Where had the Feudal System its origin? When was it adopted in FranMt When in England?— 8. In what order were the princ^Io* establisbeo? . i 132 THE CRUSADES. self by far the largest share of the conquered territory, dividing the remaining portion of the land among his followers accordin]| to their rank, who bound themselves to render him merely mili- tary services. The example of the king was imitated by his nobles, who, under similar conditions, granted portions of their estates to their dependents. The granter was called lord, and those to whom the grant was made were styled feudatories or vassals. 3. The feudal government, though well calculated for defence, was nevertheless verv defective in its provisions for the internal order of society. Tne great barons or lords possessed extensive tracts of country, erected on them fortified castles in places diffi- cult of access, oppressed the people, slighted the civil authorities, and frequently set their sovereigns at defiance. 4. A Kingdom resembled a number of confederate states under one common head \ the barons or lords acknowledging a species of allegiance to their sovereign, yet when obedience was refused, it could only be enforced by an appeal to ^rins. But the great mass of the people who cuftivatea the land were called sei^s or villains, and lived in the most servile condition. They were not f)ermitted to bear arms, nor suffered to leave the est^tes^ of their ords. As each of the feudal lords Avas independent within the limits of his own immediate possessions, and as the thread of unity existing between them was at all times feeble, it was natu- ral to suppose that frequent disputes and sanguinary contests were the consequence.^ Such in reality was the case ; hence we find that Europe, during the existence of the Feudal System, exhibited an almost uninterrupted scene of anarchy, turbulence, and destructive warfare. 5. Some of the causes assigned for the gradual decline of the Feudal System were the Crusades, the extension of commerce, the increase and distribution of wealth and knowledge, and lastly, the change of warfare which followed the invention of gunpowder. It still exists in a partial degree in some parts of Europe, parti- cularly in Russia, Poland, and in some portions of Germany. THE CRUSADES. 1. The Crusades were military expeditions undertaken by the Christians of Europe for the purpose of .delivering the Holy Land, and particularly the sepulchre of our Saviour, from the oppressive dominion of the Turks. As earlv as the year 637, Jerusaleih fell into the hands of the Saracens, wno, for political reasons, permit- What was the rrantor called ? And those to whom the gtnnt was made f— 3. "What is said of the feudal government? Of the great barons 7—4. What did a kingdom re- semble? What is said of the people? As each lord was independent, ftc, what was natural to suppose ? — 5. What are some of the causes assigned for its oeolino ? Where does it exist m a partial degree ? t. What were the Crusades ? In the year 637, what took place * THE CRUSADES. 133 the land, wive fell Imit- \ I (K« Christians to visit the city. Tn 1065 tho SeljuKian Turks, I vi\il and ferocious tribe ol" Tartars, obtained possession of the k -iy city; from this period the Christian inhabitants were exposed t ev.^ry t?pecies of outrage and insult. The Christians of Europe, a.tur.ted by motives of religion, were often induced to visit those p'accs hallowed by the footsteps and sanctified by the sufterings of the Saviour of man. But if, after travelling thousands of miles, amidst dangers and hardships, they reached Palestine, they were only allowed to enter the city of Jerusalem on the payujent of a certain sum of money, and if they succeeded in gaining admit- tance, they were exposed, like other Christian inhabitants, to all the rigors of Mahometan crulety; it is even stated by creditable historians, that some were loaded with chains and compelled to draw a cart or plough, while others were condemned to an igno- minious death. 2. Such was the condition of Palestine, when Peter, a native of Amiens, in France, surnamed the Hermit, on account of his retired life, undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Moved at the si^ht of the cruel oppression which weighed upon the Christians of Asia, he prevailed upon Simon, the venerable patriarch of Jerusalem, to write to the pope and to the princes of Europe, for the purpose of soliciting tneir aid in arresting the cruelty of the Turks exercised against their brethren in the East, oftering him- self to be the bearer of these letters. The patriarch having as- sented to this measure, Peter immediately returned to Europe and presented himself before Pope Urban II. He was kindly received by the pontiff, who readily entered into his views, and commissioned him to go forth and preach in favor of the suffer- ing Christians in Palestine, and the deliverance of Jerusalem from the hands of the Infidels. 3. Peter, who was eminently qualified for this important office, travelled through Italy, France, and other countries, and by his pathetic and glowing eloquence, enkindled in the breasts of his nearers the same zeaT that animated his own. Finally, the sub- ject was brought before a council held at Placentia, and after- wards before the council at Clermont, in France, towards the close of the year 1095. After Peter had spoken on the subject of the holy war \yith his usual ardor, the pope himself addressed the assembled bishops and princes in an eloquent and animated discourse, which he concluded in the following words: *' Go now and take the sword of the Maccabees, protect the people of God and defend your persecuted brethren against the implacable ene- mies of the Christian name. Mussulman impiety has overspread the fairest regions of Asia; Ephesus, Nice, and Antioch have be- come Mahometan cities; the barbarous hordes of the Turks have planted their colors on the very shores of the Hellespont, hence they threaten war to all the states of Christendom. Unless you And in 1065? From this period, what is said ? "Wliat did the Christians of Europe do? After travelling thousands of miles, what is said of them? What is stated? — S. Who now undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem? Moved at the sight of the oppres- sion, what did Peter t\of How was he received by the pontiff? What commission did hs receive? — 3. What is said of Peter? Where was the subject finally brought? After Peter had spoken, who addressed the assembly ? How did be conclude ? 12 A 134 THE CRUSADES. oppose a mightv barrier to their triumphant course, how can Europe be saved from invasion r" 4. At the conclusion of this discourse the whole assembly exclaimed, "It is the will of God," and hastened to enroll their names foi the sacred expedition. As a mark of their engagement, it was proposed that a cross of red material should be worn on the right shoulder, and from this circutnstance the name of the Crusade is derived. Such were the views entertained by the fii'si crusaders, and such were the circumstances that called the Cru- sades into being. 5. The First Crusade. The enthusiasm which had manifested itself at the council of Clermont, was soon ditfused throughout every part of Christendom; thousands from every part of Europe hastened to enlist under the banner of the cross. Domestic quar- rels and private animosities were buried in oblivion ; the sovereign and the noble, the prince and the peasant, animated alike with a kindred feeling, be^n to prepare for their departure to the East, 6. Among the princes, who engaged in the first Crusade, the following were the most conspicuous: Raymond, count of Tou- louse; Robert, duke of Normandy, brother to the king of Eng- land ; Hugh the Great, count of Vermandois, and brother to the king of France ; Robert, earl of Flanders ; Godfrey of Bullion, duke of Lorraine, and various persons of distinguished rank Among these, Godfrey of Bullion, equally eminent for his amia- ble virtues and extraordinary valor, held the most prominent place, although it does not appear that he was invested with the chief command. 7. Early in the spring of 1096, the army of the Crusaders, amounting, according to some authors, to more than seven hun- dred thousand persons, commenced their march towards the East, in two different directions. The first division of this vast multi- tude, under the command of Peter the Hermit, being destitute of that subordination and discipline so requisite in large armies, met, in general, with a disastrous fate. Many of them were slain on their march through Hungary and Bulgaria, by the inhabitants, whose attacks theyiiad provoked, by the outrages they committed j those who succeeded in reaching Asia, were met by sultan Soly- man, on the plains of Nice, and almost entirely annihilated, before they came in sight of Jerusalem. 8. The second division, under the command of able and experi- enced officers, such as Godfrej and Baldwin, his brother, acted with more prudence, and arrived safe at Constantinople. The Greek emperor Alexis, alarmed at the multitude of warriors that surrounded his capital, lost no time in facilitating their departure. He treated the leaders of the Crusaders with every courtesy, and concluded a treaty with them, by which they agreed to conquer in 4. At the conclusion of the discourse, what was said? From what is the word Cru- sade derived ?— 6. Wliat is said of the enthusiasm at the Council of Clermont? Of do- mestic quarrels? Of the sovereigns? — 0. In the first Crusade, whc were the most con- •picuous princes? Who held the most prominent place? — l! What was Joiie early in the spring of 1006? "Wliat is said of the first division? WTiere were many of them ■lain ?— 8. What is said of tue second division ? Of the Greek emparor ? How did be treat the leaders* ( w mr in Cru- ■)rdo- con- ly in them did THE CRUSADES. 135 his name, and restore those cities wiiich had formerly belonged to his empire, on condition that he should aid them in the conquest of the Holy Land ; he ( -n gave orders that his vessels should be prepared without delay, to convey them across the Bosphorus to the Asiatic coast. 9. The Christian army, which amounted to about six hundred thousand infantry, and one hundred thousand cavalry, com- menced its march towards Nice, a city in Bithynia, to which they laid siege. Nice, reduced to the last extremity, was on the joint of yielding to the ('rusaders, when the Gree'c emperor, by irivate embassies, prevailed on the inhabitants to surrender to lim, rather than to the Latins. This duplicity on the part of Alexis lig'hly di?pl(vis(>d the Crusaders, and from the lit.le inclination maiiircsted by the Greek monarch towards fu Tilling his engnge- ments, the Latin lords thought themselves no longer bound by the treaty. After the reduction of Nice, they proceeded eastward, conquered Edessa, defeated an army of si^ hundrod thousand Saracens, near Dmyla^um, in Phrygia, took Antiorh, whero they were reduced to the utmost distress by famine, and finally ad- vanced to Jerusalem, which they took after a siege of forty days. 10. Dreadful was the scene that followed the first tiansports of victory. The Crusaders, ex; sperated by their long suttering, and by the obstinato resistance of the Saracens, and being proba- bly atrai r some deliberation, what did the Crusaders do? What 18 said of the old emperor ? What happened to the emperor and Alexius ? ! \ THE CRUSADES. 139 « tlie camp of the Crusaders, they resolved to avenge the deatli of the unfortunate princes, their allies and benefactors. Marching back to Constantinople, they took the city after a furious assault, though it was defended bv upwards of two hundred thousand men, and contained a population of about one million of inhabit- ants. Having thus a second time, i-n the short space of a few months, conquered- the great capital of the East, the Latins proceeded to elect an emperor from their own body. The choice fell upon Baldv.'in, count of Flanders, who was accordingly invested with the ensigns of royalty, and quietly ascended the imperial throne, A. D. 1204. 25. Here terminated the efforts of the Crusaders; satisfied with this splendid acquisition, they attempted nothing further against the Saracens. Such were the circumstances that led to the esta- blishment of the Latin empire at Constantinople; few events on the page of history are more curious and interesting than this singular revolution. It was destined, however, to be of short duration; after a precarious existence of fifty-seven years, it again fell under the dominion of the Greeks. 26. The Sixth Crusade. The last expedition having failed to accomplish the object for which it was (lesigned, namely the re- covery of the Holy Land, a sixth Crusade was shortly afterwards undertaken. Among those who bore a distinguished part in this expedition was John of Brienne, a French nobleman, who at the head of one hundred thousand men, made a descent upon Egypt, with a design of destroying the power of the sultan at the seat of his government. He took Damietta, but owing to subsequent dis^ers, particularly the inundation, of the Nile, he was finally compelled to abandon his conquests and to evacuate Egypt, A. D. 1221. 27. About tiie same period, the famous Frederic IT., emperor of Germany, led an army into Palestine and obtained by treaty from the sultan the restoration of Jerusalem; but so little precau- tion did he take to defend it, that it shortly fell a^ain into the hands of the infidels. Palestine was afterwards visited by seve- ral other princes of Europe, without being able to effect little more than to conclude a treaty of peace. After the departure of Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother to the king of England, a sudden irruption of fierce barbarians from Korazan laid waste the Holy Land, and left Palestine in the most deplorable condi- tion. 25. The Seventh and Eighth Crusades. At this period, A. D. 1244, France was under the mild administration of St. Louis IX., a prince equally distinguished for his heroic fortitude and for all the more amiable virtues that adorn the Christian heart. The deplorable state of Palestine deeply afflicted his generous soul, 24. As soon as this news reached their camp, what did the Crusaders do? Having thus conquered the capital of the East, to what did they proceed? On whom did the choice fall? — 25. Satisfied, &c.,what did they attempt? How longdid the empire last? — 26. What was shortly afterwards undertaken? Wlio was the most distinguished? What city did he take?— 27. What did Frederick II. do and obtain? After the depar- ture of Richard, what took place ?— 28. At this period, who reigned in Francs 7 ,^ I..: I 140 THE CRUSADES. • and on the recovery from a dangerous illness he resolved to assume the cross, and by his exhortations induced many of his nobles to imitate his example. After four years' preparation he set out on the expedition, accompanied by his queen, his three brothers, and all the knights of France. He began the enterprise by invading Egypt, and after losing one-half of his numerous army by contagious diseases, he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Saracens. Having ransomed himself and his army he proceeded to Palestine, where he remained for several : ars in endeavouring to secure the welfare of the Christian coloiiies. by repairing the fortifications of the towns which yet remained in their possession. The death of his mother, to whom he had in- trusted the government during his absence, obliged him to return to France'. 29. About thirteen years after his return from his first Crusade, Louis was induced to undertake a second. Having provided for the government of his kingdom in his absence, he embarked ivith sixty thousand chosen troops, landed in Africa, and laid siege to Tunis. Before any thing of importance could be effected, a raging pestilence carried off one-half of his flourishing army, the king himself being numbered among its victims. This terminated the last of the Crusades, A. D. 1272. 30. The effects of the Crusades. The period during v.hich the Crusades continued, has been styled by some historians, " the heroic age of Christianity." No other military enterprise ever claimed the attention of the Christian world so long and so uni- versally as the Crusades. For nearly two centuries Europe con- tinued to send forth her legions, to conquer or die upon the plains of Asia. The two most powerful agents that can operate lipon the hunian mind, combined to call them into being; namely, zeal for religion and sympathy for suffering humanity. 31. 1 o see tho land of Palestine, so hallowed by all the associa- tions dearest to the Christian heart, that land sanctified by the foot- steps and watered by the tears and blood of the Son of God, that land where the first light of Christianity dawned, trodden down by the footsteps of infidelity; to see that Calvary where died the Redeemer of man, that sepulchre in v/hich he was laid polluted and defiled by Mussulman impiety, is even at this distant day capable of producing the deepest emotions. To deliver this land from the power of the intidek, who only held it by the right of conquest, was at that period deemed not only a lawful, but even a holy and sacred duty. 32. On the other hand, the cruelties exercised against the de- fence.ess Christians of Palestine and the pilgrims, whom a reli- gious zeal had drawn to the holy city, cried aloud to the princes of Europe for their interposition. The evils which marked the What did he resolve? How did he begin the enterprise? Having ransomed him- self, where did he proceed?— 29. When did he undertake a second Crusade? What was the fate of his army? Of the king himself? When did the Crusades terminate?— ao. What has this period been styled? What is said of the enterprise? What agents combined to call them into being?— 31. "What is capable of producing the deepest emo- tion? What was deemed a sacred duty ?— aj.AVhat cried aloud for the interpoiitlon of the princes of Europe ? THE CRUSADES. 141 progress of the Crusades were similar to those that follow in the train of other great military enterprises. It is computed that t\vo millions of Europeans, during their continuance, were buried in the East. 33. Various opinions hav* 'jen formed and maintained respect- ing the tendency and effects of the Crusades. But whatever in- dividual opinions may be entertained with regard to their object or their final issue, it is generally admitted that they have been, in their ultimate results, beneficial to mankind. Ihese results are observable in a greater or less degree, in the political condi- tion, manners and customs, navigation, commerce and literature of Europe. 34. In the first place, (hoy checked the alarming progress of the Saracens and Scljukian Turks, who were thus prevented from penetrating into the very heart of Christendom. Secondly, they greatly contributed towards the gradual decline of the Feudal System, which at that period prevailed throughout Europe. The great barons who engaged in the Crusades were obliged to sell a portion of their lands in order to procure the means of conven- ing their troops into a foreign country. Bv this means the aris- tocracy was weakened, wealth more wiifely diffused, and the lower orders of society began to acquire property, influence, and a spirit of independence. The sovereigns, in like manner, im- pelled by the same pecuniary necessity, sold to towns important privileges and immunities, such as the right of electing their own magistrates, and being governed by their own municipal laws. 35. Thirdly, these expeditions had a most beneficial influence on commerce and navigation. Previous to this period commerce had been carried on only in a very limited scale. The attention of the people of Europe had never been sufficiently drawn to the great advantages of water transports, until the tlisasters of the first Crusaders, in attempting to march their forces by land, im- pressed upon the minds of those who succeeded the expediency of conveying their troops by water. Hence, by the frequent voy- ages to Palestine, the arts of navigation and ship-building were rapidly improved, and from this period may be dated the great commercial prosperity and power of Venice, Persia, and Genoa. Moreover, several new and valuable articles were imported from the East, which have since formed important branches of trade, such as the sugar cane, with its various products, and silk, which began to be manufiictured in Italy about the year 1209. 36. Finally, the Crusades, although in some respects injurious to literature, were, nevertheless, ;iltimately beneficial to it. The frequent communication of the people of the West with Greece and Syria, which the Crusades necessarily occasioned, was one of the most powerful helps towards the complete revival of learn- ITow mnny were buried in the East?— 33. Of what have various opinions been formed ? What is generally admitted ? In what are these results observable ? — .34. In the first place, what did they do ? In the second place ? What were the great barons obliged to c'o? By this means, what was done? What is said of the sovereigns? — 35. Previous to this period what is said of commerce ? Of the attention of the people of Europe? From this period what maybe dated? What is further observed?— 36 What was one of the most powerful helps towards the revival of learning? 1 ^1^ 142 CHIVALRY. ing. At the time when the Criisaorted to as a method of discovering truth, establishing innocence , and vindicating the character from a real or imaginary imputation. It is not sui*- 5 rising that a practice so absurP should have found adherents, uring those ages when the profession of arms was regarded as If the oeeanon was lolemn, what was done ? — ^11. At a tournament, by wjiom was the place surrounded ? Who was the Knight of Honor? When they reached the lists, what was done?— 13. AVhat frequently took place ? What is said of the court of Rome ?— 13. What were jousts ? How was the challenge given ? If accepted, what was done?— 14. Where may the origin of the duel be traced? For what was k re- torted to ? Was it not surprising? 13 146 CHIVALRY. the only honorable employment, at a time when the human mind ivas, comparatively speaking, unenlightened ; but that the same pernicious practice should still prevail, and meet with patrons at this age of enlightenment, is something diametrically opposite to the purer dictates of human reason. 16. Whatever opinions we may entertain of Chivalry at the present day, it certainly had a powerful influence in producing a favourable change in the manners of society, during the ages in which it existed. It infused humanity into war. at a period when men made it almost a business of life; it introduced courtesy ot manners among those who possessed but little refinement ; i^. fos- tered in its maxims a delicate sense of honor, and a scrupulous adherence to truth ; it cherished the finest feeUn^s and respectful attachment towards the female sex ; and no institution, perhaps, ever had a more powerful influence to elevate woman to tier pro- per sphere, than Chivalry. ^ ^ ^ 16. Chivalry embraced various orders or associations of cava- liers, formed for specific purposes, generally of a benevolent character, many of which remain to the present time. These orders were generally of two descriptions, namely, military and religious, ana were established in difierent countries, particularly in Palestine, England, Spain, France, and Italy. The foundation of the order of the Knights Hospitallera, who afterwards became 80 famous as the Knights of Maltat was laid about the middle of the eleventh century, by a few Neapolitan merchants, who ob tained permission of*^ the Saracen caliph to erect at Jerusalem a house for pilgrims. They afterwards founded, in honor of St. John, a church and hospital, from which they took their name ; and besides attending to the sick and pilgrims, they bound them- selves, by vow, to defend the Christians of the Holy Land against the insults of the infidels. Thus the Hospitallers, without ceasing to be a religiotis, became a military order. 17. The order of the Knights Templars was instituted in the vear 1118, also at Jerusalem, by several French and Flemish no- blemen. They occupied a house in the city which stood near the site of Solomon's Temple, from which they derived their name. The Teutonic order was established by a few noblemen from the citie&of Bremen ftnd Lubbeck, about 1100, and was intended for the i^ief of the German pilgrims. 15. What had Chivalry 7 What did it infiise? What did it introduce and foiter? What did it cherish ?— 16. What did Chivalry embrace ? Where was the foundation of the Knights Hospitallers laid? What church did they build T--17. When and where was the orde» of the Knights Templars instituted? When was the Teutonic order Mtablrthed? FRANCE. SECTION I. The Foundation of the French Monarchy; Merovingian ana Carlovingian Kings, from A. D. 420 to 987. 1. The history ot France is intimately connected with that of England, as the kings of the latter, for a long period, assumed the title of king of France, and held possession in it of varied ex- tent, from the time of William the Conqueror to the reign of Queen Mary. The kingdom of France was originally possessed by the Celts or Gauls, a brave and warlike people, who were re- duced to the Roman power in the time of Julius C^Bsar. The Franks, from whom the monarchy receives its name, emerging from the forests of Germany, made an irruption into Gaul about the year 420, and gradually increased in power under their suc- cessive kings, Pharamond, Clodio, Meroyaeus, and Childeric. 2. In 481, Ctovis, the son of Childeric became king of the Franks, and is generally regarded as the founder of the French monarchy. He embraced Christianity through the influence of his virtuous queen, Clotilda, the daughter of the Duke of Bur- gundy, and received baptism on Christmas day ; his example was immediately followed by three thousand of his subjects. He made Paris the seat of his government, and after a long and pros- perous reiffOj he left his kingdom, accordingto the custom of the country, divided between his four sons, A. D. 511. 3. In the year GdO, Pepin rf'/Ajm/e/ became mayor of the pa- lace, the first office under the crown j at his death, he was suc- ceeded in the office by his son, Charles Martel, one of the most renowned warriors of his age. He defeated the Saracens in a sanguinary battle, between Tours and Poictiers, in which, accord- ing #o many historians, three hundred thousand of the enemy were slain, while the French lost only about fifteen hundred. Charles was succeeded in the office of mayor by his son, Pepin the Short, who continued to govern France for several vears, while the weak and indolent Childeric III. was nominally king, 4. Such was the st.ite of things, when Pepin first thought of assuming the title and ensigns of royalty, while exercising the duties of the sovereign. Finding the people favorable to his views, and having obtained a favorable answer* from Pope Zachrv, who had been consulted on the subject, he finally con- cludea to prosecute his design. Accordingly, in a great assembly of the people, he was proclaimed king, while Childeric was re- •The answer of the Pope was in the following words: "It were better that he ■hould be king, in whom the sovereign authority resides." — Eginard Annal. 1. What is snid of the history of France? By whom was the kingdom originally poFsessed ? What is said of the Franks ?— 2. What is said of Clovis ? What did he embrace ? How did he leave his kingdom ?— 3. When did Pepin become mayor of the palace? What is said of Charles Martel? By whom was Charles succeeded?— 4 rindijjg tlie people favourable to his views, what did Pepin do ? 147 t ' 148 FRANCE. moved to a monastery, where he died three years after this eyent, and with him ended the dynasty of the Merovingian sovereigns, A> Urn 75«> 5. About this period, the Lombards, who were already masters of a great part of Italy, aimed at subduing the whole, had ex- tended their conquests over the province of Ravenna; even Rome itself was on the point of falling into their hands, when Pope Stephen applied for assistance to the emperor of Constantinople, in whose name the government of Rome was still exercised. But Constantine, who was at that time too much engaged in his dis- putes with the church, to gfive his attention to the affairs of state, neglected to send assistance to the Romans, who in their ex- tremity were obliged to turn for aid to the monarch of France. 6. Pepin immediately responded to the call, but previous tj any act of hostility, he sent, at the pope's request, deputies to Astolphus, the king of the Lombards, requesting him to desist from nis hostile designs : his proposals, however, were only an- swered by thi'eats ana insults. Pepin, therefore, hastily collected his army, crossed the Alps, defeated the Lombards, and obliged Astolphus to accept humiliating conditions of peace. But scarcely had he departed from Italy, when the perfidious Astolphus re- commenced hostilities, and laid siege to Rome. Pepin a second time crossed the Alps, and having again defeated the Lombards, solemnly bestowed on Pope Stephen and his successors in the pontifical chair, his conquests in Italy ; in this manner was com- menced the temporal power of the pope, A. D. 755. 7. Pepin was succeeded by his two sons, Charles and Carlo- mon, but tho latter dying shortlv after the death of his father, Charles was left in possession of the undivided sovereignty. This distinguished monarch, known in history by the name of Charle- magnet or Charles the Great, is said to have been seven feet in height, of a robust constitution and majestic appearance. He was eminent as a statesman, and as a warrior he far surpassed all the sovereigns of his age. He carried on a long and sanguinan^war with the Saxons, which finally resulted in the reduction of their whole country. At the earnest solicitation of the Romans, h6 turned his arms against the Lombards, who, under their king, Desidrius or Dideir, had broken the treaty concluded by Astol- fhus, and spread their ravages, so as to endanger the city of Rome. [e defeated them, and completely destrojred their power in Italy. He afterwards conquered a part of Spain, and about the year 800, the rank and title of Emperor of the West was conferred on him by Pope Leo III. 8. His empire comprised France, Netherlands, Germanjr, Switzerland, a part of Italy and Spain. He labored incessantly to diffuse a spirit of literature, and encourage the useful arts. What became of ChiUleric ? — 5. "What is aaid of the Lombards? 'What did Pope Stephen do? What is said of Constantine ? To whom did the Romans next turn for oid?— 0. AVhat did I'epin do? How were tho proposals answered? What wns th« result? What did Pepin do after crossing tlie Alps a second time ? — 7. By whomwai Pepin succeeded ? \V hat is said of this monarch ? At the solicitation o( the Romans, what did he do ? What title was conferred on him ? — 8. What did his empire comprise T What did he labor to diffuse ? f i FRANCE. 149 throughout his vast dominions. He invited to his court, from foreign countries, men distinguished tor their talents, among whom was Alcuin, a learned and virtuous Englishman, who opened an academy in the palace of the French monarch. Charle< magne himself, with his sons, frequentlv assisted at the lectures of this distinguished^ man. With regard to his table, he was ex- tremely frugal, and in his dress he was generally plain : the ladies of his court were usually employed at the needle or distaff, and he even took delight in appearing ornamented with the produc- tions of his wife and daughters. 9. Charlemagne died m 814, in. the seventy-first year of his age, and forty-seventh of his reign. He was succeeded by his son, Louis I., surnamed Debonair, or the Mild, The reign of tliis monarch was inglorious, and rendered unhappy by the un- natural rebellion of his sons, who twice deposed and imprisoned their father, and again restored him to the throne. Louis died in 840, leaving his dominions divided between his three sons. Charles II. presided over France : Louis obtained Germany, and Lothaire reigned in Italy, under the title of emperor. Bitter contentions between the three brothers soon involved their sub- jects in sanguinary wars. Charles and Louis united their forces against Lothaire, who endeavoured to deprive them of their in- heritance. The rival brothers at length met in the famous battle "f TTontenoy, where Lothaire was defeated, and compelled to i *. to his Italian dominions. The loss on both sides, in this Hi; 1(0, is estimated at one hundred thousand men. 10. Charles, after a weak reign, was succeeded by his son Louis, the Stammerer, M'ho, after a short reign, left his kingdom to his two sons, Louis III. and Carlomon. After the death of these princes, Charles the Fat was elected to the throne, but he governed with so much weakness that he was deposed, and the crown transferred to Eudes, during the minority of Charles the Simple, who afterwards succeeded to the throne. During the reign of this prince, the Normans, under their celebrated chief, RoTlo, invaded Neustria, and established themselves in the noith •f France, which from them took the name of Normandy, A. D. 912. The remaining kings of the Carlovingian line were generally weak princes, and their reigns were not distinguished For any remarkable events. After the death of Louis V., who died without issue, the French lords refused as his successor his uncle Charles, duke of Lorraine, and transferred the crown to Hugh Capet, duke of France, who, after defeating his rival, ob- tained possession of the throne, and thus formed the third or Capetian race of French kings, A. D. 987. Whom did he call to h'a court ? What is said of him with regard to his table, &c. T —9. When did Charlemagne die? By whom was he succeeded ? What was the reign of this monarch ? How did he leave his dominions? What is said of Charles and Louis ? Where did the rival brothers meet 7 What was the loss on both sides ?— 10. B]r whom was Charles succeeded ? Who was next elected ? During the reign of thi* prince what took place T After the death of Louis V., to whom was the crown tnct- rerredT 18* 160 rHaNCE. SECTION II. • Capetian Kings; f'^om Hugh Capet to Philip VI. of Valois A. D. 987 to 1328. 1 . Hugh Capet was an able sovereign, and his admimstration was directed with wisdom ; he enacted several salutary laws, added considerably to his territory, and again made Paris the seat of governirrnt. Either through modesty, or a fear of excitinff the jealov ^ of his nobles, he never assumed the ensigns of royalty; even on great and solemn occasions, he appeared in a plain and simple dress. 2. Robert, the son of Hu^fh, succeeded his father in 996. This prince is described as handsome in person and gentle in his dis- position, hut his reign presents few events of importance. His son Henry I. succeeded to the throne in 1031^ his rei^n was generally tranquil and fret from any extrj^ordmary incidents. The reign of Philip, who succeeded his father in 1080, was dis- tinguished for the preaching of the First Crusade, by Peter the Hermit, and the invasion of France, by William the Conqueror, an event which laid the foundation of that long continued rival- ship and series of hostilities, which for '^'^veral succeeding cen- turies existed between France and England. 3. Philip died in 1108, and left his dominions to his son Louis VI., surnanted the Fair, an able and accomplished sovereign, who enjoyed a prosperous and useful reign. On his death-bed, he ad- dressed his son, who succeeded him, in the following words :. " Remember that- royaltv is nothing more than a public charge, -of which you must render a very strict account to Him who makes kings and will judge them." Louis VII. was the next sovereign who swayed the sceptre of France. In conjunction with Conrad IIL, of Germany, he headed the third Crusade to Palestine^ but was most unfortunate in that expedition. Louis .had married Eleanor, heiress to the great duchy of Guiennef but divorced her for her levity and vices; and in a few v/eeks after- wards, she married Henry Plantaganet, earl of Anjou, who, in the following year, became Henry 11. of England, and who, by his marriage, acquired a great addition to his possessions in France. 4. Philip II., surnamed Augustus, succeeded to the throne in 1180. No prince, since the reign of Charlemagne, surpassed Philip in military skill and enterprise. He signalized the com- mencement of his reign by the expulsion of the Jews from his dominions, and shortly afterwards joined his great rival, Richard I. of England, in the third Crusade. After the death of Richard, John, hi? brother, who succeeded him, was strongly suspected for having murdered Arthur, his nephew ; for this he was summoned 1. AVTiat is said of Hugh Capet ? What did he never assume ?— 2. Who succeeded T What is said of him? vVlio was the noxt sovereign? By what was the reign ol Philip distinguished ?— 3. To whom did Philip let.ve his dominions? On his death-bed, how did he address his son? Who was t:he next sovereign ? What dirt he do ? Whom did he marry?— 4. Who next succeeded to the throne? What were the principal events of his reign ? FHANCe. 151 the by Philip, as his vassal, to be tried by a court of bis peers ; on his refusal Philip invaded Normandy, and wrested that important province from the English monarch. 5. Philip died in 1223,and was succeeded by his son Louis VIII., sumamed the Lion, on account of his valor. He died after a short reign of three years, on his return from an expedition against the Albigenses, who had disturbed the south of France. Louis IX., commonly styled St. Zom's, succeeded to the throne at the early age of twelve years, and during his minority, his mother, Blanche , of Castile, filled the office of regent, in which she displayed great abilities. In the pc»'8on of St. Louis were united all those emi- nent qualities that distinguish an illustrious sovereign, with all the virtues that adorn the Christian. His benevolence, piety and purity of intention are conspicuous in every action. In the early- part of his reign, he vigorous! v repelled the invasion of Henry III. of England, whom he signally defeated near Taillebourg, and finally compelled him to sign a treaty of peace. His zeal Tor re- ligion prompted him to engage in two disastrous crusades, in the second of wnich he died of a fever, near Tunis, in the fifty-sixth year of his a§e, and the forty -fourth of his reign, A. D. 1270. 6. St. Louis was succeeded by his son Philip III., surnamed the Hardy, who continued the war against the infidels with vigor; defeated the Saracens, and compelled the king of Tunis to conclude a peace on terms favorable to the Christians. Philip IV., surnamecl the Fair, from the beauty and elegance of his per- son, succeeded to the throno in 1285. One of the most remarka- ble events of the rei^n of this monarch, was the suppression of the order of the Knights Templars. Charges of the greatest magnitude being[ brought against them, Phiup ordered all the templars of his kingdom to be arrested on the same day. A committee was appointed at Paris, before which one hundred and forty knights were examined, all of whom, with the excep- tion oi:' three, freely acknowledged themselves guilty of the denial of Christ, of sacrilege, and other enormous crimes. 7. But as the persons accused belonged to an order which was religious as well as military, it became necessaiy to refer the affiiir to the ecclesiastical authorities. Accordingly, a general council was convened by Pope Clement V., at Vienne, before which the investigation into the conC ct of the Templars and their trials, which had now occupied nearly five years, was laid. After a deliberation of several months, the order was suppressed : and the property belonging to it was transferred to the order of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John, who were still fighting the battles of Christendom against the infidels, from whom they had lately recovered the island of Rhodes. It appears that the order of the Templars, though generally corrupt, was not equally so in 5. By whom was Philip succeeded ? When did he die T By whom was he suc- ceeded? In the person of St. Louis, what wert united? In the early part of his reign Mrhat was done ? In what did he engage ? Whore did he die ?— 6. By whom was St. Louis succeeded? Who was the next sovereign? What was one of the most re- markable events of his reign" Of \..iat did they acknowledge themselves guilty?— 7. But as the persons accused, dec, what became necessary 7 Where was a council convened ? After a delibar ation of sav«r al months, what was done T V/hat appears T FRANCE. all places; which fact accounts for the different treatment its members received in different countries. Many were acquitted, particularly in Germany and Spain; some were condenuied to perpetual or temporary imprisonment ; while others, who, instead of repenting, obstinately retracted the free avowal of their j^ilt, were delivered to the secular power, to be punished according to the rigor of the law. Fifty -nine were burnt at Paris, and several others in the south of France. 8. Philip died in 1314, leaving his dominions.to his son Louib X., surnamed If>Jin^ or Wrangler, who was succeeded, after a reign of a u' months, by his brother, Philip V., whose short reign was ait guished for his severity aga'w^zt ;*^'"'' ^^wa. With the succes^ic. . o? Charles lY. ended the Gapetian line oi kiu^o, A. D. 1328. -«♦- SECTION m. Branch qf Valois ; from Philip VI. to Charles VIIL, A. D. 1328 to 1498. 1. On the death of the late monarch, the crown devolved upon Philip of Vplois, vhe grandson of Philip HI., tjie nearest male heir, as, according to the laws of the kingdom, females were ex- cluded from the throne. His succession, however, was disputed by Edward III. of England, who claimed the crown of France in right of his mother, Isabella, the daughter of Philip the Fair, Philip maintained that a mother could not transmit to her issue a right which she never possessed ; and the case being laid before the peers and barons of France, they unanimously declared in lus mvor. 2. In the mean time, Edward prepared to enforce his claim by An appeal to arms. He invadcid France with an army of thirtv thousand men, and gained the famous battle of Creasy, in which his eldest son, the Sktck Prince, (so called from the color of ^is armour,) first displayed those aistinguished inilitary abilities which afterwards renaered him so illustrious. ^ Edward, pursuiiig liis good fortune, beeaeged and .took Calais, which remained in the liands of the English until the reign of Queen Mary. ^ It was daring the reign of Philip that the title of Dauphin was given to .the eldest son of the .kiog of France. 3. Philip died in i3&Q, and was succeeded by his son, John II., surnamed the Goad. It was .during the reign of this prince that the famous battl ef Poicti$»'S was fought, m which Edward the Blatk Prince added to the glory which ne had already gained at , Cressy. The French rnQnarc^h, at the head of sixty thousand men, advanced against the prince, whose army did not exceed -Mxteen thousand men; sUll, notwithstanding the disparity of How many were burnt -at Paris? — 8. Wben 4id Philip die? Wtio,:vr«re the next -two tOTereigne ? Onithe aooesBJoaof Chatles rv.what took place? 1. Br whom was the sueeaBiion.of !Pfailip4i«>at«d? .What did Philip maintain?— '■ % In the mean time, what did Bdward do? VVhpit battle did. he gain? What did k« Mk«?-ra; By^hom was PhiiipmootAdyid? )Paria&.ltji9cr4Hgn.ir|fta^l6Qk plfice? F&Atrcc. 163 numbers, the scale of victory turned in favor of the latt^: the French were signally defeated, their king fell into the hands of the conquerors, and was led captive to London The conduct of the prince towards the fallen monarch deserves the highest com- mendation. He endeavored to console him in his misfbrtunet waited on him at table, and, in every manner in his power,mani- fested towards him the utniost courtesy and respect. John was afterwards released on condition that he should pay one million five hundred thousand pounds sterling as the price of nig ransom. But on his return to France, tinding himselt unable to comply with his engagement, he returned again to England, saying that, '* If honor were banished from every other ^ace, it should find an asylum in the breasts of kings." He was received with every ''»rk of respect by Edward, who assigned luilij as his residence, Savv. ^alace, where he shortly afterwards diea, A. D. 1364. 4. Ou ' *» death of John^ Charles V., surnamed the PFise, suc- ceeded to ti»v 'hrone. This distinguished prince labored inces • iantly to retric " the losses of the preceding reign, and so successful was he h. ' '«« efforts, that in the course of a f^w years the English were expei.v ^ from all their possessions in France, with the exception of Calau Bayonne, and Bordeaux. Charles himself did not appear in the u 'd^ but from his cabinet directed the operations ot his armies bj ■' wise and prudent counsels, He raised to the office of constaL o.' ^ 'ance tne celebrated pu GueacUn, one of the greatest generals o^ the age. Besides being an eminent statesman. Charles was a distinguished patron oT literature ; he possessed a library of nine hundred volumes, which was a considerable number for the period, whei. the art of print- ing was yet undiscovered ; and he may be regarded as the founder of the present magnificent royal library of Paris. On his death, in 1380, his son Charles VI., surnamed tne Well Beloved, ascended the throne. 5. The reign of this sovereign was signally unfortunate. He fell into a state of insanity, which rendered him incapable of attending to the administration of the govern oent. In conse- quence of the king's incapacity, regents were appointed, whose misconduct threw the kingdom into a civil war. During these calamities which afflicted France, Henry V. of England invaded the country, and gained the memorable battle of Agincourt. The consequence of this victory, and other advantages gained by Henry, enabled him to conclude a treaty by which his succes- sion to the throne of France was acknowledged on the death of Charles. Henry and Charles both died shortly after this event, A. D. 1422. 6. Charles VII., su. named the VtctoriouSj asserted his right to the throne of his father, while at the same tmie the infant Henry VI. of England was proclaimed king of France under the regency What Is said of the conduct of the prince ? Of John ? On returning to England what did he say? — i. Who succeeded to the throne? What is said of him T Of what was Charles a patron? By whom was he succeeded? — 5. What is related of this monarch ? During these calamities, who invaded France ? What was HfAry eoi^ bled to io ?— 6- What is said of Charles VII. ? 264 F&AKCe. of his uncle, the Duke of Bedford. The English laid siege to Orleans, a^ place of tne greatest importance, and so successful were they in their operations against this and other places, that the affairs of France oeean to wear the most gloomy aspect; they were, however, suddenly restored by one of the most extraor- dinary events recorded in historv. 7. When the hope of saving Orleans was almost abandoned, a f^oung girl named Joan, about seventeen years of age, who had ived an humble life in a village on the borders of Lorraine, pre- sented herself to the governor of Vaucouleur, and^ maintained with much earnestness that she had been sent by divine convpis- sion to raise the siege of that city« and procure the coronation of Charles in the city of Rheims. After undergoing a most riffid examination before a committee of persons appointed for that purpose, and also before the court and king himself, it was gene- rally adhiitted that the commission was supernatural. She was accordingly intrusted with the liberation of Orleans. As she approached the city her presence inspired the inhabitants with confidence, while it spread dismay and consternation among the English, wno hastily raised the siege and retired with precipita- tion, but being pursued by the heroine at the head of the French army, they were entirely defeated at Patay, with a loss of nearly five thousand men, while the French lost only one of their num- ber. From this event Joan was called the Maid of Orleans. 8. The second part of her mission, which yet remained to be accomplished, was equally arduous and dangerous. The city of Rheims and the intermediate country being in possession of'^the English or their allies, presented apparently insurmountable diffi- culties. Charles, however, placing full confidence in her guid- ance, commenced his march, and as he advanced every obstacle disappeared : the citizens of Rheims, having expelled the garri- son, received him with every demonstration of joy. After the coronation was performed, Joan threw herself at the feet of Charles, declaring that her commission was accomplished, and solicited leave to return to her former humble station ; but the king, unwilling to part with her services so soon, requested her to remain for some time with the army, with which at length she complied. She afterwards attempted to raise the siege of tne city of Campiegne ; but her good fortune seemed to have deserted herj she fell into the hands of the English, who, to gratify their revenge for the many losses they sustained through her valor, con- demned her, under a charge of various pretended crimes, and caused her to be burnt in the public square at Rouen. 9. By this cruel measure the English hoped to check the suc- cess that had attended the operations of Charles. In this, how- ever, they were disappointed j such was the impulse wh\ch the heroine had given to the affairs of France, that the Engli^ in a To what place did the Knglish lay siege ?— 7. When the hope of saving Orleans wa« almost abandoned, what is related ? As she approached the city what is said of her ? —8. What is said of the city of Rheims? AVhat did Charles do? After the coronation what did Joan do ? What wfts her fate ?— 9. What is said of the impi)ls« which tho kuroine bad ; iven to the afikirs of Fraqc9 ? FRANCC. 155 few years were expelled from all their possessions in the country, with the exception of Calais. Charles passed the remainder or his reign in improving the internal condition of his kingdom. The close of his life was embittered by the unnatural conduct of his son, who attempted to poison his father. He died in 1464, a prince of acknowledged virtue, justice and discretion. ^ 10. Louis XL, who succeeded to the throne, was distinguished for the cruelty and tyranny exercised against his subjects. He left, however, some good regulations for' the encouragement of commerce and the promotion of justice. His severity occasioned a revolt, which was called, '* the war of the public good." Hifl sanguinary disposition was.displaved on a certain occasion, when he pronounced the sentence of death on one of his nobles: he ordered that the children of the unfortunate victim should be E laced under the scaffold, that they might be sprinkled with the lood of their dying parent. His own nfe was rendered misera- ble, particularly towards the close, from the knowledge that he was despised by his subjects, and from the terrors of a guilty con- science. 11. Charles YIIL, the son of Louis, succeeded to the throne in 1483, at the age of thirteen years, under the regency of his sister, the princess Ann. His father had acquired a claim to the king- dom of Naples; the young king, on coming of age, undertook an expedition against that country, which he easily subdued. Charles, who was remarkable for the sweetness and affability of his dispo- sition, died in the twentv-eighth year of his age, uj^d with him ended the direct line of tne house of Valois. ''. SECTION I> . From the accession qf Louis XII.^ to the reign qf Henry IlL, A. D., 1498 to 1589. 1. Thz duke of Orleans, who was the nearest heir after the death of Charles, succeeded to the throne of France under the title of Louis XII. He was a wise and popular sovereign ; by his frugal polic}^ he greatly diminished tne burden of taxes, and gained the title of the Father of his people. Being urged to punish those who had been his enemies during the preceding reign, he replied, " It is unworthy of the king of France to avenge the iinuries done to the duke of Orleans." 2. He reduced Milan and Genoa, and prosecuted his claim to Naples, with some advantage, but was ultimately unsuccessful. He joined the League of Cambray against Venice, which, on ac- count of its wealth acquired by its commerce, excited the jealousy of its neighbors; but the confederates nfterwards quarrelled among themselves, and a new league was formed against France. How did Charles pass the remainder of h» reign 7—10. What i> said of Lonis XI. ? What did he leare ? On prononncing the sentence, what did he order ?— 11. Who sae* eeeded Louis T For what was he remarkable 7 1. Wliat is said of the Duke of Orleans? What reply did he make when urged to ounish, &c. T— S. What did he do T 166 IHANCE. The French, under the command of Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, gained an important victory over the confederates at the battle of Ravenna, in which the duke lost his life. After the death of this distinguished general, Louis soon lost all his posses- lions in Italy, and was compelled to evacuate the country. Be- fore he was able to recover these losses, he suddenlv died ; an tvent which filled the hearts of his subtjects with the deepest sor- row ; the exclamation that the good king was dead was heard on every side. 3. As the late king had died without leaving any male issue, his cousin, the Earl of Angouleme, ascended the throne, under the ^tle of Francis I. Franas, then in the flower of his age, was of a romantic disposition, and fond of military glory, and soon dis- tinguished himself by the conquest of the Milanese. On the death of Maximilian, emperor of Germany, in 1519, Francis and Charles Y. of Spain became rival candidates for the imperial tiirone. Charles was the successful candidate; and Francis, deeming himself injured, availed himself of this pretence for com- mencing hostilities against his rival. 4. His first operations against Navarre were successful ; but An unfortunate misunderstanding taking place between Francis and the high constable, De Bourbon, one of the ablest of his generals ; the latter basely abandoned his country and his sove- reign, and offered his services to the emperor Charles. Bourbon fought against the French in the battle of Biagrassa, in which 4hey were defeated with the loss of their celebrated general, the illustrious Bayard^ surnamed the Knight ivithoutfear andtuith- out reproach. Bourbon is said to have wept like a child over the dying hero j " Weep not for me," said the magnanimous Bayard, "but for yourself. I die in the service ot my country, you triumph in the i*uin of yours." 5. Francis, now taking upon himself the command of tlie army, hastened into Italy, and laid siege to Pavia, but was there de- feated and taken prisoner by the imperialists under the com- mand of Bourbon. After thirteen months of captivity. Francis obtained his liberty, and having crossed the boundary or his own dominions, he mounted his horse, and waving his hat, he ex- tlaimed, ** I am yet a king." The conditions on which he ob- tained his release were so unreasonable, that Francis, on regain- ing his liberty, refused to comply with them. The violation of ■this treaty again involved the two rival sovereigns in/anothei sanguinary ^'ar. The sovereign pontiff having declared in favoi of Francis^ Bourbon, who commanded for Charles, laid siege to 'Rome,- but was killeq in an attempt to storm the walls. The city however,'>was taken y and for two months abandoned to the pillage .of.the infuriated soldiery, during whl^h timeit presented a sc^ne What did the French gain under the command cf Gaston de Foix ? What is said -orhi»death?-^-3. Who«aoc6e4ed to th« tkroae t ^Vliat iasaid of Francis And ChAtles V.?~4^ What vias the consequuice of the misohderstaading between ■ Francis, iind De Bourbon? ^Vhat did Bayard say. while Bourlmn wept over him ?'t-S.>^ Whit did ' FrsMMsis AOW' do ? ' After-b* 9btained Jbie libaxty^ what U-iaid off him ? - What:\trat the Aite of Bourbon? What is said of the city? fhance. 167 of ruinous desolation, more frightful than that which it endured when it fell beneath tne hand o! the Golh or Vandal. 6. After the war had raged for some time with but little ad- vantage on either side, a truce was concluded, and the two rival monarchs were brought to a personal interview ntJligues Mortes. in France, where the warmest expressions of friendship passed between tnem. The following year, Charles obtained permission to pass through France on his way to the Netherlands j he re- mained for six days at Paris, where he was entertained with great magnificence. The war was a^ain renewed between the two sovereigns, respecting Milan, which terminated unfavorable to Francis, wno clied shortly after peace was restored, in the fifty- second year of his age, A. D. 1547. Francis possessed, in many respects, the reputation of a great sovereign. His impetuous courage, his frank and generous disposition, gained him the affec- tion of his subjects. He was a liberal patron of literature and the arts, which made great progress in France during his reign, and the French court acquired that polish and refinement which have since rendered it so conspicuous. 7. Henry II., who succeeded Francis, was brave, affable, and po- lite; he inherited in sonu degree the abilities and courage of nis father. His reign, which continued for thirteen vears, was almost one uninterrupted series of hostilities with Charles V., and his son, Philip II., of Spain. Henry gained an important advan- tage over the imperialists at the siege of Metz ; but Philip; in his turn, gained the famous victory of St. Quentin. The reign of Henry was also signalized by the recovery of Calais, whicn was taken after a siege of eight days, by the celebrated Duke of Gwwe, after it had remained in the possession of the English for two hun- dred and ten years. Henry's severity aeainst the Huguenv/^s gave rise to those sanguinary civil wars, which for several suc- ceeding reigns distracted and desolated France. His death was occasioned by an accident which happened to him at a tournament. 8. He was succeeded by his son, Francis II., who, after a short reign of one year, left the throne to his brother, Charles IX., then a w)y, in the tenth year of his age, who commenced his reign under the regency of his^ mother, Catherine de Medicis. At this time the Protestant religion began to make considerable progress in France, and had gained the patronage of several distinguished men, among w hqm were the Prince of Conde and Admiral Co- ligni. The leading men in the administration were the celebrat- ed Duke of Guise, and his brother,^ the Cardinal of Lorraine. In order to bring about an accommodation, and to settle the difficulties without further bloodshed, a conference was held at Poissy, for the purpose of discussing the points in dispute between the Catho- lics and Protestants. The conference was attended by the king 6. After the war had raged for some time, vfhat was concluded ? What took place the following year ? When did Francis die ? What did he possess ? Of what was he the patron ? — 7. Who succeeded Francis ? With whom was he mignged in hostilities f By what was his reign signalized ? Wliat occasioned his death ? — 8. Who were the neit two sovereigns ? What is said of the Protestant religion at this time ? Who were the leading men in the administration ? What was the object of the conference at PoisayT 14 Jj 158 FBANCC. and the most prominent personaffes of the court. The Protestant cause was supported by the celeurated Theodore Bcza, while the Catholic doctrine was defended by the distinguished Cardinal of Lorraine. 9. After this conference, an edict was published granting im- portant privileges to the Protestants. But the spirit of discontent still prevailed between the two parties, and the flame of civil war again burst forth and deluged the fairest portion of France in de- vastation and blood. The Catholics under the command of the Duke of Guise and Montmorencv, defeated the Huguenots under the Priiico of Conde, and the Admiral Coligni, in several engaffe- Aients.' During the contest, the Protestants lost their most able leader, the Prince of Conae, who fell in battle; while on the other hand, Charles had to lament'the loss of the firmest support of his throne, the Duke of Guise, who was cut off by assassination. Peace was^ at length restored, and the Protestants obtained free toleration in religion. . . ^ 10. The most memorable transaction in tlie reign of Charles, was the massacre of the Protestants which took place on St. Bar- tholomew's day. So various and contradictory arc the accounts given of this event by different writers^ as to the number of the vic- tims, and the motives that prompted it, that it is a difficult task, at the present time, to arrive at the true state of the facts. On the occasion of the marriage of' the sister of Charles, to the king of Navarre, Coligni and other distinguished Protestant leaders were invited to court. During the celebration of the nuptial ceremonies, various circumstances happened which contributed to bring about the odious measure that followed. As Coligni passed tK lugh the streets, he was severely wounded by an assassin. The public voice attributed the attempt to the young Duke of Guise, m re- venge for the murder of his father at the siege of Orleans ; it pro- ceeded, however, from the queen-mother, Catherine de Medicis, who was alarmed at the gradual influence which the Admiral seemed to acquire over the mind^ of Charles. 11. The wounds which Coliffni had received were not danger-' ous : but his followers crowded to his residence ; their threats of vengeance terrified the queen ; and in a secret council the king was prevailed upon to give his sanction to the destruction of the leaders of the Protestant party. From the close connection of events immediately preceding the massacre, it would seem that it originated in the animosity of the French court against the Pro- testant leaders, and was dictated rather bv a momentary impulse, than by anv studied or preconceived plan. The youne king, whose mind was harassed by the freouent revolts of the Hu- Suenots against his authority, was only induced to consent to lis cruel measure afler the positive assurance of his mother and chief counsellors, that his safety required that the leaders 6f the 0. After this, what was published? Wliat is said of the spirit of discontent ? During this, whom did the Protestants lose? AVhat had Charles to lament t— 10. What was the most memorable transaction of the reign of Charles ? During the celebration of the nuptials what took place? From whom did it proceed? — 11. In a secret council, what was the king prevailed on to do ? From what would it seemed to hare origi- nated t When was the king induced to consent to the cruel measure 7 (f FHANCe. 159 [ing the of it 'ro- ?g» [u< to land the iring I was ^nof ineil, brigi* party should be cut off. and that if he waited until moinlnff. his most faithful officers, his family, and perhaps himself, would be sacrificed to their vengeance. 12. In this state of mind, he gave his consent to the projected massacre, which took place during the night of the twenty-third of August, and a part of the following day. The residence of Coligni was forced, and he was put to death, with his principal counsellors j the populace joined m the work of blood, and every Huffuenot who tell in their wa>r was sacrificed to their fury. Although the massacre was only intended for the capital, still it extendeil to several provinces ; the governors, though inst'^'^ted to prevent similar excesses, had not always the power or thr I to check the fury of the people, aid the bloody tragedy of Paris was imitated in several other towns. With regan. to the riunibor of the victims, it is impossible to speak with ce'-tainty. Some writers exaggerate the number to seventy thousai J ; others estimate thir- ty, twenty, or fifteen thousand. The reformed martyrolo^ist adopted a means of ascertaining the real number, I y procuring from the ministers in the different towns wh- re the massacre ♦ook fdace, a list of the names of the persons who suffered. H' oub- ished the result in 1582, and in all France he could disc^'. h the names of no more than seven hundred and eighty -six per; kis. 13. Charles, in order to palliate the shame of ''s murderous edict against the Huguenots, wrote to every c( an In Europe, stating, that having just detected their horrid p.An against niS authority and person, he was fortunate enough to escape from the imminent danger to which he was exposed, by cutting off the leaders of the party. Many, deceived by this statement, and yet unacquainted with the true nature of the facts, congratulated him on his good fortune. Among others, Pope Gregory' XIII., on re- ceiving the account of the transaction, as given by Charles, of- fered up public thanks, not that he rejoiced at the death of the supposed traitors, but for the preservation of the French monarch and his kingdom from ruin. 14. Charles did not long survive this event ; he died shortly after- wards, of a pulmonary complaint, and was succeeded in the throne by his brother, HcThry III., a weak anu xMe prince. In the be- ginning of his reign, he granted impoi i: la; pnvileges to the Pro- testants, but he afterwards joined the Zc«fi"we projected for the defence of the state and religion, and took the field against them. By this conduct he lost the confidnce of both parties ; he was finally assassinated by James Clerient, a Dominican friar, in the fourth year of his reign, A. D. Iii88. 12. When did it take place ? What was the fate of Coligni ? With rcgan'. 'o the number of victims, what is said? AVhat do some writers exaggerate it to * What was the number according to the reformed, martyrologist? — ^13. What did Charles ^o in order to palliate the shame? What is said of Pope Gregory XIII. ? — 14, By whom was Charles succeeded ? What is said of Henry ? How tad ha die ? 160 IHANCE. SECTION V. House of Bourbon, from Ihnry IV., to the Death qf Louis XT', Ji. D. 1*589 to 1774. 1. On the death of Heniy III., the king of Navarre ascended the throne of France under the title of Henry IV., who was after- wards called the Great. His accession was liowcver greatly opposed by a powerful party in the state. The Cardinal oT Bourbon was proclaimed king by the army of the League, then under the com- mand of the Duke of Mayenne, and took the title of Charles X. But the army was signally defeated by Henry, in the famous bat- tle of A'jy/. . The difficulties a^fd dangers which surrounded Henry daily increased. He had been educated in the reformed religion, which he still continued to profess, while the greater f)art of his subjects were Catholics. The king began now serious- y to turn his mind to the subject (if religioii, and having asked several Pi'olcstant divines if he could be saved by professing the Catholic doctrine, and bcin^ answered in the affirmative, he con- cluded that it would be a safer policy, in his peculiar situation, to embrace that religion. Acconlingfy, in 1593, he abjured Pro- testantism, and declared himself a Catholic. 2. The event was productive of beneficial results to France; his claim was immediately acknowledged by all orders of the state, and the sanguinary civil wars which had so long affl'cted the kingdom, were happily terminated. Henry having gained quiet possession of thetnrone, was_^overned by principles of the wisest policy. By the celebrated Edict of Nanles, he granted to the Protestants Xw. Uwq exercise of their religion, coniirmed all their rights and privileges, and gave them free admission into all the offices of honor and emolument. 3. Henry now turned his attention towards the improvement of liis kingdom. A civil war of nearly thirty years' duration had produced the most calamitous efPicts. The land was untitled, the people poor and wretched, the crown loaded with debt. But by the wise and prudent measures of Henry, these evils were soon removed, and prosperity began again to diffuse itself throughout the kingdom. The wisest- of his counsellors was the Baron de Rosny, afterwards Duke of Sully, in whom he found an able minister and a %ithful friend. 4. Henry, by his great abilities, having elevated France from the wretched condition in which he found her, at his accession to the throne, to a high state of prosperity and happiness, fell a victim to the fanaticism of a rnonk name*' Ravaillac, who had long planned his death. As Ihe king rode through the streets of the capital, he was accidentally stopped by some obstruction in the wray; Ravaillac, who was always on the watch, seized this fa- vourable moment, mounted on the wheel of the carriage, and 1. On the death of Henry III., who nscended the throne? "Who was declared king by the army of tlie Leagtie? In wjint had he been educated ? What did lie do in 159;^ ? — 2. Of what was this event productive? What did he do by the Edict of Nantes? — -3. To what did he now turn his attention? AVho was the wisest of his counsellors?— 4. llow did Henry die ? Relate the circumstances of his death ? FHANCE. 161 able 1 from )n to t\\ a J long If the the fa- and ll king W^ ?— -3. To Urs?— slaboed the king twice before any one could oppose him. Thus fell Ilcnry IV., who m:vy justly be ranked amoh" the greatest of the French monarchs, in the fifty-sevenlh year of his age, and in the twenty-first of his reign, A. D. 1010. 5. When the fatal event was made known in Paris, the whole city presented a scene of mourning. Kavaillac was sei/.etl, and put to the most cruel tortures, to induce him to confess the names of those who were his accomplices ; but to the last, he persisted in maintaining that no one except himself was concerned in the action. As a sovereign, Henry was deservedly great; to pro- mote the happiness of his people, seems to have been his predomi- nate passion; he was kind and familiar to the lowest of his sub- jects, and was beloved by theffi to a degree bordering on enthu- siasm. His private life was far from being so commendable, and the manners of his courtiers were rendered profligate from the example of their sovereign. 0. Louis XHI., the son of the late monarch, succeeded to the throne at the age of nine years, under the regency of his mother, Mary of Medicis, who displeased the nobility by her partiality for Italians ; and during her administration the kingdom relapsed into many ili.-iorders. Louis, on assuming the rems (>f govern- ment, chose for his prime minister the famous Cardinal Richelieu, one of the greatest men of his a^e. During the reign of this mon- arch, the kingdom was again distracted by civil war; the Pro- testants attempted to throw off their allegiance, and to establish an independent state, selecting liochelle for the capital. Riche- lieu laid siege to this city, which finally surrendered after an ob- stinate resistance of t^velve months. The fall of this city termi nated the civil war, and greatly weakened the Protestant powei in France. A second rebellion was excited by the Duke of Orleans, the king's brother, and supported by the Duke of Montmorency; but it was finally crushed, and Montmorency executed for treason. 7. The great abilities of Richelieu were conspicuous in all his undertakings. While he extended the glory of France and com- manded the respect of all the powers of Europe, he became also the zealous patron of literature and science, and instituted the French Academy. He died in 1642, and was followed to the tomb in the succeeding year by Louis himself, in the forty-third year of his age and the thirty-fourth of his rei^n. 8. Louis XIV. succeeded his father at the early a^e of five years, under th«^ regency of his mother, Ann of Austna. She made choice of Cardinal Mazarin for her piime minister, whose admi- nistration was particularly distinguished by the defeat of the Spaniards at Itocroy, Friburg, and Lens, who taking advantage of the king's minority had commenced hostilities. On the death of Mazarin, Louis, at the age of twenty-two, took upon lamsetf 6. What is said of Paris when the news was made known ? AVTiat is said of Jlenry as a sovereign? Of his private life?— «. Who succeeded to ilie throne? MTio was chosen prime minister? Dnrinfr the reign of Louis, what is said of the kinfrdoro ? By whom was a second rebellion headed ?— 7. What is said of tlie al-ilities of Richelieu ? When did he die ?— a Who succeeded ? Who was made prime minister ' How was his administration distinguished ? i62 FRANCE. i; the entire direction of the affairs of government. To the happy choice he made of his- ministers, may be attributed the brilliant achievements that distinguished the early part of his reign. The financial affairs were regulated bjr the famous Colbert, an able and sagacious statesman ; his armies were commanded by the Princes of Conde and Turenne, two of the greatest generals of the age ; while the genius of Vauban was employed in fortifying his towns. 9. He subdued Franche Comte, which he annexed to France; conquered a part of Netherlands; overran Alsace, and twice de- solated the Palatinate. Alarmed at the success that attended the arms of the French monarch, the league of Augsburg yvdi^ formed, in which Holland, Spain, Sweden,"and several other of the German States united against him. In 1701 a second league was entered into by England, Germany, and Holland, against the power of France. The splendid career of victory which marked the early part of his reign, was now exchanged for a series of reverses which attended the close of his long and eventful life. His armies were no longer directed by the master spirits of Tu- renne and Conde; they had, moreover, to contend with the genius of the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, who gained over them the celebrated victories of Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet ; and at the peace of Utrecht, Louis lost nearly all the advantages he had formerly gained. 10. Louis died in the seventy-eighth year of his age, and the seventy-third of his reign, A. D. 1715. His reign, which is one of the longest recorded in history, is illustrated by many brilliant achievements. The most impolitic measure of his long adminis- tration, and one that has incurred the censure of subsequent his- torians, was the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, granted by Henry IV. for the toleration of the Protestant worship. By this act, all the Protestant ministers who refused to abjure their tenets, were commanded to quit the kingdom within the space of two months. As to the other Protestants, they were allowed •to remain in France, where thev mi^ht freely carry on their busi- ness,^ " without being molested or harassetl on account of their religion," to use the words of the repealing act. Many, however, j)reterred to follow their ministers into exile; but as to the num- Der of persons who thus went into banishment, it is impossible to ascertain. Some authors swell the number to five hundred thou- sand ; while Larrey and Benoit, both Protestant writers, admit it to have been ab> ut two hundred thousand. The Duke of Bur- gundy, whose candor and ample means of research entitle him to credit, assures us that the French refugees did not exceed sixty thou sa nil in all. 11. Although the king, with the advice of his ministers, adopted these severe measures against the Huguenots, it cannot be sup- Who reprulated the financial affairs? "Who commanded his armies?— 0. What did he do? What league was formed against him? In 1701, what was formed? WHiat IS said of his career of victory? What victories were gained by Prince Eugene?— 10. When did Louis die? What is said of his reign? What was the most impoiitie measure ? By this edict, what was commanded ? What is said of the number who - went into banishment ? How many do some authors state ? ( C t I r a I a 01 ol his- by this their )pted sup- FRANCE. 163 oi. X that this portion of his subjects were entirely without blame; heii frequent manifestations of hostility to the government, their many open revolts, which had plunged the kingdom into all the evila of civil war, might be oifered as some palliation for the revo- cation of the Ddict of Nantes. To this may be added the fact, that all the Protestant governments of Europe at the time exer- cised the utmost severity against the Catholic portion of their subjects. This, however, is but a feeble excuse ; example is no palliation for a fault; in a more enlightened and liberal age, we disavow the spirit of persecution, even the shadow of intolerance. 12. Louis is said to have been handsome in his person, and to have excelled in all the polite accomplishments of the age. The love of glory was his ruling passion; this he pursued, not only by his military achievements and the splendor of his conquests, but also by the patronage which he gave to literature and science; by promoting all the useful arts, and by giving encouragement to commerce, manufactures, and public works. The capital was embellished, the palaces of Versailles and Louvre were built; the canal of Languedoc and other useful works were constructed. The reign of Louis XIV. has been styled the Angustan Ji^e of French literature, and is distinguished for the number of eminent men who flourished during that period. Conde and Turenne at the head of his armies have acquired imperishable fame; Colbert in the cabinet; Bossuet, Fenelon, and Bourdaloue in sacred elo- quence; Pascal and Descartes in Mathematics and Philosophy; Racine, Boileau, J. B. Rousseau in poetry. 13. Louis XV., the great-grandson of the late monarch, suc- ceeded to the throne at the age of five years under the regency of the Duke of Orleans. The Dutchess of Ventadour was ap- pointed governess to the young king, a lady well qualified for the important charge reposed in her. Louis, on coming of age, chose for his chief minister the virtuous and amiable Cardinal Fleury, who was then in the seventy-third year of his age, but still re- tained his vigour and activity till near ninety. By the wise and pacific counsels of this distinguished man, the prosperity of France was revived and its tranquillity preserved for near twenty years. 14. After the death of Fleurv, France was engaged in the war of the Austrian Succession, wnich took place on the death of the emperor Charles VL The two competitors for the imperial throne were Maria Theresa, the eldest daughter of the late em- peror, and Charles the elector of Bavaria. The claim of the for- mer was supported by Great Britain, while the cause of the latter was espoused by France and Prussia. The English and their allies under George 11. gained the battle of Dettingen, and the French in their turn obtained the victory at the battle of Fonte- 11. What cannot be supposed? What might be offered as some palliation for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes? To this, what may be added? What do we di» avow ?— 12. What is said of Louis? What has his reign been styled ? Mention some of the most distinguished men. — 13. Who succeeded to the throne ? "Whom did Louis choose for his chief minister? By his wise counsel8,what was revived?— 14. In wha* was France engaged? Who were the two competitors? By whom were they sup ported? 164 FRANCE. noy. Peace was restored by the treniy of .^ix -la- Chapelie, and the claim of Maria Theresa was acknowledged. 15. In 1755 war was again renev/ed between England and France, respecting their w^mcncanpossessions. This was termi- nated by the peace concluded at Paris in 1763, when the most important of the French possessions in North America were ceded to Great Britain. Louis died in 1774, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, and in the fifty-ninth of his reign. The reign of this mo" rch and that of his predecessor occupied the unexampled period of one hundred and thirty-two years. SECTION VI. Louis XVI.; The Revolution; Buonaparte; Louis XVI IL; Charles X. From A. D, 1774 to 1830. 1. Louis XVI., the grandson of the late king, succeeded to the throne in the twentieth year of his age. 'J'he situation of this virtuous and benevolent prince was beset with difficulties of no ordinarjr character. The prodigality of his predecessor had impoverished the nation and loaded the people with taxation; a general corruption of morals and contempt for relif ion were manifested by those who were at the head of the government, while the principles of atheism were widely disseminated through the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau and others. 2. The deranged state of the finance first claimed the attention of Louis. He placed at the head of this department, Tur^ot^ an eminent statesman, and chose Malesherbes as his prime minister. These distinguished men, after several unsuccessful attempts to remove the evils and to reform the abuses of the state, resigned their situations and retired from office. The celebrated Necker, a native of Geneva, having succeeded Turgot at the head of the finance, pursued the same system of economy and reform ; but becoming unpopular with the courtiers, he was finally removed. 3. About this period, two commissioners from the United States arrived at Paris, to solicit the aid of France in behalf of the Ame- ricans, who were then struggling for their independence against the power of Great Britain. Although the American envoys were at first denied an audience in a public capacity, still the cause in which their country was engaged excited tne deepest sympathy among the French nobility, and obtained many private volunteers, amonff whom the Marquis de Lqfaj/ette was the most conspicuous. Wneri the news of tne failure ofuurgoyne'^ expe- By whnl was peace restored ? — ^15, In 1775, what wnr was renewed ? How did it terminate? When did Loiiis die ? ^Vhat was the length of his reign? What period did these two monarohs occupy? 1. Who succeeded to the throne? IVhat is said of his situation? ^V^latwere mani- fested? What were disseminated ?— 2. What claimed the attention of Louis? WTio was placed at the head of this department? Who succeeded Turgot? — 3. At tha. Sieriod, who arrived at Paris? What is said of their cause? When the news of th« ailurc of Burgoyne's expedition reached Paris, what took plane ? fhance. 165 a id It iriod tha. the dition reached Paris, a favorable change took place in the French cabinet with regard to America. The queen, who had always favored the interest of the Americans, now espoused the cause for which they contended with renewed ardor. ^ The king and bis ministers, who had hitherto acted with caution and reserve, at length determined openly to acknowledge the independence of the United States. Their commissioners, Franklin and Deane, were received as public ambassadors, and in February, 1778, a treaty of amity and commerce was signed between France and America. As' soon as thjs event was made public, the English ambassa- dor was immediately recalled from Paris, and war declared by Great Britain against France. 4. Various causes have been assigned as the oriyin of the French Revolution. The public debt, which had been greatly increased hy the benevolent efforts of Louis, in assisting the peo- ple of the United States in gaining their independence, left the state of (he finance in the most embarrassed condition ; the return of the French ofilcers and soldiers, after the successful termina- tion of the Jlmerican Revolution, disseminated through France a spirit in favor of liberty and republican principles; a general corruption of morals and open contempt for religion, became more prevalent, particularly among the higher orders of the state, while atheism and infidelity were daily increasing. These and other circumstances contributed towards exciting that fearful storm which spread devastation and blood over the plains of France, and convulsed the whole continent of Europe. 5. After every plan for restoring the deranged cv dition of the finance had proved ineffectual, Xoiiis convoked an assembly called the Notables, composed of persons selected from the high- est orders of the state, to whom it was proposed to levy a tax on all classes without ixception, in proportion to their prosperity; but they refused to sanction this measure, as they perceived it would subject them to some personal sacrifices. After this a de- mand was made for the convocation of the Stales- General, a body consisting of the three orders, nobility, clergy, and commons, which had not been Asembled since the year 1614, and never had a regular existence. 6. The assembly of the States- General convened on the 5th of May, 1789, at Versailles, where it was addressed by the king in a mild and conciliatory speech. It was not long, however, be- fore the members of the assembly disagreed among themselves; the commons, with such of the nobility and clergy as were dis- posed to join them, seized the legislative authority, declared themselves the representatives of the people, and styled themselves the National ^ssemblp. Of this body Bailly was chosen presi- dent, while Mirabeau and the Duke of Orleans, (a man of the In 1778, what was done? What was done by Great Britain? — 4. What ore some of the causes oosigned as the origin of the Vrcnch Revolution? — 5. What did Louis convoke? What was proposed? After this, what :Jemand was made? — 6. When was *ho States-Genoral convened? What did the commons do? Of this body who was chosen president? 166 FRANCE. most abandoned charact**;*,) were the two most prominent meni- bers. By the very first act of the National Assembly^ Louis found himself, in a great measure, deprived of his authority, and all who refused to unite with the commons saw themselves shut out from power, and all their rights and privileges invaded. 7. While these things were transacting at Versailles, an insur- rection broke out in Pa' is, which was characterizrid advances; the States- General underwent a change and wis-i styled the National Assembly; the royal authority was nearly annihilated t the privileges of the nobles and clergy were abolished ; the church lands confiscated ; the monasteries suppressed, and France di- vided into eighty -three departments. The next measure of the National Assembly was the formation of a new constitution, and from this circumstance it was styled the Constituent Assembly. _ * 10. In the mean time, Louis and the royal family escaped from the palace of Tuileries, and reached the frontiers of tne king- dom, when they were detected and again brought back to Pans. The new constitution was at length completed, and received the sanction of the king; it established a limited monarchy, and placed all orders of the state upon an equality. After this the assembly dissolved itself on the 30th of September, 1791. The next assembly that met on the first of October was styled the Legis- lative Assembly. * By its first act, what did Louis find?— 7. "What brolte out in Paris? What was done ? "Wlien this news reached Versailles, what did Louis do? Against whom did the populace direct their vengeance ? — 8. Where did they proceed, and what did they demand? By whom was Louis protected? — 9. What is said of the progress of iho revolution ? How was France divided ? What was the next measure of the National Assembly ? — 10. In the mean time what did Louis do ? What di^ the new constitution establish? What was the next assembly styled ? fBANCE. 167 11. At an eaily stage of th(* revolution, various political clubs were formed, among which the Jacobin Club (so railed from the place of its meeting) was the most predominant. This factious association long continued to possess a powerful influence in the capital and to ffovern the proceedings ot the Assembly. Another association, styled the Club of Cordeliers, surpassed tne Jacobins in avowed contempt for religion, government, and law. On the 2Jst of September, 1792, a new body was convened, styled the National Convention ; at its first meeting the regal government was abolished, and France declared a republic ; the next step was to consummate the drama ; the king himself was arraigned at the bar to answer to various charges brought against him. 12. In vain did Louis refute the absurd charges of which he was accused ; in vain did the elcguence of Deseze vindicate his innocence; his ei."emies thirsted tor his blood, and the sentence of death was pronounced against him. The ill-fated monarch, who had passed through all these trying scenes with a fortitude not usually met with under similar circumstances, boMed in per- fect resignation to that fate winch he saw he was unable to avoid. On the 21st of January, 1793, after taking an affectionate leave of his queen, his children, and his sister, tne princess Elizabeth, who had attended him in the most trying scenes, he was led to the place of execution. With a firm step he ascended the scaf- fold J for a moment he surveyed the multitude with calm serenity, and then addressed them in a few words : " I die innocent ; I pardon all my enemies, and I pray that France may not suffer for the blood she is about to shed." At this moment the noise of the drums drowned his voice ; he then calmly placed his head under the guillotine, and as the axe descended, his confessor ex- claimed, *' Son of St. Louis, ascend to heaven." Thus perished Louis XVI., in the thirty-ninth year of his age ; a prince whose only fault seems to have been the love of his people. 13. After the death of the king, his amiable and virtuous con- sort, Marie Jlntoinette, was marked out for destruction. On the 16th of October, 1793, having received the sentence of death, she was brought from the prison, meanly clad, with ^er hands bound behind her, and conducted to the place of execution in a common cart, attended by her confessor, the curate of St. Landry. As she passed through the streets, she occasionally raised her languid eyes and gazed for a moment oh the yiorA^LibertydtXiA Equality, inscribed on the houses. On the scafibid she conducted herself with her usual fortitude, until she was desired to lay her head upon the block; at this awful moment she grew pale and became apparently insensible. She was beheaded amidst the furious cries of Vive la Republique. 14. During the May of 1794, the amiable and beautiful prin- 11. At an early stare of the Revolution, what were formed? What were the two principal clubs ? At the first meeting of the National Convention, what was done ?— 12. What is said of Louis? What sentence was pronounced against him? On the 2l8t of January what was done ? What words dia he address ? What did his con- fessor exclaim?— 13. Who was next marked out for destruction? On the 16th of October what is said of her ? As she passed the streets ? On the scafTold ? - 14. During th* May of 1794, what-was done ? 168 FRANCE. cess Elizabeth, the sister of Louis, was brought forth to execu- tion: and about a year later, tiie young dauphin, an interesting chil(K died in prison, of a disease contracted from confinement, and from the barbarous treatment he received from the guards. Of all the members of the royal family, the daughter of Louis, afterwards duchess of Angouleme, was the only one who did not fall a victim to the furious storm that desolated France. 15. The National Convention was soon divided into furious factions, of which the principal were the Mountain party, headed by Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, men of the most unparal- leled depravity and cruelty; and the Girondists, of which Bnssot, Vergniaudj and Condorcet, were (he leaders, and were less ex- travagant in their views. The Mountain party, under Robes- pierre and his associates, whose bloody dominion is styled " the reign of terror," having gained the ascendency, committed the most fearful massacres. Brissot and Vergniaud, the leaders of the Girondists, with twenty of their partisans, fell a sacrifice to the vengeance of the predominant faction. That monster of vice and cruelty, the Duke of Orleans, suffered the same fate, from the hands of those very men whom he iiud been instrumental in bringing into power. 16. The Convention now indulged in the most extravagant excesses. On motion of Gobet, archbishop of Paris, the Christian religion was suppressed, and a decree passed, declaring that the only deities hereafter to be worshipped in France, should be Liberty, Equality, and Reason ; a republican calendar was esta- blished j the Sunday was abolished, and in its place every ttnth day was appointed as a day of rest. The churchcb were d sspoiied of their ornaments and treasures^ even the bells were melted and cast into cannon. 17. After these extraordinary proceedings, the Convention was again divided into two violent parvies ; Robespierrfi at the head of one, and Danton the leader of the other. Robespierre prevailed, and all his most conspicuous opponents were brought to the guil- lotine; but his own bloody career was soon destined t terminate; being condemned on a charge of tyranny, he was executed in July, 1794. After the^ fall of Robespierre, the Jacobin club was sup- pressed, and during the followin*? year a third Convention wdA formed, and the executive power vested in five Directors, 18. The sovereigns of Europe, alarmed at the extravagant pro- ceedings of the revolution in France, began to consider the pro- priety of uniting their forces, in order to opt>08e its fearful pro- fress. At an early stage of the convulsion a coalition was formed etween Prussia and Austria, foi the purpose of re-establishing the royal authority and restoring tranquillity to the country. After the execution of Louis, the first of the five great coalittdns was About a year later? — 15. How was the National Convention divided? What is said of the Mountain party ? Of Brissot, &c. ? Of the Duke of Orleans ?— 16. "What was done on the motion of Gobet? What is said of the churches? — 17. Afler this, what is said of ihe convention ? Wlio prevailed ? What is said of his own career T After the fall of Robespierre, what was done ? — 18. What is said of the sovereigns of Europe ? At an early stage of the Revolution what was formed ? And after the deatb oflxtttii? FRANwEt 169 pro- pro- pro- rmed (hing . Lfter was aat ii I What this, ^reer t rns of rdeatli formed between Great Britain, Holland, Russia, and Spam, r gainst France. The combined forces hafin^ invaded France, under the command of the Duke of Brunswick, were completely overthrown. 19. The French, elated by this triumph, began to think of car- rying their arms into the dominions of their assailants. Accord- ingly, under the command of Dumouriez, they subdued the Neth- erlands, Holland, Switzerland, and a part of Germany. In 1796, the command of the French ^ -my was given to Napoleon Buona- parte, then a joung man in ihe twenty-seventh year of his age, who had previously distinguished himself at the siege of Toulon. This extraordinary man soon astonished the whole continent of Eu- rope by the brilliancy of his victories. He completed the conquest of Italy, and compelled the Austrians to sign the treaty of Campo Formio, by which the French conquests in the Netherlands were confirmed. The Venetian territories were given up to Austria, and the Milanese was ceded to the Cisalpine Republic, which was newly formed out of the Austrian and Papal territories in Italy. 20. Buonaparte next directed his victorious arms against Egypt, defeated the Mamelukes in the famous battle of the ryra- mias, and took possession of Cairo and all the Delta. In 1798, the French fleet was defeated by the English under the celebrated Nelson, in the Bat) of AbouMr. In 1799, a second coalition was formed between England and Russia, in which Austria and seve- ral other powers afterwards engaged. During the campaign which followed, the French were most unfortunate. The Aus- trians, under the Archduke Charles, and the Russians under their general Suwarrow,^ gained several important victories in the north of Italy and in Germany, and by uniting their forces, they threatened the frontiers of France. 21. At this crisis, Buonaparte found it necessary to return to Paris to remedy the disorders caused by the misconduct of the Directory at home. By the aid of his partisans, Fouche, Talley- rand, and others, he succeeded in abolishing entirely the Direc- tory, framed a new constitution, and caused himself to be elected first consul. From this moment the affairs of France took a new turn; Buonaparte finding himself placed beyond all control, by his energy and activity surmounted every obstacle caused by the intriffues of his enemies ; and by suppressing various factions whicn had long existed in the country^, succeeded in restoring order and tranquillity in every department of the government. 22. Placing himself again at the head of his army, he effected the celebrated passage of the Alps, and defeated the Austrians in the memorable battle of Marengo ; this victory was followed by a second defeat of the Austrians at Hoherdinden, by the French under Moreau. These, and other advantages on the part of France, were followed by the peace of Luneville, with Austria, and the German empire $ and in the succeeding year, 1802, after 19. In 1776, what was done? What is said of this extraordinary man?— 20. Whera did Buonaparte next direct his arms ? In 1798 what took place ? vVlio gained seversl victories in the north of Italy, Jcc. ? — ^21. At this crisis what did Buonaparte find it necessary to do ? By the aid of his partisans, what did he do? What did he now dot —82. What did he now effect ? ^ Id 170 FRANCS. the peace of Amiens with England, Europe fur the first time since (he commencement of the Jievohtlion, enjoyed the blessing of uni- versal tranquillity. 23. Buonaparte spent the short interval that elapsed between the cessation of war and the renewal of hostilities, in performing various acts of public utility. Jn compliance with a previous con- tract with Pope Pius VII., he re-established the Christian reli- gion, which had been suppressed by order of the Convention; He published a civil code j offered great facilities to commerce ; and greatly embellished the city of Paris by new buildings and monu- ments. But at the same time bis course was marked with cruelty and blood ; he exercised the utmost rigor against Moreau and PichegrUytwo illustrious generals, who were accused of partici- pating in a conspiracy ; the former was exiled, and the latter strangled in prison, while a number of others were brought to the guillotine. Die Duke (PEnghien, a prince of the Bourbon Family, after a mock trial, was shot tution of the German emjJtre, and formed a union of the several states, under the title of the "Confederation of the Rhine;" obliged Francis II. to resign his title of Emperor of Gennany and king of the. Romans, and take that of Emperor of Austria ; and raised the electors of Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Saxony, to the rank of kings. 27. In IS06, a fourth coalition was foi-med, in which Russia, Austria, Prussia^ Sweden, and England united against France. The emperor, with his usual good fortune, defeaten the Prussians in the great battles of Jena and .^iierstadt ; immediately entered Berlin, and here commenced the Continental system against English commerce, declaring the British islands in a state of blockade, and ordering all ports to be closed against them. Peace was restored in the following year by the treaty of Tilsit, when Buonaparte bestowed on his brother Jerome the provinces wrested from Prussia, which he erected into the new kingdom of Westphalia. When the news of the Berlin decree reached Eng- land, the British government issued their orders in council, by which all neutral vessels trading with France were compelled to stop at a British port and pay a duty. In consequence of these orders, the emperor, who proceeded to Italy after the peace of Tilsit, issued his Milan decree, by which all vessels submitting to the British search, or consenting to any pecuniary exaction, were confiscated. 28. Elated by the astonishing success that attended his arms, the emperor of France gave full scope to his ambition, and set at defiance all principles of justice and moderation. He next fixed his attention upon Portugal, and so decisive was he in the execu- tion of his plans, that tne royal family was forced to quit the kingdom, and embark for Brazil. He compelled Charles IV. of Spam to abdicate his crown in favor of "iis brother Joseph Buo- naparte, who was in consequence trinsferred to the Spanish throne, and Murat, who had married the sister of Napoleon, was raised to the throne of Naples. 29. The Spaniards, in this emergency, ap -[i^ied for aid to Eng- land, who readily granted them assistance! ''is circumstance gave rise to the Peninsular war, which coats uud to rage from 1808 to 1813. . In the mean time war again broke out between France and Austria, which Buonaparte prosecuted with his usual success. Having gained several important victories over the Austrians at Mensberg, Batishon, and Warrant, he compelled the emperor Francis to submit to a humiliating treaty at Vienna, by which he What did he compel the Dutch to do? Afler this what did he subvert, &;c.?— 27 he /compel Charles IV. io do ?— 29. What gave rise to the Peninsular war ? What did he compel the emperor Francis to submit to? 178 FRAircs. agreed to accede to the continental system, and to gWf hh daugh- ter, Maria Louisa, in marriage to the emperor of Fran ■ b.^ con- sequence of this treaty, Buonaparte was solemnly divjiced from the Empress Josephine, a woman of the most amiable character, and became allied to the imperial house of Austria. 30. By the treaty of Tilsit, Alexander,, the emperor of Russia, had acceded to ih^ continental system against England, and agreed to exclude British goods from his dominions ; but finding this measure extremely injurious to his subjects, he thought proper to retract his assent. In consequence of this, Buonaparte determined on the invasion of the Russian empire. Earlv in the spring of 1812, he collected an army consisting of four hundred thousand infantry, sixty thousand cavalry, and one thousand two hundred pieces of artillery, and on the twenty -fourth of June, he crossed the Niemen on this memorable expedition. 31. His progress towards Moscow, to which he directed his march, was interrupted by the Russians, whom he defeated at Smolensk, and the tremendous battle of Borodino, at which nearly thirty thousand men fell on each side. He afterwards proceeded to Moscow, which he found enveloped in flames, and abandoned by its inhabitants. The city had been set on fire by the Russians, to prevent its affording an asylum to the French army. Buona- parte, in this emergency, thought it prudent to retreat towards the frontiers. There is scarcely to be found in the annals of his- tory a parallel for the sufferinff which the French army now endured from cold and famine. It is stated that near thirty thou- sand horses perished in a single day, from the severity of the weather; and of the immense army with which he invaded Rus- sia, only about thirty thousand men remained id recross the Niemen. 32. In the mean time, the emperor, leaving the remnant of his army, after it had crossed the Beresina, near the frontiers, flf' in disguise io Paris, raised another army of three hundred and fifty thousand men, and found himself opposed by a J\fth coali- tion, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, and several of the confederate states of the Rhine.^ Without losing a moment of time, he put himself at the head of his army, defeated the allied powers in the battle of Bautzen ; repulsed them to Dresden, where Moreau, one of the ablest of their generals, was slain; but was utterly overthrown in the tremendous battle of Leipsic, with a loss of forty thousand men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. The combatants in this great engagement, called the Battle of Nations, exceeded four hundred thousand, a greater number than has ever been known to have been engaged m any one battle in modern times. ^ 33. After this battle, the emperor fled to Paris, and made a In consequence of the treaty, what followed ? — 30. What is said of Alexander, em- peror of Russia? What was the number of his army? — 31. AVhat is said of his pro Sess tov/ards Moscow ? What number fell on each eiide at the battle of Borodino? ow did he find Moscow ? How many horses perished in a day? How many men recrossed the Niemeii ? — 32. In the mean time, what did the emperor do ? Where did he defeat the allied powers ? SVhere was he overthrown ? What is said of the com* batants in that engagement ?— 33. AAe this battle, what did the emperor do ? i ■% ade a er, em- lis pro rodino? hy men lere did le com* FRANCE. 173 vain attempt to ronsc the French people. Without loss of tim , the Allies crossed the Rhine, penetrated into the heart of France, and enterec the capital. Buonaparto, finding his sjtuation hope- less, abdicated the throne of France, and after various delibera- tions, the island of Elba %vas fixecl upon for his future residencej but hcNvas allowed to retain the title of emperor. Matters being thus arranged, Louis XVIII. was restorecl to the throne of his ancestors. 34. While the allied sovereigns were yet holding a congress at Vienna, for the purpose of arranging the aftiiirs of Europe, Buonaparte returned from exile, and made another eftbrt to regain the throne of France. Landing at Frrjus, he marched with only eleven hundred and forty men, without opposition, through the country ; presented himself in an open carriage to the royal army at Melun; was^ received with shouts of applause; entered Paris the same evening ; and was again proclaimed emperor, amidst the loudest acclamations.. I'hus in twenty days after his landing atFrejus, he found himself quietly seated on the throne, without having spilled a drop of blood. This exploit, which is regarded as one oi the most extraordinary of his life, is without a parallel in history, and evinces, in a striking manner, his ascendency over the French nation. 35. As soon as his return to France was made known at Vienna, he was declared, by i\\e congress, h traitor and an outlaw. A new and formidable coalition uas formed against him, by nearly all the powers of Europe. He placed himself once more at the head of his army, but was entirely defeated by the Allies, under Wellington and Blucher, m the memorable battle of Waterloo, with a loss of upwards of forty thousand men in killed and wounded. 36. This battle sealed the fate of Buonaparte. He fled to Paris, abdicated the throne in favor of his son, and shortly after- wards surrendered himself to Captain Maitland, of the Belle- rophon, askingan asylum in England, which, he said, in a letter to the Prince Regent, was the most powerful^ the most constant, and most generous of all his enemies. But it was unanimously agreed among the allied sovereigns, that he should be sent a pn- soner to the Isle of St. Helena, where he arrived on the 17tn of October, 1815. and there died on the 5th of May, 1821, in the sixth year of his captivity, and in the fifty-second of his age. [^See his Character in Biography."] 37. After the second dethronement of Buonaparte, Louis XVIII. was again placed on the throne of France, which was now reduced to nearly the same limits as before the Revolution. The govern- ment was compelled to restore a considerable amount of the plun- der collected at Paris, to pay £28,000,000 sterling towards tlie What is said of the Allies ? What place wa&fixed for his residence ?— 34. WTiile the allied soverei^s were holding a conness atv ienna, what took place ? Landing at Frejus, what did he do ? What is said of this exploit ?— 35. As soon as his return wns made known, what was he declared ? Where was he defeated by the Allies ? With what loss ?— 36. AAer this battle, what did he do ? Whore was he sent ? When did he die ?— 37. AVho was again placed upon the throne ? What was the sovernment compelled to do ? 16* 174 ENGLAND. expense of the war, and maintain for five years an army consist- ing of one hundred and fifty thousand of the allied troops, to be placed in different fortresses on the frontiers. Murat, who had Deen raised to the throne of Naples, and Marshal Ney, having both taken part with Buonaparte after his return from Elba, were sentenced to be shot. 33. Louis XVIII. was succeeded in 1824 by his brother, Count d'Artois, under the title of Charles X. ^ The reign of this monarch was signalized by two foreign enterprises; one in favor of the Greeks, in which France united with England and Russia, the other against the city of Algiers, which surrendered to the French after a sie^^e of six days, on the 5th of July, 1830. This reign was also disturbed by the contests between the ultra-royaHsts and the liberal party. 39. In March, 1830, the chamber of deputies made a strong stand against the ministry; in consequence of this, the chamber was dissolved by the king and new elections ordered. On the 26th of July, it having been ascertained that a^reat majority of the newly elected members were liberal, an ordinance was issued by the government, dissolving the chamber before it met, sus- pending the liberty of the press, and altering the mode of elec- tions. 40. The publication of this ordinance caused the greatest com- motion in Paris; the citizens took up arms against the govern- inent, and on the 29th of July gained a decided advantage over tiie king's guards. The chamber of deputies met on the third of August ; the throne was declared vacant, and the Duke of Orleans was called to accept the crown. On the 9th of August the Duke took the oath prescribed, and ascended the throne of France under the title of Louis Philip, the present king. At the com- mencement of the outbreak in Paris, Charles X. tied to Scotland, where he resided some time with his family, in tranquil obscurity, in the ancient palace o{ Holy rood. ' ENGLAND. SECTION I. England from the Conquest by the ffomans, A* C. 55 to A. 2). 827. 1. In^ pursuing the histoiy of England the mind is forcibly struck with her gradual rise from the lowest state of barbarism to the highest point of civilization and refinement. Early records represent her as a weak and defenceless province prostrate at the ■What WQS the fate of Murat and Marahal Ney? — 38. By whom was liOuts succeed- ed? By what was his reign signalized? — 39, In March, 1830, what took place? Tn July, what ordina.ice was issued ?— 40. What is said of the citizens T 'Who was caHcd to accept the crown? What became of Charles? 1. In pursuing tiie history of England, how it> the mind struck? How do early > records repres«ut h«r ? • ' ranee com- )tland, purity. Ircibly Wism kcords lat the icceetl- )? In 1 called early EN&LAND. 176 feet of a foreijg^n power, while her present lilstory cxlilbits her as a nation holding the highest rank in power, in the arts of peace and war, and with her commerce holding communion with the most distant regions of the earth. 2. The authentic history of this country can only be traced from its conquest by the Roman arms. A part of the island was invaded and conquered by Julius Cccsar, fifty-five years before the Christian era. According to ancient writers, the first inha- bitants were a tribe of Gauls or Celtae, who had landed on the island from the neighboring continent. This is probable, as their language, manners, and mode of government bear a striking resemblance to each other. Although, comparatively speaking, in a state of barbarism, the inhabitants had made some slight pro- gress in civilisation and had gained some knowledge of agricul- ture previous to the invasion of the Romans. They lived in huts built in tie forest, clothed themselves in the skins of beasts, and jived on the milk and flesh of their herds. They were not wholly ignorant of the arts of warj their armies, which consisted princi- pallv of foot soldiers, were equipped chiefly with the bow, the shield, and the lance. They had, moreover, a kind of war-cha- riot set with scythes, which caused dreadful slaughter when driven among their enemies. 3. The religion of the ancient Britons was that of Druidism, a degrading form of superstition; their priests, called Druids, pos- sessed an unbounded control over the minds of the people. 'I hey taught the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul, and offered human victims to appease the wratli of their gods. The oak was considered the peculiar residence of the deity, and at their reli- gious solemnities, both the priest and the people wore chaplets of oak, and covered the altar with the leaves. No vestiges of their sacred groves are now to be found, but the ruins of their temples which still remain show that they attained, at an early period, a considerable advancement in the mechanical arts. 4. Such was the condition of Britain when it attracted the Ambition of the Roman power. Julius Caesar, who had spread his conquestvS over Germany and Gaul, now cast his eye upon the isle of Britain. He was not allured by the prospect of wealth nor the richness of the soil, but led on by the ambition of carrying his arms into a region which before was considered inaccessible to the flight of the Roman eagle. With this view, having col- lected a numerous fleet, he embarked with about ten thousand of his troops. On his arrival in sight of II. From the foundation of the Monarchy, to the Norman conquest, A, D. 827 to 1066. 1. During the reign of Egbert the coast of Britain was visited by a formidable enemy in tne Danes*, who repeatedly plundered and devastated the land, destroying r ery thing by fire and * P-rtha, the name of his queen, was the daughter o( the kliij of Paris, and liad previously embraced Christianity. Having expelled the Scots and Picts, what did the f^axons do ? — 0. Among the rhief- tains, who is conspicuous ? What is said of him? AAer a contest of one hundred and firty years, what clld the nnxons establish ? What is snid of Egbert? — 10. Toward ihe close of the sixth century what took place ? What is said of Austin T Whut did he explain, and what followed ? 1. During the reign of Egbert, by whom was the coast o( Britain visited? ! I ^H 178 ENGLAND. sword, and continued to be a scourge to the country for upwards of two hundred years. 2. Nothing of great importance occurred from the reign of Egbert to that of Mfred the Great, the sixth king of England. On coming to the throne he found himself surrounded on all sides by those inveterate enemies, the Danes. In one year he is said to have defeated them in eight different battles, and succeedc' in forcing them to retire from his dominions. However it was but for a short duration; returning with rein fort -^ments, they ox- tended their ravages, and obliged Alfred to solicit a peace. In his distress, the kmg was compelled to seek shelter for his safety by retiring into obscurity, and thus disguised in the habit of a peasant, he passed several months in the cottage of a herdsman, m the capacity of a servant. While in this humble abode, he was ordered oy the herdsman's wife to take care of some cakes that she had left baking at the fire. But Alfred, whose m'nd Avas other- wise employed, forgot the injunction he had received, and lefthe cakea burn ; for which neglect he was severely reprin.anded by Lis mistress, who told him that he was always pleased to eat her .•akes, thoudi negligent in toasting them. 3. From his retreat he carefully observed the movements of the Danes, who from success had become remiss, aud watched the earliest opportunity of again placing himself at the head of his folloAvers, who had lately gained some slight advantage over their enemies. In order to ascertain the state of the Danish army, he disguised himself as a harjper, entered their camp and played for the amusement of the soldiers; he was even introduced to Guth- rum, the Danish prince, in whose tent he remained for several days. Having thus learned in person the unguarded condition of the Danes, he returned to his followers, and placing himself at their head, he attacked the enemy by surprise, and routed them with great slaughter. 4. Having subdued the enemies of his country, and restored peace to his kingdom, Alfred turned his attention towards repair- ing the evils they had caused, and improving the moral condi- tion of his subjects. He invited to his dominions the most emi- nent scholars from all parts of Europe ; established schools for the instruction of his people ; founded the University of Ox- ford, composed a code or laws, and, according to many his- torians, he established the trial by jury, and translated various works into the Saxon language. It is recorded of Alfred, that he executed forty corrupt judges in one year; and so exact and im- partial wore the police, that he even suspended gold bracelets by the highway, and no one was found to lay a rapacious hand upon them. 5. He usually divided his time into three equal parts ; one of which v;as employed in study and devotion: a secor \ 'n the dis- charge of busiiiess; and the third in sleep and ;eci eating his 2. On roniiiifr to ilip throne, how did Alfred fiixA. himself? In this distress, wlmt is re- Iniod of him ? — 3. From liis rotront what did lie carefnlly do ? — In order to nscertnin the state of the Dnnisli oninp, what did he do'' — 4, Hiiving subdued his armies, wiiat did Alfred do T AV hut ic rerordcd of him ? — 5. How did he divide h,s time ' ENGLAND. 179 ards )\V ign of „ gland. IT sides said to de'l in iras but ey «ix- :e. In i safety [)it of a dsinan, he was hat she 5 other- [ lefthe ided by eat her ents of hed the il of hjs er their rmy, he yed for ' Giith- several tion of self at them lestored repair- condi- 1st emi- lols for lof Ox- ly his- arioua :hat he |nd im- ets by ' upon )ne of le dis- big his I at is re- Iscennm 58, wiial body by exercise and diet; these divisions he exactly measured by burning tapers of equal length. Alfred has been justly re- garded by all subsequent historians, as one of the wisest and most illustrious princes that ever adorned the English throne. He was distinguished equally for his private virtues and his public charac- ter, justly reputed the greatest warrior, leffi.^ia'ior, and statesman of his age. He was succeeded by his son JUhvard, surnamed the Elder, A. D. 901. Edward inherited much of the military spirit of his father, and his reign was almost one continued contest with the Northumbrians and Danes. 6. Edward was succeeded by his brother Athelstan, a prince of great ability ; he carried on a successful war against the Danes, Sc' ts, and Northumbrians; strengthene'd and enlarged his king- dom, caused the Scriptures to be translated into the Saxon lan- guage, and enacted a law conferring the title o( thane, or gentle- man, on every merchant who should make three voyages to the Mediterranean Sea. 7. Edmund, his brother, succeeded to the throne. The reign of th.s king >yas short, and his death tragical. As he was cele- brating a festival in Gloucester, \\\& notorious robber Leolf, whom Edmund had banished, entered the hall where the king was dining, and took his seat among his attendants; being ordered to leave the apartment, he refused to obey ; upon this Edmund rose and seized him by the hair; Leolf drawing his dagger, killed the king upon the spot. Edmund was succeeded by his brother Edred, whose reign was distinguished by the final subjection of Northumbria. He had for one of his principal advisers Dunstan^ the learned and venerable abbot of Glastonbury. The king de- posited with him all his treasures, and the title of his lahds; and earnestly besought him to accept the vacant bishopric of Win- chester, which preferment he declined. Edred, whose constitu- tion was naturally weak, expired in the tenth year of his reign, and left the throne to Edwin. 8. Edwin, or Edwy, is generally represented by cotemporary writers, as a prince of a profligate character^ whose reign would scarcely be worthy of notice, were it not for several disputed points which occupy a considerable space in sonie of our modern nistorians. Elgiva, a lady of high birth, conceiving the design of securing for herself, or daughter, the dignity of queen, and with the view of captivating Edwin's affections, one or the other, was constantly in nis company. On the day of his coronation, after the banquet was over, Edwin hastily left the hall where his nobles were seated, and repaired to the company of Elgiva and her daughter. His nobles considering his departure as an insult, appointed the Bishop of Litchfield, and the abbot of Glastonbury, in the name of the whole assembly, to go and recall the king. They found him in a most unbecoming situation vvith Elgiva and For wlint was he distinguished ? By whom was he succeeded ? "What is said sf Edward ?— <5. By whom was Edward succeeded? What were his principal acts? — 7. "Who succeeded to the throne? Relate the circumstnccs of his death. By whom was ho Bucceodcd ? To whom did Edred leave x\iG throne ?~8. How is Edwin re- presented? What is said of Elgiva? On the day of his coronation, what is eaid of Eawin ? What did hii nobles do ? 180 ENGLAND her daughter, and having placed the crown upon his head, they conducted hiia back into the hall. 0. Shortly after this, Dunstan was banished from the kingdom, at the instigation of Elgiva, and Edwin was married. This event, it was natural to expect, would put an end to his amorous con- nections with Elgiva. Whether on that occasion she was sent home to her husband, or committed to the care of her relations, does not appear ; but the king, instigated by his passions, or by her solicitations, carried her off by force, and placed her on one of the royal farms. Archbishop Odo undertook to remove the scan- dal by enforcing the laws prescribed against women of abandoned character. {Leg. Sax. 58.) Through his influence she was re- moved from the farm and banished to Ireland. 10. In the second year of his reign, the Mercians having re- jected his authority, Edwin marched against them in person, but was defeated, and fled with precipitation into Wessex. Elgiva, who had returned from banishment, accor.spanied him on his flight ; at Glo'ster she fell into the hands ot the insurgents, who put her to death in a most cruel manner. That she was never married to Edwin, at least at the time of his coronation, will ap pear evident by consulting the original extracts from the histo- rians of that period, to be found transcribed in Lingard'a notes to his history of England. ( Vol. 3, page 311.) 11. Edwin died shortly after the Marcian war, and was suc- ceeded by his brother Edgar, A. D. 959. One of the first acts of the new monarch was to recall from exile the Abbot of Glas- tonbury, who received episcopal consecration, and was appointed to the bishopric cf Worcester, but was afterwards translated to the metropolitan isee of Canterbury^ The reign of Edgar was rendered memorable for being the period in which England was freed from wolves ;- by offering a reward for each head, he pro- duced such diligence in the search of them, that the race shortly disappeared. 12. Hearing of the extraordinary beauty of Elfrida, daughter of the Earl of Devonshire, he sent his favorite AthelwoTd to ascertain if her beauty corresponded with the report. Athel- wold was so completely overcome by thc^ charms of Effrida, that he resolved, if possible, to espouse her himself. Accordingly on his return, he represented to the king that her beauty had Seen greatly exaggerated, and that she was not handsome ; but on ac- count of her wealMi, he thought she would be a suitable match for an earl, and thus obtained the k'ng's permission to marry her. Having aftervvards discovered the ireacliery, Edgar, resolving to be avenged, killed Athelwold with his own hand while hunting, and shortly afterwards espoused Elfrida. 13. Edgar was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed the Martyr, in -consequence of his having been assassinated at the 9. Shortly after this, what took place ? What did Odo undertake ?— 10. In the second year of bis reign what took place ? W[\bA Is said cf Elgiva ? What will appear evi- dent? — 11. What was one of the first acts of Edgar ' For what is his reign memo- rable?— 18. Hearing of the beauty of Elfrida, what dul he Uu? What \» related of Athelwold ? What was Ids end ?— 13. By whom was KHlirar succeeded ? AVhat wa» his and! BKGI.ANI). 181 , they gdoni| event, 3 con- a sent ations, by her one of e scan- iidoned vas re- ing re- lon, but Elgiva, on his its, who IS never will ap le histo • Ps notes vas suc- [\rst acts of Glas- )poiuted fated to gar was and was , he pro- 5 shortly Imed the at the I the second Ippear evi- lign metno- 1 related of I What wBui ''♦|te. instigation of his step-mother, Elfrida, who was induced to this crime for the purpose of procuring the crown for her own son. Ethelred II. next ascended the throne, to whom historians give the surname of Unready^ from his want of promptness when called to duty. He was a weak and inactive prince. During his reign the Danes again invaded the kingdom under Sweyn their king. Ethelred fled to Normandy, leaving the kingdom in the hands of the invaders. The people, thus left without a leader, quietly acknowledged the Danish sovereign j but on the death of Sweyn, Ethelred was again restored. After an unfortunate reign of thirty-five years, Ethelred died, leaving the throne to his son Edmund, surnamed Ironside, on account of his great strength and valor; but courage and abilities were unable to save his declining country. 14. Canute, the son of Sweyn, having succeeded to the throne of Denmark^asserted his claim to the crown of England, invaded the country with a powerful army, and compelled the English monarch to divide his dominions with him. In a month after this event, Edmund was murdered at Oxford by the treachery of Edric, his brother-in-law, and Canute was acknowledged sole monarch of England. He was one of the most powerJul mon- archs of his time, and received the appellation of Great, from his talents and the success of his name. The early part of his life was stained with acts of cruelty, but the latter part was distin- guished for mildness and benevolence. After a reign of eighteen years, he died much lamented by his subjects. 15. Canute was succeeded by his son Harold, whose principal amusement was the chase j he received the surname o( Jlarefcot. from his swiftness in running. He was a prince of a weak and profligate character; he reigned only three years, and was suc- ceeded by hh brother Hardicanute, the last of the Danish kings» whose reign was only distinguished for his cruelty .ind vices. 16. As the late king left no issue, the English availed them selves of this opportunity to shake off the Danish yoke, and again restored the Saxon line m the person of Edward, the brother of Ironside. Edward was distinguished for the mildness of his dis- position and for his personal virtue. After his death he was canonized by die Pope, and received the surname of Cot\fessor. By the death of Etfward, England was re-plunged into all the miseries of war. As he died without issue, the British sceptre was claimed by several competitors, among whom, Harold, son of the famous Earl of Godwin, and William Duke of Normandy, were the most povverful. Harold, however, being present at Edward's death, quietly stepped into the vacant throne, and was joyfully acknowledged by the whole nation. William of Nor- mandy resolved to assert his claim to the crown of England by force of arms. Having collected a numerous fleet, he saued from Who next ascended the throne? ^Vho invaded the kingdom? What becat.. What did Harold do ? What did William resolve ? 16 182 ENGLAND. St. Valena, in France, and landed at Pevensey, in Sussex, with an army of sixty thousand men. 17. He was met by Harold with an army equally numerous. The night previous to the engagement, the two armies had pitched their camps in sight of each other, and waited with impatience for the return of the morning. As soon as the day dawned, they were drawn out in array, and awaited the signal for the combat. The two monarchs appeared at the head of their annies, William on horseback, and Harold on foot, in the centre of the host. The memorable battle of Hastings ensued; long and bloody was the contest; at length the valor of the English yielded, and victory declared in favor of the Normans ; the nation sub- mitted to the sceptre of William, who in consequence was called The Conqueror. SECTION in. 7%e Norman Family; William L the Conqueror; William 11.; Henry I.; Stephen qf Blois. From A. D. 1086 to 1154. 1. After the battle of Hastings, the spirit of the English was broken J city after city submitted to the conqueror, until ne found himself firmly seated on the English throne. Though William was a^ sovereign possessed of great abilities as a statesman and a warrior, yet many of his acts have stamped upon his reign the blot of cruelty and oppression. He was re- markable in his person, being tall and well proportioned, and possessed of such strength that few persons of that age were found who could bend his bow or wield his arms. 3. As was natural to expect, he entertained a partiality for his Norman followers, and advanced them to all the posts of honor and distinction — a measure which did not fail to excite the dis- affection of the English subjects, who made several attempts to throw off the yoke ; but their endeavors were fruitless and only- tended to tighten the chains of their bondage. He endeavored, in a manner, to abolish the English language, by causing the youth throughout the kingdom to learn the French tongue. No other language was used at court, and among the more fashion- able society; hence proceeded that mixture of French words which we find at present in the English tongue. Being much addicted to the pleasure of the chase, he reserved to himself tho exclusive privilege of killing game throughout the kingdom, and formed the New Forest, by depopulating a tract of land nearly thirty miles in circuit. One of tfie most useful acts of his reign was the completing the Dooms-day Book, which contained a register of all the estates of his kingdom. 17. Tlie night previous to the engagement, what is said of the armies ? Of the twa monarchs ? Describe the battle . 1. After the battle oi" Hastings, what is i*aid of the English ? Of William? In his person ?— 2. A'NTiat did he entertain ? What did he endeavour to abolish ? What was one of the most useful acts of his reign? N ENGLAND. 183 3. His domestic repose was somewhat embitteted by the dis- union of his three sons, who resided in a castle in Normandy. He did all that lay in his power to compromise their difterences without effect. His unnatural son, Robert, openly revolted and declared war against his father. William besieged him in the castle of Gerberoy, where many encounters took place, resem- bling more the combats of chivalry than the contests of hostile armies. In one of these, it happened that Robert encountered the king himself, who was concealed by a helmet ; a fierce com- bat ensued j at length the young prince wounded and dismounted his father. The king called out for assistance ; Robert, hearing his voice, recognised liis parent ; struck with remorse", he alighted from his horse, threw himself at the feet of William, and implored his pardon; then assisting him to mount, he sav him return to his camp. A reconciliation soon after took place, through the interpo- sition of his queen, Matilda^ whom William tenderly loved. Hav- ing reached the sixty-third year of his age, William died on the ^ continent, at the monasteiv of St. Gervais, in the thirty-first year of his conquest of England. 4. William II., surnamed Rufus, from his red hair, succeeded his father in the English throne, A. D. 1087. His reign \yas marked by many acts of cruelty and perfidy. As he was hunting in the New Forest^ he was accidentally shot by Sir Waller Tyr- rell who had aimed an arrow at a stag, after a reign of thirteeii years. 5. Henrj'^ I., the y^' - ^er brother of William, taking advantage of the absence of his brother Robert, the rightful heir, who was then on a crusade to the Holy Land, ascended the throne. Robert, on his return, made preparations to gain, by force of arms, the crown of England, of which ho had been deprived during his absence. An accommodation, however, was effected between the two brothers ; but Henry, shortly after this, infringed upon the treaty, and made war upon Normandy; the conquest he enected after the severe fought battle of Tenchelray, where Robert was taken prisoner. This unfortunate prince was uctained in custody during the remainder of his life, which lasted twenty- eight years, in a castle in Wales; leaving a melancholy proof how feeble are the barriers which the nearest ties of kindred can afford to the raging impulse of ambition. Henry was rendered inconsolable in the latter part of his life by the loss of his only son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy; after the news of this accident he was never seen to smile. Henry was, in many respects, an able and accomplished sove- reign, but ambitious and ungrateful. 6. On his death he left tbe throne to his daughter, Matilda; but Stephen, Earl of Blois, and nephew to the jate king, a noble of great ability and unbounded ambition, seized the crown. 3. \Vhat is said of his domestic repose? Of his son Robert ? What didAVilHnm do? On one occasion what happened ? When did he die ? — 4. By whom was William suc- ceeded? What was his end? — 5. Wlio next ascended the thron.; ? What is said of Robert? Sliortly after this what was done l)y Henry? How lonpr was l?obert de- tnired a prisoner?— G. To whom was tlie tlirono left? What did Matilda determine ' Who invaded the country ? What ensued ? t 184 ENGLAND Matilda immediately determined to assert her right by force of arms, and raising an army, she defeated Stephen and took pos- session of the throne; but by a strange occurrence of events, which are tedious nnd by no means interesting, Stephen, in his turn, having d<'''^atcd her and compelled her to leave her do- minions, again u ended the throne. Henry, thp -^n of Matilda, resolving to maintain his rightful inheritance u. the English crown, invaded the country at the head of a po.verlul army; bui an accommodation ensued by which it was agreed that Stephen should reign until his death, after which the crown should fall to Henry. SECTION IV. Family of Planfagenet ; Henry 11. ; Richard I.; John; Henry ni.i Eihaard L; Edward //.; Edward UL; Richard //.,• from Ji.l). 1154/0 1399. Henry II., in whom were united the families of the Saxon and Norman monarchs, now ascended the British throne, at the age of twenty-one. B^ his marriage with Eleanor, heiress of Guimne, he possessed by inheritance nearly half of France. The moat important achievement of this monarch's life was his invasion and subjugation of Ireland, which country has remained, more or less, in a state of subjection to the English crown to the present ti» ^e. During the early part of his reign the famous Thomas-a-Becfcet, a man of extraordmary abilit'-.s, held the first place in the favor of the king, Yi o promoted him to the office of high chancellor,, and made^i.ii pticeptor of the young princes. Becket displayed a magnific H .». (jual to his di;^nity ; his table was free of access to eery p ipok who had business at court ; he took precedence of all the lay haf ons, and among his vassals he numbered upwards of a hundred knights. 2. Henry lived on tei*ms of the greatest familiarity with his chancellor, and seemed to have resigned into his hands the go- vernment of his dominions. About this time it happened that the see of Canterbury became vacant, and Becket, on account of his situation, was pointed to as the person most likely to fill it. Accordingly the king sent a message to the chancellor, who was then on the continent, to rej: ui' to England, intimating to him at the same time that in a few duys he would be archbishop of Can- terbury. Becket replied that if the king were serious, he begged permission to decline the preferment, because it would be impos- sible for him to perform the duties of that station, and at the same time to retain the favor of his sovereign. But Henry was in- flexible, and insisted on his accepting 'he preferment. Be :,ket at length, much against his own judgme it, was induced to acqui- 1. "Who now ascon.iod the British throne? Whom did he marry? What was the most important achievement? What is said of Thomas-a-Becket? What did he dis- play ? — 3. About this time what happened ? What message did the king send? How did IJecket reply ? What i« said of Henry ? < i i ( f c i h e l i\ t\ b< ki r« Y ENGLAND. 185 le go- tthe f his 11 it. was im at Can- ggeA pos- same 8 in- ,ket qui- \ai the lie dis- I C8ce. Shortly after his return to E ' rland he v as ordained priest, and ill a few days received episcopal conHccration. 3. Becket, whose private life h id always been marked by the strictest integrity and morality, now began to think more seri- ously of acquiring those virtues that more particularly adorn vhe clerical character. The ostentatious parade and worldly pursuits of the chancellor were instantly renounced by the archbishop. The train of knights and noblemen who >vere accustomed to attend him were exchanged for a few companions, selected from among the most virtuous and learned of the clergy. His diet was abstemious and his charities were abundant j his time was occupied in prayer, study, and > the discharge of his episcopal =>» rult to unite the duties of his 'lor, he resigned this latter or some time subsisted be- a.v not destined to be of long functions; and as he found present station with those office into the hands of the 4. The good understandiii tvveen the primate and the ki , continuance. Henry began to Tnake encroachments on the rig^ht^ of the church and the clergy ; souglit to deprive them of the privi- lege of being tried for offences in the ecclesiastical courts, which piivilege they had enjoyed from a veiy early period, and required that a clergyman, after he had been degracled by the sentence of his spiritual judges, should be delivered into the custody of a lay officer to be punishod by the lay tribunnl. To this it was repliccf, that it would be ph.cing the English cKrgy on a footing inferior to their brothers in any other Cruistian country; it was repug- nant to those liberties which the king had sworn to preserve at his coronation, and that it violated the first principle of law, by re- quiring that the same individual should be twice punished for the same offence. 5. The king grew indignant at the opposition of the bishops, am' in order to bring the matter to ai issue, summoned a great council to meet at Clarendon. Here, by entreaties, threats, and intimidation, he prevailed on the bishops to sign what is called the " Constitution of Clarendon.^^ As several articles in thi» constitution were derogatory to the rights of the church, and in fringed on the papal jurisdictior, by prohibiting appeals to tb court of Rome without the king s consent, the bishops, in signing it, had sacrificed their conscience. 6. As the primate returned, he meditated in silence on his con- duct in the council, and saw the error into which intimidation had betrayed him: he bewailed his fault and immediately retract- ed his assent. His conduct inflamed anew the indignation of Henry. At length the archbishop thought it prudent to withdraw for a season from England, and retired into France. 7. A reconciliation was soon after effected between Henry and the primate, who again returned to England, carrying letters of 3. What J8 now said of Becket ? How was his time occupied ?— 4. What did Henry begin to do ? What did he require ? To this what was replied ?— 5. What did the king summons ? Here what did he prevail on the bishops to sign ? What were seve- ral articles in this constitution? — 6. As the primate r«turned, what is said of him* What did he think proper to do ''—7. vVhat was soon after effected T j6* ^>. <^. v*.'^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ;ifi^ iiiiiM K& 1^ 111112.2 i lis IIIIIM 1.4 m m V} ^ 7a m, /: '■/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 & ^ 186 ENGLAND. suspension or excommunication from the pope, against the bisnops of York, London, and Salisbury. The bishops, on receiving these letters, burst into violent complaints against the primate, and hastened into Normandy to seek redress from the kinff. Henry, in a moment of irritation, exclaimed, '* Of all the cowards who eat at my table, is there not one who will free me from this turbulent priest." Four of his knights, who were present, taking this for the royal approbation, bound themselves by oath to carry off or murder the primate. 8. They immediately set out for England^ hastened to Canter- bury ,.ana entering the palace of the archbishop, they upbraided him with insolence to the king. As they left his apartment, the hour for vespers arrived, and the undaunted prelate went unat- tended to the cathedral. He was ascending the steps of the choir when the assassins entered the church. One of the number cried out, •* Where is the traitor ?" To this no answer was returned. But when another asked, ** Where is the archbishop ?" the pre- late replied, " Here is the archbishop, but^ no traitor." Upon this one of the assassins aimed a blow which wounded him cii the head. As he felt the blood trickling down his face, ho clasped his hamla* and bowing down, he said, " In the name of Chnst and for the defence of his church, I am ready to die.^' In this posture, he turned towards his murderers, and undet their repeated blows he sunk to the floor, at the foot of SL Ben- net^s altar. 9. Thus perished this extraordinary man, a martyr to what he deemed his duty, the preservation of the privileges and immuni- ties of the church. His deatii was the triumph of his cause ; the church seemed to derive new vigor from the blood of her cham- pion. The first news of this event filled Henry with consternation and alarm ; he now lamented when too late the hasty expression that had led to the commission of so terrible a crime. But sub- seciuent events caused the monarch to think more seriously on this transaction than at present. Some few^ years afterwards he beheld his own sons uniting in rebellion against him, in conjunc- tion with, his perfidious barons. Such things, he concluded, were not in the orainary course of nature; they could be no other than the effects of the divine wrath which he had enkindled by hia persecution of the archbishop. 10. The name of the prelate had been lately enrolled by the pope in the catalogue of the saints, and the fame of the miracles wrought at his shrine resounding through every part of Europe, Henry, to expiate his oftence, resolved to make a pilgrimage to the tomb of the martyr. For this purpose he hastily set sail for England, and when he came within sight of Canterbury, he dis- mounted from his horse and walked, without any coverii\g oh his What did the*bishops do on reeeivingf these letters? What did Henry exclaim t What did the four knights do ? — 8. As they left his apartment what took place T What did one of their number cry out? What did the prelate reply? Upon this what waa done ? In bowing down what did he say ?— 9. What is said of Henry at the first news ■of this event ? Some years afterwards, what did he behold ? What did he conclude f —10. What is said of the name of the prelate ? What did Henry resolve io do ? Re- ■hie what followed. ENOLAin). 187 [by the Iracles lurope, laffe to iau foe K dis- [oh his Izclaimt What Ihat was lit newt Include T )t Re- feet, towards the city ^- as he entered the ^te, it was observed that his footsteps were stained with blood. Without making any delay, he hastened to the cathedral, and there threw himself at the foot of the tomb, while the bishop of London addressed the spectators. As soon as the prelate had concluded his discourse, Henry arose and repaired to the chapter-house of the convent,^ where the monks, a few bishops and abbots were assembled. Before them, the royal penitent, on his knees, confessed his crime, ard received on his shoulders, with a knotted cord, a few stripes from each. After this extraordinary act of humiliation he returned again to the shrine, and spent the night in prayer. 11. The latter part of his life was embittered by the unnatural conduct of his sons, who joined in a second rebellion against their father, aided by the king of France. On receiving a Rst'of those who had conspired to deprive him of his crown, the first name that caught his eye was that of his favorite son, John. He read no more, but returned the paper with a broken heart. At first he sunk into a deep melancholy j this was followed by a raging fever, during which he called down the heaviest denunciations of hea* yen on his ungrateful children. He died in the fifty-eigth year of his age and thirty -fifth of his reign. Henry, in many respects, may be ranked aniong the ablest of the English monarchs. He possessed distinguished abilities as a statesman and warrior ; yet nis private life was far from being commendable ; pride, passion, duplicity, and ambition, seem to have been the most prominent features of his character. 12. Richard I., surnamed Coeur de Lion, or the Lion-hearted, now ascended the throne, and endeavored to atone, in some mea- sure, for his ungrateful conduct towards his father, by renouncing those who had assisted in the unnatural rebellion, and receiving into his favor the ministers of the former reign. Richard was a prince of a chivalrous and romantic turn of mind. Shortly after nis accession to the tjiroue, he engaged in the crusades, and in conjunction with Philip Augustus of France, embarked on an ex- pedition to the Holy Land. Here his personal valor was con- spicuous in every engagement; he defeated the celehmted Saladin, in the memorable battle of Ascalon, in which forty thousand Sar^icens were slain, and finally compelled him to con- clude a treaty of peace. 13. On his return homeward, being shipwrecked, he endeavored to pass in disguise through Germany, but was discovered and de- tained a prisoner by the emperor, Henry VL, who released him after a lon^ confinement, on the payment of dS300,000. Having regained his liberty, he returned to his own dominions, from which he had been absent for nearly four years. The year fol- lowing, having laid siege to the castle of Chalus, he received a wound of which he died, in the tenth year of his reign, and the forty-second of his age. Richard has been styled the JichtUea of 11. What is said of the latter part of hit life T What are the circumstances of hit death? VHien did he die ? What is said of him?~12. Who succeeded to the throne t In what did he engage T Whom did he defeat ?— 13. On his return, what happened to him T What oecationed his death K What is said of Richard T V 188 ENGLAND. modern times ; his achievements more resemble the deeds of a hero of romance, than those of a wise and political sovereign. 14. John, the brother of Richard, succeeded to the throne ; his reign is regarded as one of the most infamous in English history. His nephew, Arthur, the son of Geoffrey, an elder orother, was the rigntful heir to the crown. The young prince happened to fall into the power of John, by whom he was basely murdered, lest at any future period he might assert his claim. This act of treachery excited universal disgust. Philip Augustus, of France, supported the claim of Arthur, and to avenge his death, deprived the English monarch of his French possessions. 15. John, although his queen wasVet alive, indulged a passion for Isabella^ daughter of Jiymar^ Count of Angouleme, a lady who had been already betrothed to the Count de le Marche, yet by reason of her age, the marriage had not been consummated. Having procured a divorce from his own wife,, he espoused Isa- bella. The sovereign pontiffs, during the Jmddle ^ges, were frequently called on to interpose their spiritual power, to shield the people from oppression, and to arrest the vices and chec', the passions of theii;^ruler8, and even the jurisprudence of that period acceded to the pope, on some extraordinary occasions, the power of absolving the people from their allegiance to their sovereign. 16. On tnis occasion, Innocent III. remonstrated with John without effect. Another circumstance which happened at this time, caused the pope to put in execution the full extent of his spiritual power. It had been a custom from an early period, in England, to consult the king in the appointment of a oishop to fill an^ of the vacant sees. It happened at this time, that the bishopric of Canterbury became vacant, and Lancton was chosen to fill it : the pope thought proper to depart from the usual cus- tom, ana confirmed the appointment without consulting the king, whose late conduct had given so much scandal to his subjects. John, highly incensed at this, sent two of his knights xpel the monks from the convent, and vented his rage on all v» ,ad^ any hand in the instrument. For this infringement of hid spiritual jurisdiction, the pope proceeded to place the kingdom under an Interdict, an instrument which was only resorted to on extraordi- nary occasions, and one calculated to strike ^tie mind with sensa- tions of awe. 17. While it remained in force, the nation was deprived of all the exterior exercises of religion ; the altars were despoiled of their ornaments : the crosses, relics, pictures, and statues of the saints, were laid on the ground and covered up ; the bells were removed from the churches; mass was celebrated with closed doors J the laity partook of no religious rites except baptism, and communion to the dying? the dead were not interred in conse- crated ground, and marriage was celebrated in the churchyard. 18. John, at length overcome by the evils which he had brought 14. Who succeeded to the throne ? ^yhat act of treachery did he commit? Of what was he deprived ? — IS. What is now related of John ? Wliat is said of the soverciRii pontiflfs ?— 16. Relate the circumstance which caused the pope to put in execution the extent of his spiritual power ? To what did the pope now proceed ? — 17. While it re- mained in force, of what was the kingdom deprived ? / KNGLAKD. 189 id hosen cus- fcing, ects. >el the were osed ,and Dnse- ird. lUght fwhat ereiffii sn thtt it re* on his kingdom, yielded his obt'^inacy, became reconciled to the church, and feartul of the invasion of the French monarch, he surrendered his crown to the pope, from whom he consented tc hold it as a vassai. ^ In the mean time, his natural disposition for tyranny seemed to increase j he despised his nobles, and sought eveiy opportunity of infringing upon their privileges. The barons at lengtn, unable to support his tyrannical exactions, under the direction of Lancton, the primate, formed a confederacy against him. They met at Runnymede, and compelled him, after much opposition, to sign and seal the famous document of Magna Chairta^ which is even now regarded as the great bulwarR of English liberty, and by which important liberties and privileges are secured to every order of men in the kingdom, A. D. 1215. John died the following year, after an odious reign of eighteen years, with scarcely a single virtlie to redeem a thousand vices. His son, Henry III. succeeded to the throne at the age of nine years, under the guardianship of the Earl of Pembroke. The history of this reign consists of little more than a recital of a series of internal contests between the king and his turbulent barons. Henry was a weak and timid prince; gentle and mild in his disposition; but he greatly displeased the nation by his par- tiality to foreigners. The barons, with the Earl of Leicester at their head, took up anns and compelled the king to resign his authority to twenty- four of their number, and having thus divided all the offices of tne government among themselves, they disregarded the privileges of the crown and trampled on the rights of the people. But the knights of the Sliire^ who now began to assemble separately from the lords, indignant at the usurpation of Leicester and his con- federate barons, took up arms in favor of the king. A battle was fought at Letves, in which the royal army was defeated, and the king, with his son Edward, was made prisoner. 19. Leicester now compelled the king to ratify his authority by a solemn treaty j assumed the character of regent, and called a parliament, consisting of two knights from each shire, and de- puties from the principal boroughs. From this period is generally dated the first outline of the present English House of Commons, Young Edward having at length regained his liberty, in conjunc- tion with the Duke of Gloucester, took the field against Leices- ter, who was defeated and slain in the famous battle oi Evesham, Henry was again ijestored to the throne, but died shortly after this event, in the sixty -fourth year of his age, and the fifty -sixth of his reign, A. D. 1272. 20. Edward^ who had early given indications of distinguished military abilities, was absent on a crusade at the time of his father's death. ^ On one occasion, as he sat in his tent, an assassin entered and aimed a poisoned arrow at his breast; he found 18. Fcarftil of the invasion of the French monarch, what did John do ? What is said of the barons? Where did they meet ? What was he compelled to sign? When did John die ? Who succeeded ? What is said of his history ? What was he compelled to do by the< barons 7 What battle was fought?— 19. What did Leicester now do? What is said of younfj Edward ? What is said of Henry ?— 80. MTiat is said of Ed« ward ? On one occasion what happened ? 190 ENGLAND. means to ward off the blow, but received a wound in his arm His devoted queen, Eleanor of Castile, saved his life at the evi- dent risk of her own, by extracting the poison by applying hei mouth to the wound He had advanced as far as Sicily on hii return, when he received information of his father's death. 21. On his arrival in England, he was received with jo}[ by all classes of the people, and immediately turned his attention to- wards removing the disorders which tilled the state during the preceding reign. Having restored order and tranquillity at home, ne turned his arms towards the subjugation of Wales, and having defeated and slain Llewellyn, the king, he annexed that country to the British crown, and created his eldest son Prince of ff 'ales, a title which at the present time distinguishes the oldest son of the English monarch. Edward was shortly afterwards made um- pire, in a dispute between Robert Bruce and John Baliol, respect- ing the succession of the Scottish throne. He adjudged the crovn to Baliol, who engaged to hold it as a vassal of the English monarch. He, however, threw off his allegiance, and Edward invaded Scotland with a powerful army, defeated the Scots in the battle of j)unbar, subdued the kingdom, and carried Baliol captive to England. 22. The Scots, who had unwillingly submitted to the yoke of subjugation, were roused to assert their independence through the influence of the renowned hero, Sir William Wallace ; but after a series of brilliant achievements, their efforts failed for the pre- sent; the illustrious Wallace was basely betrayed into the hands of Edward, and put to death with barbarous cruelty. They found, however, a more successtiil champion in the person of Robert Bruce, grandson of Baliol, who, after he had expelled ^he British from the country, was restored to the throne of his ancestors. Edward having made preparation for a second invasion of Scot- land, died at Carlisle, in the thirty-fifth year of his reign. Ed- ward was eminently distinlguished as a legislator and warrior, but his cruelty towards the Jews, and his cold-blooded massacre of the bards of Wales, have stamped upon his memory an indeli- ble blot of tyranny and rapacity. 23. Edward II. succeeded his father to the throne, and imme- diately invaded Scotland with an army of one hundred thousand men, which was met at Bannockburn by Robert Bruce, with thirty thousand. A dreadful conflict ensued, in which the Eng- lish were signally defeated. Edward possessed but few qualities to distinguish him as a sovereign ; he was mild in disposition, but weak and indolent, fond of pleasure, and allowed himself to be governed by unworthy favorites, which excited against him the turbulent spirit of his barons, and filled his reign with civil dis- sensions. 24. Isabella, his queen, a woman of the most infamous charac- 31. Edward having restored tranquillity, at home, what did he do ? Being made um- fire between Bruce and Baliol, to ^^hom did he adjudge the crown ? What is said of loliol ? What did Edward do ? — ^22. By whom wore the Scots roused to assert theii" independence ? WKat was the fate of Wallaoe ? In whom did they fiiid a more sue- eessful champion ? How was Edward distinguished ? — 33. What did Edward II. do '' What is said of him?— 24. AVliat is said of Isa'tella, bis queen ? What was the fate ol Edward T ENGLAND. 191 ter, fixed her affections upon Mortimer, a young and powerful oaron, with whom she entered into a conspiracy against Uie king, and compelled him to resign in favor of his son. Edward was cast into prison, and barbarously murdered at the instigation of Isabella, in Berkeley Castle, A. D. 1328. 25. Edward III. succeeded to the throne m the fourteenth year of his age. During his minoritv, a regency of twelve persons was appointed ; yet Mortimer and the infamous queen maintained their power and exercised the chief control. Almost the first act of Edward, on coming of age, was to punish the murderers of his unhappy father. Mortimer was publicly executed ; Isabella was confined in the castle of Risings, where she remained for twentv- eight years, a memorable example of blasted ambition. Edwarcf^s first expedition was against tne Scots, whom he defeated with great slaughter in the battle of Hallidon Hill. 26. He claimed the crown of France, which he pretended he inherited from his mother, and resolved to maintain it bv force of arms, in opposition to Philip of Valois, who had ascended the French throne. Having collected a powerful armament of two hundred and fift;^ sail, he departed from England, and having encountered a-French fleet of four hundred ships on the coast of Flanders, he gained one of the most memorable naval victories recorded in history. The loss of the English is said to have been only four thousand men and two ships, while thirty thousand of the French fell in the enffagement, with the loss of two hundred and thirty of their vessels. 27. He then invaded the country at the head of thirty thousand troops, and spread devastation wherever he advanced. He ra^ the French monarch, who advanced to oppose, at the head of an army of one hundred thousand men, and defeated him in the famous battle of Cressy. This battle is rendered memorable for t>eing the first in which the English made use of cannon; also for being the scene in which Edward, the Black Prince, (so called from the color of his armor,) the king's eldest eon,^ then in the sixteenth year of his age, commenced his brilliant military career. While the battle raged in its greatest fury, a messenger was despatched desiring that succour might be sent to the aid of the Prince; Edwai*d replied to the messenger, " Go tell my son, that r reserve fbr him the glory of this day: he will be able, without my aid, to repel the enemy." Edward havinjg taken the city of Calais, after a memorable siege, returned again to England. 28t. While the English monarch was c<»ducting his conquests on the continent, the Scots made an irruption into his dominions at home, but were defeated in a battle at NeviOe*» Croa»hj Phi- lippa, his heroic queen, and their king was led captive to London. John, who succeeded his father in the tiurone of France, resolved to expel the English from his dominions, and took the field with SS. "Who raeeeedfld to the throne ? What was hie fint act en conunf of aaa T What waa the fate of Mortimer and Isabella ?—B6. What did he claim T What md he do? "What was the loss on both sides?— 27. What did he then do? By whom was he met? Fbr what is the battle- memorable? While the battle raged, wnat w«a done?— as. AVhile the Enflish monarch, &e., what did the; Scot*. dot? was fought? What did the king of FraaaacMolvaf '^t' I I 192 ENGLAND. an army of sixty thousand men. He was met by the Black Pnnce and defeated in the memorable battle of Poictier», in which he was made prisoner and conducted to London bv the Prince, where he was detained a fellow captive with David, the Scottish king. 29. Edward, who in the early part of his life had acquired such brilliant military renown, towards the end of his reisn sunk into indolence and indulgence, and before his death he nad lost all his conmiests with the exception of Calais. The death of the Black Prince, whose heroic deeds were only surpassed by the amiable virtues that adorned his mind, filled tne nation, witn sor- row and left his father disconsolate for the loss. The king only survived this event a few months^ he died in the sixty-fiftli year of his age and fifty-first of his reign, A. D. 1377. 30. Edward was one of the most illustrious princes of his age. His military achievements in France and Scotland, though unjust in their object, cast a lustre on his rei^n and render it one of the most brilliant recorded in English history. During his reign. Chivalry was carried to its height in England. ^ Edward himself and his son, the Black Prince, possessed in a high degree all the accomplishme|}ts of the knightly character. He instituted the order of the Garter, and also built the magnificent castle of Wind- sor. The French language was discontinued in courts of justice duringhis reign. 31. Edward was succeeded by Richard II., son of the Black Prince, at the age of eleven years. During his minority the ad- ministration of the government was intrusted to his uncles, the dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester^ of these, however, the duke of Lancaster acted the most prominent part. In the early part of his reign the parliament levied a poll-tax of three groats upon all over tfie age of fifteen^ years. This gave great dissatis- faction on account of its injustice in exacting as much from the poor as from the rich.^ 32. The flame of insurrection spread through the kingdom. The insurgents found a leader in the person of Wat Tyler, a blacksmith by profession, who in a short time finding himself at the head of one hundred thousand followers, led them to Smith' field, where the king invited him to a conference. His haughty demeanor here excited the indignation of one of the king's at- tendants, who struck him dead upon the spot. This rain act, committed in the presence of the mutineers, would have proved fatal to the king and his attendants, had it not been for the pre- sence of mind displayed by the youthful prince, who riding up towards them while their bows were bent for execution, exclaim- ed, ** What, my people! will you ki'l your king? I myself will be your leader; follow me into the field and you shall haii^e what you desire." By whom wm he met? Where was ho conducted?— 29. What is now said of ESd- ward? When did he die?— 30. What was Edward? What is said of his military achieTements? What did he institute? What was discontinued?— 31. By whom was Edward succeeded? In the early ^art of his reisn, what was done?— 33. What fol- lowed? Who was the leaderof the insurgents? What was the fate of Tyler? np to tb« insurgents, what did the king ezolaim! Ridilif I kkglakd. 193 33. The flattering hopes which the nation had formed of Rich« ard's future ereatness from his conduct on this •ccasion, greatly declined as he advanced in years. The northern borders were thrown into disorder by the rivalship between the family of Percy, of the north of England, and the house of Douglas, of Scotland. A sanguinary battle was fought at Otterbum^ in which Percy, surnamed Hotspur, was taken prisoner and Douglas slain. On this battle is founded the celebrated ballad of Chevy Chace. 34. While Richard was absent in Ireland to quell an insurrec- tion in that country, the young Duke of Lancaster excited a revolt against his authonty in England. The king, on bis return, after undergoing a mock trial, was compelled to resign his crown; while the duke in the mean time ascended the throne under the title of Henry IV., A. D. 1399. The deposed monarch was imprisoned in the castle of Pomfret^ where he was shortly afterwards put to death in the most cruel manner. will Iwhat »fEd- |Uitai7 i was M fol- I' SECTION V. Branch qf Lancaster; Henry IV.; Henry V,; Henry VL,from A, D. 1399 to 1461. 1. Henry thus succeeded to the throne by the deposition and murder of his lawful sovereign, and to the exclusion of the right- ful heir, Edward Mortimer, whose descendants, as we will see in the sequel, after a series of contests between the York and Lancaster families, succeeded in establishing their disputed claim to the crown. Henry soon found that the diadem tnat glitters upon the brow of monarchs bears with it an enkpty name, and conceals beneath its splendor a thousand imbittering cares un- known to the man of the humbler walks of life. 2. Scarcely was he seated on the throne when f < insurrection was raised against him, headed by Northumberlano, rtnd joined by the Scots under Douglas, and the Welsh under Owm Glen- dower; but they were defeated by the royal forces in a desperate battle fought at Shrewsbury. The latter part of his life was im- bittered by the profligate conduct of hie son, the Prince of Wales. On a certjEun occasion, one of his companions was indicted for some mbdemeanor before the chief justice. Sir William Gas- coigne; the young prince, who was present, became so exaspe- rated at the issue of the tnal, that he struck the judge in open court. The venerable ma^strate, impressed with the dignity of his office, ordered the pnnce to be committed to prison; the prince willingly submitted to the order of the judge. When the 33. What is said of the hopes the nation had fonned ot Richard ? Where was a battle ibaght? VIHiat ballad was fonnded on it?— 34. What is said of Richard while absent in Ireland? On his return, what took place? What becaiaa of the depossd monarch? 1. What is said of Henry ? What did he soon find ?— S. By whom was an insnrree- rection headed ? What is said of the latter part of his life ? What ;s reliuod of Chitf Jnstice Oascoigne? 17 194 CRGLAND. circumstance was related to the king, he exclaimed, "liUppf if the king who has a m^strate endowed with courage to execute laws upon such an ofrender; still more happy inliaving a son who is willine to submit to such a chastisement." Henry died in the forty -sixtn year of his age, and fourteenth of his reign, A. D 1413. 3. Henry V., on succeeding to the throne, agreeably surprised the nation dj a sudden reformation of his conduct. Calling to- § ether all his abandoned companions, he acquainted them oT his esign, and forbade them to appear in his presence untU they had followed his example. He received with respect the faithful ministers of his father; commended Oascoigne for his impartial conduct, and exhorted him to continue in a strict execution of the laws. 4. Henry having revived his claim to the crown of France, and taking advantage of tlie internal disorders of that kingdom, in- vadea the country at the head of only fifteen thousand men, and defeated the French army amounting to sixty thousand men, in the famous battle of ^gincourt. The French lost, on this memo- rable occasion, eleven thousand killed and fourteen thousand prisoners, white the English lost only forty slain. After having reduced Normandy, he wa6 declared regent of France and ac- knowledged heir to the crown. But having reached the summit of earthly glory^ his brilliant career was cut short by the hand of death; he died m the thirty -fourth year of his age and the tenth . of his reign, A. D. 1422. 5. Henry VI., on the death of bis father, isucceeded to the throne at the age often months, and was proclaimed king of Eng- land and of France. During his minority, his uncles, the dukes ot Bedford and Oloucesitr were aiq>ointed protectors of his domi- nions, the former of France, and the latter of England. The French considering this a fi^vorable moment, resolved to shake oif the English yoke, and again assert the independence of their country. In this they succeieded, and Charles Vll., the Dauphin, recovered by degrees the greater part of his kingdmn. 6. The city 01 Orleans was so situated between the provinces }>ussessed by Charles, and those commanded by the regent, that it afforded an easy access to eiUier. To this point, therefrate, the forces of each were directed ; the French to defend^ the Englidk to reduce it. At length, after the Frenc(h were reduced to the last extremity, the Slnglkih were compelled to raise tfw siege through the courage of the reno med lieroine, Joantf JirCf and shortfy after th^ were deprived of all their possessipiM in Fnuee except Calais. 7. nenry, as he advanced in years^ w^as1fae siege of the city raised?— r^What is said of Henry? I1M6LAKD. 195 the reins of government at the time in which he lived. He mar- ried Margaret of Anjou, daughter of the kin? of Sicilv, a woman of a heroic mind, and eminently distinguished for the part she bore in the wars that distracted his reign. The insurrection of Jack Cade wa&an event of considerable importance. Cade., under the assumed name of John Mortimer, collected an army of twen- ty thousand followers, but was defeated and slain. 8. The Duke qf Gloucester was heir to the crown in case the king died without issue ; he had opposed the marriage of Henry with Margaret, a circumstance which did not fail to render him odious in the eyes of the queen, and his death took place a short time after, in a very suspicious manner. This event, in connec- tion with the weak character of the king, encouraged the Dttke qfTork to assert his claim to the crown. At this period, the san- guinary contest between the houses of Fork and lAincaster was commenced, and by it England was for thirty years a subject (»f dispute ; the nation was drenched in all the horrors of civil war, involving alike the inmates of the cottage and the castle ; all the social ties of affection seemed rent asunder; often was the father armed against his son ; the son against his father : brother against brother, and the nearest friends against each other. The adhe- rents of the house of Lancaster chose a red rose as a symbol of their party, while the house of York wore the white rose ; hence these wars are known by the contest between the two roses. More than one hundred thousand men during this contest were sacrificed to the unhallowed shrine of ambition. 9. In the battle of St. Albans the iMncasterians were defeated, and the king taken prisoner ; but queen Margaret still kept the field, and ffained the battle of Wakefield, in which the Imke qf York was defeated and slain. But Edward, his son, inherited all the ambition and abilities of his father ; he was then in the bloom of jouth, remarkable for the beauty of his person, his bravery and affability, which gained him the affection of the people. Confiding in his popularity more than in his right to the crown, he entered London with a numerous army, amidst the shouts of the citizens, and was proclaimed king, under the title of Edward IV., A. D. 1461. if/V.t k? Whtt Orle»iut SECTION VI. Branch of York; Edward IV. ; Edward F.; Richard III., from Ji, D. 1461 to 1485. 1. Edward, who had now attained the summit of his ambition, soon found that the throne was not a place for the enjoyment of tranquillity and repose. The undaunted Margaret, having col- -Whom did he marry ? What insurrection took place ?— 8. What is said of the Diike ofGloucester? At this period what commenced ? What ia said of this contest? What were the symbols of each party ? How many were sacrificed ? — 9. What hap. pened in the battle of St. Albans ? ^Vhat ii said of Edward ? Confiding in his popu- larity, what did he do' 1. What is said of Edward? 1 196 CKOLAKD. lected an armv of sixty thousand men, again took the field against him. Edward, and the Earl of Warwick, at the head of an army much inferior in number, marched to oppose her. A tremendous battle was fought at Towton, in which Edward gained a deci- sive victory, leaving thirty-six thousand Englishmen dead upon the field. 2. The unfortunate queen, with no other attendant than her • son, a boy about eight years of age, while flying from her ene- mies, was benighteuin Hexham forest, and fell into the hi is of ruffians, who despoiled her of her jewels, and treated her 'ith the greatest indignity; they however disputed about the spoils, and while engaged in dispute, she effected her escape with her ' son into the thickest of the forest. But when overcome with fright and fatigue, and about to sink in despair, she was s iddcn- ly aroused by the approach of a robber with a drawn sword. Finding no possible means of escaping, she determined to throw herself upon his generosity. She arose as he approached, and «aid, " Friend, here is the son of your king ; I commit him to your Crotection." The man, pleased with the confidence placed in iin, offered ^very assistance in his power, and safely conducted her, with her son, to a sea-port, from which she escaped, and sailed for Flanders. 3. Edward now finding himself securely seated on the throne, began to exhibit the bias of his character. The Earl of War- wick, the most powerful nobleman in F^ngland, and one of the greatest generals of his time, had been commissioned to France to procure Bona of Savoy , as queen for the young monarch While he was absent, Edward happened, during a hunting party, to pay a visit to the Dutchess oflJedford, at Grafton, and saw, for the first time, the young and beautiful lady Elizabeth Gray, ■daughter of the dutchess. Struck with her beauty and accom- plishments, he raised her to the throne, forgetful of his engage- ments with Bona of Savoy. 4. The Duke, on his return to England, was inflamed with in- dignation, and leaving the court in disgust, he retired to France, where he entered into a league with Queen Margaret, and es- poused the interest of the fallen monarch. Through his exertions Edward was deposed, and Henry, after having remained a pri- soner in the Tower for six years, was again reinstated on the throne. Thus Warwick having restored Henry, whom he deposed, and now having removed Edward, whom he had raised to the throne, obtained the title of IRng-muker. Edward, who had re- tired to the court of the Duke of Burgundy, shortly after returned with reinforcements, and defeated the forces of Henry in the bloody battle of Barnet, in which the brave Warwick was slain. 5. The intrepid Margaret, on learning this overthrow, yielded to her destiny almost m despair, and bursting into a flood of Of Margaret ? "What battle was fought ?— 2. What is related of the unfortunate queen? Finding no means of escaping, what did she do? What did the man offer, and do?— 3. What is now said of Edward ? Where was the Earl of Warwick sent? During his absence what took place? — 4. What is said of the Duke on his return to England? Through his exertions what was done? What wa9 he styled ? What did Edward again do ? — 5. What is said of Margaret? •ENGLAND. 197 ifortunat* lan offer, ick sent* return to WUnt did grief; she retired to an abbey in Hampshire. But at the urgent solicitation of her adherents, she again left her retreat, and made a last and desperate effort to regain the crown in the battle of Tewkesbury, which blighted for ever the last remnant of her hopes. She was taken prisoner with her son ; tho kinff asked the prince how he dared to invade his dominions, to which the youthful Ed- ward replied, " I have entered the dominions of my father, to avenge his injuries, and to redress my o\^n." The ungenerous king, enraged at this magnanimous repl^, struck the prince with his gauntlet j some of his attendants taking this as a signal for further violence, hurried the prince into the next apartment and dis- patched him with their daggers. 6. The unhappy queen, after sustaining the cause of her hus band in tM'elvc uiflTerent battles, after surviving her friends, her children, and her fortune, passed the remainder of her davs an exile in France, where she died in obscurity and neglect. Henry terminated his eventful life by assassination in prison. Edward IV. passed the remainder of his reign in acts of tyranny and cruelty. He caused his brother, the Duke of Clarence, to be con- demned for a triflinff oft'ence, and being allowed to choose the manner of his death,lie was drowned in a cask of Malmsey v/ine. These acts of cruelty were soon terminated by the death oi the king himself; he died in the forty-second year of his age, A. D. 1482. During this monarch's reign, the art of printing was in- troduced into England, by Edward Claxton of London. 7. Edward IV. left two sons j the oldest being onlv thirteen years of age, succeeded to the throne under the title of Edward V. The Duke ojf Gloucester, brother of the late king, b^ing appointed protector during the young king's minority, after causing lord Hastings, and other distinjguished persons, to be put to death without trial, seized upon the crown, under the pretence that his nephews were illegitimate, and caused himself to be proclaimed king, by the title of Richard III. The two young princes shortly afterwards disappeared, and are said to have been smothered in the Tower by the order of the king himself. 8. Richard, who had gained the throne by imbruing his hands in the blood of lawful heirs, was not destined long to enjoy the ill- gotten crown. Henry TWor.the Earl of Richmond, the only surviving heir of the house of Lancaster, advanced his title to Ae crown, and assisted by the king of France, once more revived the almost extinguished spirit of his party. A decisive battle was fought at Bosworth, in which Richard was slain ; his rival was crowned upon the field ef battle, and assumed the title of Hen- ry VII. This event terminated the long and bloody contest between the houses of York and Lancaster, which had entailed so many evils At the solicitation of her adherents, what did she again do ? What was her fbte ? >yh*t was the reply of the youthful Edward ? What was his end ?— 6. VfhvA is said of the unhappy queen ? Of Henry t Of Edward IV. t What did he cause ? When a}5 ne die ? By whom was printing introduced ?— 7. What did Edward leave t What did the Duke of Gloucester do ? What is said of the two young princes ?— a What u said of Richard ♦ Of Henry TtOmT Where was the battle iondit? What WM tb« result ♦ ■ 17* 198 ENGLAND. upon the nation, and reduced it almost to a state of barbarism ; the arts of peace being entirely neglected for those of war. I SECTION VII. 'fktdo'*' Family s Henry VII. i Henry VIII.; Edward VI. i Marys Elizabeth ; from Ji. D. 1485 to 1603. 1. The succession of Henry to the throne was an event highly favourable to the nation, as it put an end to the ruinous civil wars that had so long devastated the kingdom. By marrying Eliza- beth, daughter of Edward IV., he strengthened his claim, and thus united the two houses of Lancaster and York. The early part of his reign was disturbed by the appearance of two succes- sive pretenders to the throne; the one in the person of Lambert Simnel, the son of a baker, who attempted to counterfeit the Earl of Warwick; the other was one Ferkin IVarbeck, who made an attempt to counterfeit the Duke of York, who had been murdered in the Tower, by order of Richard III. 2. Lambertj^after being proclaimed king of England and Ire- land at Dublin, was made prisoner, but Henry, instead of con- signing him to the scaflfold, made him a servant in his kitchen ; \Varbeck, however, supported his cause for some time with better success ; manv of the nooility flocked to his standard, and he was acknowledged as sovereign of England by the kings of France and Scotland. After a variety ot adventures, he surrendered himself to the king under a promise of pardon ; but having been detected in a conspiracy with the Earl ot Warwick, to effect their escape from the Tower by murdering the lieutenant, he was hanged at Tyburn, and the earl was ocheaded. 3. After a prosperous reign of about twenty-four years, Henry began to think of preparing for the last and tryiag scene of life : .naving ordered in his will tliat restoration should be made to all whom he might have injured, he died in the fifty -second year of his age. Henry, in many respects, may be considered, if not the most conspicuous, at least one of the most useful monarchs that -occupied tlie throne of England from the days of Alfred. He was a prince equally distinguished for his wisdom in the cabinet and conduct in the field ; he enacted many wise and salutary laws ; encouraged industry and extended commerce j allowed the nobles to dispose of their estates, by which means their powei was weakened, while property and equality were more widelj diiTused among all orders of the state. 4. It was during his reign that Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, sailed on his celebrated voyage, by which he discovered the Western World. Accident alone prevented Henry from luving a share in that honorable enterprise. However, a few- 1. What is BPid of Henry's accession ? Whom did he marry ? By what was his ,Tei»?n disturbed ? Who were they ?— 8. W^hat is said of Lambert ? OfWarbcck?_ What was their fate? — 3. After a reign of twenty-four years, of what did he begin to" ^hink ? In many respects, what may Henry be considered? Wliot did he enact, &c.T -—4. During his reign, what took place ? ICNGLAND. 199 years after the first voyage made by Columbus, the English mo- narch employed Sebastian Cabot, a native of Bristol, who dis- covered the mainland of America, also the Isle of Neufoundland and the coast of Virginia, The greatest stain upon the character of this monarch was his avarice ; by his frugality and exactions, he accumulated Immense wealth, and at his death he is said to have left in money the sura of dE 1,800,000, equal to i? 10,000,000 at the present day. 5. Henry yill. succeeded to the throne under the most fa- vorable auspices f his title to the crown was undisputed ; the treasury well filled ; the nation at peace; the country prosperous and happy. He possessed every quality that might endear him to the affections of liis people ; he vvas in the eighteenth year of his age, of a handsome person, polite in his deportment, frank and open in his disposition, and possessed an accomplished education. But we will see in the sequel of his history, that all those pro- mising qualities, as he advanced in years, degenerated rnto the most detestable vices, and that Henry became one of the most cruel, unprincipled and rapacious tyrants that ever disgraced a throne. .... 6. By his prodigality and profusion he soon exhausted the trea- sury, which ne found replenished when he ascended the throne. In the early part of his reign, he declared war against Louis XII. of France, invaded his dominions, and gained over him the battle of the Spurs, (so called from the flight of the French cavalry,) but failed to improve his good fortune, and after taking Taurney. returned to England. About the same time, the Scots, who hacl made an incursion into the northern part of his dominions, were defeated by the Earl of Surrey, at Plodden Field, where James IV. of Scotland, with the greater part of his nobility, was slain. He was also somewhat involved in that long and bloody contest between Charles V. of Germany, and Francis I. of France. 7. About this period, Henry wrote a book against Luther, the celebrated Htformer, on which account he was styled by the pope, " Defender of the Faith ;" a title which is still retained by nis successors to the present day. The most memorable transactions of Henry's reign were his matrimonial alliances, and the conse- quence that fmlowed from them. His first wife was Catherine of ^rrag-on, daughter of Ferdinand of Spain, who had formerly been contracted to his brother Arthur, who died before the mar- riage was consummated. 8. Among her maids of honor, the queen had ^nn, the fair and beautitul daughter of Sir TTiomas Boleyn. This accom- plished lady, then m the bloom of youth, so captivated the king's affections, that he resolved to make her his wife. But his prior marriage with Catherine presented an obstacle that no other but valid sentence of divorce could remove. He had been contracted What is the greatrst stain upon his character ? — 5. ^Vho succeeded ? What did he possess ? What will we see in the sequel ?— 6. By his prodigality, what did he do Against «rhom did he declare war ? Where was James of Scotland defeated and ■lain ? — 7. About this period, what did Hen'y do ? What were the most memorable transactions of his reign 7 Who was his first wife ?— 8. Who was among her maidl of honor T What ia said of this accomplished lady ? Of his pt ior marriage t 200 ENGLAND. to Catherine at an early period, through the influence of his fa- ther, and married shortly after he ascended the throne. But now, after living with her for eighteen years, he began tc feel conscien- tious scruples respecting his marriage^ on account of her having been the wife of his brother, and applied to Clement VII. for a divorce. The pope, unwilling to grant his request, from time to time held him in suspense, hoping that delay mi^ht change the mind of the English monarch. In his prime minister, the cele- brated Cardinal Wolsey, Henry expected to find an obsequious agent. But perceiving that the cardinal did not meet his expec- tations, he resolved on his ruin, and ordered him to be arrested for high treason. 9. This extraordinary man was born at Ipswich, in Suffolk, of humble parentage, but gifted with superior talents and great abilities, he rose to the highest preferments in church and state ; having been elevated to the arch -episcopal see of York, then created Cardinal, and soon afterwards Lord High Chancellor of England and Prime Minister. The fame of his talents, riches, and power was known throughout all Europe. On his way from York to London, to stand his trial, he stopped at Leicester Abbey , where he died after a short illness. A few moments before his death, he uttered these remarkable words, in reference to the in- gratitude of his sovereign : " If I had served my God as faithfully as I have served my king, he would not have abandoned me in my gray hairs." From the fate of this great man, we may de- monstrate the instability of human greatness, and the weakness of human power. 10. In the mean time, the king pushed forward the divorce with all his energy. The see of Canterbury having become vacant, he pitched upon the famous Cranmer to fill it ; in this man Henry found a ready instrument, not only to accomplish his present wish, but also to serve him in similar circumstances on a future occasion. Growing impatient of delay, and failing to obtain the pope's consent for the divorce, he resolved to carry the measure without his consent. For this purpose he assembled a court, over which Cranmer presided ; the tribunal, after a short deliberation, pronounced his marriage with Catherine my dWA, and immediately proceeded to grant the divorce. The king, whose amorous affec- tions would not permit him to delay, had been previously married to Ann Bqleyn, even before he had received the decision of the court appointed to annul his marriage with Catherine, 11. Henry now threw off all restraint: abolished the papal Jurisdiction m England,and caused himself, by act of parliament, to be proclaimed head of the English church. He arrogated to himself infallibility, and condemned all, both Catholics and Pro- testants, to the stake, who held opinions contrary to his own. The venerable Bishop Fisher^ and the celebrated Thomas More, then After eighteen years, what did he befjin to feel ? What is said of the pope? Who was his prime minister ?— 9. What is said of this extraordinary man? Of the fameol his talents ? Before his death, what remarkable words did he utter ? — 10. Who was chosen to fill the see of Canterbury ? GrowinK impatient, what did he resolve ? For this purpose, what was done ? What had the kinj; done before receiving the decision of the court 7—11. What did the king now do ? What is said of Biahopi Fisher and More* ENGLAND. 201 high chancello were brought to the scaffold for refusing to ac- knowledge Ik premacy. By an act of parliament, the monaS" teries in Engl, rJ, to the number of six hundred, were suppressed, besides a much greater number of other religious institutions ; their estates were converted to the use of the crown, and their revenues swept into the royal exchequer. Speaking of these in- stitutions, Mr. Collier says : ** To the abbeys we are indebte«l for most of our best historians, both church and state; the youth there had their education with little charge to their parents ; the nobility and gentry a credible way of providing for their younger children." 12. But Henry did not stop here; he even extended his rapa- cious hand from the dwellings of the living to the silent repose of the tomb. He plundered the rich shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury, despoiled it of its ornaments of gold and silver, con- verting the whole to the royal treasury; then ordering the saint to be indicted for high treason committed against his sovereign, Henry II., he condemned him as a traitor; nis bones were dug up and scattered to the wind. 13. In less than three years after his late marriage, he caused the new queen, jlnn, to be condemned and beheaded for real or imputed crimes, and on the day after her execution, he married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of Prince Ed- ward. His fourth wife was ^nn^ of Cleves, from whom he ob- tained a divorce because he had been deceived in the estimate he had formed of her personal appearance. Thomas Cromwell, who was the son of a blacksmith in Putney, now created Earl of Es- sex, and prime minister, having been instrumental in bringing about the unhappy marriage, lost the favor of the king, and suN fered on the scanold. His fifth wife was Catherine Howard, who, also, ended her days on the scaffold, in a few months after her exalt- ation to the throne. His last wife was Catherine Par, the widow of Lord Latimer, whose life was saved by the death of the king, which took place in the thirty-seventh year of his reign, and fifty- sixth of his age, A. D. 1547. 14. Henry was succeeded by his son Edward VI., in the tenth year of his age, the Duke of Somerset, his uncle^eing appointed protector of the kingdom during his minority. The reign of this prince is distinguished by the important change in the religion of the realnri. During the reign of his father the principles of the reformation which nad been introduced intc the kingdom were now patronised and tolerated. By degrees the forms of the an- cient church were removed in order to make place for those of the new. A new liturgy in the English language, and a book of Common Prayer, were composed by archbishop Cranmer. By the adoption of this liturgy, which was done by act of parliament, all the rights and ceremonies of the Catholic church were obo- ^^'^lat was (lone by act of parliament? What does Mr. Collier sny of these institu- tions ? — 18. What did he plunder ? "What did he order ? — 13. In less than three yeara, what happened? Who was his fourth wife? What is said of Thowias Cromwell? Who was his fifth wife ? Wlio wos his sixth wife ? "VVlien did Henry die ?•— 14. Who succeeded ? For what is the reign of tliis prince distinguished ? What was coniposed by Cranmer ? By the adoption of this liturgy whet was effected ? 002 EMfttAVfi. lished, and a form of worship nearly resembling that of tiM present church of England, establisned throughoat the kingdom. 15. The vonng king, who possessed many amilable quatities, was suddenly carried off l^ death, in the sixteenth year tA his age. Previously, however, he had been prevailed on, by the influence and intrigiKS of the Duke of Nortnumberland, the protector, to set aside his two sisters Mary and Elizabeth, and to leave the crown to Lady Jane Grey, who had married Lord Guilford Dud- ley, the son of the protector. Through the influence of her fnends. Lady Jane Grey was immediately proclaimed on the death of Edward ; out after wearing the crown for ten days, she resigned the ensig^ns of royalty and retired again into a private station. After this unsuccessful attempt of Northumberland to snatch the crown from the brow of the rightful heir, Mary, the sister of Ed- ward, Qnietly succeeded to the throne. ] 6. The alike of Northumberland and two others were the only persons who suffered on the scaffold to atone for this conspiracy against their lawful sovereign. Lady Jane, who was considered as a mere instrument in the hands of the duke to work out his ambitious designs, was pardoned by the queen. But shortly after this a seconclh conspiracy was entered into against Mary, at the head of which appeared me Duke of Suffolk and his brother; they were defeated, and atoned for their rebellion by the sacrifice bf their lives. 17. Mary, who had been much blamed for her lenient conduct at the termination of the former conspiracy, was now induced, by Oie urgent persuasion of her ministers, to sign a warrant for the execution of Lady Jane Grey and her husband. On ths fatal morning permission was given them to take leave of each others the indulgence Jane refused, saying that they would shortly meet in heaven* From the window of her cell she saw her husband led to execution, and his bleeding corpse brought back to the chapel. When led forth herself, she mounted the scaffold with a firm step. She acknowledged in a few words to the specfcitors her fault in cons^ntinff to the treason of Northumberland, although she was not one of the original conspirators; and after repeating a psalm, she laid her head upon the block j at the first stroke of the axe it was severed from the body. 18.. Mary has been much censured in consenting to the execu- tion of this unfortunate lady. It is true that her life had been spared as a pledge for the loyalty of the house of Suffolk ; that pledge had been forfeited by the late rebellion of the duke ; but still " it would have been to the honor of Mary," as Dr. Lingard observes, " to have overlooked the provocation, and refused to visit on the daughter the guilt of the father." Mary, in the second vear of her reign, married Philip II., of Spain,, a measure unpopular at the time, and productive of much unhaftpiness to 16. What ir said of the young king? To whom did ho leave the crown? What i« ■aid of Lady Jane Grey f— 16. Who suffered on the Bcnflbld ? What was again entered into against Mary?— 17. ^Vhat was Mary now induced to do? On the fatal morning what 18 said of her? When brought forth, what did she do?— 18. For what hbi Mary boon censured ? ^Vhat does Dr. Lingard observe ? Whom did she marry 7 ENGtANO. S03 herself; and towards the close of her reign the French tool: Calai8f which had remained in possession oi the En^ish for up- wards of two hundred and ten years. This event hastened her death : she never seemed to recover from the stroke, and was often heard to say that the word Calais was written on her heart. She died in the forty-sixth year of lier age, after a reign of six years, A. D. 1558. 10. The foulest blot upon the memory of this oueen is her per- secution of the Reformers* during her reign. It might be rC" marked, not. however, in vindication of ner acts, out as an apology for her conduct, that she lived at a time when the prin- ' ciples of religious toleration were not understood or practised by either Cathoncs or Protestants ; when the extirpation of erro- neous doctrines was inculcated as a duty by the leaders of every religious party. It was the misfortune rather than the fault of Mary, that she was not more enlightened than the wisest of her colemporaries. With the exception of this, she is regiurded even by many of those writers who dilTered from her in religion as ^ queen possessed of many amiable qualities; they have borne honorable testimony to her virtues; have allotted to her the {>raise of piety ind clemency, of compassion for the poor and iberality to tne distressed. "The queen's private life," says Mr. Collier, ** was all along strict and unblemished. The other world was always uppermost with her: she valued her con- science above her crown. She was not of a vindictive or impla- cable spirit." ^ 20. As Mary had always remained firm in the bdief and prac- tice of the Catholic faith, one of her first measures was to restore the ancient religion of the kingdom, the public exercise of which had been nearly extinguished duriijg the reign of her brother. 21. Upon the death of Mary, her sister Enzabeth ascended th^ throne. Elizabeth, during the reign of her sister, had been a Catholic, but shortlr after her accession, she openly avowed herself the protectress of the reformers, established the Irotestant faith aS the religion of the realm, assumed the title of supreme head of the English church, and revived all the penal stamtes against non- within her dominions, or to absolve, persuade, or withdraw, any one from the established to the Catholic church. * The principal raCjren were Crtamer, Laliiner, Bidley and Hooper, t EUz. Aet 9»-87. "What place did the French take f When did ahe die?— #9. What ia the ibolest blot upon her {hemory t What might be remarked ? With this exception, how is she re- garded T What does Mr. Collier say of her ?->80. What was one of her first meaaareat —81. On the death of Mary who ascended the throne? What is said of Eliaabetlit What did she assume and tvr'vi» ? What was made high tr.eason f— ti. Wl)o wm 4|B next heir to the thnme ? ^4 ENGLAND. ceased in her resentment until she broug-ht her unhappy cousin to a premature and tragical end. The young (jueen of Scotland had been renowned throughout £urope for her beauty and ac- complishments*; she had been educated at the French court, and married Francis II., who died shortly after that event, and Mary returned to her own dominions. After a strange succession of events, which come more properly under the head of Scotlandf the Scottish queen was compelled to quit her dominions and take refuge in England, where she was detained in captivity for ^ nearly twenty years, and finally put to death by order of her cousin Elizabeth. 23. In 1588, Philip of Spain projected the invasion of England, to avenge the queen's interference with his subjects of the "^ether- lands, who had revolted against his authority. For this purpose he fitted out the Invincible ^rmada, which consisted of one hun- dred and fifty ships, carrying three thousand pieces of cannon and twenty-seven thousand men. It entered the English chan- nel in the form of a crescent, and extended to the distance of seven miles. It was met by the English fleet, under the com- mand of Lard Admiral Howard^ aided by Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher*^ and Raleigh. Being gradually weakened and dis- persed by a violent storm, the Invincible Armada was completely overthrown; only one-third of the vessels, with six thousand men, returned to Spain. 24. In the administration of the government, Elizabeth was assisted by many eminent statesmen ; among whom were Bacon, Burleigh, and Walsingham ; but her chief favorites were men of abandoned characters. Of these, in the early part of her reign, was the Earl of Leicester : and after his death, the Earl of Essex seemed to hold the first place in the queen's afi*ections. Eliza- . beth and Essex had various quarrels and reconciliations ; at last, unable to restrain the impetuosity of his temper, he broke out in open rebellion against her, for which he atoned by his death on the scaffold. 25. After the death of Essex the health of the queen visibly declined. At length she fell into a profound melancholy, which nothing could alleviate, and terminated her life in sorrow and gloom. All the splendor of royalty faded from her view $ the time was come, to use her own expression, when *' men would turn from the setting, to worship the rising sun." She expired in the seventieth year other age, and in the forty -fifth of her reign. 26. Elizabeth possessed eminent abilities as a sovereign, and was distinguished for her talents in directing public affairs. In Erinciples she was despotic, jealous^ cruel, and revengeful j over- earing to her ministers in council; imperious to her servants in the palace ; and her conversation was often grossly profane. What {■ Bidd of the young queen t After a eucff "sion of eTenta, what took plaeef —43. In 1588 what waa done? For this purpose what did he fit outT Who com* manded the English fleet? What was the linte of the Armada?— 24. Who were soma of her eminent statesmen? "Who were her favourites ?— 35. At length into what did ■he fWl ? What expression did she make use of? When did she expire ?— 26. What did Elizabeth possess? What was she in principle? Qf what did she possess IbwT By what was her reign distinguished ? What was introduced by Raleigh r IVGLAin). 205 In her prirate character she was eyen less to be admired. She possessed few of those milder and softer qualities that adorn the female character. Her reign was distinguished for men of genius and learning; among whom Bacon, Snakspeace, and Spencer, were the most distinjg^uished. The custom of smoking tobacco was introduced by Sir Walter Raleigh $ and potatoes M'ere also brought to England from America at this period. SECTION VIII. * Stuart Family} James /.; Charles I.s the Commonwealths Crom- well} Churles II4 James II.} ffllfiam and Mary} Anne} from A, D, 1603 to 1714. 1. Elizabeth shortly before her death nominated as her succes- sor* James VI. of Scotland, who was the rightful heir by descent. On ascending the English throne he took the title of James I., and thus were the crowns of the two kingdoms united. Shortly after his arrival in England, a conspiracy was formed against him in favor of his cousin Arabella Stuart. It was prematurely dis- coveredj and iSitr Walter Saleigh, under a charge of being con- cerned m the plot, was sentenced to death, waich was carried into execution after he had languished in prison with little inter- mission for fifteen years. 2 Another conspiracy followed, of a more serious nature. This was the famous Gunpowder Plot, which was a design of a few daring adventurers io blow up the parliament house, and involve in one common ruin the king, lords, and commons. It was fortu- nately discovered on the eve of its accomplishment, and one of the leaders, named Ckty Fawkes^ was taken with matches in his pocket for firing the magazine. 8. It was the misfortune of James to be attached to unworthy favorites, such as the Earl of Somerset and the Duke of Buck- ingham, men whose only merits were their personal appearance and superficial accomplishments. During the reign of Mary the Puritans made their first appearance in England, and durii^ the last reign their number had greatly increased. At the accesuon of James, who had been educated a Presbyterian, they flattered themselves that their views would meet the royal apjUMrobation. Beinff disappointed in their expectations, some of their numbw souent -an asylum from restraint in matters of religion in the wilds of America, and fomed a settlement on the shores oiNtw England, 4. In 1625 the king was seized with an illness which termi- nated his life, in the fifty-ninth year of his age and the twenty- second of lus reign over England. James possessed many virtues, 1. Who loeceeded Elizabeth f Aftar hia anival in Bngtand, what waa fonnad agaiMt bimt What ia said of Raleigh?— S. What other eonapiraey followed t Who #aa one of the leadert?— 3. What waa the miaftnrtune of Jamrat I>orinf the reign of Sfeary, who made their appear anee in Englaqd T At the acoessfon of Jaaaini •c«/y, out received that of high' ness ; refused the title of king, although he possessed the power, .-and assumed all the ensigns of royalty. His administration, how- ever, advanced the military glory of England. Abroad, his fleets 4uid armies were victorious ; he obliged the Dutch to sue for j;)eace, and humbled the power of Spain. 22. Having attained the height of his ambition, Cromwell €ound that his situation was by no means enviable. The nation •despised the man, who, under the pretence cf espousing the lib- •erties of the people, had aspired to unlimited power. He was ^ware of this hatred, and the dread of assassination caused him io wear armor under his clothes. His health began to decline, and he was at length seized with a fever, which terminated his life, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, A. D. 1658. 23. His son, Richard Cromwell^ who inherited neither the -abilities nor the ambition of his father, was proclaimed Protector in his place j but after holding the office for a few months, he re- rsigned the title, and retired to private life. Amilita.; Jo 5.-?>ilsmfor ^some time succeeded, the armj directing the aff'jV^ ^ ' , - i'ern- ment at will. At length General Monk, who 1 ^a. vvanded ran army in Scotland, marched into England, crushed the con- tending factions, and caused a new parliament to be assembled. After vhe meeting of the members, some time inter^rened before -the king was mentioned. At length they were informed that a An unfi.>- T«»>la reply bei ig returned to a petition, what did Cromwell doT What ►did he cry .>!» •— 20. Hrwdidha call a new parliament T What name did thiebody Tooeive? WHin; i'id t • officers f the armv do?— 21. What is said of the Protector ? "What tiiile clii' hv. 'V p.iio ? W?iat is said or his administration?— 23. What did Crom- ■we'-lfinri? tVyai didtlie nati< r do? When did he die?— 23. Who was proclaimed 3>rotect> )r i i kig pVute ? What i' id he do ? What succeeded ? WLat is said of General jMonk? fifrOLAND. 311 messenger was at the dooi m i(h a letter from the king *^ the (om- mons. llie letter was received and read, the parliament assented ) the proposals, and in ^his manner Charles II. was restored to his kinffdom. and to the (lin < of hi» tathrr, A. D. lOtiO. 24. The whole demeanor ot Charles at the commencement of his reign, was such as to i <*pire th* .tffectionof his subjects, and to render him generally {Kioular, He was i/» the thirtieth year of his age, possessing a hanusome exterior, familiar md aflable in his manners; but at the same time, much inclined to widolence and pleasure. An act of general indemnity was passed, except to those immediately concerned in the late king^s death. AcccNrd- i\i!?ly, Harrison, Scott, Jones, and several others engaged m the •r { '/f his fathek% were executed. But the vengeance of Mhe kinff tK».^^e*i from the living to the dead ; the homes of C^tHnwell, Bradtrhaw, and Ireton, were dug up from their graves, and after bunging for some time, were cut down and buried under the gal- lows. 25. Charles was soon distinguished for the same arbitrary prin- ciples which seemed hereditary in the family of the Stuarts. The doctrine of passive obedience and non-resistance now came into use ; from which originated the distinguishing epithets of Whiga and Tories ; the former opposed to the pretensions of tf v; crown, the latter its advocates. A new parliament was assembled, con- sisting chiefly of high churchmen and loyalists ; the epi-^copacy was restored, and an act of conformity in religion was pa^^sed. 26. The next year Charles married Catherine of Portug^il, and with her obtained a dowry of five hundred thousand pounds, a sum which greatly relieved his present necessities. But his pro- digality kept him always in want ; he next bartered away Inm- kirk, which had been acquired by Cromwell, to the French for four hundred thousand pounds sterling, which was soon squan- dered on his pleasures. He soon after this declared war against the Dutch, which continued to rage for several years, unti at length a treaty of peace was concluded, by which the Dutch ceded the colony of N^ew York to the English. 27. During this war London was visited with a plag^ie, which carried oft' ninety thousand of its inhabitants; ana in the following year a fire took place by which thirteen thousartd houses were laid in ruins. To i>erpetuate the calamity, a monu- ment was erected, bearing an inscription, falsely charging the Roman Catholics as the authors of the conflagration ; the inscrip- tion has lately been erased by the order of parliament. 28. Towards the close of the reign of Charles, the Whigs having the ascendency in parliament, distinguished themselves by their hostility to the Catholics, andf insisted on the king's as- sent to a bill for the exclusion of his brother, tlie Duke qf York, or what was p«r1iRtnr.>t informed? How wa» the letter received ?— 584. What waa the demeanor of Char !«• ? What act was passed ? Who were executed ? What waa done with the boshes of Cromwell, Ac. ? — US. For what was Charles soon distinguished t ■What doct f me now came into use, and what epithets originated from it ? AVhat is said of the new parliament?— 26. Whom did Charles marry? What did he barter away t What war was declared ? How did it terminate ?— 27. By what waa London visited t In the following year what took plac«» ? To perpetuate the calamity, what waa erv. '• •d ?— 'Sa How did the Whigs distiofuish themselvea ? / 1 212 ENGLAND. who had lately embrn^ed the Catholic faith. To this highly unjust and unnatural measure, the king could not consent, and in con- sequence dissolved two successive parliaments. A pretended plot was discovered by the infamous T\lus Oates, (a man guilty of alniost every crime in the catalogue of human vices,) \vhich oc- casioned the unjust execution of Lord Stafford, and several other eminent Catholics. Another conspiracy was shortly after de- tected, in favor of reform, called the iiyc-house plot ; in -.vhich Lord Russel and Algernon Sydney, were accused of being con- cerned. They were brought to trial, found guilty, and be- headed. 29. The 'in^ himself did not long survive these acts of seventy; being seizi ! with an apoplexy, he died in the fifty-fifth year of his age, and twenty-fifth of his reign. Shortly beiore his death, he sent for a Catholic clergyman, and received the sacraments from his hands. During the reign of Charles, the famous act of Ha- i)eas Corpus was passed, by which persons were freed from arbi- trary imprisonment. The most distinguished poets of this period, were Butler, Cotton, Dryden, Otvvay, and Roscommon. A re- markable instance of longevity is mentioned of Thomas Parr, a laboring mith in Yorkshire, who had lived in ten reigns, and completed one hundred and sixty years. 30. As Charles had left no legitimate issue, his brother, the Duke of York, succeeded to *he throne, under the title of James IL, with every mark of public approbation, notwithstanding his open profession of the Catholic faith. It is probable that James might have reigned in tranquillity, and have ended his days on the throne of his ancestors, had it not been for his own impru- dence, and the unfortunate choice he made of his ministers. The early part of his reign was disturbed by the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth, who aimed at seizing the crown. Encouraged by the Prince of Orange and Sunderland, the perfidious minister of James, the duke landed in England, caused himself to be pro- clainied king, and unfurled his standard at Taunton. After wearing the empty title of royalty for a few weeks, he wsis de- feated, taken prisoner, and atoned for his rebellion on the scaffold. 31. A special commission was issued to Jfffws, the Lord Chief Justice, for the trial of the rebel prisoners. JefflVs, in the exe- cution of his commission, is represented as guilty of wanton c.'uelty; for although there was no doubt ot the guilt of the accused, yet the number of those who suffered made the acts of public iusiice assume the appearance of cruelty and revenge, while all the odium of these severities fell upon the king. 32. James now finding himself firmly seated upon the throne, proceeded to a measure that did not fail to excite the disaffection of a great number of his subjects. As he had openly professed the Catholic faith, it was his ardent wish to restore the ancient What pretended plot was discovered ? AVhat other conspiracy was detected ? Who were accused of being concerned in it? — 29. How did the king die? What act was passed in his reign? Who were distinguished poets? What is said of Parr? — 30. Who succeeded to the throne ? By what was the early part of his reign disturbed ? What was the fate of Monmouth ?— 31. To whom was a commission issued ? How it JefTrys represented? — 32. What is said of James ? What was his wish ^ fiHGLAl^D. 213 religion of the kingdom. By way of preparation for this important step, the king, on the 4th of April, 1687, from his rojral preroga- tive, issued a proclamation, granting to all his subjects entire liberty to worship God according to the dictates of their own conscience. This indulgent grant, so honorable to the sovereign, so desirable on the part of a free people, and so suitable to the mild spirit of Christianity, was joyfully received by the Catholics and dissenters of all denominations; by others, it was loudly censured, as tending to overthrow the national church established by law, which they still conceived necessary for its support. 33. Another proclamation granting full liberty of conscience, followed during the April of 1688, wnich was ordered to be read in every church and chapel in the kinjgdom, after the service had ended. This order occasioned considerable opposition, and six of the bishops, who resisted the mandate, were immediately com- mitted to the Tower, and indicted for disobedience. 34. The contest with the bishops completed the king's unpopu- larity ; his enemies, without being suspected, had prepared the kingdom for a general revolt ; they secretly applied for aid to the Prince of Orange, the son-in-law of James, and offered him the crov/n as the reward of his services. On receiving this invitation, William, with the utmost expedition, fitted out a fleet of five hundred sail, carrying four thousand men, and landed in England. In a few days, he v/as joined by the greater part of the English army; and James found himself deserted, even by those who owed all to his bounty. Among others who left him in the hour of distress, was his favorite daughter ^nne, who secretly with- drew to join the standard of the man who had invaded the dominions of her father, and was about to snatch the crown from his brow. 35. At the news of the ungrateful conduct of the daughter whom he tenderly loved, his constancy gave way, and in bitter anguish he exclaimed, "God help me 1 My own children have forsaken me in my utmost need." Having previously sent his queen and infant son, the Prince of Wales, to the French court, he shortly after followed, leaving his kingdom in the power of his rival. 36. After the king's departure, a convention met, consisting of members of the house of commons during the reign of Charles II., as those of James were deemed illegal. They declared that James, by quitting the kingdom, had deserted the people, (although it was evident that the people had deserted him,) and that the throne was vacant. They passed a bill excluding the Roman Catholics from office, and settled the crown on tne Prince of Orange and the princess, and their heirs ; but the administration of the government^ was placed in the hands of the prince alone. 37. After some time spent in France, James resolved to make In 1087, what did he issue? How was this prant received ?— 33. In 1688 what fol- lowed ? What did the order occasion ? — 34. What did his enemies do? To whom did thoy opply ? On receiving the invitation, what did William do ? In a few days, how did James find himself? Who left him, among others?— 36. At the news of this de> fection, what did ho exclaim ? Where did he send his queen and son ?— 36. After lh« king'B departure, what was done? What did they declare? What did they paw? .1 214 ENGLAND. an effort to regain his crown, through tne loyalty of the people of Ireland, who stih adhered to his interest. Having an-ived at Kinsale, he made a public entry into Dublin, amidst the acclama- tions of the inhabitants. In the year 1690 was fought the famous battle of the B()yne, between the forces of the king and those of his rival, William. The battle was maintained for some time with equal bravery on both sides; at length, owing to the pusil- lanimity of James, who, seeing his forces gaining some advantage over their opponents, cried out, " to spare his Knglish subjects," the scale of victory turned in favor of William. 38. James fled from the scene of defeat, and escaped to France, where he remained a pensioner on the bounty of the French king ; the exiled mon.irch passed the remainder of his days at St. Germains, where he gained the esteem of all who knew him, for his exemplary piety, and for his mildness and affability. He died in the sixty-eighth year of his age, A. D. 1701. William was naturally of a teeble constitution, which hr; en- deavored to repair by exercise. As he rode from Hampton Court to Kensington, nis collar-bone was fractured by falling from his horse : thw was followed by a fever, which terminated liis life, in the fifty-second year of his age, and the fourteenth of his reign. The reign of William was memorable for the establishment of the Bank of England. 39. On the death of William, the crown devolved upon Anne, the second daughter of James II., who had married George, Prince of Denmark. On coming to the throne, she communi- cated to the houses of parliament her determination of declaring war against France. In conjunction with Germany and Holland, war was accordingly declared. The I)uke of Marlborough, one of the greatest generals of his age, was appointed commander- in-chief of the allied army ; Prince Eugene commanded the im- perial forces. After the power of Louis XIV. had been consi- derably weakened by the several victories of Blenheim, Ramilles, Oudenarde and Malplaquet, gained by the allied armies, the war was terminated by the peace of Utrecht, in the year 1713.^ 40. The most memorable event of this reign was the union be- tween England and Scotland, which destroyed the Scottish par- liament, and included the two countries under the common title of Great Britain. It was during the reign of Anne that Gibraltar was taken by the English, which has remained in their possession to the present time. At this period, party spirit was carried to extremes, and distracted the kingdom during the greater part of hei reign. The aueen's health had been for some time on the de- cline ; at length sne passed from the turmoil and splendor of the palace to the humble quietude of the tomb, in the fiftieth year of lier age, and the thirteenth of her reign, A. D. 1714. hi 37. After §ome time, what did James resolve? AVImt took place in 1690 ? "VVhal did James exclaim? What was tlie issue of the battle? — 39. What did James do? Where did he pass the remainder of liis days? When did he die? What occasioned the death of William ? — 39. On whom did tlie crown now devolve? What war wa» immediately declared ? Who was appointed commander-in-chief? What victories were gained? IJow was the war terminated? — 40. What was the most inemorablo event of her reign? What was taken by the English? When did she ds? ENGLAND. 216 This period has been so prolific in men of genius, that it has 5een stymied the Avguslan Jige of England. Some of the most distinguished names are those of Pope, Swift, Addison, Rowe, and Gay. Parnell, SECTION IX. House qf Brunswick ; George /.; George II.; George IIL; George IV.; milium IF.; from Jl.D.llUto 1830. 1. On the death of Anne, George I., Elector of Hanover, snc- ceeded to the throne, with the general approbation. The features of his rei^n were generally pacific, and a^brd few events of im- portance in history. Upon assuming the reins of government, he attached himself to the whig party, which had strenuously advo- cated his accession, and entered into violent measures against the late tory ministry. 2. A committee of investigation was appointed to inspect the papers relative to the treaty with France; Lord Bolingbroke, the Earl of Oxford, and the Earl of Mortimer, with several others of the tory party, were impeached for hi^h treason. These vindic- tive proceedings excited the indignation of the people, and the flame of rebellion broke out in Scotland. The Earl of Mir, at the head often thousand men, proclaimed the son of James II. as the lawful monarch of Great Britain. The rebellion, however, was soon crushed, and the most exemplary severity exercised against the leaders. Various lords and earls were impeached, and suffered death on the scaffold : many others of inferior rank were executed, and about a thousand transported to North America. 3. At this period a plan was devised for lessening the national debt, by lowering the interest, called the South Sea Scheme; the measure, however, gave a severe stroke to public credit, and ruined the fortunes of thousands. George died suddenly of a paralytic disorder, while on a visit to his electoral dominions of Hanover, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and the thirteenth of his reign, A. D. 1727. 4. George II., who succeeded his father in the forty-fourth year of his age, was a prince possessed of considerable abilities, of a violent temper, and distinguished in military exercise. Like his father, he inclined to the whig party, and was particularly biassed in favor of his continental dominions, on account of which he involved England in an expensive war. The most prominent person in the administration during the reign of George, was Sir Robert Walpole, a man of eminent abilities, but accused by many as guilty of a system of corruption and venality, which he practiced while in office. What hat this period beou styled? What were some of the most distinguished names ? 1. Who succeeded to the throne ? What is said of his reign ?— 2. What committes was apDointed ? Who were impeached ? What did these proceeding's excite ? What is said of the rebellion ?— 3. At this time what was devised? When did George die ? —4. Who succeeded? To what was he inclined? Who was the most prominent p*rson in the administratioa ? 216 ENGLAND. 5. The military operations during this reign were extensive, and the British arms were generally triumphant. England espoused the cause of Maria Theresa of Austria, against the emperor Charles and Louis XV. of France. In this contest, called the war of the Austrian Succession, the principal states of Europe were in- volved. Various was the success that attended the contending powers. The English, with their allies, under the command of George II. in person, defeated the French in the celt'orated battle of Dettingen, and (he French, in their turn, under Marshal Saxe, gained the victory at Fontenoy. After war had raged for some time, peace was again restored by the treaty of Mx-la-ChapellCt and the claim of Maria Theresa to the throne was confirmed. 6. During the absence of the kinj^ on the continent, Charles Edward, the eldest son of James II., assisted by Louis XV. of France, made a last and dying effort to regain the throne of his ancestors. He landed in Scotland, and placing himself at the head of an army, he defeated the royalists m the battles of PreS' ton-Pans and Falkirk ; but on the 16th of April, 1746, was fought the famous battle of Culloden, in which Charles was signally de- feated by the royal forces under the Duke of Cumberland. By this battle'^he hereditary pretensions to the crown of England were for ever extinguished ; the prince, after a series of adven- tures, escaped to France. 7. Towards the close of this reign, the war was again renewed between England and France, on account of the encroachments of the latter on the British colonies in America. The war was finally terminated by the surrender of all Canada on the part of France. It was during this war that the brave and illustrious Wolf perished in the moment of achieving the capture of the city of Quebec, During their operations, in America the British also carried on a war in India. 8. George II. died in 1760, at his palace of Kensington, in the seventy-seventh jear of his age and the thirty-tiiird of his reign. His reign was distinguished Tor many eminent writers and men of genius ; among the poets, Young, Akenside, and Gray, stand pre-eminent. 9. George III., the grandson of the late monarch, succeeded to the throne in the eighteenth year of his age. He commenced his reign at a^ favorable period, when the national arms were everywnere triumphant, and the administration of the govern- ment was directed by the genius of William Pitt, .Lord Chatham,) one of the most eminent and popular ministers in the annals of the nation. It was at this period that an oppressive and unjust course of policy was adoptesd by the British government towarda her American colonies. Against these measures Pitt exerted all the power of his eloquence, l)ut in vain ; the colonies were finally 0. What ia aatd of the military operationt of this reign ? What did England espouie 7 What was this war called ? How was peace restored ?— 6. During the absence of tha Ung what took plaee ? Where did he land ? What took plaoe in 1746 7—7. Towards the close of his reign what took place 7 How was it terminated 7 During this war what happened 7 — 8. When did George II. die 7 Among the poets who stand pre-emi' nent7— 9. Who 8iic:^eded to the throne 7 How did he comnence his reign 7 What took place at this period 7 ENGLAND. 217 driven into hostilities with the mother countiy, and Great Britain, after a long and expensive warfare, was compelled to acknow- ledge their independence, [See United Statesi] ^ 10. The other most important events of this reign were the ex- tension of the British possessions in India, where Hyder Aii and his son distinguished themselves by their opposition to the en- croachments of the English ; the Insh rebellion, which took place in 1798, and her subsequent union with Great Britain, (see Ire- land j) and her long and sanguinary conflicts, which grew out of the French Revjlution. 11. Some of the principal achievements of the British during this period were the famous naval victories of the Nile and Trafalgar, by X.ord Nelson, and those of Talavera, Salamanca, Vittoria, and Waterloo, by Wellington. George died on the 29th of January^ 1820, in the seventy-eighth year of his age, after a reign of sixty years, the longest we find in English history. During the last ten years of his life lie was afflicted with insanity, which disqualified him for all public business^ and his son, the Prince of Wales, acted as regent. The subversion of his intellect is supposed to have been brought on by the death of his favorite Amxlia, aided by advanced age and toils of state. His natural endowments were not great, although a good monarch and much beloved by his subjects. 12. George IV., who succeeded to the throne, was a prince possessed of eminent abilities and talents. The eariy part of his life was distinguished for unrestrained dissipation and prodigality. His reign was generally peaceful and prosperous. Some of the most important events were the war in /nrfia, by which the Eng- lish gained a great part of the Burman Empire ; the celebrated trial of his ^ueen in the House of Lords for misconduct ; the in- terposition m favor of the Greeks in their struggle for indepen- dence 5 during which was gained the celebrated naval victory at Navarino, over the Turks, by the united fleets of England, France, and Russia; and also the passage of the Catholic Relief Bill, by which the disabilities of the Roman Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland were removed, and by which they were placed on an equal footing with members of the established church, with three exceptions; exclusion from the throne, and from the office of Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Chancellor of that kingdom and of England. 13. George IV. died at Windsor on the 26th of June, 1830, in the sixty-eighth year of his age and the eleventh of his reign, and was succeeded m the throne by his brother, William, Duke of Clarence, under the title of William IV. His short reign was not distinguished for any important event ; at his death he was succeeded by her present majesty, Queen Victoria. "What !b said of Pitt?— 10. What were the other most important events of this reign ?" —11. What were some of the achievements of the British period ? When did George die? What is said of the last ten years of his life? Of his abilities?— 12. Who suc- ceeded to the throne? What were some of the most important evenis of his reign? What are the three exceptions to the Catholic Relief BiU ?~13. When did George die, and by whom succeeded ? At hia death who succeeded ? 10 SCOTLAND. SECTION I. 1. The early history of Scotland is greatly involved in fable and obscurity. Their pretension to a regular succession of kings from the time of Alexander the Great seems entitled to little credit. Fergus I. they consider as the founder of their monarchy, and he is said to have been the first who displayed on his banner the royal emblem of Scotland; namely, a red lion with his tail folded on his back, the attitude which that noble animal assumes when roused to anger. When the Romans took their final leave of England, in 410, the people of Scotland were divided into a number of hostile tribes, the principal of which were the Scots and Picts; the latter was subdued by Kenneth II., who became king of all Scotland, A. D. 843. 2. Little of importance or-interest occurs in the historv of the country from the time of Kenneth until the reign of Alexander III. Upofrthe death of Alexander a number of competitors for the crown appeared, among whom Robert Bruce and ^oAn Saliol seemed to have the nearest claim. They were both descended from David, Earl of Huntington, third son of David J, To avoid, however, the miseries orcivil war^ they resolved to refer the case to Edward I. of England, as umpire, and submit to his decision. Edward finding BaRol the more obsequious, decided in his favor. Baliol consented to receive the crown as a vassal of England. ^ 3. But the fierce and warlike barons could not brook the pas- sive spirit of John, and the encroachment of their liberty by the English monarch. A war ensued between the two kingdoms; Edward marched into Scotland at the head of a powerful army- and after defeating the Scots in a battle near Dunbar, reduceti the whole country to subjection. The weak and timid spirit ot Baliol induced him to surrender the crown into the hands of the English king. 4. At this critical juncture, when the liberties of Scotland lay prostrate at the feet of the conqueror, the dying ener^ie« of the nation were roused by the valor and patriotism of Sir William Wallace. The deeds of this hero are, in many instances, colored with fiction; yet, divested of all their embellishments, they remain sufficiently great to render him worthy of the name of patriot. He almost single-handed ventured to take up arms in defetice of the kingdom, and by his boldness revived the spirit of his countr3rmen. He persuaded Robert Bruce to assert the right and vindicate the honor of his country. The Scots flocked to the standard of Bruce, who, after a variety of victories, succeeded 1. What is xaidofthe history of Scotland? Whom do they consider as the founder of their monarchy ? What is said of him ? How were the people divided ? By whom were the latter subdued ?— 2. On the death of Alexander what took place ? To avoid civil war. what did they resolve ? What ilid Edward do ?— 3. What is said of the barons ? AVliat ensued ? What did Edward do ? — 4. At this critical juncture what took place ? What is said of his deeds? What did he perbuade Bruce? What is said of the Scots? 913 SCOTLAND. 219 in restoring the independence of his country, and was elevated to the throne, A. D. 1306. 5. Edward again made preparations for invading Scotland, and had advanced as far as Carlisle, when he suddenly died. In the reign of his successor was fought, near Stirling; the famous battle of Bannockbum. Edward commanded the English forces in person, and Robert Bruce those of Scotland ; the engagement terminated in the signal defeat of the English army, and firmly established the victorious Bruce on the throne of his ancestors. Bruce died in 1329, and was succeeded by his son, David JI,, at the age of four years. During his minority, the Earl of Murray was appointed regent of the kmgdom, and fulfilled the duties of his station with justice and moderation. 6. About the year 1331, £dward Baliol, the son of John Baliol, taking advantage of the king's minority, began to bring forward pretensions to the crown. Aided bv many of the English barons, he landed in Scot'.and and defeateci the Earl of Mar^ who had succeeded Murray in the office of regent. Baliol was immediately crowned king, and acknowledged the English monarch as his superior. Thus was Scotland a second time reduced to a state of dependence and subjection to England. 7. The spirit of freedom which had so long characterize'd the Scots slumbered for a season, but was not subdued. The faithful adherents of the deposed king watched the earliest opportunity to strike for the liberty of their country, and to shalce off the English yoke. At length the Scottish valor prevailed : Baliol was expelled from the country, and David II. was again restored to the throne, A. D. 1341. 8. David was a weak but virtuous prince, and passed through many reverses of fortune. He was taken i)risoner by the English in the battle of Durham^ and remained in captivity for eleven years 5 he was at length ransomed by his subjects, and died in 1370. He was succeeded by his nephew, Robert Stuart, the first of that family who swayed he sceptre of Scotland. The race of the Stuarts is the most unfortuna»e in the annals of historyj with few exceptions, they all became the victims of some ill-fated or tragical end. - SECTION II. The House qf Stuarts; from Robert II. to James F/.. A. D. 1370 to 1603. 1. Robert II., a prince characterized for the mildness of his disposition, was quite unequal to the task of managing his fierce and ungovernable subjects. His reign was marked by a series ..S" !",!''« "ign of his successor, Avliat battle was fought? IIq-w did it terminate? iD}^"^ V'll '''■"?? ''"'• ^y whom succeeded?— 0. In the year 1331 what took place? What follo\yn(l?— 7. What is said of the spirit of freedom? Of Baliol ?— 8. Wiial js said of David? By whom was he succeeded? I. What is said of Robert? 220 SCOTLAND. 'L of contests which took place between the English and Scottish borderers. The man. James, who excelled in all the martial exercises, and particularly delighted in tilts and tournaments, was eager for an occasion to display his prowess. During the reign of Henry VIII., the har- mony which had subsisted between England and Scotland began gradually to weaken, until at length it broke out into open rup- ture. James, contrary to the advice of the ablest of his ministers, and against every entreaty of his queen, resolved upon the inva- sion of England. 15. Having with mucK difficulty obtained the consent of par liament, he gave orders for the forces of the kingdom to meet him at Edinburgh. After haying completed his preparations, the king, on the twenty-second of August, entered Eiigland at the head of his army, attended by all the flo\yer of the Scottish nobility, and pitched his camp on Floilden Field. Here he was met by the English army, commanded by the Earl oi Surrey, who, confident of his superior strength, endeavored to bring the Scottish king to an engagement. 16. After some mutual suspense, the signal for the battle was given ; and the combatants on both sides rushed to the contest with equal vigor. At the first onset, the forces of James threw the right wing of the English into disorder ; but at that moment, Thomas Howard, at the nead of his English division, bore (lowh upon the Scots, while at the same time they were charged in the rear by Sir Edward Stanley. Dreadful was the carnage that now ensued. The king fought on foot in the thickest of the contest. His nobles, to whom he was dear, pressed, and entreated him to escape. Night at length put an end to the conflict, during which the Scottish army silently withdrew, leaving the king and the , flower of the nobility numoered among the slain. "What was his end ? — 13. By whom was the throne occupied ? What did he regret ? What did he cause ? — 14. Whom did he marry ? In what did he excel ? During his reign what was weakened ?— 15. When did he enter England ? Where did lie pitch his camp ? — 16. After the signal was given, what is said of the combatants? Dcscrbo the battle ? What was the fate of James ? 224 SCOTLAND. i ' ^i I It 11 17. James the V., who succeede'l his father, was then an infant of only a year olil ; during his ir.inoritv, the office of regencjr was conferred on the Duke ot Albany. 'Ihe Duke, however, being a native of France, and quite unacquainted with the manners and customs of Scotland, met with considerable opposition from the turbulent nobles; and after an unsuccessful struggle, he volunta- rily resigned his office, and retired to France. The king, now in his thirteenth year, assumed the reins of government, with eight persons appointed as his chief counsellors, of whom the Earl of Angus was the most prominent. James bore the empty title of king, while the ambitious earl exercised the regal authority. His person was guarded by a body of one hundred men ; all the higher offices of his household were filled by members of the Douglas family, and relatives of Angus. This was a restraint which the young king reluctantly bore, and waited every opportunity to free himself from the power of the earl. Having at length effected his escape, he rode to Stir- ling, assembled around him his faithful adherents, and issued a proclamation, declaring any of the Do,u2;las family a traitor, who should dare to approach within twelve miles of his person. Angus and his adherents were accused of treason in parliament, their goods were forfeited, and they themselves driven into exile. 18. The education of James had beer: much neglected ; his character was that of a great but uncultivated mind ; his passions were violent, yet he was distinguished for the affiibility of his de- yortment. Henry VIII. having declared war against Scotland, ames prepared to defend his dominions. At the approach of the Scottish army, the English retired ; James proposed to pursue them ; but his barons resolutely refused to advance beyond their own borders. The king, mortified and disappointed, disbanded his army, and reiurned to his capital. Shortiv after this, it was proposed to make an attack upon the English borders, and the troops for this purpose were placed under the command of Oliver Sinclair. But the barons, indignant to see a person of inferior rank placed over them, basely surrendered their whole army, consisting of ten thousand men, to the enemy, without the slight- est resistance. _ "When the news of this event was brought to the king, he burst into a transport of rage; after which a distressing melancholy seized upon his mind. While in this state, he was informed of the birth of his daughter, afterwards the unfortunate Queen Mary. At this news he exclaimed : " It will end as it be- gan ; the crown came w;ith a woman, it will go with one. How many miseries await this poor kingdom." These were his last words ; he expired of a broken heart, in the thirty -first year of his age, A. D. 1542. 19. Mary, Queen of Scots^ so celebrated for her misfortunes, was but a tew days old at the time of her father's death. Hamil- 17. By whom was he succeeded ? In his thirteenth year, what did the king do? What is said of his person ? Having effected his escape, what did he do ? — 18. What was his character? What was done by Henry VIII. ? What did James propose ? AVhat did the barons do? What after this was proposed ? What did theharons again do ? At this news what is said of the king? Of what was he informed ? What did he exclaim T -10. What is said of Mary, Queen of Scots ? ii SCOTLAND. 226 ton, Earl of Arran, was appointed regent of the kingdom. Pro- Eosals wcie made by Henir the Vlfl. of England, of marriage etween the infant queen of Scots, and his son Etlward, who was tlien also a child. The proposals were rejected by the Scots, inconsequence of which hostilities were declared by the two countries, which were carried on for some time with various success. 20. All pro pects of a union between Mary and Edward being now at an entl, it was resolved that she should form an alliance witn the Dauphin of France, and should be sent to that country that she might be educated at the French court. Accordingly, in 1648, the young queen, then in her sixth year, embarkeJid both included under the common title of Great Britain, AtW. 1707. IRELAND. I SECTION I. 1. The (isrly history of this country is greatlv involved in ob- scurity, and has afforded a subject of research for antiquaries for nearly two centuries. The first inhabitants of Ireland, ac- cording to the best authorities, were originally descended from the C&ftSf who first peopled the western part of Europe. This appears ]^robable from the striking similarity between their modes of worship, their objects of adoration, and the language of that ancient people, the purest dialect of which still exists in Ireland. 2. Bv consulting the ancient authors, it will appear reasonable that,^ while England was peopled from the coasts of Gaul^ Ireland received her population directly from the shores of CeUte Spain, It is at least certain, that between these two countries relations of affinity had been at an early period established, and the western coasts 01 Spain were the immediate regions from which the com- munication was maintained. That the country was inhabited at a very remote period of antiquity is admitted bv all impartial his toriabA ( but to pursue the early history of Ireland to that extent necessai J to ji^ve a clear ^i^w of this early period, would too far exceei*. the limits of these outlines ; therefore, a few |>articulars must suffice. 38. What is said of James VI. ? In 1603, what took place ? On the Sandar before bis departare, what did he do 1 Daring the reign of Queen Anne, what was eneeted ? 1. What is said of the early hVhere and when did he die? — 11. During this period, what is said of litera- ture? Of thi fame of her institutions? Hence, what do we find?— 12. What took place towards the close of the eighth century ? What will it be suffipient to notice T— 13. In 1014, what did the Danes do? 20* 234 IRELAND. brides, and Orkneys, but, moreover, brought fresh reinforcements from Denmark and Normandy. It happened at this time that the chief throne of Ireland was occupied by the famous Brian Boru. This illustrious monarch, aware of the intention of the Danes, lost no time in opposing their designs ; and placing him- self at the head of his own forces of Munster, and Joined by those of Meath under Malachy, and by the troops of Connaught com- manded by Teige, the king of that province, he marched directly to the vicinitr of Dublin, and took up his position on the plain of Chntarf. The Danes, confiding in the superiority of th jir num- bers, were anxious for the engagement. At the dawn of day, on the morning of the S3d of April, the battle was commenced, and raged with abating fury until the close of the evening, when vic- tory declared in favor of the Irish, and the Danes were driven with immense slaughter from the field. 14. Brian, who is said to have triumphed in fifty battles over the enemies of his country, was now destined to fall in the mo- ment of another victory, by the hand of an assassin . In the midst of the rout and carnage that followed the retreat, Bruadair, one of the Danish chiefs, took refuge in a small wocd in the vicinity • of Brian's teiit, and perceiving that the monarch was 'almost en- tirelv unattended, and at that moment engaged in praver with his hands upraised to heaven, rushed into the tent ana plunged a dagger into the royal veteran's heart. The power of tnc Danes never recovered from the overthrow it received in the battle of Chntarf; the blow struck on that memorable occasion by Brian, "was followed up by his able successor Malach;^; hence we find that their numbers gradually diminished, until at length their feeble remains are mingled with the general mass of the popula- Ttion, and disappear as a distinct people. 15. Irish literature, which had been so renowned throughout the west, naturally decreased from its former state of advance- ment during the Danish invasion. The schools and monasteries, though frequently ravaged and burnt by the Danes, again arose from their ashes, and again resounded with the voice of instruc- tion and prayer as the invader retired . Hence during the eleventh century her literary institutions became famous abroad, and her chores were visited by foreign students.* * See Moore's History of Ireland, page 214—235. Who at this time was the chief king? What did he do? When was the battle fought, and what was the issue ? — 14. What is said of Brian? Relate the circumstances of his death ? What is said of the power of the Danes ? Of the blow struck on this ■occasion ?— 15. What is said of Irish literature ? Of the schools 7 Of her literary wstitiitions? X&£LAND. 336 SECTION II. JFVom the Invasion qf Ireland by Henry II. qf England, A, D. 1171, to the insurrection qf 1798. 1. After the overthrow of the Danes in the great battle of Clontarf, nothing of importance occurs in the historjr of Ireland, until we come to the memorable struggle which terminated in the utter extinction of her national independence, and the subjection of the country to the dominion of the British crown. As early as the year 1155, Henry II. of England had conceived the design of invading Ireland ; but having neither a legal right to the pos- session of the country, nor any ground of a quarrel to justify an invasion of it, he saw that by no other means could he plausibly attain his object, than by concealing the real motive of his enter- prise under a pretended zeal for the interest of religion and mo- rality. 2. With this view he applied to Pope Adrian, an Englishman by birth, who had been lately raised to the pontifical throne, for permission to invade and subdue the Irish for the purpose of effecting a reformation among them. The pontiff, assuming an extent of temporal power, such as no pope before had thought of arrogating to himself, acceded to the will of the English monarch, on condition that a penny for every house in Ireland should be annually paid, to the court of Rome. Eitner from the internal commotion of his kingdom, or from some other cause, Henrjr was restrained from carrying into eifect his projected invasion of Ire- land for many years after he obtained the pretended grant of the country from the pope. 3. An opportunitv at length presented itself favorable to his ambitious views. JDermot Mac Murchad, king of Leinster, hav- ing been expelled from his country on account of his crimes and crueltv, fled to England for aid. On his arrival, however, finding that the king was absent in Normandy, he immediately sailed for that country, and threw himself at the feet of Henry, offering, if restored to his kingdom, to hold it as a vassal of the English crown. The English monarch received, without hesitation, the proffered fealty of his new liegeman, and as the only way in which he could, at present forward his objects, he gave him letters patent, for the purpose of raising forces in his dominions. 4. Having been thus successful in the object of his mission, Dermot hastened back to England, and succeeded in interesting in his cause several persons of distinguished rank ; among whom Richard de Clare, earl of Pembroke, surnamed Stronghow, was the most prominent; also two brothers of high rank, Maurice Fitz-Gerald, and Robert Fitz-Stephen, who, like the Earl of Pembroke himself, were persons of broken fortunes and ready to 1. Ab early as 1155 what had Henry II. conceived? What did he «ee?~2. V^ith this view, to whom did he apply ? What did the pontiff do ?— 3. What is said of Dermot Mac Murchad ? What did he offer to Henry ? How was he received by the English monarch? What did he give him?— 4. What did Dermot now do? What did ho promise to the Earl of Pembroke? 236 IRELAND. embark in any enterprise, however desperate, which held out the prospect of a speedy relief. To the Earl of Pembroke, Der- mot promised his daughter Eva in marriage, and to secure to him the succession to the throne of Leinster, on condition that he would raise an efficient body of men, and transport them into Ire- land during the following spring. To the two brothers, Maurice and Robert, he engaged to grant the town of Wexford and the adjoining land ; while they, on their part, engaged to transport into Leinster a body of English and Welsh forces, to aid him in recovering the throne of his Kingdom. 5. Being thus assured of foreign assistance, Dermot returned, probably to Leinster, where, after some short time, we find him making the most unqualified submission to Roderic, then the chief, and the last of the Irish monarchs, renouncing the claim to the government of Leinster^ requesting to be allowed onlv tea cantreds of that province. This specious submission was'onfy in- tended to disguise his treacherous designs, as his subsequent con- duct proved, until the arrival of his expected succors. In the mean time, the English adventurers hastened to fulfil their en- gagements, and in the month of May, during the spring of 1169, le first landing of the Anglo-Normans on the coasts of Ireland, under the command of Robert Fitz-Stephen, took place. 6. De»'mot, full of joy at the welcome intelligence, instantly collected all the forces m his power, and hastened to join the in- vaders. The first attack was made on the city of Wexford, which finally yielded to their arms. An instance of cruelty committed by the invaders about this time,deservesparticular notice. Seventy 01 the principal inhabitants of Watertord were made prisoners during thei • attack upon the city ; every offer was made by their fellow citizens for their ransom, even the surrender of the city itself was proffered as the purchase of their liberty. It was de- termined, however, by the English chieftains, to decide the fate of the prisoners in a council of war, in which the counsel of Hen- ry of Mount Maurice, who thus early urged a policy, which has been only too faithfully pursued by the British government to the present time, *' of striking terror into the Irish," unfortunately prevailed. The prisoners were borne away to the adjacent rocks, where they were cruelly put to death, by first breaking their limbs and casting them into the sea. 7. Subsequent to this event, the Earl of Pembroke arrived in Ireland with reinforcements, and in a short time Dublin, Water- ford, and other important places, fell into the hands of the Eng- lish. In the mean time, the English monarch having made all the necessary preparations, embarked for Ireland, and after a short voyage, landed at Crock, near Waterford, on the eighteenth of October, A. D. 1171. The design of the king, if we may judge from some of his acts, immediately after his arrival, was clearly to impress upon the What to the two brothers? — 5. After some short time, what do we find him doing? ■What was this submission intended for? In 1169, what took place?— 6. When was the first attack made ? What is said of seventy of the inhabitants of Waterford ? Wliat was determined ? What was their fate ? — 7. What took place subsequent to this event? \Vhen and where did the English monarch land ? \ IRELAND. 237 minds of the people, that he came rather to protect them from the oppression ot others, than to acquire any advantage or possession for himscif. This refined policy, combined .vith a total want of a united or national spirit among the people, will account in some measure for the little resistance the royal invader met, during the progress which he made through the country. 8. After receiving the homage of the king of Desmond, who made a voluntary oner of submission and tribute, Henry advanced at the head of his army to Liamore, and from thence to Cashel^ where he received the submission oi Donald O* Brian, king 77*0- mond. The example of these minces was followed by many of the inferior potentates, who, alter meeting with a courteous re- ception, were dismissed to their territories, laden with presents from the English monarch. From CasheU Henry returned through Tipperary to Waterford, and after making but a short stay, he marched to Dublin, a city, which, from the extent of its commerce, had risen at that time to such importance as to become the rival of London. 9. Here, we are told, he was joyfully received by the inhabit- ants ; while all the neighboring chieftains hastened to proffer their allegiance ; and among the rest who now joined in the train of the Eiifflish sovereign, was O'Ruarc, of Breffny, and finally Roderic O'' Connor, who was the last chief monarch of Ireland. In 1175, a treaty was concluded between Henry and Rode- ric, in which it was solemnly determined that the kin^s of England should be, in all future time, the lords paramount ot Ire- land J that the fee of the soil should be invested in them, and that all succeeding monarchs of Ireland should hold their dominions but as tenants or vassals of the English crown. 10. In 1185, Henry transferred the government of Ireland to his son John, then a youth in the twelfth year of his age. The inso- lent behavior of the young^ prince and his courtiers roused the indignation of the Irish chieftains, who now began to perceive, when too late, that they had intrusted their liberties to treacher- ous keepers, whose object was to render them not only tributa- ries, but slaves. Forgetting all local and personal differences, they agreed to unite against the enemies of their country ; and so suc- cessful were they in their efforts^ that according to the English chronicles themselves, John lost, m his different contests with the Irish, almost the whole of his army. Henry being informed of the danger that threatened the very existence of his power in Ire- land, instantly despatched orders recalling the prince, and placed the whole power of the government, civil and military, in the hands of De Courcy, Such is the brief outline of the establishment of the English power over the Irish nation ; a power that has placed the two na- tions in the attitude in which we see them at present, the one What was the first design of the king?— 8. After receiving the homage of the king of Desmond, what did Henry do? What is said of the example of these princes? How did Henry return ?— 9. Here, what are we told ? Who was among the rest ? In 1175, what took place ?— 10. In 1185, what did Henry do ? "What is said of the behavior of the yoiuig prince ? What did they agree? What did Henry do when informed of thi» danger ? 238 IRELAND. subjected, without being conquered ; the other a ruler without being a master. 11. In 1315, Ireland was invaded by Edward Bruce j brother to the king of Scotland He landed on the island with three thousand adventurers, and was joined by several of the Irish lords of Ulster. After committing various devastations, a deci- sive battle was fought, in which Bruce was killed, and the Scots compelled to retire. In the reign of Henry VII. of England, the power of the go- vernor of Ireland was much diminisT ed by decreeing that no act passed, or parliament held, without the consent of the king of Eng- land, should be deetned valid. By this measure the Irish legis- lature became dependent on that of England. James I., who valued himself greatly upon promoting the arts of peace, aid something towards meliorating the condition of his Irish subjects. He abolished the customs of the country, and substituted English laws in their place, while no authority but that of the king and the laws, were pennitted throughout the kingdom. During the civil war in England, in the reign of Charles I., Ireland vas also disturbed by insurrection. 13. The loyalty of the Irish to the house of the Stuarts mani- fested itsejf after the execution of the unfortunate Charles I., in declaring in favor of his son, afterwards Charles II. To quell the insurrection that followed, Cromwell was appointed to the com- mand of the parliament forces, and despatched to that country. After some delay at Dublin, where he landed, he determined to lay siege to Drogheda. The town was garrisoned by Sir A. As- ton, with two thousand soldiers and a regiment of horse, besides several volunteers. On coming before the town, Cromwell sent a formal summons to the governor, which was peremptorily rejected, and a blockade was accordingly commenced. 13. The besiegers were delayed some time by the want of ar- tillery; but when the cannon arrived from Dublin, they opened a tremendous fire from their batteries, which the walls ot Drogheda were unable to resist. A practicable breach was soon made, but the attempt at storming was twice repulsed with great slaughter. Cromwell rallied his men to a third attack, and placed himself at thfeir head. The resistance was vigorous; but the Irish Colonel Wall, being killed at the head of his regiment, his soldiers sur- rendered the town und«'r a solemn promise of quarter. This en- gagement made by his officers, Cromwell, on entering the city, refused to ratify, and ordered the garrison to be put to the sword. The inhuman massacre* was continued during the two following days. Thirty of the brave defenders of Drogheda alone sur vived, and these were sold as slaves. 14. Cromwell next took the citv of Wexford, where all the horrors of Drogheda were renewecf j the conqueror strictly for- 11. In 1315, what took place? In the rei^ of Henry VII., what was diminished ? How ? What did James I. abolish and substitute ?— 12. What is said of the loyalty of ijie Irish in favor of the Stuarts ? Who was sent to the country? To what place did ho tt-Y siege? — 13. On taking the town what did Cromwell order? How many survived t — J.4. What city was next taken, and what wa« renewed ? IRELAND. 239 bade his soltHers to give quarter. Strafford^ the governor, with some few others, escaped by swimming their horses across the river. The excuse fur these atrocious barbarities, was the neces- sity, it was said, of striking immediate terror into the Irisn, in order to prevent them from future opposition. After these, and similar acts of unexampled severity, the whole country submitted to the power of the parliament. 16. At the conclusion of the war, the greater part of the no- bility and gentry, with the flower of the arm^, had sought an asylum in foreign lands; their estates were forfeited, and the English commonwealth prepared to put into execution a system of confiscation more extensive and complete than that which had been attempted by Elizabeth or James I. An ordinance was made out for the settling of Ireland, which declares, in its first clause, that it was the intention of the English parliament " to extirpate the Irish nation." 16. In the year 1653 preparations were made to put this act into execution, and another ordinance was passed for the satisfac- tion of the adventurers and soldiers. By this decree the forfeited lands in the counties of Limerick, Tipperary, and Waterford, in the province of Munster ; the King and Queen's counties ; east and west Meath, in the province of Leinster ; Down, Antrim, and Armagh, in the province of Ulster, were all to be charged with the money advanced by adventurers, and to be divided among them by lot. Thus a material portion of Ireland was distributed among the followers of Cromwell and the supporters of the par- liament. In this division, the Puritans declared that they^ were directed by the exampile set by the Israelites in the division of Canaan« and believed that they were justified. The ancient pos- sessors being thus displaced, a new and strange class of proprie- tors succeeded in their piacp, and have preserved their acquisi- tions under every sue ceeding change. 17. That the act which gave them the lands of the kingdom was an unparalleled public robbery and the mo«t atrocious in- stance of unprincipU*erate part in the engage- ment, but at the same time, with ominous precaution, he des- patched Sir Patrick Trant to Waterford, in order to secure a vessel for his escape in case of misfortune. On the last day of June,_William's army advanced towards the river, and the Eng- lish king proceeded to take a survey of the enemy's lines from a hill which commanded an extensive prospect. Anxious, how- ever, to gain a nearer view of the enemy, he advanced with some of his cfScers towards the ford opposite the village of Old Bridge, and having spent some time in reconnoitering, sat down to re- fresh himself on some rising ground. Whue in this position several field -pieces were discnarged at the spot, and as the king arose to mount his horse, a shot from one of the guns killed one What W9re elergry ordered?— 18. What is said of the history of Ireland? On the 12th of March, 1688, what took place ? What did he convoke? What was one of the first acts ? — 10. On the part of William, what is said ? What did he resolve ? Where did James take up his position ? What did the French officers do ?— 20. What wore his officers and soldiers persuaded? On the last day of June what did William do? After this, what is related of him? IRELAND. 241 of his attendants and two horses, and a second ball grazed his right shoulder, tearing the coat and inflicting a slight wound. ^ 21. On the memorsible morning of the 1st of July, 1690, Wil- liam's army advanced in three columns to the banks of the Boyne. After some delay in crossing the river, the engagement became general. The conflict was sustained for some time on both sides with determined bravery. William animated his solcTiers by his presence, and frequently mingled in the thickest of the contest, while James remained a passive spectator on the hill of Donore, and he is said to have exclaimed when he witnessed the destruc- tive charge of Hamilton's dragoons, " Spare, spare my English subjects!'' 22. Before the fate of the battle was decided, James, deserting his brave and faithful soldiers, fled with jn-ecipitation to Dublin, and there falsely ascribed his defeat to the cowardice of the Irish, who, throughout the whole action, had displayed the greatest courage, and^ only wanted a worthy leader to have gained a triumphant victory. On their part, they justly ascribed the ill sticcess of the day to the cowardice and incapacity of James. " Change kings," was their common cry, " acd we will fight the battle over again." Making but a short stay at Dublin, James continued his flight to Waterford, and embarked for France. In the battle of the Boyne, William lost several of his most distin- guished and able officers. The Irish lost no person of distinction except the- brave and courageous Hamilton, who was taken prisoner. When brought into the presence of William, he was asked by the king if he thought the Irish would fight again : to which the intrepid general replied : *' Upon my honor, I believe they will." 23. After the departure of James, the Irish leaders, thus left to themselves, for some time abi3r sustained the cause of their country. The operations of the Irish army were chiefly^ directed by the brave and patriotic Sarsfield. Dunng the following year, 1691, James obtained some few forces and military stores from Louis of France, who was still anxious to protract the war in Ireland. But the exiled monarch could not resist the opportunity of insulting his Irish subjects, even in this crisis of their fate. Although under a thousand obligations to the gallant Sarsfield^ the favorite of the people, still ne would not intrust him with the command of the army, but conferred it on iSt, Ruth^ a French general of some reputation, whose subsequent conduct by no means tended to soothe the irritated feelings of the Irish gene- ral and armv. 24. The nrst operation of the French general was the defence of the town of Jithlone, which was taken bv the English after a siege of several months. After the loss of Athlone, St. Ruth re- st. On the first day of Jaly what took place ? How was tho conflict Bustainad t What is said of WilbauT Of James, and what did he exclaim ?— 22. Before the Atft of the battle waa decided^ what did James do T What was the common cry ? What beeame of James t Whom did the Irish lose T What did he reply when asked if the Irish would fight again 7~-93. Bv whom waa the Irish army ehiefiy directed ? In 1601 what did James obtain T On whom was tho eUef coramaad eoofetred ?— 4M. After fh« loss of Athlone, where did St. Rath retira T 21 243 IRELAITD. tired with his army into the coauly ot /ijSi-Ji.in$on. and haying taken up a favorable position near the ruins of the castle of Aughrim, prepared to decide the fate of Ireland by a gingl' v'ere already in force against the Catholics, not for the pur- p .■'. -^ repealing them, as had been promised in the treaty, but t ' 'li others to their number. An act was passed to deprive Catholics of the means of educating their children, at home or abroad, and to render them incapable of being guaraians of their own, or the children of others ; a second act was passed to disarm all Catholics ; and lastly, an act to banish all Catholic priests and bishops. (See History of Ireland, by W. C. Taylor, vol. ii. p. 207.) SECTION III. TVie Insurrection of 1798. 1. Even a brief outline of this interesting portion of Irish his- tory cannot be given in this short compencUum ; a few of the most important particulars must suffice. In 1782, Ireland de- manded and obtamed from England, the independence of her na- tional legislature. But it was with the utmost reluctance, and under circumstances of imperious necessity, that these conces- sions were made by the British cabinet. In 1784, the British parliament thought proper to annihilate the independence of the national legislature of Ireland, and impose new restrictions on her trade and manufactures. This treacherous and ungenerous 88. Two days after the treaty, what arrived? What was done with the French fleet? —29. What is said of the treaty of Limerick ? In 1605, wlint took place ? What com- mittee was nrpointed ? What penal laws were added? What is said of a Cuiholie teacher ? Of the child of a Catholic ? What rewards were offered ? 1, In 1782, what did Ireland demand and obtain ^ In 1784, whnt tcrV' » . » * fi44 instAsiD: proceeding excited a sodden and general indignation throughout the country. 2. Among the various modes of agency adopted during this period, was the institution of political clubs, which were formed under different titles. Of these, the society of the United Irish* merit and the Orange Association , were the most conspicuous. In the month of November, during the year of 1791, the society o\' United /n«,%mm was instituted in the city of Dublin. The lead- ing objec of this association seem to have been a pure and dis- interesteu love of liberty, and was formed with the immediate view of combining into one phalanx as many as possible of their countrymen, without any tlistinction of creed, for the purpose of effecting a change in the government of Ireland, or as they them- selves declared: *' for the purpose of forwarding a brotheihojd of affection, a communion of rights, and a union of power among Irishmen of every religion, persuasion, and thereby to obtain a complete reform in the legislature, founded on principles of civil, political, and religious liberty." Catholic emancipation and par- liamentary reform were the avowed objects of their pursuit. By the forrrer Was understood a total abolition of all political distinc- tions between Catholics and Protestants ; by the latter, they meant to exclude the borough representation from the House of Commons. 3. To oppose the objects of the United Irishmen, the aristo- cracy of Ireland proceeded to array an association of their own, under the name of the Orange pacty, which was formed for the purpose of perpetuating the abuses and supporting the measures of tne government^ by disavowing every innovation. The leading features of Orangeism may be traced to a per'od much anterior to this. Sir Jonah Barrington considers, that the idea of the O^anffe society arose from the association of the aldermen of Skinners alley, which owed its origin to the restoration of the old corpora- tion body to their former "lower and privilejres, after the departure of James II. Their grand festival was held on the 1st of July, the anniversary of the battle of the Boyne. The charter-toast, the antiquity of which was of so ancient a date as the year 1 G89, was drunk by all the members present on their bare knees ; the grand master pronounced it aloud, in the following words : "The glorious, pious, and immortal memory of the great and good ling William, not forgetting Oliver Cromwell, who assisted in redeeming us from popery, slavery, arbitrary power, &c.[' The concluding part of the toast was a tissue of vulgar and impious imprecations on priests, bishops, deacons, &c. This toast was afterwards adopted by the Orange association.* • See Dr. Madden's History of United Irishmen, vol. i., page S5. 9. What were the most conspicuous r.ssociat.'ons ? When was the society of United Irishmen instituted? AVhat were the leading objects of this association? AVhal were their avowed objects of pursuit? What was und<3rstood by these? — 3. To oppose the objects of the United Irishmen, to what lii'' tbe aristocracy proceed? What does Sir Jonali Hiirrincton consider? When is their grand ft^slival heUH Kow is the cliarter toast dranls ? What are the words ? What was the concluding part? I I mCLAND. 240 4. Ip the year 1784, a new association grew into existence, under ,ie name of the Peep-of-day Boys, who committed the most fearful depredations in the county of Armagh. In a few years, however, they dropped this title, and assumed that of Orangemen. The first Orange lodge was formed on the 2l8t of September, 1795, at the house of a man named Sloan, in the village of Loiighall. The members pledged themselves, by the most solemn oath, to support and defend, to the utmost ot their power, the king and his heirs, so long as he or they shall support the Protest- ant ascendency. 5. In 1796, hopeless of parliamentary relief, the United Irish- men overcame their repugnance to foreign aid, and resolved to solicit assistance of France. Tone was commissioned for that purpose, and in the course of the summer. Lord Edward Fitz- ferald and Arthur O^ Connor were sent over to negotiate a treaty etween the French republic and Ireland. An armament carrying fifteen thousand men, with a considerable amount of arms ana military stores, sailed for Ireland, but the fleet being dispersed by a violent storm, only a few vessels arrived in Bantry Bay, and these returned home without being able to effect a landing. 6. In the mean time, it became the determined policy of the government to goad the people by torture into a premature insur- rection, before the organization of their plans could be completed. Martial law was proclaimed in several counties ; a savage sol- diery were encouraged to emulate each other in acts of cruelty ; the tortures of whipping, half-hanging, and the pitch-cap, were put into active operation. The huinble dwellings of the peasantry were burned, their sons tortured or slain, their daughters sub- jected to all the outrages of brutal passion.' At the same time, the most liberal rewards were held out to informers. In conse- quence of this, the government soon becanie acquainted with all the proceedings of the United Irishmen, and most of the active leaders were arrested at Oliver Bond's house, on the 12th of March. Lord Edward Fitzgerald^ who happened to be absent, eluded pursuit until the 19th of May, when, after a desperate re- sistance, in which he was mortally wounded, he was made pri- soner. The Shearses and others, who had been chosen to fill the places of those arrested at Bond'? were betrayed to the govern- ment by a militia captain named Armstrong. ^ 7. On the 23d of May, the insurrection broke out in the coun- ties of Kildare and Carlow. The peasants had no arms but clum- sy pikes and a few guns in bad repair j they were of course easily clefeated. The insurgents were next routed in Carlow with a loss of four hundred^ slain j and two hundred more, v/ho fell into the hands of the victors, were executed by martial law. At Oulart Hill they were more successful ; they defeated the North 4. In 1784, what took place ? When and wliere was the first Oranre lodge formed ? How do the members pledge themselves?— 5. In 1796, what did the United Irishmen resolve? Who were sent to negotiate a treaty? What armament sailed? What happened the fleet ?— 6." Whc i beca^i.e the policy of the guvernment ? What was pro- claimed ? At the same time, what was held out ? What followed in consequence of this ?— 7. On the 23d of May, what took place ? What is said of the insurgents t ^Vhere were they more succeMAil? 21* 246 IRELAND. Cork militia, took the town of Enniscorthy and the city of Wex- ford. Here, elated by success and exasperated b^ the cruelties they had received, thev committed a feariui retaliation on a num* ber of the royalists wno fell into their hands. Thev were again defeated at Ross and repulsed at Arklow: and the loss of the desperate battle of Ballynahinch terminatea the insurrection in Ulster. 8. After these defeats, the insurgents of Wexford were reduced to the necessity of maintaining a defensive warfare, their, last hope being t rotract the contest until assistance should arrive - from France Their principal encampment was on Vinegar Hill, a lofty em5n«i>ce near the town of Enniscoriii^. T, " —=»•<• thererbre, the government directed all its disposable force. The royal army of thirteen thousand men, with a formidable train of artillery, approached this place in four different divisions; and on the 22a of June was fought the memorable battle of Vinegar mil, which terminated in the complete discomfiture of the united forces, who were defeated with immense slaughter, not however for '.vant of courage and resolution, but for the want of arms and ammunition.-!. This defeat properly terminated the eventful strug- gle of Ireland ft her national rights and redress of her griev- ances. The total loss of property during the contest is estimated at about three millions of pounds sterling. Of the royal army about thirty thousand were slain; but not less than fifty thousand of the insurgents were destroyed. 9. Late in August, when all the disturbances had been sup- pressed, a small force of eleven hundred men, commanded by Ijreneral Humbert, arrived from France and landed at Killala. Want of means prevented Humbert from obtaining any particu- \2lv advantage, and on the 8th of September he was forced to sur- render. A second attempt was made by the French Directory in the following month. A small squadron sent from Brest was discovered by Admiral Warren y and forced to engage at great disadvantage. The Hoche, of eighty guns, and six frigates, were captured; Uiis ended the efforts of France towards the liberation of Ireland. 10. Scarcely had the insurrection ended, when the question of "the Union began to be agitated. It waS so decidedly unpopular, that exhausted as the country was by the late commotion, its in- dependence niight have been maintained by an appeal to arms, had not the minister, by a wonderful mixture of corruption and cunning, effecnially broken the strength of opposition. The measuie of the Union was rejected in the session of 1799, by the house of commons; but after the most unparalleled scenes of bri- bery and deception, the measure was carried in the next session of the Irish parliament, which then consisted of two hundred and What followed the takingf of Enniscof thy and Wexford ? Where were they again defeated? — 8. Where was their principal encampment? What took place on the 22d -of June? What was the total loss of property? What the loss of the royal army? Of the insurgents ?— 9. Late in August, what arrived? What was done in the follow- ing month? — 10. What now began to be agitated? What was it? ^Vhen was it re- jected? After what manner and by what majority was it carried in the Irish porlia- jnent? IRELAND. 247 seventy-eight, only by a majority of forty-three votes. It was oil the first day of January, 1801, at the hour of noon, that the imperial united standard was for the first time mounted on the Bedford tower in Dublin, while the guns of the royal battery in Phoenix Park announced to prostrate Ireland that her national independence was no more, that her guilt-stained parliament had cflected its own annihilation. 11. The Catholics were induced to give a species of tacit assent to the measure, by the promjse of obtaining tneir emancipation, a promise which was not fulfilled until nearly thirty years after this eventy and then only wrung from the reluctant grasp cf the British ministry. Hopes inconsistent with such a promise, were at the same time held out to the most violent Protestants; money > *he amount of £3,000,000 was distributed in bribes to al 1 those who >. "'M favor the views of ^oveinmcnt; besides this, the enor- mous sum ** -€1,275,000 was given as a compensation to boroughs for sending n»v "'»ers favorable to the union. 12. The great ^ ''s entailed on Ireland by the union, arc the vast increase of her ii^ '"^nal debt and the great inequality of her representation in parliamt. *^ By the act of the union, Ireland was to have a separate exchcu -«»r, and was only to be taxed in proportion to her own national aC^^, which at that time was only j626,841,219, while that of Engla -•^''ched the enormous sum of £420,305,944. In 1816 the Bii.-.h : eminent thought pro- per to unite the English and Irish exchequers, in direct violation of the act of the union, and thus the debt of Ireland was increased to £110,730,519. As the Irish representatives in the British pailiament are far inferior in number to those of the English, it fol lows, as a matter of course, that no measure conflicting with the English interest will pass that body in favor of Ireland. Moreover, while Ireland is deprived of her national legislature, hei representatives in the British parliament are obliged to reside, a great portion of their time, in the capital of England, thus draw- ing from their native country a great amount of wealth which would otherwise be spent at home. These and o J.er evils which tend materially to retard the prosperity of the country, render the lineal of the union a most desirable measure to the Irish people, for which they are making at the present time the most strenuous eflfi.rts. In 1801, what wns done for thefirst time?— 11. What is paid of the Catholics? What hop<-8 were held out to Protestants? What sum was distributi 3 in bribes? What •urn was given to boroughs? — 12. What are the great evils entailed on Ireland by Ihe Union? At that time, what was the national debt of Ireland and of England? In 1>^6, what did the British government do? By this act, what whs the debt of Ire- vend increased to? As the Irish representatives in the British parliament arc inferior 01 number to those of England, what follows? While Ireland is deprived of her na> tionul legislature, what is said of her representatives ? SPAIN. 1. Spain was at an early period called Hispania, or Western, because it was the most western situation known to the ancients. It was also distinguished by the name of Iberia, from the river Iber, now Ebro. Its present name, Hispania or Spain, is said to be derived from a Phoenician word which signifies abounding in rabbits, as these animals, according to Strabo, were formerly very numerous in this country. The original inhabitants were the Celts, the same race that peopled most of the other countries of Europe, although the Spanish historians refer the origin of tiieir nation back to the days of Tubal, the son of Japhet. 2. Attracted by the fertility of the soil, the Phoenicians, who were the earliest navigators, passed over to Spain and built the city of Cades, now (mcHz, as eariy as the year 900 before the Christian era. The Phoenicians were displaced by the Cartha- ginians shovtly before the first Punic war, and the Carthaginians, in their turn, were expelled from the country by the Romans, in whose power it remained until it was wrested from them by the irruption of northern barbarians. The Gothic princes held pos- session of Spain until near the middle of the eighth century, when their empire was overthrown by the followers of Mahomet or the Saracens. 3. The victorious infidels, known also in Spain by the name of Moors, in a few years possessed themselves of nearly the whole country, which was for some time governed by the viceroy of the Saracen caliphs. At the approach of the invaders, the Goths re- tired to the mountainous district of Asturias, where, under their leader Don Pelagio, they established a kingdom, which increased in power and gradually extended over other parts of the country. Spain was divided by the Moors into a number of separate sove- reignties, of which the most considerable were those of Cordova and Granada. For arental affection that the whole ilssembly melted into tears. After this he retired to the monastery of St. Justin^ near Pla- centia, attended only by a few domestics, without pomp or splen- dor. In this humble and peaceful abode the greatest monarch of the world ended his days. The manner in which he closed his eventful life was extraordinary. A short ^*.ne previous to his death, stretching himself in a coflBn, he caused the funeral rites What did Ferdinand and Isabella do? What did the fall of Granada terminate?— 6 To what did ihey turn their attention? During this period what took place ?— fi. In I'jl? who succeeded to the throne? On the death of Maximilian, what did Charles do? '.Vhen was be elected emperor ? What is said of his dominions ?— 7. What is said of tlie reign of Charles? What resolution did he form ? WTiere did he retire ? How did be close his eventful life? 250 SPAIN. f to be performed, and after the ceremony was over he retired to his apartment in the deepest melancholj. He was soon after seizeii with a violent fever, which terminated his life in the ftfty- eighth year of his age. 8. Philip II. succeeded his father to the throne of Spain. The most important events of his reign were the revolt of the Low Countries, which, after a long and bloody contest, succeeded in establishing their independence; and his unsuccessful invasion of Englan(L which ill conducted measure cost him the ruin of hia numerous fleet, called the Invincible »^rmada. He was succeed- ed in the throne by his son, Philip III. The subsequent history of Spain affords but few events of interest or importance, until the reign of Ferdinand VII., who wrested the sceptre from hia who placed his brother Joseph upon the Spanish throne. The Spaniards rose in opposition to this tyrannical measure, and had recourse toJPngland for assistance; by their united efforts the French were finally expelled from the peninsula, A D. 1813. Since the reign o{ Philip III.^ Spain has continued *• . iminish in power and importance, and at present only holds a secondary rank among the European powers. 9. The Inquisition, (jonnected with the history of Spain there is one institution that claims a passing notice, namely, the Inquisition. This institution was established in different coun- tries of Europe, chiefly for the purpose of preventing innovations in the established religion of the realm. Its origin is dated as far back as the Council of Verona, held in the year 1184; although it was not legally established before the year 1233, in virtue of the bull of Gregory IX., addressed to the Provincial of Toulouse, and the superintendence of it at that period was confided to the order of the Dominicans, about twelve years after the death of their founder, St. Dominic. But it was only in (he year 1484 that the constitutional rules and order of the tribunal were drawn up and published by Cardinal Torquemada, in conjunction with the king of Spain. 10. Towards the close of the twelfth century, the Albigenscsa seemed to threaten the peace of the church and the stability of the state, and for the security of both it was deemed expedient to send among them certain ecclesiastical commissioners, to inquire into the nature of their errors, and to endeavor to reclaim them. These commissioners were called Inquisitors, and from them the institution derived its name. It does not appear that the early inquisitors ever made use of any ovher arms to oppose the pro- gtess of heresy than those of prayer, patience, and instruction, 8- VVho succeeded ? What were the most important events of his reign? By whom was he succeeded ? "What is said of the subsequent history of Spain ? "What did the Spaniards do? Since the reign of Philip III. what is paid of Spain? — 9. Foi what was this institution established ? What is said of its origin ? What took place in 14S4 ?— 10. What is said of the Albigenses ? What was deemed expedient? What wprt the/ sailed ? What does not appear ? SPAIN. 5261 retired to oon after the tifty- lin. The the Low ceeded in [ invasion 'uin of his \ succeed- nt history nee, until ; from his , however, vere com- if France, )ne. The ;, and had jflTorts* the D. 1813. iminish in secondary of Spain imely, the ent cqun- inovations ited as far although virtue of Toulouse, [led to the death of ^ear 1484 ere drawn ction with llbigenscis \\\y of the )ectient to to inquire aim them, them the the early ie the pro- istructioD, I? By whom "What did the 'oi what was ce in 1484?- mt wprt 'he/ ind while it remained purely an ecclesiastical tribunal, no coer- cive measures were ever adopted. ' 11. In the process of time the vanous sovereigns of Euro|)e passed severe laws against all those who promulgated or obsti- nately maintained doctrines contrary to those established in their respective dominions; but as the offences in those cases were always of a religious nature, it became necessary to refer the accused to ecclesiastical judges. ^ Hence it was that the tribunal of the Inquiaition was adopted in different countries, when it ceased to be ecclesiastical, and became a civil tribunal. 12. The following circumstances led to its establishment in Spain. Towards the end of the fifteenth century, the Mahometan Sower in that country was destroyed by the united efforts of Fer- inand and Isabella; the Moors were expelled; still many re- mained, and those so mingled with the Spanish population, that it became difficult to discriinmate between tnem. Their well known hostility to the government and aversion to Christianity caused them to be a subject of continual alarm. To augment the dan- ger, the power and influence of the Jews, at this period, in Spain, became exceedingly great ; they finally broke out into open rebellion. The Cortes now demanded that severe and coercive measures should be adopted against them ; and as the danger in- creased, Ferdinand conceived, that, in order to save Spain, no- thing would contribute more effectually than the Inquisition. To this measure Isabella at first strongly objected : but at length she was induced to assent, and the institution was accordingly introduced about the year 1484. 13. The tribunal was composed of one supreme head, called the Inquisitor Generalf who was either an archbishop or a bishop ; and of eight ecclesiastical counsellors, of whom six were alwa} . seculars, and two regulars, one invariably of the Dominican order. The inferior inquisitors possessed no power to do anv thing with- out the approbation of the Inquisitor General ; neither could the latter execute any measure without the concurrence of supreme council. The duty of the tribunal of the Inquisition was simply to letermine, upon the clearest evidence, whether the individual arraigned before it was guilty or not of those charges declared capital by the civil law. Jf guilty, the sentence was given accord- ingly. Beyond this, the Inquisitors had nothing wnatever to do with the accused, who was then left to the secular power, to be dealt with according as the laws of the state had oraained. The ecclesiastics, who composed the tribunal of the Inquisition, had no power to condemn any one to death, and on no occasion do we find the name of any priest inscribed on a warrant for an execution. 14. The Inquisition could not be introduced into any country without the consent of the government; and when once esta- 11. In the process of time what was done hy the sovereigns of Europe? What be- eame necessary ? Hence what followed ? — 12. AVhat circumstances led to its esta- bhshment la Spain? What did the Cortes demand? What is said of Isabella?— 13. Of what is the tribunal composed? What is said of the inferior inquisitors? What was the duty of the tribunal ? \Vhat is said of the ecclesiastics who compossd the tribunal? — ^14. Whntis said of the Inquisition T «Mra 852 PORTUGAL. blished, it was generally under the immediate control of the sovereign. The king alone appointed the Inquisitor General, who in nis turn nominated wbat waSidcoM? POLAND. 253 8. In 1580, Philip II. of Spain, talcing atlvantage of the weak- ness of Portugal, occasioned W the extinction of the male line of the royal family, seized upon the country, and united it to his do- minions ; by the revolution of 1640, the Spaniards were expelled, and the Duke of Braganza, the presumptive heir, was raised to the throne, under the title of John IV. In 1807, Portugal was invaded by the French, on which occasion the royal family re- moved to Brazil, where they remained until the year 1820, when he again returned to Lisbon, leaving Don Pedro, his eldest son, as regent of that country. In 1823, Brazil renounced its allegi- ance to Portugal, was declared an independent empire, under Don Pedro, who assumed the title of emperor. On the death ' John VI., the throne of Portugal became vacant ; Pedro, emperw of Brazil, resigned his claim to the crown in fa or of his daugh- ter Donna Maria da Gloria, appointing his sister Isabella regent during the infancy of the young queen; ^ it Don Miguel, a younger brother of Pedro, usurped the throne. POLAND. 1. The history of Poland exhibits but few important iveiits, until near the early part of the fifteenth century, when the throne was occupied by Cassimer III., surnamed the Great. This illustrious prince founded the University of Cracow, patronized learning, encouraged industry and commerce: he also furnished the nation with a new code of written laws. Under the reign of Segismund I., who was a great and accomplished sovereign, Poland attained to the meridian of her greatness. But of all the sovereigns who swayed the Polisli scepter, none have been more distinguished than John Sobieski, who succeeded to the throne in 1674. He was elected, not from an;^ hereditary right, but on account of his vir- tues and eminent military talents. He maintained a successful war against the Turks, and immortaliz.^ his name by obliging them to raise the siege of Vienna. He Jlv- .*; in 1696, leaving th« country prosperous and happy. 2. Frederick AugusluSt elector of Saxony, was chosen to suc- ceed Sobieski, after an interregnum of twelve months. Shortly after his accession,^ he declared war against Charles XII., king of Sweden; but being defeated, he was dethroned, and through the influence of Charles, at the Diet of V^arsaw, Stanislaus was elected to the throne in his place ; but after the defeat of the Sv/e- dish monarch at the battle oiPultowOt Augustus was again restored 3. In 1580, what did Philip 11. do? In 1640 what was done? In 1807, by whom was Portugal invaded ? WTiat did the royal family do ? In 1823, what did Brazil do ? In whose favor did Pedro resign his claim ? What folio wed ? 1. What doe the history of Poland exhibit? What did this prince do? What is said of Sobieski? Why was he elected? What did he maintain ?~2. Who wa« chosen to succeed him ? What did he declare ? ^Vhat was the result ? What hap- pen«<.l after the defeat of the Swedish monarch at the battle of Pultowa? 22 1864 FOLAMD. m to the throne. The reign of his son Frederick Augustus 11. was (generally tranouil. ^ 3. In 1763^ Sianislaua Augustus was elected king of Poland, through the influence of Catharine, empress of Russia. Civil commotions soon distracted the kingdom ; the malcontents were encouraged by the surrounding powers, who secretly increased the factions and difficulties in which the state was involved, in order that they might the more eficctually accomplish its ruin. In 1772 was perpetrated one of tiie most unjust and tyrannical acts recorded in history, namely, the dismemberment of Poland, by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. These three powers taking ad- vantage of the disorder and weakness of the kingdom, agreed to divide Poland between them. 4. In the first division, Frederick seized upon Polish Prussia, and a part of great Poland ) Catharine received Polish Livonia and a part of Lithuania : while Galicia and Lodomeria, fell to the share of the emperor of Austria. After an ineifectual struggle, unhappy Poland was obliged to submit to this dismemberment, and to sanction, by a legislative act, the injustice that these powers had Committed against her. In 1791, a revolution took place in Poland: a new constitution was formed, in which the crown, which had hitherto been elective, was declared hereditary, a measure which met the entire approbation of the people. 5. The empress of Russia^ displeased with the new constitution, because it opposed her ambitious views, ordered her troops to in- vade the Polish dominions. The Poles flew to arms in defence of the rights and liberties of their country. They chose for their general the brave and patriotic Kosciusko, who had borne a dis- tinguished part in the war of the revolution in the United States. For some time they withstood the united forces of their ene- mies ; but at length, overpowered by numbers, they were defeated, and the gallant Kosciusko was taken prisoner. Warsaw wa» taken ana sacked bv Suwarrvw the Russian general, and nine thousand Poles perisned in the defence of their capital. A new di- vision was now agreed on between Russia, Prussia, and Austrii, which included a considerable part of the remaining portion of the Polish territory, A. D. 1793. 6. Stanislaus, the last of the Polish monarchs, worn out with &se and infirmity, was compelled to resign his crown at Grondo, where he died in captivity, during the year 1795. This event broke the spirit of the Poles ; a final division followed, by which the rapacious powers seized upon the remaining parts of the country. Thus ill-fated Poland, by acts of the vilest tvranny, has been I'otted out from the list of nations. During the reign of Nicholas, the present emperor, an ineffectual struggle, was made by the Poles to regain the liberty of their countrv. Thouffh over- powered by the numbers of the Russian army, they failed in this 3. In 1763, who was elected ? What followed ? In 177Q, what waa perpetrated ?— 4. How were the divisions made 7 What was Poland obiioed to do ? In 1791, what took place t—5. What is said of the empress of Ruania ? Of the Poles t Whom Aid they ehoose for their general ? What is said of Warsaw ? What wan now agreed on 1 —9. What is said of Stanislaus ? What followed ? During ttie reign of NiolKilas whM WM made T What did thair Dourage prova ? RUSSIA. 256 struggle; still the courage and valor displayed by the patiiots, proved to the world that the spirit of their freedom only slumbers and awaits a favorable opportunity to arise from that slumber and shake oft' the fetters that bind it. » RUSSIA. 1. The early history of Russia, which is greatly involved in obscurity, is marked bv few events of imnortance. In the fif- teenth century, John JJasilowitz recoverctl the country from the dominion of the Tartars, and united a ^reat part of it into one monarchy. But civilization made but little proj^ress in Russia, until the reign of Peter the Great, who ascended the throne in 1089, and assumed the title of emperor. To this illustrious mon- arch Russia is indebted for all her present greatness. His youth was spent in dissipation, and his education was much neglected $ but on ascending the throne, he displayed talents and abilities that have ranked him among the greatest of the sovereigns of Europe. 2. Peter's first military expedition was against the Turks, whom he signally defeated, and returning to Moscow after the capture of Azof, ne caused the first medals to be struck that were ever seen in Russia. In order to improve and polish the manners of his court, he sent a number of his young nobility to travel, and to acauire a knowledge of foreign countries. After this he re- solved to go himself and visit the various states of Europe, in order to profit by his own personal experience and observations. In the capacity of a private, in the attendance of one of the no- bles of his court, he travelled through Germany to Holland. At Amsterdam he engaged himself as a workman in the dock-yard, under the name of Peter Michaelqff. From Holland he passed into England, where he was similarly employed, and where he gained still higher improvement. At the end of sixteen months, he returned to his own dominions, carrying with him the fruit of his experience, which he successfully employed for the benefit of his suDJects. 3. In 1711, Peter married Catharine, a young and beautiful girl J the daughter of a peasant of Ringen, a small village in Li- vonia. At this period, Charles XII., king of Sweden, the most renowned warrior of his age, who had astonished all Europe by the brilliancy of his conquests, invaded Russia at the head of a powerful army. Without the loss of time, Peter hastened to op- pose his progress. They met in the famous battle of Pultotva, in 1. What is Raid of tho early history? In the fifteenth century ? What is snid of ci- vilixation? How was his youth spent?— 2. Wliat was his firet military expedition? To improve the manners of his couit, what did he do? After this, what dul he resolve? How did he travel? Where was he employed? When did he return to his own do- ■ minions ?— .3. Whom did I'eter marry ? What is said of Charles XII. ? Where did ihoy meet T 256 RUSSU. which the Swedish monarch was signally defeated, with the losi of nine thousand of his army killed, and fourteen thousand taken prisoners. The other principal events of his reign were the de- struction of the Sterliti/es, a body of troops resembling the Turkish Janizaries j the buildmg of the city of St. PetersBurff, and the institution of a numerous and powerful army. He died in 1725, not without some suspicions of being poisoned by the empress. 4. Peter, as a sovereign, was unquestionably great; but as a man, he possessed many qualities that degraded his private cha- racter : he is said to nave been cruel, passionate, and given to intemperance. The empress, having ascended the throne under the title of Catharine I., was succeeded, after a prosperous reign of two years, by Peter II., grandson of Peter I. After a short and peaceful reign, he left the throne to his niece, Anne, Duchess of Courland. ^ Her reign was prosperous, and added to the strength of the empire. Her generals gained several important victories over the Turks, and conquered several towns in Crim Tartary. On her deatli, John, an infant only a few months old, succeeded to the throne ; but, by a sudden revolution, the young prince was deposed, and Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, was pro- claimed empress. 5. Her reign was more brilliant than any of her predecessors, with the exception of her father. She was a princess possessed of eminent abilities and political talents. Her army was» com - Eletely victorious over the Swedes, and her alliance was courted y Great Britain. Elizabeth was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III., a weak and indolent prince. He had married Catharine of Anhalt, a German princess, who having discovered that it was his intention to confine her for life, and to marry a lady of his court, entered into a conspiracy with her favorite. Count of Orloff, against lier husband, who was accordingly deposed, and afterwards assas- sinated. ^ 6. Catharine, was immediately proclaimed empress, under the title of Catharine II. Her reign was the most magnificent in the history of Russia. She introduced elegance and refinement into her empire ; encouraged the arts and manufactures ; enlarged her dominions, by extending her conquests over Poland, Crimea, and other territories. As an empress, she possessed extraordinary talents for goveriniient ; but her total disregard for justice in her conduct towards defenceless Poland, has stamped an indelible stain upon her public character, while her private life was a dis- grace to her sex. She was succeeded by ner son Pmil, whose short and tyrannical reign was terminated by assassination, A. D. 1801. 7. Alexander I., his eldest son, who now succeeded to the What were the other principal events of his reign ? When did he die ? — 4. What iB iaid of Peter ? By whom was the empress succeeded ? To whom did he leave the throne? What was her reign? To whom did she leave the throne ? What revolu- tion took place ? — 5. What is said of her reign ? By whom was slie succeeded ? AVhom did he marry ? What is related of her ? — 6. What was Catharine proclaimed? What didslicdo? Wli It did she possess ? By whom was sho succeeded? — 7, Who next succeeded to the throve? PRUSSIA. 25T the loss nd taken i the de- i Turkish , and the in 1725, npress. but as a irate cha- given to le title of n of two short and uchess of ; strength : victories Tartary. iucceeded »rince was was pro- iecessors, possessed was»com- s courted ., a weak ^nhalt, a intention , entered Tainst her rds assas- under the ent in the mcnt into arged her imen, and aordinary ice in her indelible was a dis- ml, whose ssinatioD) ed to the 4. Whalis he leave the V hut revolu- ded? Whom med? What r. Who next throne, was a wise and popular sovereign. During his reign, the power of Russia was extended, and pubfic improvement promoted. Alexander, alarmed at the progress of Napoleon, joined with Austria against him. But after many sanguinary battles, the Rus- sian monarch was compelled to sign the peficeof Tilsit. In 1812, upon the refusal of Alexander to concur in the scheme of the Emperor of France, for excluding the British commerce from the continent of Europe, Napoleon invaded Russia at the head of a powerful army. At Borodino, near Moscow, one of the most terrible battles was fought recorded in history. When the French emperor made his disastrous retreat from Moscow, Alexander pursued the enemy bevond the limits of his empire, and entered Paris with the other allied sovereigns, where Napoleon was de- throned. 8. Alexander died in 1825, and was succeeded by his brother, Nicholas I., whose reign has been distinguished by the successful termination of a w^ar carried on against the Turks and Persians. His character has been deeply stained by his cruelty and tyranni- cal measures towards the Poles. PRUSSIA. 1 . Little is known of the early history of this country. It was inhabited by a rude and barbarous race, called the Boruaai, and denominated Brussia or PorussiaATom. which the present name is derived. In 1594, Prussia and Brandenburg were Ukiited into one government, b> a matrimonial alliance between John Sigismond, Elector of Brandenburg, and Anne, the daughter of Jlloert, Duke of Prussia. On the death of Sigismond, in 1619, his son, the elector, Georjje William, succeeded to the govern- ment. During his administration, the electorate suffered the severest calamities, occasioned by the Thirty Vears^ fVar, which grew out of the religious controversies which at that time dis- tracted the continent of Europe. 2. On the death of George, in 1640, his son, Frederick Wil- liam, succeeded to his dominions. By a wise and well regulated policy, he succeeded in removing the disorders into which the country had fallen, in consequence of the wars that continued to rage during the reign of his father, and at his death he left the electorate in a prosperous condition. He was succeeded by Frederick I., who assumed the title of king in 1701 ; as previous to this period the country was styled the Electorate of Branden- burg, and the ruler the Elector. In 1812, what took place ? At Borodino, what took place ? When the emperor made his retreat, what did Alexander do ?— 8. When did he die, and by whom succeeded T By what is his character stained? BHSume T 2a» 258 PRUSSIA. Frederick was remarkable for his economy and frugality, and even denied himself the ordinary comforts of life ; in his manners he was rude and harsh, and treated his children with a degree of severity borderinff on brfitality. 3. Frederick II., styled the Great, who succeeded to the throne in 1740, is regarded as one of the greatest warriors of modern times. Shortly after his accession, he revived his claim to the duchy of Silesia, invader' the country, and defeated the Austrians in the great battle of Moiwitz. After the conquest of Silesia, he turned his victorious arn(i& against Saxony. Having alarmed all Europe by the rapidity of Ws conquests, a defensive alliance was formed against him by France, Russia, and Austria. A great and sanguinary contest ensued, called the Seven Years* TFar, during which Frederick maintained his ground against his power- ful enemies, until peace was restored bv me treaty of Hubertsberg. 4. Frederick was remarkable for the severe discipline which he maintained in his army. On one occasion, while in sight of the enemy, he gave orders that all the lights in the camp should be put out at^ certain hour, under the penalty of death. It hap- pened as he went round the camp to see if his order was obeyed, that he perceived the glimmering of a light proceeding from the tent of one of his officers. As the king entered the tent, the officer, who was In the act of folding a letter, immediately arose and threw himself at the feet of Fredtirick, and implored hj» for- giveness tor having disobeyed his order, stating at the same time that he had been writing a few lines to his wite, and on that ac- count had retained the light for a few moments over the time appointed for extinguishing it. The king, with a stern counte- nance, ordered him to add a few words more to. the letter he had just concluded, and to inform his wife that he would be shot on the following day; this rigorous sentence was accordingly executed. 5. In the latter part of his reign, Frederick applied himself to the internal improvement of his kingdom ; he built several towns, and gave encouragement to agriculture, manufactures, and com- merce. He was tond of literature, and possessed some merits as an author. In religion, he was a skeptic, and made Voltaire an intimate companion. The part he acted in the dismemberment of Poland has proved him destitute of every pi 'nciple of justice or humanity. 6. He died in 1786, at the advanced age of seventy -four years, and was succeeded by Frederick William II., a prince more ad- dicted to pleasure than to the affairs of government. After a short and unimportant reign, he was succeeded by his son, Frederick William III., in 1797. Frederick suffered a memorable defeat in his contest with the French, under Napoleon, at the battle of Jena; and at the peace of Tilsit he was deprived of nearly half What is said of Frederick ?— 3. What is said of Frederick II. ? On his accession, •what did he do T "What was formed against him ? What ensued? — 4. For what wag Frederick remarkable ? On one occasion, what orders did he mve ? Relate what Iblluwed.— 5. In the latter part of his reiffii, to what did he apply himself? What wai be in religion, and who was his companion ?— 6. When did be die ? Who succeeded via 1707 f What defeat d.d he suffer ? In 1812, what did th« rruiiian monarch do T GERMANY. 259 ity, and maniiers egree of le throne modern n to the tustrians ilesia, he rmed all ince was A great rs' War, IS power- ertsberg. le which sight of ip should It hap- i obeyed, from the tent, the ely arose d liis for- ame time I that ac- the time [ counte- sr he had e shot on ordingly imself to al towns, ind corn- merits as dtaire an nberment justice or mr years, more ad- er a short rederick le defeat battle of arly half accession, what wa* Elelate what What wai succeeded larch do T of his dominions. In 1812, the Prussian monarch joined the coalition against France, and his army, under Blucher, at the famous battle of Waterloo, turned the fortune of the day against the Emperor Napoleon. By the treaty of Vienna, he gained a considerable accession of territory. Nothing of importance has, since that period, transpired in Prussia. Of late years, Frederick has bestowed much of his at'tention towards promoting the arts of peace, and the intellectual improvement of his people. GERMANY. 1. Our knowledge of the primitive inhabitants of Germany, who were most probably of Celtic origin, is very limited, until the period of the Roman conquests in that country. At the time when Julius Caesar invaded the country, Germany seems to have been divided into a number of independent principalities j but the inhabitants frequently united for their mutual defence, and the many bloody battles they fought before they sunk under the power of the invaders, established their reputation for bravery. On the decline of the Western Empire of the Romans, Germany fell under the dominion of the Franks, and remained in their posses- sion until Charlemagne extended his power over the whole country. 2. In the year 843, the Empire of the West was 'Hvided into three monarchies, France, Germany, and Italy ; anu about the year 887, the imperial dignity was transferred entirely to Ger- many, which, in the history of Europe, is called, by way of dis- tinction, the Empire^ ind the subjects, the Imperialists. After the death of Louis III., in 912, the empire became strictly elective, although, during' the hereditary succession, the consent of the bishops and nobdity had always been asked. Conrad was the first elected to the vacant throne, and after a reign of seven years, Henry /., surnamed the Fowler, was raised to the imperial dig- nity. Henry possessed great abilities, and introduced good order into his dominions ; he uuilt and embellished several cities, re- duced and conciliated many of the revolted lords, subdued the Hungarians, Danes, Bohemians, &c., and added Lorraine to his empire. 3. His son, Otho I., was elected emperor in 936. He possessed all the abilities of his father, and pursued a similar system of policy. In 961, he invaded Italv, at the solicitation of the Italian states, during their contest with Berenger. Otho defeated Be- renger and Adalbert, caused himself to oe crowned at Milan as Emperor of the Romans. He died in 972, after an active reign of thirty years. Otho II. succeeded his father in 973, during 1. What is our '-novledge of the inhabitants? In the time of Julius Coisar, how were they divided ? On the decline of the Western Empire, what was the fate of tha Germans ?— 2. In 843, what took place ? And in 887 ? And in 012 ? What is said ot Henry I. ?— 3. Who was next elected 7 lu 001, what did he do ? When did he die T Who succeeded ? n. wo GEBMANY. whose reign nothinff of importance occurred. The reigns of his successors, Otho III., Hf^nry II., Conrad II., and Henry III., are marked by few striking events. Towards the <;lose of the reign of Henry II., usually called St. Henry, the pious monarch wished to renounce all earthly grandeur, and applie-^ t^^ Richf'rd, abbot of St. "^'isnnes, in T^orraine, for admission into tlie irsmtVA- tery. The abbot receivkd him, but immediately cosumy n:lc;1 him, in virtue of a vow of ob-dience, to reassume the rove; inent 'if the empire, for tho honor of God and the pfood oi his people, to which the monarch humbly, though reIuctai)'Jv, su-i irfiitt?'., 4. Henry IV., surnameii the Great, succeeded to the throne in 1056, a^ the early age of bix years, His rei^n is ct •■efly distin- guished by his contests with ijie popi." , the particulars of which may be seen under the head of Italy. The latter part of his life was imbittered by the unnatural rebellion *^f his own son, who openly revolted^ and obliged him to abdi :ate the crown. The de- thr(»ned monarch was removed to Liege, wliire h? shortly -'ter died, a prey *<> exce&Uve grief, A. D. H06, .iftiu- a reign of ^>.ty yeai-5 du rui which he had beou present in pixty-tivo Littles, in most of wh*/ U he was victorious. His exploits, nia bravery, and talents, have janlad him among the greatest sovereigns of Ger- many. 5. NothinjiT of mport. nee occurred in the history of Germany during" tlse rcigsis or several succeeding emperors. The reign of Frederick 1., surnamed Barbarossa, on account m his red beard, was chiefly signalized by an expedition to the Holy Land, during which he was drowned in the nver Cydnus, in Cilitia. After the reign of Conrad IV., a period of near twenty yeary of contention and conf;ision followed, called the Great Interregnr.m; the dis- oi'der was terminated by the election of Rodo^hus, count of Hapsburg, in Switzerland, to the imperial throne, A. D. 1S;64. The new emperor found the country in a state of anarchv and confusion, but by his wise and prudent measures, he succeeded in restoring order; his reign was distinguished by many acts of virtue and justice. H". left one son, from whom the present house of Austria is descended, who afterwards succeeded to the throne, under the title of Albert I., in 1298. 6. In the reign of this prince, the Swiss revolted ; at first only a few of the cantons combined to assert their freedom, and a small army of thirteen hundred Swiss defeated an immense host of Austrians, in the pass of Margate, in 1315. The rest of the cantons by degrees joined the revolt, and with invincible per- severance, after sixty sanguinary battles with their enemies, they effected their independence. 1 his event was chiefly effected by the patriotism of the famous William Tell, who was instrumental in producing this revolution, and in laying the foundation of his country's freedom. [^See his Life in Biography.] What is related of Henry IT.?— 4. Who succeeded in 1056 ? For what ia his reign distinguished ? What was the latter part of his life ? When did he die ?— 5. For wiiat was the reign of Frederick (. signalized? What happened atter the reign of Conrad IV. ? How was the disorder terminated? What is said of the new emperor ? What did he leave ? — 6. What took place in the reign of the prince ? Where was t)ie Au»- f rian army defeated T By whom was this event effected ? - GERMANY. 261 sror? What as tlie Au»- 7. The reigns of the eight succeeding emperors present few events of imnortance. 'I'he reign of Henry Vll., uo»vever, was memorable for the miseries under which Germany groaned during that period ; a raging pestilence and famine depopulated the towns and desolated the provinces. The rich sought an asylum in other countries, while the poor perished for the want of assistance. Wolves and other beasts of prey, impelled by hunger, quitted the forest, and rushing into the towns, devoured the famished inhabit- ants 5 cataracts of water, bursting from the mountains, swept trees and houses before them with violent impetuosity, while the earth was convulsed by frequent shocks, which seemed to agitate it to the very centre 8. Frederick III. succeeded to the throne in 1440. His family became the most powerful in Germany, by the marriage of- his son with Mary, the heiress of Burgundy and the Netherlands. He was succeeded by his ^on, Maximilian I., a prince possessed of considerable abilities. He established peace among the Ger- man states, and freed the country from the disorders occasioned by the feudal system. Maximilian was succeeded, in 1519, by his grandson, Charles V., tne most powerful sovereign of his age. His long reign, which continued for nearly forty years, was almost one series or warfare, chiefly with his great rival, Francis I., of France. During this contest, in 1527, Charles took Rome, which, for nine months, was given up to plunder. A few years after this event, he took the city of Tunis, and liberated twenty-two thou- sand Christian slaves. A few years before his death, he resigned the crown of Spain to his son, Philip II., and leaving the throne of Germany to his brother Ferdinand, he retired to the monastery of at. Justin, in Spain ; here in this peaceful retreat, the greatest monarch of the a^e ended his days. The Beformation, which be- gan to make considerable progress in Germany, is one of the most remarkable events in the history of that empire. It was first com- menced by Martin Luther^ an Augustine friar, who was then professor of divinity at Wittenberg, about the year 1517. [^For particulars, see Christian Church."] G. The reigns of the successors of Ferdinand, Maximilian II. and Rodolphus II., were generally peaceful and prosperous. The reigns of Ferdinand II. and Ferdinand III. were signalized by the Thirty Years'' War, which commenced in the year 1618, and was terminated by tRe peace of Westphalia, in 1648. This cele- brated war had its origin in the religious dissensions of the six- teenth century ; on the one side was the Protestant confederacy, styled the Evangelical Union, and on the other, the Catholic League, The final result of the contest was the equal establish- ment of the Protestant and Catholic religions. 10. By the death of Charles VI.^ in 1740, the male line of the house of Hapsburg became extinct j his eldest daughter, the cele- 7. For what is the reign of Henry VII. memorable ? What is said of the rich ? Of wolves ? Of cataracts of water ? — 8. Who succeeded to the throne? By whom was Maximilian succeeded? What is said of his reign ? What cities did he take? Before his death, what did he do? What is one of the most remarltable events in the history of this empire ? — 9. By what were the reigns of Ferdinand the first and second sig- nalized ? in what had this war its origin ? What was on the one side ? On the 0th«i 1 262 SWEDKtt brated Maria TTieresa, succeeded to his dominions. Her title, however, was disputed by Charles, the Elector of Bavarian this circumstance gave rise to the contest styled the war of the .^m«- trian Succession, which was terminated by the peace of Aix-lar Chapelle, in 1748, when the claim of Maria Theresa was acknow- ledged, and her husband, /Vancis^j/* Lorraine, was invested with the imperial dignity. The empress was disting^uished for her heroism, eminent talpnts, and aflfability. She built various hos- pitals, and encouraged commerce and science. 11. Maria Theresa was succeeded by her son, Joseph 11. , in the year 1765. The reign of this prince was signalized by his war with the Turks, during which he died, and was succeeded by his brother, Leopold II., who, after a short reign of two years, left the throne to Francis II. Germany, during the French Re- volution, became the theatre of mosi: of the wars carried on at that period. In 1804, Francis caused himself to be proclaimed hereditary emperor of Austria, and t^vo years subsequent to this event, he was compelled by NapoleoU; the Emperor of France, to resign the title of Emperor of Grermany, and absolve the German states from'*1:heir allegiance. Thus enJcd the German Empire, after it had continued from the commencemeiit of me Western Empire, under Charlemagne, a period of one thousand and six years. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, Austria joined the fifth coalition against him, and after the second dethronement of the emperor, a new union was formed by the German states, called the Germanic Confederation. It was subsequently signed at Vienna, and the several states were reinstated by Austriji, in nearly their former possessions. SWEDEN. 1 . The early historj^ of Sweden is obscure and unimportant. To- gether with Norway, it formed a part of ancient Scandinavia, and was first inhabited by the Cimbri, a race of Jierraan origin. In the latter part of the fourteenth century, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway were united into one kingdom by Mrtrgaret of Sweden, who has been styled the Semirumis of the North. Durino- the reign of Christian II., king of Denmark, a revolution took place, by which' the Swedes were delivered from the Danish yoke, ana Uustavus Vasa, a descendant of the ancient kings, was raised 10. On the death of Charles VI., who succeeded ? By whom was her title succeeded T To what did this give rise T Wliat is said of the empress ? — 11. By whom was Maria succeeded? By what was his reign signalized? By whom was he succeeded ? To whom did Leopold leave the throne ? In 1804, what did Francis do? What was ho compelled to do by Napoleon? How long had the German Emp.re lasted? After tho second dethronement of the emperor, what was formed ? 1. What is said of the early history? In tho fourteenth century, what was done Buring the reign of Christian, what took place ? SWEDEN. 268 t was done to the throne of Sweden. He was an able sovereign, and admi- nistered the government with advantage to his subjects. 2. Gustavus ^ilolphtis, one of the greatest of the Swedish mo- narchs, succeeded to the throne in 1611. He was eminent as a statesman, and is ranked among the greatest generals of his age. He was successful in his war against Denmark, Russia, and Po- land. In a war with the Imperialists, he defeated them in the battle ot' Leipsic in 1632; and again in that of Lutzen, in which he lost his life. He was succeeded bv his daughter VhristianOf who governed Sweden with much i>i uilence and wisdom until the year 1654, when she resigned her crown to her cousin Charles Gtistavus, left her country, and devoted the remainder of her days in the pursuit of science and literature, first at Paris, and finally at Rome, where she died, having previously embraced the Catholic religion. 3. Charles All. ascended the throne of Sweden in 1697, at the age of fifteen vears. Shortly after his accession, he found his kingdom attacked in three different quarters, by Russia, Den- mark, and Poland. With a courage and resolution not to be expected from a youth of seventeen, Charles successively took the field against these powers, and signally defeated their forces. One of the most memorable victories recorded in history he obtained at Varna, where, with only eight thousand men, he defeated the Russian army of eighty thousand, of whom thirty thousani'. were taken prisoners. 4. Having reduced Courland and Lithuania, he entered Poland and took Warsaw and Cracow. A negotiation having been pro- posed on the part of Russia, Charles abruptly replied that he would treat at Moscow, then the capital of the Russian empire. Accordingly, in the niidst of a severe winter he invaded Russia, and advanced with his army as far as Pultowa, where he was met bv his great rival Peter the Great. A tremendous battle ensuea, in which the Swedish monarch suffered a most disastrous defeat. After this Charles fled with the remainder of his forces into Turkey, where he displayed the conduct of a maniac rather than that oi a wise and prudent prince. Being ordered to leave Turkey he refused to comply, and proceeded to fortify his camp. With only three thousand men he defended himself some time against twenty thousand Turks, and only yielded when he was taken by the arm and led forcibly to thetent of the Bashaw. 5. Having at length returned from Turkey, he resolved upon the conquest of Norway.^ Accordinffly, at the head of his armv, he invaded that country in the month of October, and with eign- teen thousand men laid siege to Frederickshalle. On the 11th of December, as he visited the trenches for the purpose of encou- raging and animating his men, he stood with his arm restinig upon fi. What is mid of GtfStaTiw? If^ero did he lose his life? By tvliiMi was he stc- Ceeded? Ih 1«33, what did she do?— 3. Who ascended the throne in 1007? After his accession, what did he find? What nienioral>le victory did he obtain? — 4. Raving reduced Courland, what did he do? When did he invade Russia? Where, and by whom Was he met ? After this, where did Charles retire ? Being' ordered to leave Turkey, what did he do?— 5. Wliat did he resolve ? At what season did he invade iSbm country? On the 11th of December, what did he do? S64 DENMABK; the parapet, while the enemy poured a sfjovver of balls upon the spot where he stood. In this exposed situation he reuiained for some time, apparently unconscious of his danger; at length he was struck by a cannon ball in the temple, and fell v/ith a groan against the parapet. While in the act of falling, he grasped with his right hand the hilt of his sword as if to avenge the blow, a fact which forcibly displayed the characteristic of his mind. 6. On the death of Charles, in 1718, Sweden enjoyed compara- tive repose under the reign of his sister Ulrica, and also uader that ot her husband the prince of Hesse, to whom she resigned her crown. On his death, Adolphus Frederick was elected to the throne. His reign was somewhat disturbed by the tactions of the senate. In 177 1» Gustavus III. having succeeded to the throne:, deprived the senate of their powir and rendered himself absolute: he made, however, a moderate use of his power,. and the rest or his reign was passed in tranquillity; he was assassinated while attendmg a masquerade ball in 1793. 7. Adolphtis was succeeded by his son Gustavus IF., under the regency of the Duke of Sudermania. After a weak and extravagant reign he was dethroned, and the crown was trans- ferred to the Duke of Sudermania, who assumed the title of Charles XIII., A. D. 1809. But the king having no children, Bernadotte, a favorite general of Napoleon, was, through the em- peror's influence, declared Crown Prince, and obtained the right of succession, and on the death of Charles quietly succeeded to the throne, A. D. 1818. He is regarded as a wise prince, anxious to promote the happiness of his subjects. Previous to the acces- sion of Bernadotte, Norway was taken from Denmark and an- nexed to Sweden. i DENMARK. 1. The history of Denmark begins to emerge from obscurity during the reign of Wcddemar /., who obtained the throne in 1157, after ten vears' contest with his competitor. He laid the foundation of the city o( Dantzic and subdued the Courlanders. In 1387, Queen Margaret, a woman of extraordinary ability, ascended the Danish throne. She united Sweden^ Norway, ami Denmark in one kingdom, and governed them with mucn pru • dence and wisdom. In 1448, Christian, count of Aldenberg, from whom the present royal family are descended, succeeded to the throne. 2c The government was orig-inally elective, and continued so until the year 1600, during tht reign of Frederick III., when, by In tho act of falling, what did he do ?— 0. On the death of Charles, what is said of Sweden? In 1771, who succeeded? Of what'did he deprive the senate? How did he die ? — ^7. To whom was the trown transferred ? llirounrii the emperor's influence, who was declared Crown Prince, and when did he ascem the throne ? 1. When does the history of Denmark begin to emerge from obscurity? In 1387, who auceaded die throne ? In 1448, who succeeded ?— 2. ^yhal is said of the goveru- ment? NETHERLANDS AND HOLLAND. 265 the voice of the people, it iS changed into a hereditary and ab solute monarchy. During the reign of Frederick IV., Denmark waged a successful war against Charles XII. of Sweden, which terminated shortly after the death of that monarch, by the peace of Stockholm. During the reign of Christian VI. and Frederick v., the kinjgdom remained in a peaceful and prosperous condi- tion. Christian VII., a weak and dissolute prince, having as- cended the throne in 1766, married Caroline Matilda, »i»ter to George III. of England. This unfortunate princess having been accused of harboring hostile designs against the government, in conjunction with counts Brandt and S/ruensee, was arrested and sent to the castle of Bronenburg, with her infant daughter. The two unfortunate noblemen were immediately executed ; Matilda, however, was removed to Zell in Hanover, where she died at the age of twenty-three years. 3. Frederick VI. succeeded his father to the throne in 1808. During the first year of his reign, at a time when the country was at peace, the British fleet under Ijord Cathcart and Mmiral Gambier, bombarded the city of Copenhagen under the pretense that information had been received that Denmark intended to throw itself in favor of France. The Danish fleet, consisting of eighteen ships of the line and sixteen frigates, were destroyed by the British. NETHERLANDS AND HOLLAND. 1. The territoiies comprising the Netherlands and Holland formerly embraced a great part of ancient Batavia. At an early period of their history they were divided into various small states, and governed by counts or earls. They were united to Germany subsequent to the reign of Charlemagne, but regained their inde- pendence in the tenth century. In 1443 they became subject to Burgundy, at which time they began to excite the attention of Europe for their extensive manufactures and commerce. They were again transferred to the house of Austria by the emperor Maximilian. 2. In 1555 they were resigned by Charles V. to lii. son Philip II. of Spain, from whom thev revolted and establish >ed their inde- {»endence, under the title of the Seven United i'i evinces of Hol- and. Spain still retained possession of several smaller provinces until the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, when they were ceded to Austria. In 1795 the United Provinces were overrun and con- quered by the French, on which occasion the Stadtholder and hi» -• ^-^Mthejeign of Frederick IV., what is said of Denmark? What is said of Chris- tian vn ? What is related of this tmfortanate princess ?—{). When did Frederick VL succeed? During his reign what took place? 1. What did these territories formerly comprise? When were they united to the f *riS>^" empire ? In 1443, what took place ?— 2. In 1655, to whom were they resigned t I ,;r^°^' \' said of them? Into what wore they erected by the congress of Vien- na ? What IS he styled ? 266 ITALY. family fled for protection to England. After remainir. . Tor fi-aM time united to the French empire, they were erected, by 'iit con- gress of Vienna, into a kingdom, under the government of the Frince of Orange, who is styled the king of the Netherlands and Duke of Luxemburg. ITALY. 1. After the downfall of the Roman empire of the West, in 476, the Heruli overran Italy and conquered the country. But their kingdom was of short duration. After the short space of thirteen years, Theodoric^ the king of the Ostrogoths, or Eastern Goths, invaded Italy, defeated and slew Odoacer^ the king of the Heruli, and usurped his dominions, A. D. 493. Theodoric, commonly called the Great, fixed his residence at Ravenna ; he was an Arian in principle, but tolerated his Catho' lie subjects^ his administration of the government showed him to have been a prince of great abilities. He died after a reign of thirty-three years. 2. Italy was wrested from the power of the Goths about the middle of the sixth century, by Belisarius and Narses, the gene- rals of Justinian, and again annexed to the empire of Constanti- nople. It next fell into the hands of the Lombards. Alboinus, the Lombard king, invaded Italy, and was proclaimed king of the country about the year 569. Their sovereignty in Italy lasted for r.bout two hundred and six years, under the reigns of twenty-two successive kings. «. 3. About the year T74, Deaiderous, or Didier, king of the Lombards, tnok liavenna, and carried his victorious arms to the walls of Rome. In this emergency. Pope Stephen sent to implore assistance from Constantine, the^ Greek emperor, in whose name the government of Rome was still exercised. But the emperor was at that time too much engaged in religious disputes, to think of sending his troops against the Lombards. In this extremity, the Romans embraced the last resource which was lefl; them, that of calling to their assistance Pepin, the monarch of France. P^pin readily accepted the invitation; but before any act of hostility, deputies were sent to Astolphus, the king of the Lombards, to re- quest that he yrould renounce bis ambitious views. The fierce Lombard only answered the deputies with threats and insults. 4. Pepin immediately crossed the Alps and marched his army into Italy, defeated the Lombards, and compelled them to con- clude a treaty of peace on terms offered by the conqueror. Scarce- ly had the French king departed, when the perfidious Lombard 1. AVhen and by whom was Italy conquered ? What did Theodoric do? Where did he fix his residence ? What was he ? — 2. By whom was Italy wrested firom the Goths ? Into whose hands did it next fall ? Who invaded the country ? How long did their kingdom last?— 3. In 774, wb^t took place ? What did Pope Stephen T What is said of the emperor ? 'Whom did tht Romans now call to their asaistance t Whit was done first 7— 4. What did Pepin immediately do t ' I; f lit 11 ITALY. 267 'rtt con- rtt of thf and 8 and West, in try. But space of r Eastern ing of the idence at lis Catho- )wed him a reign of about the the gene- 3onstanti- Alboinus, ^ king of in Italy reigns oi »g „ of the ■ms to the ;o implore kose name emperor , to think ctremity, hem, that ce. P^pin hostility, ds, to re- he fierce insults, his army to con- Scarce- Lombard m do? Where ted from the ? How long ■)hen ? What ncet What I'jcommeiiced hostilities, and laid siege to Rome. Pope Stephen h\d recourse aeain to his roval protector, and Pepin again crossed t^.e Alps, and obliged Astoiphus to accede to a second and more humiliating treaty. The French monarch, before he returned to his own dominions, made a solemn grant of his conquered terri- tories in Italy to Pope Stephen, and his successors in the pontifical chair, thus raising the head of the Christian church to the dignity of a temporal sovereign, A. D.755. The territories thus bestowed, were called the Ecclesiastical Stfites, and have, to the present time, composed the temporal dominion of the popes. This grant was afterwards confirmed by Charlemagne, the successor ot Pe- pin, who completely destroyed the Lombard kingdom in Italy, after it had lasted for two hundred and six years, A. D. 774. 5. The principal states into which Italy is divided, are Venice, Florence, Naples, Sicily, the Ecclesiastical States, Parma, and a few others. The republic of Venice first grew into notice during the ninth century. The Venetians were for a considerabfe time the most commercial people of Europe. Ilormce became a republic in the thirteenth century, and maintained its indepen- dence for upwards of two hundred years. Genoa became a repub- lic in 953, and was Ion? distinguished for its commerce. The little republic of Sun Marino is distinguished for its great anti- quity, and for the purity of its republican principles. It is under tne immediate protection of the nope, and occupies a tract of only forty square miles, with a population of seven thousand inhabit- ants: it has retained its independence for more than thirteen hundred years, and so jealous of its liberties, that the laws require the magistrates to be semi-annually elected. 6. During the pontificate of Gregory VJI., a serious altercation took place between the pope and Henry IV., emperor of Germa- ny. It seems that it had been the custom in various countries, for the emperors to put the newly elected bishops and abbots in possession of their benefices, by giving them the ring and the crosier, the symbols of their pastoral authority. But as this ceremonj^, called investiture, seemed to apply the conferring of spiritual jurisdiction by temporal princes, it was considered as an encroachment on the rights of the church. The emperor, Hen- ry, however, besides exercising this privilege, carried on a shame- ful traffic in ecclesiastical dignities, bestowing them noton the most worthy, but on those who offered him the largest sums of money. Against these abuses. Pope Gregory loudly declaimed ; but his entreaties and expostulations were disregarded. Henry, instead of reforming his conduct, convened an assembly at \Vorms, in which, with the aid of a body of schismatical associates, he pre- sumed to pass sentence of deposition against the pontiff', A. D. 1076. After his departure, what was done by the I/Ombarda? What did Pepin acain do Before his return, what grant did he make ? What are these territories called ? Wha was done by Charlemagne? — 5. What are the principal states of Italy ? What is said of the Venetians? Of Florence? Of Genoa? For what is San Marino distinguished ? Under w^hose protection ? How long has it maintained its independence ? 6. During the pontificate of Gregory II. what took place? AVhat had been a custom in various countries? What was this ceremony called ? What was done at the assembly at Worms ? 268 ITALY. 7. Upon receiving intelligence of this outrageous a.cU Gregory proceeaed to put into execution the fullest extent of his power. With the advice of a numerous council, taking into consideration the obduracy of Henry, and the repeated complaints of his op- pressed subjects, he excommunicated him, and pronounced the mo- narch fallen from his royal dignity ; and at the same time declared the Germans no longer bound by their former oath of allegiance to him. Singular as this power may appear, which Gregory ex- ercised on that occasion, still it was admitted by his contemt)G- raries, that such power lay within the sphere of the papal juris- diction, and it was supported by the civil and common jurispm- dence of that period. This doctrine, although hostile to the inde- pendence of sovereigns, was often supported by the sovereigns tliemselves. Thus, when Richard L of England was detained a prisoner in Germany, his mother Eleanor repeatedly solicited the pontiff to procure his liberation by the exercise of that authority which he possessed over temporal princes. Again John^ (he suc- cessor of Richard, invoked the aid of the same authority to re- cover Normandy from the French king. At what particular pe- riod the popes began to exercise this power, does not appear; nor is it exactly certain what the particular circumstances were which gave rise to it. 8. At first they only exercised their spiritual censures j but in an age when all ideas of justice were modelled after the feudal jurisprudence, it was soon admitted that princes, by their disobedi- ence to the spiritual power of the church, had violated the oath of their coronation, and become traitors to God j and as such they had forfeited their kingdoms ; and in the case of Henry IV., we hear the Germans expressly declare that they had sworn fealty to him on condition that he should reign for the edification, and not for the destruction of the church, and were he to infringe this duty, they would think themselves no lonffer bound by their oath of allegiance to him. (See Schlegel, Fhitos, II., page 1B7.) To pronounce the sentence by which they were freed from the allegiance, was thought to belong exclusivelv to the sovereign pontiff, who was regarded as the head of the church. 9. At the news of the sentence pronounced by Pope Gregory VII., the princes of Germany assembled in order to appoint another emperor in the place of Henry. The distressed monarch seeing that there was no other way left of averting the storm that he had occasioned, than by becoming reconciled to the see of Rome, departed for Italy, determined to effect his reconcilia- tion on any terms. Gregory had left Rome, and advanced as far as Canosse, on his way to Germany ; here Henry met him in a penitential garb, presented himself at the gates of the castle, and numbly begged to be admitted into the presence of the pontiff, 7. Upon receiving the Intelligence, to what did Gregory proceed ? With the advice of a numerous council, what did he do ? What is said of this power ? Of this doctrine ? Give some instances in which it was supported by sovereigns themselves. What does not appear ? — 8. In an age, &c., what was soon admitted ? In the case of Henry IV. what do we hear ? To pronounce this sentence, belonged to whom ? — 9. What did Ger- man princes do? What is saifl of the distressed monarch? How did Henry meet Gregory ? li ':i; ITALY. 269 ', Gregory kia power, sideration >f his op- sd the mo- J declared illegiance •egory ex- lontempo- ipal juris- i jurispru- > the inde- lovereigns letained a licited the ; authority 2, the suc- rity to re- icular pe- >t appear; nces were es ; but in the feudal f disobedi- ;he oath of such they y IV., we ft fealty to ition, and nnge this their oath 137.; 1 from the sovereign ; Gregory appoint monarch storm that le see of econcilia- ced as far him in a astle, and le pontiff, ih the advice liis doctrine ? Ives. What of Henry IV. hat did Ger- Heury me«t acknowledging his ^uilt, and expressing his readiness to make all the satisfaction m his power. Gregory, who had repeatedly experienced the insincerity of the emperor, kept him by way of trial, in suspense, for three days; on tne fourth day he gave him an audience, received his submission, and absolved him on cer- tain conditions. 10. The repentance of Henry was of short duration. Having assembled a numerous army, he refused to comply with the terms to which he had subscribed, and' resumed his former course of violence against the church and state. At length the German princes, disgusted with the perfidious conduct of their sovereign, proceeded to the election of another j the choice fell upon JKu- dolph, Duke of Suabia. A civil war ensued, which~termmated in the death of Rudolph, who perished in a battle near Mersburg, leaving Henry master of the empire. Elated by this success, the conqueror -larched into Italy, and having taken Rome, he en- tered the Lateran palace, and caused the excommunicated bishop of Ravenna to be declared pope, under the title of Clement III. In the mean time, Gregory had retired to the strong castle of St. An- f^elo, where he remained until the arrival oi Robert Chiiscard, the e^der of the Normans, who obliged Henry to retire with his anti- pope. The lawful pontiff was thus left master of the city j but as party violence rendered it unsafe or unpleasant for him to remain there, he removed to Mount Cassino, and finally to Salerno, where he was taken dangerously ill. A few moments before his death, he uttered these words : " I have loved justice, and have hated iniquity : wherefore I die in a strange land ;" after this he calmly expired, on the twenty-fifthof May, A. D. 1085. 11. In 131 1, Henry VII., Emperor of Germany, invaded Italy, and caused himself to be crowned king of Lombardv, at Milan. Italy was at this period in a state of anarchy, divided oy two con- tending factions, wliich took their origin during the civil war in Germany ; the X>ne in favor'of the emperor, styled the Ghibellines, the other his opponents, called the Guelphs. During the contest, the pope, finding his situation at Rome unpfert^ant, removed the seat ot his power td Avignon, in France. In 1377, the Holy See was again removed back to Rome by Pope Gregory IX. After his death, the citizens of Avignon and Rome contended for the freedom of election. This gave rise to,tl)iat celebrated contest for the pontifical chair called the Grmt Ifclitm of the West; the affair was finally settled by the Council of Constans, and tran- quil Hty restored by the election of Martin Colonna. 12. The illustrious -family 9f the Medici, at this period, attained . ■ How long wa« he kept on trial T— 10. VVTiat was- the repentance of Henry ? Having assembled his army, what did he do? Whom did the German princes choose in his place? Whaterisued? What was the fate ffi IJudblph ? What did Henry now do ? Where did Gragory retire ? Where did he Wiijove? What words did he utter before his death?— 1 J. In 1311 what took place? ^Vhat■wa6 (he stale of Italy at this period ? During the contest, where did the popes remove ? In 1377, what happened ? To what dul this give rise?— 13. Wliat ii said o' the fjunily of the Medici What doci their power form ? «8* * ^ \ f*« 270 TaaKEY. of the Medici, which continued upwards of a century, forms a brilliant era in literature and the liberal arts j and the republic ejjoyed a high degree of splendor during that period. Cosmo himself was a liberal patron of science, and employed his im- mense wealth in erecting works of taste and literary institutions. His dwelling at Florence exceeded in magnificence any palace in Europe ; yet he was plain and unassuming in his private charac< ter. Cosmo II., who succeeded to the head of the government in 1537, encouraged the fine arts, and is said to have been the most magnificent patron of genius since the days of Augustus. 13. The subsequent history of Italy aflfords few events of im- portance until the period of the French revolution. The Italian states shared largely of the convulsions caused by the event. The French overran the Ecclesiastical States, took the city of Rome, and dragged the aged pordffj Pius VI., captive into France, where he died, in 1799. The kings of Naples and Sar- dinia were likewise driven from their dominions. In 1809, Napoleon solicited tlie pope to close his harbors against British commerce, and become a party in the war against Russia. To these measures Pius VII. returned a positive refusal, saying that " being the father of all Christian nations, he could not, consist- ently with that character, become the enemy of any one." 14. The emperor, highly incensed at this courageous reply, issued a decree at Vienna, declaring the Ecclesiastical State an- nexed to his empire. The venerable pontiff was immediately sent into captivity and exile, having previously pronounced the sentence of excomrnunication against the emperor. The pope remained in captivity for about five years, until after the first dethronement of Napoleon, in 1814, when he again returned to Home. TURKEY. The Turks derive their origin from the Huns, who inhabited -Grand Tartary, in Asia. At the commencement of the eighth century, we find them issuing from their obscure retreat, and settling in Pannonia and Asia-Minor. At first their dominions were divided into various small states, and governed by persons called Emirs. Towards the close of the twelfth century, 0th- man or Ottoman, who assumed the title of Sultan, succeeded in* uniting them in one monarchy, and established the seat of his government at Prusa, in Bithynia. AVlint w '% Cosmo ? ''Vhat is said of his dwelling? What is snid of Cosmo II. ?-- 13. What did the French do? In 1900, whnt did Napolsondo ? What wns the answer of Pius VII. ?— 14. What decree did the emperor issue ? What was the fate of th« pontiflTT When did he return from captivity ? 1. From whom do the Turks derive their origin? In the eighth century, what do ■.wo find? Towards tlie close of the twelfth century, what took place ? TURKEY. 271 2. Previous to this period, the Turks or Ottomans, (so called from the name of the founder of their monarchy,) had embraced the religion of Mahomet, which they retain to the present time. During^ the reign of this monarch, they extended their dominions to the Dorders of the Greek empire j and during the reign of his successor they crossed the Hellespont on rafts, took (rallipoli, entered Thrace, and thus laid the foundation of their empire in Europe. Bqjazet 1. bad formed the project of invading Greece and reducing its capital, Constantinople, but was obligeato defer tlie execution of his design in order to defend himselfagainst the encroachments of the celebrated Tamerlane^ king of the Usbec Tartars, who had invaded his dominions. The two mighty chief- tains met at Angora, where was fought one of the most san- guinary battles recorded in history. The united combatants amounted to nearly a million of men, of whom three hundred thousand were left dead upon the field. Bajazet fell into the hands of the conqueror, and shortly afterwards destroyed himself in despair. 3. The reign of Amurath II. was distinguished by his unsuccess- ful attempt to render himself master of the Greek capital, and his war with Poland. He was succeeded by his son Mahomet II., surnamed the Great, who immediately undertook the favorite object of his predecessor, namely, the reduction of the capital of the Eastern Empire. After some short delay in making the necessary preparations, he assailed the city of Constantinople both by sea and land. The indolent inhabitants, deeming them- selves secure beneath the shelter of those walls, which lor ages had bid defiance to every assault, made but a feeble preparation for their defense. Constantine, tne last of the Greek emperors, alone seemed conscious of the impending danger, and began to prepare, with prudence and vigor, for the contest that was to de- cide the fate of his empire. 4. He continued night and day with > troops, to aninirite them by his presence, and to encourage diem by his example. On the other hand, Mahomet, by the promise of increased pay and the spoils of the city in case of victory, stimulated his sol- diers to redoubled energy. Both ancient and modern artillery were brought to bear during this rati, ./rable siege. T!ie impreg- nable walls of Constantinople at length yieldeclto the combined force of the battering-ram and the cannon. On the 29th of May the city was taken by an assault and delivered up to the plunder of the victors. Constantine fell gloriously defontiing his country and his throne, and was afterwards found buried amidst the heaps of the slain. 5. The great church of St. Sophia was i imediately converted into a ;;>osque, andi the Turkish crescent elevated upon the dome 2. Previous to this period what had the Turks embraced ? What did tliey do during the reign of tliis monarch and his successor ? What project had Bsija/.et I. formed? Wliere did tlie two chieftains meet? What was tlic niinilier of the ci/mhotants and the number slain ? — 3. For what was the reign of Amurath 11, distinguished ? By whom was he succeeded ? What did he do? What is said of the inhabitants? Of Constan line? — 4. What did he do? How did Mahomet stmuloie his soldiers? On the *JOth of May what look place? What was the fate of Constantine ? — Q. Into what wus th« church of S(. ^phia converted? 272 TURKEY. where the cross had for ages reigned. A crier proclaimed a public invitation to prayer m the name of God and his prophet, and Mahomet II. knelt at the altar, where only a few days before the ill-fated Constantino, the last of the Caesars, had received the Christian sacrament. 6. On the fall of Constantinople, Mahomet carried his victo- rious arms over all Greece and Epirus. But death put an end lo his career of conquest in 1481. His successor, Bqjazet II., aftc? carrying on various wars against the Saracens, Venetians, Hun- garians, and others, was compelled to abdicate his crown to his ungrateful son, by whose order he was basely murdered. During the reign of Selim I., Syria and Egypt were conquered. His successor, Solyman I^ surnamed the Magnificent, was the most illiistrious of all the Turkish sovereigns; he took the island of Rhodes from the knights of St. John, laid siege to Vienna, re- duced Bagdad, established his dominion over the whole of Assy- ria and Mesopotamia, and passed many excellent laws. 7. The reigns of his successors, Selim II. and Amurath III., ^> ere not n^,arked by any transaction of importance. Mahomet lil. commenced his reign by a display of unparalleled barbarity ; he caused nineteen of his brothers to be strangled, and ten of his father's wives to be drowned. The empire, however, continued to flourish except in the naval department. Othman II. invaded Poland, where ne suffered a most signal defeat, with the loss of eighty thousand men, and ended his life by assassination. »^mu- rath IV. took Bagdad, and caused thirty thousand Persians to be slaughtered; during the reign of Mahomet IV. Candia fell under the Ottoman power after sustaining fifty-six assaults, in which the Turks lost one hundred and eighteen thousand men. Mahomet afterwards besieged Vienna with an army of two hundred thou- sand, from which he was compelled to retire in disgrace, through the intrepidity of John Sobieski, king of Poland. 8. The small but enterprising and martial republic of Venice, for one hundred and fifty years checked the Ottoman power. Since the reign of Achmet III., who was deposed in 1730, the Turkish power has been on the decline. The reign of Mustapha III. was distinguished by a ruinous war with Russia, which con- tinued, with but little intermission, until the reign of Selim III., in 1792, when it was terminated by making important conces- sions to the Russian empire. During the reign of Selim, Buona- parte invaded Egypt, and took possession of Cairo and all the Delta. The year 1821 was distinguished for the commencement of the Greek revolution, which finally resulted in the emancipa- tion of Greece from the power of Turkey. Wiat dwd tlie public criev do ? — 6. On the full of Constantinople, whPt did Mahomet do? What was (u)'ie ^y his successor? Whntia said ot' Solyman . . What did he take? — 7. How did Mahomet III. commence his reign? What All Ot.iman invade? How did ho die ? What did Amurath IV. take? During the reign of Mahomet IV. whnt was done? — 8. Whnt is said of the republic of Venice? For what was thg reign of Mustapha III distinguished ? During vhe reign of Selim, who invaded Egypt ? In 1821, what took place? }\ laimed a prophet, ys before eived the his victo- in end lO //., aftc: ns, Hun- (vn to his , During red. His the most island of ienna, re- of Assy- rath III., Mahomet >arbarity ; ten of his continued [. invaded he loss of n. Amu- ians to be fell under which the Mahomet llred thou- through ,n t Venice, power. 1730, the Mustapha lich con- elim III., conces- , Boona- d all the encement mancipa- iid Mahomet What did he nan invade? Vlahomet IV. iras th"? reism Egypt? In MODERN GREECE. 1. In our view ol Ancient Greece, we pursued its history to its final conquest and subjugation b^ the Roman arms. The subse- quent history of this country, until the buildirtg of Constantinople, and ihe. great division of the Roman empire by the transfer of ti.e seat of .rjOvernment from Rome to that citv, presents but few events of importance. After the death of Theodocius the Great, the last sovereign who presided over both divisions of the empire, his S'jn Jichadius reigned in the East, and therefore may be re- garded as the first of the Greek emperors. 2. He was a weak and indolent prince, controlled in every transjiction by his wife Eudoxia, a haughty and imperious woman ; his whole reign presents scarcely a single action worthy of the son of the "I'lstrious Theodocius. He was succeeded by his son Theo- docius the Younger, whose reign was short, and, like that of his father, was unimportant. The emperors who succeeded Theodo- cius, until the reign of Justinian, nave left behind them no trans- actions that deserve a notice in this short compendium. 3. Justinian had been associated in the empire with Justin I., and succeeded to the sole command on the death of that emperor, in the year 527. Justinian displayed his greatest wisdom in the choice he made of his ministers ; and his reign is conspicuous, not for any memorable transaction of his own, but cliieflv for the military operations of his generals. The great and illustrious Belisarius, one of the most distinguished of his generals, defeated the Persians in three sanguinary battles ; destroyed the kingdom of the Vandals in Africa, and led their sovereign captive to Con- stantinople ; wrested Italy from the hand of the Gothic princes, and restored it for a short period to the dominions of Justininn. 4. The Goths a second time overran Italy, and again Belisa- rius was sent against them. But being left without the means necessary for conducting the war, that illustrious general was doomed to see his former prosperity decline, and himself treated with neglect by the man whose empire he had so repeatedly and so successfully defended against its foreign and domestic ene- mies. He was superseded in the command by Narses, who^ had the honor of terminating the war in Italy. He defeated Totila in a decisive engagement on the plains of Lentagio, in which the Gothic king was slain, and governed Italy under the title of duke for thirteen years. 5. While victory crowned the arms of Justinian in the West, the ravages of war threatened the destruction of his empire in the East. Chosroes the Greats king of Persia, for several years 1. In the review of ancient Greece, how far did we pursue its history? "WTiat is said of the subsequent history ? Wlio is regarded as the first of thj Greek cmperort ? —2. What wac he ? By whom was he succeeded ?-—'}. In what did Justinian display his greatest wisdom? What did Belisariue do ?— 4. What is said oftlje Goths? What tk.is the general doomed to see? By whom was he superseded? Whom did Narsei defeat?— 5. What is said of Chosroes the Great? 273 S74 MODERN GREECE. iv 1 spread devastation over the rich and fertile provinces of Mesopo- tamia and Syripi, frequently routing the army of the emperor with immense loss Scarcely was peace concluded with this formidable enemy, than the Huns, a funous and warlike race, made an ir- ruption into Thrace, and even threatened the capital itself. Once more the empire was saved through the valor of Belisarius. Though far advanced in years, ancT scarcely able to wield his sworcT^he marched against the barbarians, and compelled them to retire. Unfortunately for this great man, he lived under the reign of a prince who was unable to appreciate his merits. In return for his many services rendered to the empire, the ungrate- ful Justinian, on mere suspicion of his being pnvy to a late con- spiracy, stripped him of all his honors, caused him to be arrested and cast into prison, where he languished for several months, [[(^ec Ais /e/e iwlBioGRAPHY.^ 6. Justinian died in the eighty-fourth year of his age, and in the 565. It was uot,Tiowever, the military operations of tliis prince that render his reign so distin- guishea. The famous body of laws prepared under his direc- tion, by the learned Tribonian, known by the name of the Justi- nian Code, have reflected a brighter lustre on his r>ame, and have conferred greater benefits on posterity than all the military achievements of his generals. From this code the different states of Europe have derived the greater portion of the laws that make up their respective codes. Previous to the time of Justinian, to become acquainted with the ancient jurisprudence, it was neces- sary to peruse near two thousand volumes, a task which would take the longest lifetime to perform. The Justinian code was comprised in about fifty books, to which were added four others, called the InstituteSy containing the fundamental principles of all legislation. 7. Justinian was succeeded in the empire by his nephew Justin II. Though a prince of much virtue, Justin was a man of weak intellect, and wholly governed by his consort Sophia, whose ar- rogant conduct brought new disasters on the empire. Against Narses, M'ho still governed in Italy, the empress had long harbored a deadly hatred j and now believmg herself in an elevation from which she could fearlessly wreak her vengeance, she sent him an insolent order to quit Italy and return to Constantinople. Narus, who inherited murli of the military abilities of Belisari ry aDilities ot tieiisarius, but wanted the patriotism., and virtuous forbearance of that illustrious general, wrote to MboinuSy the ki g of the liombards, and in- vited him to Italy to avenge the insult he had received. But scarcely had he consented to this hasty step, than he repented of an act which tended to dishonor a lifeoUjcrwise distinguished by so many brilliant achievements. But his repentance came too late to prevent the evil j the Lombards had alread ? Previous to this time, what was necessary? — 7. By wliora was Justinian succeeded? What was he? By whom way he governed ? What is re- lated of Narses ? What did he do? tA MODERN GREECE. 276 Italy, and having crossed the Alps, they subdued that part uf the country called from them Lombardy, and made Pavia the capital of their kingdom. 8. Tl)^ Persians under Chosroes, again laid waste the eastern yrovinces of the empire. At the intelligence of these disasters, ustin was thrown into a deep melancholy, which gradually de- generated into a partial insanity. Perceiving that he was unable to direct the affairs of government alone, he had the prudence to associate with himself a colleague in the empire. The choice fell upon 'IV)erius, a man in every respect qualified for the imjportant station. The honor of the empire was soon retrieved ; Chosroea was driven to the extremity of Persia, where, being unable to sur- vive his defeat, he died of grief and despair, after a reign of forty- eightyeai's. 9. The words of Justin upon the introduction of Tiberius to the empire, are worthy of record : " Love (he people as yourself, cultivate the affection and maintain the discipline of the army ; protect the fortunes of the rich, ajid relieve the necessities of the poor." Tiberius, during his snort reign, which lasted four years after the death of Justin, was never known to depart from this excellent advice ; and on his death-bed he nominated Maurice^ who had proved himself an able general, as his successor to the til rone. 10. The reign of this prince was turbulent, and his end trag;i- cd. He possessed many virtues, and on some occasions dis- played a considerable degree of prudence and courage, but avarice is said to have been his greatest fault. During one of bia campaigns, twelve thousand of his troops fell into the hands of the enemy; i^atmce refused to redeem them, although but a small sum was asked for their ransom ; this refusal so enraged the bar- barians, that tliey put them all to the sword. While this conduct excited against him the loudest complaints, he had the imprudence to order his troops to take up their quarters in the enemy's coun- try, and to subsist there during the winter by plunder. The sol- diers, exasperated at this command, revoltedf, and having pro- claini^ Phocaa emperor, advanced towards Constantinople. 1 1. At the news of this event, Maurice endeavored to make his esci^ with his family ; but at Chalcedou he fell into the hands •f his pursuers, and hi^ five sons were barbarously put to death in the presence of their unhappy father, who, in the bitterness of his affliction, repeated these words of the royal prophet: *• Thou art justy O Lord, and thy judgment is right. ^^ When the nurse en- deavored to conceal the royal infant, and offered her own child to the executioner, Maurice refused to allow the deception. The tragical scene was ended by the execution of the emperor him- self, who fell with his unfortunate children. 8. What did the Persians do ? What happened Justin ? "\Vhat had he the prndenc* to do? On whom did the choice fall? — 9. Vvhat were the words of Justin to TiberiusT What is said of Tiberius ?— 10. What is said of the reign of this prince ? What hap- pened during one campaign? What did he refuse? What did he order? What did tD4 •oldiers do ?— 11. At this news, what did Maurice do ? At ChalcedPQ, what is relatecl of him ! What did he repeat 7 What is said qf the nurse T 276 MODERN GREECE. 12. Phocaa did not long enjoy his ill-gotten crown. While ne remained shut up in his capital, Chosroes JL, king of the Persians crossed the boundary of empire, and spread desolation over some of the most fertile districts of Mesopotamia and Syria. The senate of Constantinople, seeing nothing done for the defense of the em- pire, invited Heraclius, tne governor of Africa, to their assistance, offering him the purple as im reward of his services. Heraclius having declined the honor on account of his advanced age, the offer was eagerly embraced by his son, of the same name, who im- mediately embarking with a select body of troops, arrived before the walls of Constantinople, almost before the usurper had any intimation of his approach. Phocas, deserted by his friends, was instantly seized ana beheaded ; while at the saqne time Heraclius was proclaimed emperor. A. D. 610. 13. The reign of this emperor was almost one unbroken series of war and victory over his formitlcvble neighbors, the Persians, whom he defeated in six successive campaigns, and at length obliged them to sue for peace.- During his reign, which lasted for upwards of thirtv years, he continued to defend and pre- serve the dignity of tne empire. The several emperors who suc- ceeded Heraclius, have left little of importance to distinguish their reigns. The reign of Constantine Pagonatus is conspicuous for the memorable siege which Constantinople sustained against the Saracens, who for several successive years presented themselves before the walls of the city, but were as often vigorously repulsed, and at last obliged to abandon the enterprise. One of the most destructive agents used by the Greeks during this age, was the Grecian Fire, which had the peculiar property of burning in water, and could only be extinguished by sand, wine, or vinegar. It was invented by a Syrian named Collinicus, and employed with great effect by the Greeks in their different wars for several centuries, before the secret of its composition was discovered by tlie neighboring nations. 14. Justinian //., who succeeded Constantine, was distin- guished for his cruelty ; he was at length banished from the em- pire, but having regained the throne by the assistance of the Bul- garians, he exercised the most fearful vengeance on his enemies ; his reign, however, was cut short by assassination. In the short space of six years, the scepter passed through the hands of three successive emperors. In 717, Zco, surnamed the /saurian, suc- ceeded in wresting it from the hand of the weak Theodo- cius HI. 15. The reign of this monarch is more conspicuous for the hos- tility he manifested towards the use of sacred images in the churches, than for any important service he rendered to the em- pire. Leo, unable to comprehend that the veneration of images IS only an inferior honor paid to the persons whom they represent, published a violent edict against the use of them in the churches. 12. What is said of Phocas ? What did the Senate do ? By whom was the offer em- braced? What was the end of Phoccs? — 13. What was the reign of this emperor? For what is the reign of Constantino Pagonatus conspicuous ? What w« one of the most destructive ag^ents ? What is said of it ? — 14. What is said of Justinian II. ? What took plaoo?— 15. For what is his reign jmemorable? What is said of Leo 7 MODERN GREEC£. 277 miilenc Persians ver some je senate f the em- tsistance, Heraclius 1 age, the , who im- ed before had any snds, was Heraclius en series Persians, at length ich lasted and pre- who suc- ;uish their icuous for gainst the lemselves repulsed, the most I, was the iirning in r vinegar, employed or several overed by IS distin- n the em- FtheBul- enemies ; the short s of three riarit suc- Theodo- ►r the hos- es in the the em- of images epresent, churches. the offer em- tiis emperor? ■• one of the in U. ? What T In consequence of this order, the pictures and images of Christ, and of the saints, were removed, not, however, without causing loud complaints and much disturbance. On one occasion, Leo ordered tne execution of twelve librariams, whom he was unable to gain over to his party, and caused the destruction of the public library of Constantinople. The persecution was carried on under hi» successors, Constantine and Leo IV.y until the affair was finally settled by the seventh General Council, held at Nice, which solemnly decided that the relative honor paid to images was in accordance with Scripture and the early practice of the church, and free from the charge of idolatry and superstition. 16. During the minority of Constantine V., the empress Irene, his mother, was appointed regent. She was a woman distinguished alike for her great abilities and cruelty. By Imt order, her son was deposed, and murdered in a barbarous manner. After this she governed alone for five years; but an insurrection being ex- cited against her, she was in her turn deposed, and Neciphorus, the great treasurer, proclaimed emperor. The unfortunate Ireiii was banished to the Isle of Lesbos, where, it is said, she was obliged to gain a scanty subsistence by the labor of her hands, a melancholy example of blasted ambition. 17. Neciphorus did not long enjoy the honor to which he was raised ; having undertaken an expedition against the Bulgarians, he was defeated and slain in battle.^ During the short reigns of Stauracius and Michael, the Bulgarians in their turn invaded the empire, and carried tb**'? devastations so far as even to threaten the capital itself. Su^n was the situation of things, when Leo the ^rmeniarij ascended the throne. Leo being a man of great military abilities, immediately marched against the Bulganans, over whom he gained several decisive victories, and after a pros- perous reign of seven years, he was assassinated by the partisans of Michael, the commander of the guards, who was raised from the prison, (where he had been confined on a charge of rebellion,) to the throne. During the reign of this weak and profligate prince, the empire suftered the loss of the islands of '^rete and Sicily, which were conquered by the Mussulmen ; and during the reign of Theophilus, his successor, the eastern Saracens took and destroyed the flounshing city of Amorium, in Asia Minor, and led thirty thousand of its inhabitants as captives into Persia. 18. Theophilus was succeeded by his son. Michael III., a man of the most dissolute character and abandoned habits. It was during the reign of this emperor, that the first separation of th« Greek and Latin church took place. [^See Christian Church.] After a reign of twenty-five years, he was assassinated in a state of intoxication, and Basil the Macedonian, his colleague, a man of humble birth, was acknowledged as sole emperor, A. D. 867. What was the consequence of this order? On one occasion, what did lie order? When was the affair settled? What did it decide ?— 16. During? the minority of Con- stantine, who was appointed resent? What was done by her order ? What was ex- cited against her ? What was her fate?— 17. What is said of Neciphorus? Against whom did Leo march ? What was his end ? What is said oi the empire during the reign of this prince ?— 18. By whom was Theophilus succeeded? What took plact during his reiga? AVhat was his end ? Who succeeded ? 24 278 MODEAN OBEECE* t Throuffh the vigiliirice and activity of Basil, the disorders of the S receding reign were soon removed, and peace restored to every epartment of the state. He waged successful war against the Saracens, and aftc- a successful reign of nineteen years, he died from an accident hich he receivea in the chase, A D. 886. 19. Under the succeeding emperors, until the u'^^nx of N'eci- phorua Fhocas, who ascended the throne in 963^ tSi^ Greek em- pire had greatly fallen from its former splendor. Neciphorus, by Ilia great military talents, for a short period, supported its de- clining glory. Having recovered the island of Crete, he next invaded Asia, and wrested from the Saracens several towns and provinces, which he unitea to the empire. By his avarice and exactioiS; he at length alienated the afTection of his subjects; a conspiracy having been formed against him^ he was assassinated, and John Zemisces, one of the chief conspirators, was raised to the throne. 20. This emperor, although he wore the crown of his mur- dered sovereign, directed the aflfairs of government with an able hand. He effectually repelled the irruption of the Russians, whom he defeated in several sanguinary battles, and finally cori- pelled them to^ retire to their own dominions. He was equally successful in his war against the Saracens, who, availing them- selves of hia absence, had conquered several places in Asia. His prosperous career, however, was cut short by the treachery of his chief minister, who caused him to be poisoned, in the sixth yesr of his reign. 21. After his death, Basil II. and Constantine FJIL, reigned jointly toffet^-:, but the exercise of the supreme authority was left entirely vc the former. He was possessed of a military and enterprising spur-j he reduced Bulgaria, and considerably ex- tended tJ't I»mih of the empire in the East. He was preparing for an expedition against the Saracens of Sicily, when he died, in the sixty-eighth year of his age,'and fifty-first of his reign, A. D. 1025. During the fifty succeeding years, fifteen different em- perors filled the throne in succession, but their reigns are not distinguished for any remarkable transaction. At the time of the Crusades, Constantinople was taken by the French and Vene- tians, and held by them for a period of near sixty years, during which time the Greek emperors reigned at Nice. In 1261, in the reign of Michael Palaeologus. Constantinople was again recovered from the conquerors. 22. In the year 1453, during the reign of Constantine PaUeolo- guSf Constantinople waH besieged and taken by the Turks, under Mahomet Ii. [^See Turkey.] Since that eventful period, until within a few years, the unhappy Greeks groaned under the weight of Turkish despotism. In iS20, animated by a spirit When did he die?— 19. What is said of Neciphoius? What was his fate? Who •ucceeded ?— 20. What is said of this emperor? What was his end? — ^21. After his death, who reigned jointly? WTio exercised the supreme authority? What did he reduce? When did he die ? At the time of the Crusades, what happened? In ISO 1 what took place ?— 22. In 1453, what took place ? AMERICA. 279 of freedom, they commenced an open revolt ; and after the war h.ul continued for several yea , several of the European rjwers intarposed in their behalf. On the 20th of October, 1828, the combined fleets of England, France, and Russia, completely destroyed the Turkish naval force in the battle of Navarino, an event which secured the independence of Greece. The government chosen for the country by the great European powers is a limited monarchy, and the present sovereign is O/Zio, the son of Louis Charles of Bavaria, who bears the title of King of Greece. A M SEC'llON I. T^ie Discovery of the Country; the Conquest qf Mexico and Peru; the Manners and Customs of the Indians. 1. For several years previous to the discovery of America, the attention of the Portuguese was directed towards finding a pas- sage to the East Indies, by doubling the southern extremity of Atrica, and thtn ta.ang an easterly com se, and it was the pursuit of this favorite object that led to the important discovery that followed. The honor of accomplishing an exploit so sublime as that of the discovery of the Western continent, belongs to Chris- topher Columbus, a native of Genoa. This illustrious man was well qualified by nature and education for this arduous under- taking. At the age of fourteen he engaged in a seafaring life ; he wa^well versed in geometry, astronr ny, geography, and naval science ; calm, persevering, and patient under the most trying circumstances J dignified in hisdeportjncnt; at all times perfectly master of himself, and capable of eliciting the esteem, and com- manding the obedience of all under his direction. 2. The spherical figure of die eirth was now generally admitted, and its magnitude was estima^jd with some degree of accuracy. Columbus, reasoning from these facts, and from the observations of modern navigators, arrived at this very just conclusion, that Europe, Asia, and Africa formed but a small portion of the terra- queous globe, and that to complete the balance, another continent must necessarily exist, which he supposed to be united to Asia, and might be reached by sailing west from Europe. Pieces of wood artificially carved, and reeds driven by a westerly wind, had Since that period, whnt is said ? In 1820, wliat took place ? And on the 20lh of Oc- tober, 18287 What is the government chosen for the country ? Who is the present king? 1. For several years, to what was the attention of the Portuguese directed ? To whom does the honor, &c., bclonpr? What is said of this illustrious man ? Give his character ? — 2. What was now admitted ? At wlint conclusion did Columbus arrive ? What did he suppose? What had been taken up' X^^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) €< ^m ^ A ^Tf l^ A<^ ^^ ^^ :/. ^ /^ 1.0 I.I 11.25 m 1^ llilio . ... B 1.8 U IIIIII.6 V] <^ /i ^ C?'^.. c>. * y /^ Photographic Sciences Corpordtion \ n"^ fv SJ \\ ^ 6^ # 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 «■ . ■^•? % ^ \\ 280 AMEBICA. i t' [ i; been taken up in the ocean, west of the Madeira Islands ; treeSf and - fuz, carrying ninety men, with iM*ovisions for only twelve months. Columbus, previous to entering on the voyage, was appointed admiral of ail the seas he should explore, and governor of all the islands he should subdue. 6. On the 3d of August, in the year 1402, Columbus set sail from the port of Falos m Spain; and after touching at tiie Canary islands, where he refitted bis vessels, he proceeded on his voyage, taking a westerly direction into seas unknown and unexplored, without a chart to guide his course. By the 14th of September, the fleet stood two hundred leagues west from the Canaries Here it was observed that the magnetic needle in the compass did not point directly to the north ster, but varied towards the west. The phencHnenoii, which had never been observed before, excited alarm and terror in the breasts of the Spanish sailors. Thev were then in a vast and trackless ocean, nature itself seemed to change, and their only guide was jibout to &il. W>>»tonone occasion ?— 3. Why did he solicit the patronam of Genoa? V^ere diO he aext apply T Where did he send his brother?— 4. In the mean time what did Columbus do? At length what did he obtain? What is said of the queen? By whom was she relieved? — 5. On the 17th of April, what was done? W^at were the name* of the vessels?— 6. When did Columbus set sail? By the 14lh of September, whero was the fleet? Here what was observed? What is said of this phenomenon? AMEiaCA. 1281 Where rhat did whom name* r, where 7. Cohtmbtis, with lus usual presence of mind, gave a solution for tlus phenomenon, which served to dispel the fears and silence the murmurs of his companions, although it was not satisfactory to himself. Having proceeded on his voyage for tliirty days more without any prospect of land, the spirit of mutinv began again to manifest itself among the sailors, who now agreed among themselves to compel ColunwuSt by force, to return, while the vessels were in a condition to keep at sea. Never was there a more trying moment for Columbus. To exercise coersive mea- sures on such an occasion, would be a dangerous expedient; to reason with men in whose breasts fear had extinguished every generous sentiment was useless, to return would blast for ever is highest expectations. Therefore, as the last expedient, he had recourse to exhortations and encouri^gement, and so far yielded to their importunities, as to propose to abandon the expedition ,and return to Spain, if land should not be discovered within the short space of three days. 8. For some d^s previous to this, the sounding line had reached the bottom, the flocks of birds increased, the air was more mild and warm. From all these symptoms, Columbus concluded that land was at no great distance; and on the evening of the 11th of October, he ordered the sails to be furled and a watch lo be set. While standing on the forecastle, he beheld a light carried from place to place, and shortly after midnight the joyful sound of land was heaitl from the crew of the Pinta, From this moment until the return of day realized their expectations, no eye was closed ; all on board were in the deepest suspense and sleepless expecta- tion. But as the morning dawned, their doubts were expelled; a beautiful island presented itself to their view. 9. The crew of the Pinta immediately brdce forth in a hymn of thanksgiving to God, in which they were joined by those of the othef vessels, in tears of joy and congratulation. This office of gratitude to Heaven was next followed by an act of retribution to tneir commander; they threw themselves at his feet with the hum- blest acknowledgments of their rashness and disobedience, and besought his forgiveness. As the sun arose, the boats were man- ned and rowed towards the shore, with the Spanish colors' floating to the breeze, while at the same time martial music reiit the air. Co- lumbus, richly attired and with a drawn sword in his hand, was the first European who set his foot upon the New World. His men immediately followed, and falling upon their knees, with tears of joy they kissed the ground which they had long desired to behold. Thev next erected a crucifix, and prostrating them- selves before it tnev returned solemn thanks to God, whose benign hand had ^ided them safe through a thousand dangers, and con- ducted their voyage to so happy an issue. They then took solemn 7 What did Colomhns doT What again mamfeBted itMlfT What did ther agree T What did he propose, fto.T — 8. For some daya previoiu« what had been observed T From theKe, what did Colnmbus conclude and order? What was heard at midni^tf From this moment, what is said ?— 0. V^at did the crew of the Pinta dof Bt what was this office, ftc. followed ? As the sun arose, what was done ? Who was the first to land on the New World? What did his men do* What did they erect? What followed? \ 24* 382 AitEBlCA. : ■ ' possession of the country in the name of the soYereigss of Castile and Leon. 10. On the landing of the Sminiards, they foUnd the coast co- vered with a race of people differing from any that tiiey had ever seen before. They were of a dark copper color, without clothing or beards, and their hair fkiwing loosely upon their dhpulders. The natives were equally suriwised at the appearance of th^ Spa- niards, whom they considered as the chil(u*en of the sun, their idol ; thej regarded the ships as a species of animals, with eyea of lightning and voices of thunder. 11. The first land discovered by Columbus was one of the Ba- hama islands, called by him St. Salvador; it is also distinguished by the name of Cat laktnd. He afterwards visited Ctwa and lim/ti or St, Domingo » to which he gave the name of M^aniolat and on which he left some of his men for the purpose of forming a colony. As Columbus had reached these islands by a western pas- sage, and believing them not far distant from the unexplored region of India, they were denominated the West Indies, and the alMui- Sines of the country were designated by the appellation of In- ians, a., name which they retain to the present time^ After bome time spent io exploring the country and in amicable traffi£ with the natives, and having collected a quantity of gold, Co^imbus set sail oa his return to Spain. VZ. During the voyage he was overtaken by a violent storm, which continued for fitreen days, and exposed the already shat- tered vessels to the most imminent danger. While the storm 4:ontinued, Columbus, with great presence of mind, enclosed in a •cake of wax a short account of the voyage and discovery, and ))lacinff it in a cask he committed it to the sea, with the hope that jf he should perish, it might fall into the hands of some navigator -or be cast ashore, and thus the knowledge of his discovery might be preserved to the world. But the storm fortunately abated, and Columbus arrived safely in the port of Falos, from wb^^H he had sailed about seven months before. He was receiv' 'hh the loudest acclamations by the people, who gazed with ac . shment on the riches and the various cunosities which he brou^t with him from the New World $ at Barcelona he met with a gracious reception from Ferdinand and Isabelia. 13. Columbus, in his third voyage to the n.w world, discovered the continent, and landed in several places in the northern part of South America. But his success and the great marks of favor shown him by his sovereign, did not faH to excite envy and jea- lousy against him in the court of Spain. In consequence of vaii- ous false and groundless charges, he was deprived of the govern- riiei it of Hispaniola, and sent home in chains. The captain of the vessel in which he returned, throught respect to, his illustrious 'Captive, offered to release him from his fetters. To whom Co- 10. On landing, what did the l^aniatda find? What is said of the natirei?— 11. "What Was the first land discovered? What did he afterwards disooTer ? What were thesa islands denominated? What were the aborigines called?— 19. Duringthe voyage, 'What happened 7 While the storm continued, what did Columbus ? Where did ne :arrive? How was he received ?— 13. In his third voyage, what did Columbus disco* ii was heard from men of every rank ; even Ferdinand himself, for a season, seemed to feel the blush of shame ; he ordered the veqerable Columbus to be set at liberty, but ungratefully re tained bim in Spain until he aj^nted another person js^vernoi of JEXapamola, Such was tiie reward that tiie ^reat discoveret of the western continent received, for having devised and accom- plished one of the nbblest enterprises that ever entered into the iteind of man. Columbus never forgot this unjust and shameful treatment; and during the remainder of his life, he carried about him the fetters in which he had been bound, as a memorial of the ingratitude he h^ received, and gave orders that they should be buried with him m nnlltave. 15. But his spirit of enterprise was not subdued. Bent on findH> ing a passage to India bv the west, which had been the leading object of his discovery, he undertook a fourth voyage to the new world ; during which he examined the coast of Danen, but suffered shipwreck on the isle of Jamaica. After having endured a variety of suflferings and cal^ities> occasioned by the mutiny of his men» scarcity of provisions, and sickness, he asain reached Spain. Shortly after his return he died at Yaladolia, in the seventieth jrear of his age.. His funeral, at the royal expense, was grand and imposing; on his tomb was placed the following inscription: ^^ To €astile and Leon, Columbus has given a new world.'' 16. Thouffh the world is indebted to Colurhbus for the dis- covery of the Western continent, still the honor of ai»ociating his^name with the country he discovered has unjustly been wrest' ed from him. Americus Vespucius^ a native of Fjorence, who accompanied Qjeda on a voyage to the New World in 1499, dis- covered a part of South Amenca the year after the continent had been visited hy Coiumbus,^ Americua, on his return to Spain, published ^n account of his voyage, and claimed the honor of having been the first discoverer of the mam land; and the conti- nent from bim gradually received the name of America. 17. The achievement of Columbus, who first crossed the ex- panse of the Atlantic, and visited regions hitherto unknown, excited throughout Europe a lively spirit of enterprise and adven- ture. In 1519, Magdlaut a Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain, sailed to the western continent, passed the straits in the soutnem part of South America, which now bear his name, and was tiie first who entered that vast ocean called by him the Pacific, What reply did Columbna make to the captain?— 14. What is said of him on his ntnrn to Spain? What did Ferdinand do? What did Columbus do durinrthe re- mainder of his life?— 15. What did he undertake? What did he suffer? WTien and where did he die? What inscription is placed on his tomb?— 16. From whom did the country receive the name of America ? On his return to Spain, what did h* publtah?— 17. What did the achievement of Columbus excite? In 1510, what ww done? 284 AUfilUCA. from the calmness of its waters. Magdlan lost hi9 life in one of the Philippine islands, yet his officers proceeded on their voy- affe, and for the first time accomplished the circumnavigation of the globe. 18. John Cabot t a Venetian by birth, under a commission fVom Henry YII. of England, accompanied by his son Sebaatum, sailed on a Yoyaffe of discovery in 1497, and discovered the continent of North America, a year before the main land of South America had been reached by Columbus. On the 20th of November, 1497, Vaaeo de Oama, employed by the kin^ of Portugal, for the first time doubled the Cape of Oood Hope, and in the following May arrived at Calicut on the coast of Malabar. By this he enected what had been the leading object of Columbus .in all his enter- prises, and what, in the preceding age, had been the great object of investigation, namely, to find a more expeditious and conve- nient mode of passage to the East Indies than through Egypt. 19. Cabot havinff proceeded on his voyage to the north m quest of a passage to India, without being able to effect his object, re- turned and sailed along the coast as far as Florida, erected crossea^at various points as he passed, and took possession of the country Iti the name of the crown of England. This Vfas the foundation of the English claim to North Atnericp . 20. Several years had now elapsed since the discovery of Ameiica by Columbus, and no permanent settlement was yet made upon the continent. At an early period after the arrival of the Spaniards, they had been apprised of the existence of the rich and powerful empire of Mexico. The Governor of Cuba having conceived the design of subjugating it to the power of Spain, fitted out a small fleet for that purpose, and placed it under the command of Fernando Cortex. On the 10th ofJanuary, 1519,/Cortez sailed from Cuba with eleven small vessels, having •n board six hundred men, sixtr in horses, six pieces of artillery, and a few muskets. Haying reached the continent, he caused himself to be proclaimed inc^pendent of the Governor of Cuba, (who bad already revoked the commission intrusted to him,} and accountable to none but the monarch of Spain. 21. Heathen laid the foundation of the colony of Vera Cruz, and the better to inspire his trooi)S in their arduous undertaking, by cutting ofif all hope of returning, lie caused the vessels to be burnt on the coast. Cortez now proceeded rapidly on his march to the capital of the Mexican empire, which he finally reached after encountering innumerable difficulties. He entered the city under the assumed quality of ambassador of the Spanish monarch, and was cordially received by the emperor Montezuma, who assigned^ him one of the royal palaces as a place of residence during his stay. V \ Where did Magellan lose his life ?— la What did John Cabot do ? Who first doubled the Cape of Good Hope ? What was effected by this ?— 19. What laid the foundation ofthe&nglish claim in North America T— 20. At an early period, of what had the Spaniards been apprised? What designs did the governor or Cuba formT When did Oortez sail, and with what number of vessels ? WTiat did he cause himself ?— 81. What did he then do ? Where did he proceed ? How did he enter the city ? AICR&ICA. $86 tS. In the mean time an attack was ma^ a|Nin the Spantdi colony at yera Cruz by one of Ae Mexican generals. Cortet, on receiving intelliffence of this transactifHi, takinjg with him a •mall band of resolute men, went to the palace oT the emperor, seized the person of Montezuma, and compdled him to retain with him to his residence. The Mexicans, roused by this breadi of hos|Htality, flew to arms, and, after many sanguinary contests, the Spaniards were compelled to leave Ae capital. On one occasion, as Montezuma appeared on the rampart, in order to ijuell a sedition among the citizens, the unhappy monarch was kUled by a stone dirown by one of the assailants | he was imme- diately succeeded by his brother, Quellavaea. 23. But no reverse of fortune could intimidate the courare ot* abate the ardor of the enterprising Cortez. Having obtained the assistance of a nation of Indians who were tributary to the sove- rei^ of Mexico, and being reinforced by a bodjy of Spaniards, he again presented himself before the city, which was accordingly taken after a siege of seventeen days. Gttatimoxin, who ma succeeded C^etlavaca, endeavored to escape with his family and court, but was intercepted and taken prisoner before he could effect his design. 24. The Spaniards, who were greatljr disapfiointed in the amount of treasure they expected to find in the city, in order to discover them, resolved to put the unfortunate monarch and his chief minister to the rack. The prince bore his sufferings with incredible constancy, aiid hearing his minister complain, he turned to him and said : ^* And myself, am I on a bed of roses?*' He was liberated from the hands of the soldiery through the influence of Cortez, but was afterwards put to death on a charge of treason and conspiracy, during the year 1523. Thus was thKe great em- pire of Mexico overthrown, and reduced to a Spanish province by a few bold and daring adventurers. 25. Shortly after the conquest of Mexico by Cortez, a similar expedition was undertaken against the rich and powerful empire o( Peru, by IVancis Pizarro, who sailed from Panama in 1525, and began to explore the shores of the Pacific. His enterprise was for some time impeded by a variety of causes ; but in 1631, having obtiined from Charles V. of Spain a commission as gover- nor of the country, and a small force to enable him to conquer it, he continued his adventures, and advanced into the very heart of Peru, then an extensive empire, governed by sovereigns styled Jncaa, 26. The country at that time was divided into two hostile parties, by the two sons of the late monarch, who disputed the succession to the throne. »^ttUfalipa, the younger, was finally successful, having defeated his brother in battle and taken him 99. In tiie mean time what took place f On reeeivingr this Intelliffenee, what did Obrtez do? VRiat ia said of the MezieaniT What was the fate of Montezuma?— 83. What did Ciortea again do? What la taid of Gaatimozin ?— 34. What did tha Spaniards dot What is said of the prince? What was his fate ?— 25. After this whal similar eniedition was nndertaken? In 1S31, having obtained a commission as go> TernoTi what did he do ?-^86. How was the country at that tuna diTtded ? 286 AMCRtCA. prisoner, he ondered him to be put to death. Both princes had previously endeavored to ^n Uie assistance of the strangers, a cir- curastaace which Pizarro did not fail to render subservient to his views. Marching to meet Atabalipai under the cover of friendship, he suddenly attacked the army of the unsuspectinff monarch t four thousand of the Peruvians were slain, and Atabaiipa himself fell into the hands of the Spaniards. The unhappy monarch4 in order to procure his release, engaged to fill the room in which he was confined, measuring twen^-two feet in len^ and seventeen in breadth, Mrith vessels of gold and silver, as high as he could reach. The contract was fulfill sd on the part of the Peruvian sovereign, yet he did not obtain *aA liberty, out being brought to trial on a charge of treason, and as tiie murderer of his brother and the usurper of his crown, he was put to death. . 27. The entire countrjr now submitted to the conquerors, who, for the better security, Itiid the foundation of the city of Lima, a short distance from the sea. The Peruvian monarchy being thus overthrown, discord began to prevail among the conquerors, and violent contentions ensued. Mmagro, the rival of Pizarro, was taken prisoner, condemned and executed, and shortly afterwards Pizarro**1iimself was assassinated. After his death the civil feuds continued until the year 1548, when the disasters which had so long desolated Peru were terminated, and the country reduced to a Spanish province by the wise and prudent measures of Pedro de la Gasca, who had been appointed governor. 28. At the time of the invasion of the Spaniards, the Mexicans and Peruvians had made considerable advances towards civiliza- tion. Their many magnificent .palaces, temples, and pyramids, prove that they carried architecture to a high degree of perfection. They understood the arts of sculpture, mining, and working the precious metals; agriculture was in a high state of advancement: they had a regular system of government and a code of civil and religious la.ws. They worshipped the sun as the supreme deity $ but the religion of the Peruvians possessed few of those sangui- nary traits that characterized the Mexicans, who offered human victims in sacrifice. In the other parts of America the natives had made but little prog^ress in civilization. The following are a few of the characteristics that distinguish the Indians of North America, except the empire of Mexico. 29. In person, the Jndians were tall, straight, and well propor- tioned. Their complexion was of red, or copper color; their eyes were dark, their hair black, long and coarse. They are quick of apprehension, and not wanting in genius. When pro- voked to anger they are sullen and reserved ; but when deter- mined on revenge, no danger can deter them, or absence cool What had both princes endeavored to obtain? Marchings to meet Atabaiipa, what did Pizarro do ? What did the monarch engage to do to procure his release ? What was his fate?— 27. "What is now said of the country? What prevailed? What waa the fate of Almagrc and Pizarro ? In 1548, what took place ?— 28. At the time of the invasion, what is said of the Mexicans and Peruvians ? What did they understand ? What did they worship ? What is said of the religion of the Peruvians ?— ^. What were the Indians in person ? Their complexion ? When provoked to soger ? Wbe|i enotured T AttEttlCA. 2&f tKeir regentment. When captured by an enemy they never ask for lifetor betray the least signs of fear. 80. They had no books at the time they were first visited^ or any written literature, except rude hieroglyphics. Education, among^em. was confined to the arts of war, hunting, and fish- ing. ^Their language was rude, but sonorous, metaphorical and energetic. Their arts and manufactures were confined chiefly to the construction of the wigwam, bows and arrows, ornaments of various kinds, stone hatchets, and weaving a kind of coarse mat from bark or hemp. Their agriculture was very limited, and the articles they cultivated consisted of com, beans, peas, potatoes, melons, &c. Their skill in medicine was confined to a few sim- ple prescriptions, but the diseases to which they^ were subject were few compared with those which prevail in civilized society. 31. The employments of the men were principally hunting, fishing, and war $ the women dressed the food, tilled the fields, and performed nearly all the drudgery, besides attending to their domestic concerns. Their domestic utensils consisted of a hatchet of atone, and a few shells which they used as knives. With these they scalped their enemies, dressed their game, &c. Money among the Indians was called Wampum^ and consisted of smaU beads wrought from shells. War was the favorite employment of the aborigines of North America. When they fought in the open plain, Uiey^ rushed to the attack with the utmost fiiry, at the same time uttering the frightful war-whoop. If peace was con- cluded, the chiefs ratified the treaty by smoking, in succession, the Calumet or pipe of peace. 32. Their government was an-absolutennonarchy; the will of the chief being regarded as the law, although in matters of mo- ment, he consultea his counsellors, but his own decision was final. The'religion of the natives consisted of traditions, mingled with many superstitions. Like the Hindoos, and some of the ancient nations, they believed in the existence of two gods; the one good, who was superior, and whom they styled the Great Siririt $ and the other evil, who was thought to be inferior in power They worshipped tiiem both, and of both thev made images of stouv-, to which they paid religious homage. Thejr also entertained some confused ideas of future rewards and punishments. Their chief mode of worship was to sing and dance around a large fire, to which they added prayer, and sometimes they offered in sacrifice a kind of sweet-scented powder, blood and tobacco. 33. Marriage among them was, in general, a temporary con- tract J the men chose their wives agreeably to their fancy, anc^ could put them away at pleasure ; but senerally, the contracts were observed with much fidelity. Polygamy was prevalent amon^ them. Their treatment of their wives was cruel and op- pressive; they were conndered as slaves, and treated as such. 36 Wiiat la said of booka? Their langnaget Their artaT Their agriealtnre? Tlieur akill in medicine?— 31. What were the employnienta of the men T Of the wo* men ? What were their domeatie ntenaila t What waa war ?— ^. What waa their flOTemmentr The religion of the nativea? In what did they beliereT What their chief mode of worahip?— 33. What waa mafriage among themT What prevalent T How did they treat their wivea t 288 AMERICA. Hie rites of burial among Indians differed but litjtle throughoa: the continent. The/ generalljr made an openwg in the ground, at the, bottom of w.hich the corpse, wrappea in skias or n)ats, was deposited. The arms and ornaments of the deceased were buried with them, and a mound of earth raised over the grave. 84. The origin of Indians inhabiting the counter on the arrival of the Europeans, h^ long been a BupJect of investigation, and as yet, the matter remains undecided. The best supported opmion is, that at some unknown period, they emigrated From the north eastern^ part of .^'a to the northern coast of North Jimerica thM may be probable, as Behring's Straits, separating the two continents, is only about forty miles wide, a much shorter dis- tance than the Indians are known to sail in their canoes; this strait is frequently frozen over, hence they may have crossed ofk the ice. SECTION n. •w Settlement qf Virginia and New Fork 1. The French were among the first adventurers in tl^e West- ern continent. As early as the year 1504, they had visited the banks of Newfoundland, and in 1524, Francis I. of France, will- ing to share with his neighbors a portion of the New World, com- missioned Verrazano on a voyage of discovery. This navigraitor explored a great part of the shores of North America. About ten years after m\%,Jamea Car/ter, under a similar commission from the French Idng, sailed to the new world, entered thd gulf of St. Lavnrence, and took possession of the country in the name of his sovereign, and called it New France; this name was sub- sequently changed to that of Catuida* %. In 1584, Sir Walter Salei^h, under a commission from Queen Elizabeth, of England, arrived in America, entered Pftm- lico Sound, and proceeaing to Roanoke Island, near the mouth of Albemnrle Sound, he took possession of the country for the crown of England. On his return* he gave so fiatteriog an ac- count of the oeauty and fertili^ of the country, that Elizabeth bestowed OU: it the n»ine of Yirginvi, aa a memorial that it had been discovered duKng the reifl^ of a vicj^ queeiu Sleveral at- tempts to forin a setUeqient inlrirginia weiremade by Sir Walter Raleigh J he despatpied sevenil sinalV vessels,, uncter the com- mand of Eiohand G^Binville, cai^iruig one Jiundred and eightjT^ adventni!er». who wetie^Unded on the l9le of Roajioke. Bgt tl^ colonists* deiuaed by^ tha, prnapect of finding mines o^ the pre- cious metidt, negleeted.the cultivation of the soi)^ they were,ia consequence, redr were destroyed bgr the mknm. 8. lliisuMttcoessfulattenipt withdrew for aometinaetie afttaii- tion of the Enslish froM these distant repoDS. In 1602, howerer, BarthdamewG«aiiold sailed from Englud, and diacoTeredCapc Cod, which mme he gave it on account of the number «f codfidi eau^t near it. From this period we find that tfce snirit «f Jidrea- tnre again revived. In 1606. lames I.«f England ^ranted let- ters patent, an exclusive rigiit or privilege, to (he London and Plymouth companies, by which they were authorized to possess and occupy all the territory lying between the 84th and 45th de- Sees of north latitude^ which at that time was included under e common name of Virginia. To the former company was as- signed the section of countir included between the 41st and 34th degree of south latitude, called Sooth Virginia ; and to the lafto*, that part of the territmy lying to the north, called North Vir- ginia. 4. Under this patent, the London company, in 1007, sent oui a vessel under the command of Captain Newport, carrying one hundred and five adventurers. After a tedious voyage of four months, they arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, and sailed some distance up the Powhatan, now called the James River, where they built a fort, and laid the foundation of a towa, which in honor of their king they called Jamestown. The go- vernment of the colony was framed by ihit London company^ and was administered by a council of seven persons, with a ps^udent chosen from among their own number. 6. The nanw of the first president was ffingJUld^ but the most distinguished person in the council was the celebrated Cmaain lokn Smith, who, from tiie active part which he took in the trans- actioDs of the new settlement has been styled father of the colony. The life and actions of this extraordinary man resemble the deeds of a hero of romance. In the early part of his life, he imd the command of a body of cavalry in the Austrian army,a0d durinr a contest with the Turks, he was taken prisoner, and sent as a'sMive to Constantinople^ from which he afterwards obtwied his release and ^turned to England. His romantic and enter- prising B{qrit led him to en^a^s in an expedition to the new world, aiM by his superior amlities, the colony was repeat^ly rescued from the brink of ruin. 6. Unfortunately for the colwiists, they were soon involved w hostilities with the natives, whose antipathy to the English was occasioned Inr the cruel treatment they had previously experienced fwoiStr Mkhwd CfrmwiUe, who burnt an entire Indian jvillage and destroyed their com, in retaliation for their steidii^ aiAlver cup. Tli» smgular adventures of Captain Smith fonn a consid'' caous portion of tiie histoiy of the colony. On one occamon» 8. In 1608, what took place f In 1006, what wm grasted by James ? What ■MigMd t0 thei former t To the latter t^-4. "What 4id the London ^oiqpany do in |l when did yiey irriTe? What town did they oomnieneet~»6. Who was th^most liandshed person f In early life what had hot-rHow was the antipathy of the to ue English occasioned? Relate the adventares of Capjtwn Bwwtli t 25 «90 AMS&ICAir C0L0KIE9. iHiile exploring the country, he was taken prisoner by a band «if two handred Indians) but charmed, however,. with Iris valor, and the varioua artt which he used to astonish or please them, thejr released him from captivity. After this he was again taken by a party of three hundred, who led him in triumph to Powhatan, their king. The sentence of death was immediately pionounced against him^ and he was conducted to the place of execution. His head was laid upon a stone, and the savages, with uplifted clubs^ were about to desmitch their victim, when Poeahontoi, tk fa- vorite daughter of Powhatan, threw herself between the prise >r and the executioners, and by her tears and entreaties prevoiled un her father to recall the sentence. Her prayers were heard, and Smith was set at liberty. 7. In 1609, Powhatan had concerted measures for the des'ruc- tioifof the colony;^ but Pocahontas, who had always manifested afriendty disposition towards the Enfflish, visited Jamestown alone, on a dark and stormy night, and disclosed to Captain Smith the designs of her father; the colony was by this means saved from destruction. Pocahontas, during a subsequent visit to James- town, was there detained, and her father, who was devotedly Sttacned to his daughter, concluded a treaty with the English on [leir own terms. Pocahontas was afterwards married, with the consent of her father, to a Mr. Rolfe, a young planter of a re- 8|>ectable family. After their nuptials, which were celebrated with great pomp, Rolfe and the princess sailed for England, where she waa instructed in the Christian religion, and publicly baptized. She died at Gravesendi in the twenty-second year of her age, leavinff one son, from whom are descended some of the most re- spectable families of Virginia. 8. X>uring the first year the colonists suffered severely from want of provisions and from sickness, which in a few months carried off half their number ; but by the arrival of new adventu- res, the population of the colony, at the close of the year, amounted- to about two hundred persons. Daring the year 1609, Ckmtain Smithy in consequence of an injuir he received by the ac- cidental explosion of guiipowder, was obliged to return to Eng- land for medical aid. His absence was a severe loss to the colony. In consequence of a waste of provisions, a most distressing ffiinine followed ; the period was long known by the name of the starving times. So dreadful was its effect, that in the sitece of six months^their number was reduced from nearly five hundred to sixty. The small remnant that survived, were so disheartened by these 'disasters that they resolved to abandon the settleinent, apd return to Eilgland. From this they were prevented bv tiie timely arrival of Lord Dektware. who had been appointed go- vernor, witii one hundred and fifty men, and a large supply of provisions. Through his exertions, they Were induced to remain^ 7. Inl600, what was concerted? How was it prevented? What is said of Poca< hQntaa on a snbaeqnent visit to Jamestown? To whom was she married ? Whera did they sail for ? where did she die ?--8. From what did they suffer ? What hap. Cned during the year 1609? In consequence of waste ofprovisions, whM i&> ired? In six months, to what was the number reduced? What did they iMoival How were they pMT«nted? ji!: c; AMKBICAN COLONIES. 291 oremaini told their number being increaMd by new arrivals, the conditioD of the colony soon began to assume a prosperous appearance. 9. The planters were men generalljr destitute of families, and had emigrated with a prospect of obtaining wealth, and expected eventually to return to their native country. Bvi ivith a view of Attaching them to the new settlement, and of rendering their resi- dence permanent in the cerior force, he retired from public life, and Mathews was appointed governor by Cromwell. 13. On the death of Mathews, the sfHrit of opiwsition was again manifested ; the colonists threw oflf their allegiance to the com- monwealth, recalled Berkley from his retirement, erected the royal standard, and proclaimed Chfirles II., son of the late king, -as their lawful sovereign. Fortunately for the colonists, the re» storation of Charles, which shortly afterwards took place, preserved them from the chastisement 't which their previous declaration in his favor had exposed them. In 1676, towards the close of Berkley's administration, the restriction imposed on trade by the king, occasioned considerable discontent in the colony, and finally fave rise to an insurrection, known by the name of Bacon^s Re- eUioUf so citiled from the name of its leader. During the pro- gress of this unfortunate insurrection, the country was given up to pillage, Jamestown was burnt, and all the horrors of civil war continued to rage, until they were terminated by the death of Bacon. 14. The territorv now comprising the Middle States of the Union, was originally settled by the Dutch and Swedes. In 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman, in the service of the East India Company of Holland, on a voyage in search of a north-west pas- sage to India, touched at Long Island, and sailed up the nver which now bears his name. The right of discoyery being thus acquired, and the favorable report of the country, induced a com- pany of Dutch adventurers to attempt a settlement on the Hudson river about the year 1613. They built a fort near the present site of Albany, called Fort Orange, and another with some few trad- ing houses on Manhattan Island, where the cit, of New York now stands, and styled the latter settlement. New .Amsterdam, while the whole country was called New Netherlands. 15. The Swedes had already made a settlement on the Dela- ware river, and held possession of the territory until its final sub- jugation by the Dutch colonists of New Netherlands, under their enterprising governor, Stuyvesant. The extension of the New England settlements occasioned a series of disputes and contests with their neighbors in New Netherlands. In~1664, Charles II., who had been restored to the throne of his father^ forgetfut of the fiiends who had given him a shelter during his exile, sought every pretext for a dispute with Holland. Among other things, he as- serted a claim to the colony possessed by that country in America, and accordingly conveyed it to his brother, the I)vke qf York. The duke made immediate preparations for carrying the king's During the revolution in England, what is said of the colonists ? In 1651, what took place ?— 13. On the death of Mathews, what did the colonists do 7 In 1676. what did the restrictions on trade occasion and give rise? How was it terminatea? — 14. By whom was the territory comprising tbe Middle States settled ? In 1609, what took place V Where did they build a fort? What did they call the settlements ?— 15. Where had the Swedes settled ? In 1064, what did Charles do ? What did he claim, and '.o whom did h« eonv«y it ? What did the Duke of York do ? What is said of Stuyvesant ? AMSRICAM eOLONIfiS. 093 grant into effect, and for that purpose Colonel Nichols was sent out with a fleet, having on board a considerable force. After touching at Boston, he sailed for New Amsterdam, and anchoring before tne place, he demanded its surrender. Stuyvesapti the {governor, after some opposition, was obliged to yield to the En8^- ish 5 and the whole territory thus became subject to the Britiih crown, and the country, in nonor of the duke, was called New York. , SECTION III. New England Settlements, 1. In 1607, about the same time that the colony in yirginia laid the foundation of Jamestown, a^ settlement was commenced on the Kennebec river, under the direction of the Plymouth com- pany: but owing to successive misfortunes, the settlement was abandoned for the present. In 1614^ the country was again visited by Captam Smith, so celebrated m the history of Virginia, who exainined the coast from the Penobscot river to Cape Cod, and on his return, prepared a map of the country, to wnich be gave the name of New England, 2. In 1620, a patent was granted by kin? James I., to Ferdi- nando Gorges and others, called the council of Plymouth, for the purpose of settling a colony in New England. Their patent in- cluded all the terntory between the fortieth and forty-eighth de- grees of north latitude. During the same year in which the {»atent was obtained, the first permanent settlement in New Eng- and was commenced at Plymouth, by a body of Puritans^ alfc known by the name of Broivnists, from the name of the founder of their sect. 3. The Puritans, who had suflTered continual persecution in Eng- land, on account of their dissent from the tenets of the established church, had taken refuge in Holland, under the charge of their minister, Mr. John Robinson $ but not finding their new residence agreeable, from various causes, they resolved to seek an asylum from oppression by removing to tne wilds of America. After having experienced many delays and disappointments, a patent was obtained under the seal of the London Company^ assigning to them a tract of land within the limits of the Virginia charter. 4. On the morning of the 22d of July, 1620, Mr. Robinson, their minister, kneeling in prayer on the sea-shore at Delfthaven, consecrated the embarcation of the Pilgrims, They touched at Southampton, in England, from which place they sailed^ on the fifth of August ; but before proceeding far they were obliged to return, in order to repair the smaller of their vessels, calkd the 1 In 1607, where was a settlement commenced 7 By whom was the country visited m 1614 7 On his return, what did he do 7—2. lu 1620, what was granted 7 During the same year, what was commenced at Plymouth 7—3. Where had the Puritans taken refuge 7 "What did they resolve 7—4. On the twenty-second of July, 1020, what took plac«7 Where did they teuch 7 What were they finally compellea to Uo 7 25* S94 AMERICAN COLONIES. S^edwell, which they were finally compelled to abandon, and to prosecute their voyage in the Mauflower, At length, on Ine uxdi of September, they sailed from Plymouth, in Eaigland, for the Hudson river ; but bf the treachery c^ the captain, who is sup- posed to have been bribed by the Dutch, they were carried much mrther to the north, and after a stormy passage, th^ came in sight of Cape Cod. 5. After some weeks spent in searching for a suitable place to land, during which they were exposed to incredible sufierinifs from the inclemencv of the season, the Mayflower was safely moored in a beautiful harbor, to which, in grateful remembrance of th6 last port they left in England, they gave the name of Ply- mouth. On the morning of the 20th of December, 1620, after imploring the divine assistance, the Pilgrims, to the number of oi\e hundred and one, landed upon the rock of Plymouth. The spot on which their first stej^s rested is still held in deep venera- tion by their descendants, and the day of their landing is yet celebrated with great enthusiasm. 6. Thoug}i the Pilgrims had succeeded in landing, 4heir suffei'- ings an^ distress were only about to commence. After a long and tedious voyage, they found themselves cast upon an unknown and hostile coast ; exposed to all the rigors of a New England winter, without a roof to shelter thtira irom the storm. Their supply of provisions was limited, and to fill up the measure of their sufferings, they were visited by a distressing sickness. By these united calamities, in three months after their landing, they 'Were reduced to near one-half of their original number. John Carver t th& first governor, died in March, and William Brat^ford was chosen to succeed him. The election of the governor took place' annually, and at first he had but one assistant; the number ■was afterwards increased to five, and at length to seven. ^ 7. With a desire to conform to the simplicity of the apostolic time, the Pilgrims at first held all their property in common. This was one of the causes of scarcity that for some time pre- vailed in the country. In the spring of 1623, each family was allowed a piece of ground for its cultivation, and after the harvest of that year, no general want of provisions was experienced. For the defense of the colony against the hostilities of the natives, a military organization was formed, and Captain Miles Standish, a man of considerable courage, was appointed to the command. In March, 1621, they received a friendly visit from Samoaet, the ^ihief of trie Wampanoags^ who gave them a cordial welcome, and in the name of his tribe allowed them to retain possession qi the soil which they occupied, since there was not one of the ori- ginal possessors then living to claim it. 8. From him they obtained important information respecting the country, and learned that a short time previous to their ar- When ond from what place did they sail ?— 5. Where was the Mayflotoer moored t On the 20th of December, what was done ? What is said of the spot ?— 6. What is said of the pilgrims? Of their supply of provisions T By these calamities, to what wer« they reduced ? Who was their first governor ?— 7. With a desire to conform, &o., what did the pilgrims do ? In 1633. what was each family allowed T In Mareh, 1621, 'What did they receive T—S. From him what did they obtain ? AMERICAN COLONIES. d96 rival* a dreadful p ance had carried off almost all the Indians jn the vicinity. In i^ same month, Masmaoii» the most power- ful cfaief in that region, and from whom the name of Massachu- setts is derived, paid a visit to the colonjr, and entered into n league of friendship with the settlers, which was strictly observed for up^al'ds of fifty years. 9. The colony^ increased but skiwly, and at the end of ten years the population did not exceed three hundred. In 1696, the colony of Maasacfuisetta J3c^ was commenced foy a company of adventurers under John Enaicolt, who formed a settlement at Naumkeae; to'v/hich he gave the scriptore name of Salem. It > respect spirit which enabled them to quit their native soil, and brave a thousand dangers in a hostile land, in order that they might enjoy the unrestrained exercise of their religious princifdes, we cannat refrain from disavowing that spirit of intolerance which they exer cised among themselves. ^ 10. Some of tiie colonists retained a high veneration for the ritual of the church of England, and refusing to conform to the colonial establishment, they assembled to a separate place of wor ship. Endicott called before him two of the principal offenders ana sentenced tl^m to banishment ; they were accordingly sent home by the first vessel returning to England. ^ In 1630, another company of adventurers, over fifteen hundred in number, under John VFinthropt who was appointed governor, arrived in Massa- chusetts and commenced the settlement of Charlestown, Boston, and other places in that vicinity. At the first general court held at Charlestown, a law was passed, declaring that none should be free, or have any share in the government, except those who had been received as members of the church. 11. In the spring of 1623, the settlement of New Hampshire was commenced at Dover and Portsmouth, by persons sent out under the patronage of Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason, to whom the country had been granted. These settlements were united to Massachusetts in 1641, and remained a part of that colony until 1678, when New Hampshire obtained a separate go- vernment. In 1635, the colony of Connecticut was commenced by a few families, with their favorite minister Mr. Hooker, who left Massachusetts, and after a fatiguing march through the wilder- ness, settled on the west side of the Connecticut nver, and laid the foundation of Windsor and Wethersfield. 12. Roger Williams, a minister at Salem, having been banished from Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions, with a few companions commenced the settlement of Rhode Island, on the site where the city of Providence now stands, which name In the same month who paid a vi«it to the colony ?— 9. In 1628, what colony was eommenced ? What might be auppoBed ?— 10. What did aome of the colonists retaia T What did Endicott do? In 1430, what took place? At the first general court at Oharlestown, what law was passed? — 11. In 1023, what settlement was commencod* Bv whom? When and by whom was Connecticut commenced ?— 12. AVhat is relatod of Roger Williams? ! AMERICAN COLONIES. I ' 296 'they gave to the place, in grateful acknowledgment of the Divine Erotection. About two years after this, Mr. Coddington, having een also banished from Massachusetts, with seventy -six others, for holding opinions which were deemed erroneous by the colonial establishment, purchased from the Indians, ^quetneck, a fertile island in Narragamet Bay, and named it Rhode^ Island, under which title the previous settlement by Roger Williams was after- wards included. ^ 13. In 1644, Williams visited England as agent of the settlers, and obtained from the British parliament, shortly after the com- mencement of the civil war. a free charter of incorporation for Providence and Rhode Island plantations. The charter was con- firmed and its constitutional powers enlarged in the reign of Charles II. By this instrument it was ordered, " that none were to be molested for any difference of opinion in matters of reli- gion j" yet the very first assembly, convened under its authority, excludeu the Roman Catholics from voting at elections, and from every ofiice in the government. 14» 'J'he friendly intercourse which had for some time existed between the colonists and the natives, began gradually to be in- terrupted. The Indians in the vicinity of Massachusetts Bay 'jvere few and unwarlijce, and having received a stipulated com- Sensation for the land from the earl;r settlers, they evinced no isposition for hostility ; but Connecticut and Rhode Island had to contend with numerous and powerful tribes. Among these, the Narragansets and Pequods were the most formidable. The Satter having sent a deputation to their neighbors the Nan'agan- sets, requested them to forget for a season their mutual animosi- ties, and co-operate in expelling the common enem" from the coti'ntry : but tne former considering this as a favorable oppor- tunity for weakening or totally destroying a powerfiil rival, dis- covered their hostile intentions to the governor of Massachusetts, and united in alliance with the colonists against them. 15. The Pequods had pitched their camp in the middle of a swamp, near the head of Mystic river, and fortified it with pali- sades J but the colonists, under Captain Mason, marched to the place unperceived, and were about to enter the camp through a pass, which, by some unaccountable neglect was left open, when the alarm of their approach was given by a faithful dog. In a moment the warriors flew to arms and prepared to repel the at- tack"; but in a few moments more the wigwams in which the Indians slept were enveloped in flames. Dreadful was the car ^nage that now ensued. Aroused from their slumbers by the dis- ' charge of musketry, the affrighted Indians rushed in consternation froin their burning tenements. As they came forth they were received by the swords of the enemy ; if they attempted to escape by scaling the palisades they were met by a shower of balls. Two years .fter this, what did Mr. Coddington do ? — 13. In 1641, what did W^illiams do and obtain ? By this instrument, what was ordered ? Yet what was done by the first assembly?— 14. What is said of nhe Indians in the vicinity? Which were the most formidable tribes ? AVhat did the latter request? What did the former do?— 15. V/herehad the Pequods pitched their camp? What did the colonists do? De- scribe the scene that followed AMERICAN COLONIES. 297 Many afraid to venture out perished in the flames ; while others, recoiling from the deadly weapons of the foe, rushed back into the devouring element and shared the fate of their^ com^nions. '^In a few minutes, five or six hundred lay gasping in their blood w were silent in the arms of death.'' Those that were captured* above the number of two hundred, were either sold as slaves abroad or reduced to servitude by the English at home. So com- plete was the extermination, that in a few months the nation ojf Pequods was entirely destroyed, even their very name was no longer heard. 16. The danger to which they were exposed by the encroach- ments of foreign enemies and domestic nostilities, induced th( four colonies ot Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New HaveUj to enter into an alliance for their mutual defence, under the title of the United Colonies qf New England, A. D 1643. This confederation, which was regulated by two delegate^ from each colony, subsisted with but little alteration until their charters were annulled by Charles II. As many of the early settlers were men of talents and education, they gave their earliest attention to the interest of learning and to the establishment of schools. In 1638, {« few years after the settlement of Massachu- setts, Harvard University^ the oldest seminary of learning in the country, was founded at Cambridge. 17. Although the colonists possessed many excellent traits of character, they were not, however, without their faults. While they claim our admiration for their enterprise, for their love of libertv and attention to the interests of educatior, we are coin> pelled to regard their misguided zeal in matters of religion with mingled feelings of sorrow and disapprobation. In 1656, a num- ber of Quakers, flying from persecution at home, sought an asylum among their Christian brethren in New England ; but the novelty of their mode of worship greatly oftended the ministers of the established church; they were accordingly imprisoned and sent off" by the first opportunity. A law was then passed prohibiting the emigration of Quakers to Massachusetts; forbidding their return, in case of banishment, under the penalty of deaUi. In consequence of these severe proscriptions, several of these unof- fending people were hanged. 18. In Connecticut the Quakers were treated with little less severity. A law was passed against them, subjecting the offender to imprisonment at hard labor, and the tongue to b(; pierced through with a red-hot iron. These instances of intolerance, which have cast a blot upon the memory of our forefathers, are not cited to wound the feelings of their descendants, but simply to remind them that it is their duty to avoid the repetition of these errors; that it is incumbent on all to discountenance religious in- tolerance in every form, in every age and in every clime; that the What was done with those who were captnrecl ? — ^16. "^Vhat did their danger induce the colonistJ to do? How long did tliis confederation subsist? To what did they rive their earliest attention? When was Harvard University founded? — 17. While tney claim our admiration, what are we compelled? In 1656, what took place? What law was passed?— 18. In Connecticut, what law wfts passed? Why are tbQffe in- •tancei of intolerance mentioned ? 298 AMEtllCAN COtOKIfiS. ii!]!!:- lili i same ascendency that then prevailed over the civil authorit .1, might even now plunge society into that unhappy state, which 0t are called to contemplate with so much regret. 19. After the termination of the Pequod war, the New England settlements enjoyed a long continuance of peace, during which they greatly increased in wealth and population. The treatment, however, which the natives had generally received from the early adventurers, had given them great reason to regard the Europeans with an eye of jealousy and distrust; and it must be confessed that the colonists, in their proceedings with regard to the natives, were often directed by principles of cruelty and injustice, as a reference to the records of those times will clearly prove. In 1675, the peace which long subsisted was interrupted, and the colonists found themselves involved in a destructive war v 1th Philip f king of the WampanoagSt whose principal residence was at Mount Hope in Rhode Island. 20. Philip, equally eminent for his warlike character and un- daunted courage, m as the most formidable enemy ever encoun*- tered by the colonists. Having spent four years in maturing the plan ofj^an extensive conspiracy which had for its object the utter extermmartion of the English, he commenced hostilities, and by means of his alliances was able to bring four thousand warriors into the field. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth united against him. The war was commencted with great energy and spirit on both sides, and for some time conducted with equal success. In the great battle known by the name of the Swamp Fight, two hundred and thirty of the colonists were killed, while one thousand of the Indian warriors are supposed to have perished, and over five hundred of their wigjvams were burned. At length an end was put to these disasters in 1676, by the death of PhiRp, who was shot by one of his own men who had joined a party of the English under the famous Captain Benjamin Church. 21. At the commencement of this distressing war, the English population amounted to nearly sixty thousand persons, of whom six hundred had fallen in battle during the conflict, besides a much greater number of women and-chifilren who were led into a miserable captivity by the Indians. Scarcely a family or indi- vidual remained who had not to mourn the loss of a relative or friend. After the termination of this conflict, however, the New England colonies were freed from the hostilities of the natives, until the war with the French, who employed the savages as auxiliaries. 23. About the year 1692, the people of the colonies were thrown into the utmost consternation, by the extraordinary imaginary power of witchcraft. A Mr. Mather, a minister of New England , who was a firm believer in all these ridiculous stories, relates a number of these supernatural events, which at the present time are more amusing than interesting. Severe laws were made 19. AAer the Pequod war, what did New Eng:land enjoy ? In 1675 what took place ? •-B0 What is said of Philip ? How was the war conducted ? How many fell on both •ides in the Swamp Fiffht? What was the end of Philip?— 21. At the commencement of the war, what is said of the English? "What had every ibmily to mourn ?—8a.WI>at took place in lOOa? - i! I'! ter and un- AMERICAN COLONIES. 299 affainst witchcraft, and not until t\irenty persons of both sexes had been executed, did the frenzy begin to cease. 33. Maryland, The founder of Maryland was Sir George Cal- vert, Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, who was distinguished as a statesman, and had held the office of secretary of state in the reign of James I. of Encland. With a view of forming in Ame- rica an asylum for himself and his persecuted brethren, he sailed to Virginia about the year 1631; but meeting an unwelcome recep- tion there on account of his religion, he fixed his attention upon a territory beyond the Potomac, and finding it Unoccumed and well adapted to his purpose, he immediately returned to England and obtained of Charles I. a grant of the land. From Henrietta Maria, the consort of Charles, the country was called Afary- land. 24. Before the patent was completed. Sir George died, and the grant was transferred to his elaest son, Cecilius Calvert, who inherited the titles of his father. Preparations were immediately made for the^ settlement of a colony. Remaining in England himself, Cecilius Calvert appointed his brother Leonard as gover- nor of the intended settlement. On the 22d of November, in the year 1633, emigrants to the number of about two hundred set sail from the Isle of Wight* in two small vessels, the >^rk and Dove, and after a tedious passage arrived in March of the follow- ing year on the shores of the Cnesapeake. Following the exam- ple of Columbus, they immediately erected a cross and returned thanks to God, who had conducted the voyage to so happy an issue, and then took possession of the country in the name of their sovereign. After having purchased the land. from the natives, they commenced the building of the town of St. Mary, which for many years remained the capital of the colony. 25. The leading features of policy adoptetf by the founders of this colony, claim our warmest admiration. Their intercourse with the Indian tribes was marked by the strictest equity and humanity; at the same time the unrestrained exercise in ifiatterg of religion, granted to the professors of ever^ creed, reflects the highest honor upon the memory o^Lord Bcdtimort and his bene- volent associates. Whilst the Episcopalians in Virginia would suffer no other fm-m of worship among them, ejxept that of the Church of England, and whilst the Puritans of New England punished with fines, tortures, and exile^ all those who differed from their creed, the Roman Catholics of Maryland, transcend^- ing the proscriptive principles of the age, extended their arms, and invited among them the victims of intolerance from every clime.* *B«mmift^ in his History of America, vol. I., p. 268y speaking of Af aryland, sara : ^ Its history is the history of benevolence, gratitude, and toleration. The Boman What laws were made?— S3. Who was the founder of Maryland? "Why did he remove to America? Where did he next fix his attention? From whom was the country named ?— 24. What happened before the patent was complete? Who was appointed goveriv>r? When and where did they sail from? What were the names of the vessels? What did ihey immediately do?— ;)5. What claim our admiration? What reflects the highest honor on Lord Baltimore, &c.? WHiat did the Roman Catholics of Maryland do ? 300 AKERICAN COLONIES. ! 20. The tranquil litr of the colony was for some time interrufytjBd by the intrigues oiClayborne, who finally suppUntect thesroprie- tor, and compelled hin to retire from the settlefment. The very first act of those who succeeded in the ^vemment, was to strike out the fairest feature in the original constitution of the colony, namely, religious toleration, ana to enact the seTerest penalties M[ainst the professors of every creed at variance with maX of the Qiurch irf* England. ^ Thus the Roman Catholics were doomed ta see themselves deprived of the free exercise of their religion, Mthin the limits of that colony in which they had labored to establish free toleration, and that too by the very persons to whom their benevolence had granted an asylum and home. After seve- ral years (rf' disorder, the authority of the proprietor was restored, and the province began to assume its usual prosperi^. 27. Fennsylvama, In 1681, the settlement of Pennsylvania was commenced under the direction of the celebrated PrilUam Pettn, after whom the state is named. This eminent man was the son of Jldmind Perm, who served in the British navy during the protectorate of Cromwell, and during a part of the reign ei Charles JI. In early life he embraced the tenets of Quakers or tHendSt atid shared largely erf* the persecution which was carried on in England against th^n, being repeatedly harassed br fines and impnsomnent. Roused at length Iw* these umust and into- lerant proceedings, Penn resolved to seek in the New World an asylum from the oppression of the Old. Accordingly he applied to Charles II., from whom he obtimied the grant of a large tract of country, including the present state of I^nnsvlvania, in con- sideration of a debt oue from the crown to his father. 28. The first colony arrived in the country in 1681, and began a settlement above the confluence of the Delaware and SchuylKiU rivers. In the month of October of the following year, Penn arrived in the colony, accompanied by two thousand associates, chieily of the denomination of the Friends or Quakers, and during the next year laid out the plan for the city of Philadelphia. Penn^ first care after his arrival, was to conciliate the friendship of the Indians; accordingly, having assembled a council, he ootained possession of the land by a fair purchase, giving tiiem in exchange such European .goods as were usefiil to them, and entered into a solemn treaty with IhcM, which was inviolably (riiaerved for a period of seventy yeats. 29. His system of j^Overnment was established on tiie most iiumane and liberal pnnciples. After Nihe example of Lord Baltir more, he made civil and religious IHierty the basis of all his insttr Cfttholies who were oppressed by the laws of England, were sure to find a peaeeiiil «sylum in the quitot harbors of the Chesapeake, and there, too, Protestants were abel- tered from Protestant intolerance." '». How was the tranqnlllity Of the eolonyjnterrupted ? What was the first «et of 'those who succeeded in the ^ortfVnment T What were the Cathdlies doomed to see T-- ^. "iVhen and by whom wte theaeftlement of Pennsylvania comffioneed T What in iaid Of. him? What did Penn .rraoHre T—^Jte. When and where did tlw tret eolony MriTe? When did Penn arrive? Wihat «ity did he laqr ««f* What Wwi hiam in religion, and by ofi'ering a portion of land for of what did Penn become the proprietor ? Where and when did he die ?— 30. "When and by whom was Delaware settled? In 1651 what took place ?— 31. By whom was New Jersey settled? In 1674 what did Lord Berkeley do ? Who Kf\er wards became the proprietors ?■— 3S. What provinces next claim our attention? Towards the middle of toe seventeenth century what was done? In 1663 what did Charles grant ^-- 33. What did the proprietors do ? 26 ao3 AMERICAK COLONIES. the first five jein at a half-penny per acre. They afterwardg extended their settlements to the banks of the Ashley- and Cooper riverS) where Charleston now stands | and in 1739 the title of the land was sold to the crown, after which the country was divided into North and South Carolina, and a royal governor appointed over each. During the year 1700 the growth of cotton was intro- duced, and two years later that of rice, which articles have subse- quently become the prominent staples of those provinces. 34. Georgia. The last settlea of the thirteen original states that revolted against Great Britain was Georgia, which received its name from George II. In 1732 one hundred and sixteen per- sons embarked from England under General Oglethorpe, and arrived at Charleston early in the following year. From Charles- ton they sailed to their destined territory, and shortly after their arrival they laid the foundation of the city of Savannah. For several years after the settlement was commenced, the colony remained in a languishing state, but after the surrender of its charter to the crown, it began to flourish. 35. In' the year 1736 the celebrated John Wesley arrived in Georgia, «nd commenced his missionary labors among the colo- nists and Indians, but not meeting with the desired success, he returned again to England. Oglethorpe was distinguished as a soldier ana a statesnuin. At an early age he served on the con- tinent of Europe under the celebrated Trince Eugene, until the return of peace; and on his return to England he was elected a member of the British parliament. At the commencement of the American Revolution he was offered the command of the British army, which high office he thought proper to decline. He died shortly after the contest was decided, at the advanced age ot ninety-seven years. SECTION IV. The Drench war; Conquest qf Canada; the Oppressive Mea sures qf Great Britain towards the Colonies ; Commencement o/ Hostilities ; Battle qf Lexington; Bunker Hill; Declara- tion of Independence, 1. We have seen that the French made settlements in Canada, at Quebec, on the banks of the St. Lawrence, about the same time that the English colony at Jamestown was commenced in Virginia. Besides the possession of Canada in the north, France had also a territory on the Mississippi, in the south, called Louisiana. The boundary betweea the^ English and French colonies had long been a subject of dispute and unavailing nego- tiation. It had been for some time a favorite object on the part In 1739 what was done? What was introduced in 1700?— 34. Which was the last of tiie thirteen states? When and by whom was the settlement commenced? Of what citv did they laythe foundation?— 35. In the year 1730 who arrived? What M laid of Oglethorpe? When did he die? 1. Where had the French made settlements? WHiathnd long been a lubjeetof litpute ? Wht \ was the object of the French ? AttElUCAN COLONIES. 303 of France to connect her distant possessions, by erectinjgr forts along the Ohio and the lakes, and thus to restrict the British to a limited territory on the sea-coast. 2. This proceeding on the part of France alarmed the British and called forth the most decisive measures. Repeated com- plaints of violence having been made to the governor of Vireinia, ne determined to send a messenger to the French commander -at Fort Du Que«ne, on the Ohio, where Pittsburg now stands, to demand the reasons of his hostile conduct, and to insist that he should evacuate the fort. The choice of a person to perform this arduous undertaking fell upon George frashington.ihe future deliverer of his country, then a youth in the twenty -first year of his age. Having received his instructions from the governor, he departed on his perilous journey to the French settlement, at a distance' of near four hundred miles, one-half of the route being through a wilderness inhabited by hostile savages. On the wav, his horse filing, he proceeded o» foot, accompanied by a single companion, with a gun in his hand ana a pack on his shotilder?. On uie 12th of December he reached the French fort, delivered his message to the commander, and by the middle of January re- turned in safety with an answer to the governor of Vjrginia* 3; The reply not proving satisfactory, the organization 6f a regiment was immediately commenced in Virginia, to 8upf)ort the claims of Great Britain over the disputed territory. Of this regi- ment, Mr. Fry was appointed colonel, and young fVashington lieutenant-cobnel ; but on the death of Mr. Fry, which happened shortly after his appointment, the command devolved on Wash- ington. Without delay Washington marched forward at the head of a small force to dislodge the French from Fort Du Quesne, situated at the confluence of the Allegheny and^ Motion- gahela rivers. But before he reached the place he was Jnformcd that the garrison had been strongly reinforced, and that a body of nine hundred French were advancing against him: he there- fore thought it prudent to fall back to a fort which he had pre- viously thrown up : but before he had time to convplete his defense' he was attacked by the French general, De Villier, and after making a brave resistance, he was compelled to yield on honor- able terms of capitulation. 4. In the year 1755, General Braddock arrived in Virginia with two regiments, and after being joined by the provincials, under Washington, his forces amounted to twenty thousand men. Braddock was orave, but inexperienced as to the mode of Indian warfare. Washington, who acted as his aid^de-camp, asked permission to go forward and scour the woods with the provincial troops under his command; but Braddock, despising this prudent advice, pushed forward incautiously, and when within a few 2. What did the governor of Virginia determine? Whom did he select? "NVhat was the dietance ? On his way what happened ? When did he reach the fort ?— 3. After this, what was immediately commenced ? Of this regiment, who was appointed colo- nel? Where did Washington march ? What was he informed before he reached the nlace? "Wliat did he do?— 4. iTi 1755, who arrived? What is said of Braddock^ What did Washington ask ? What did Braddock do ? ! 304 AMEUCAK COLONIEI. miles of Fort Du Quesne^ he fell into an ambuscade of French and Indians. The invisible enemy commenced a heavy dis- charge of musketrv upon his unprotected troops ; the van was forced back upon the main body, and the whole armv thrown into disorder. A dreadful slaughter now ensued. Hraddock did all that a brave general could do to encourage his men to stand the assault ; but valor was unavailing. After an action of three hours, seven hundred of the English were left dead upon the field, and Braddock himself, after having three horses shot under hiifi, fell mortally wounded; Washington had two horses killed under him, and four bullets {Missed through his coat, yet he escaped un- iigured. The provincial troops under his command preserved their order, and covered the retreat of the regulars, who broke their ranks and could not be rallied. 5. Three s&ccessive ^.ampaigns produced nothing but expense and disappointment to the Bntish government. The lakes and the whole western and northe^ border were in possession of the French and Indians. With an inferior force they had maintained a superiority, and even extended their encroachments. In 1756, a changflLwas effected in the British ministrv, and William Pitt (afterwards Lord Chatham) was raised to the head of the~adminis- tration. From this moment affairs beffan to assume a new aspc ci. The active and enterprising genius of Pitt seemed to diffuse itself through every department of the state. He addressed a circular to the colonies in America, assuring them that an effectual force should be sent from England, and called on them to furnish as large a force as their population would permit. The number of men brought into the field at the next campaign amounted to fifty thousand, of which twenty thousand were raised in the colonies. 6. The first expedition was directed against Louisburg, which, after an obstinate resistance, surrendeied with a girrison consist- ing of nearly six thousand men. Ticonderoga and Crown Point next fell into the hands of the English. Niagara was besieged, and after a severe action, also surrendered. But a far more important and more dangerous enterprise remained yet to be accomplished. The city of Quebec, a place strong^ly fortified by nat'7 e and art, the capital of the French dominions in America, was pt(uected bv a garnson of ten thousand men, under the able and experiencea General Montcalm. The arduous duty of fe- ducinff the place was con.mitted to the heroic genera' • ' off''. 7. Having landed his army, consi : « inff of ei^t thonsatx^ mofj, on the island of Orleans, below Quebec, he made an ' ar ')■"/•. s«-v"ai attempt to reduce. the city. Notoiscouragedbythisfaiiuic:, Wolfe conce^'ed the design of ascending, during the night, a steep and criffgy precipice, to an eminence on the north bank of the river called the Hc-t. ?hts qf Abraham. This enterprise he effected with in - What was his fnte : Whp' Is said rf Washington? — 5. What did three campaigns produce? In 1~'3 whH» toe'; j ."le? V i.at did he address? What was the number of men at the rw.xx -Mnnt'.t.i: . — 6. What was the first expedition ? What places were taken ? Whai Ji tfiiu of '[Quebec ? Ti whom was tliig duty of reducing it committed —7, What desi£». did V>jife conceive t AMEIltCAN COLONICS. 305 f French javy di«- van waa ■own into dock did i to stand 1 of three the field, fider hiifi, led under :aped un- preserved rho broke t expense lakes and ion of the laintained In 1756, lliamPitt radminis* iw aspect, fuse itself a circular tual force furnish as kumber of Dunted to :d in the •g, which, n consist- wn Point )e8ieged, far more ret to be fortified America, r the able ity of fe- a. ».' ••.•;cr», A c, Wolfe steep and the river i with in - campaigns number of )laces were committed credible labor, before Montmlm had the slightest intimation ot his design, and bv sun-rise ho following morning, h'l whole army was arrayed on the plains above. A sanguinary battle ei .ed, in which the Frenrh were tntirply defeated, with a loss of fifteen hundred men, umorik vhom *«c^«iii numbered four of their principal officers, who fell in the action. But vhlle the French were called to mourn 'he loss ol iheir brave general Mont- calm, the British were compelled to lament the tieath o>f the lieroic fVnlfe^ who fell in the moment of victory.^ This illustrious man having received a mortal wound, was carried to the rear of the army, where he caused himself to be raised that he might view the engagement. Faint with the loss of blood, he had reclined hi* her.'l von the arm of an officer, when he was roused by the ry : ** f 'ey fly, they fly ! " " Who fly r" exclaimed the dying go ^irai. li 'ji^' -J that it was the enemy, he replied, ** I die cont»nt«d,*' aad imnediately expired. The sentiments of Montcahn in the A 'rnents of death, are equally remarkable. Being told that he could not survive more than a few hours, he replied', •* It is so much the better, I shall not then live to see the surrendci of Quebec" This important battle was followed by the reduction (if the city, and subsequently by that of all Canada; so that of ail the territories claimed by France^ ip America, New O' 'oans, and a few plantations on the Mississippi, alone remained in her possession, A. D. 1763. 8. Never had the attachment of the colonies to the mother country been more strongly manifested than during the French war, which had terminated so advantageously to England. The colonists felt proud c/ their descent and connexion with om of the most powerful nations of Europe. The peculiar circum- stances in which the early settlers had been placed, led them to study with more than usual care the principles of political liberty, and to view with a jealous eye every encroachment of power. What degree of authority the parent country might exercise ov( f the colonies, had never been defined. In England, the doc - trine prevailed, that- parliament had the power to bend them in all cases whatever; a principle which, in America, had been publicly denied. 9. The expenses attending the recent war had rendered it necessary to increase the usual taxes of the English nation ; but the ministry, apprehensive of rendering themselves unpopular by too severely pressing on the resources of the people at home, de- termined to raise a revenue from the colonies in Ainerica. In 1765, Mr. Grenville, the commissioner of the treasury, introduced the famous Stamp »actt by which all instruments of writing, juch as law documents, deeds, leases, willS; &c., were to be nmi and void, unless on stamped paper, on which a duty was to be paid. The bill passed the house after a long and animated discussion. ' What ensued.^ What wa« the loss of the French t What was the fate of Wolfe? What is related of him before his death ? What is said of Montcalm ? What followed the reduction ( ( this city ?— 8. ^Vhat is said of the attachment of the colonics ? Of what ^ere they proud 1 In England, what doctrine prevailed ?— 0. What did the expenies render necessary ? What is said of the ministry? In 1765, what wa» introaacedT What was the nature of this act ? 9r 306 AMERICAN COLONIES. 10. The news of this measure created the greatest sensation among the colonists. They remonstrated against it, but in vain, the act went into execution during the following year. The as- sembly of Virginia was in session when the intelligence arrived ; a number of resolutions were immediately brought forward by the patriotic Patrick Henrys in opposition to the act. Massachu- settH also declared herself opposed to it, and in all the colonies, a determined spirit of resistance to the oppressive measure was strongly manifested. When the news of the Stamp Act reached Boston, the bells were muffled, and rung a funeral peal 5 the crown officers were treated with insult, and, in some instances, the houses were broken open or demolished. In the city of New York, the «cf is carried through the streets with a death's head affixed to it,be4.ring this inscription : " The folly of England, and he ruin of America." 11. A Colonial Congress met at New York^, and published a declaration of their rights, insisting particularly on the exclusive right of taxing themselves, and loudly complaining of the Stamp Act. The merchants of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, entered into a combination, and passed a resolution not to import or sell British goods until the offensive measure should be re- pealed. So great and spirited was the opposition of the colonies, that the Stamp Act, through the exertions of Mr. Pitt, Lord Camden, and others, was repealed in the spring of 1766; but the repeal was accompanied with a declaration that the British par- liament had the power to enforce upon the colonies any measure at might think proper 5 and in accordance with this principle, an act was passed during the following year, 1767, imposing a duty on tea, paper, glass, and painters' colors. This act was iollowed by another most arbitrary declaration, that all offenders in Mas- ■sachusetts should be sent to England for trial, and in order to carry these measures into effect, two British regiments were sent over, and quartered in Boston. 12. The feelinffs of the citizens were highly exasperated to see themselves besetlay an insolent soldiery, sent over with the de- sign of intimidating them into compliance with the arbitrary acts ot the British parliament. Frequent disputes occurred between them and the soldiers, and on the fifth of March, 1770, a collision took place between a detachment of troops xxnA&c Captain Pres- ton, and the inhabitants of Boston, which resulted in the death of three of the latter, while five more were dangerously wounded. Captain Preston and the soldiers were brought to trial, and ac- quitted, except two, who were convicted of ipanslaughter. 13. Lord North succeeded to the Duke of Grafton, as prime minister of England, in 1770, when air the duties were re- pealed, with the exception of the one imposing three pence per pound on tea. Things continued in this sute of partial 10. What did the news of thii men sure create? In the Assembly of Virffinia, what was done? And in Boston? In the city of New York ? — 11. What did the Colonial Congress publish? Wliat did the merchants of Boston, &c., do ? When was the Stamp Act repealed? In 1767, what was passed? By what was this followed? — 12. What frequently occurred? On the fifth of March, 1790, what happened ?— 13. By whom was the Duke of Grafton succeeded? / AMERICAN COLONIES. 307 iiritation until the year 1773, when the Briti8h East India Com- pany were authorized to export their tea to the colonies free of dnty. The inhabitants of New York ahd Philadelphia prevented the landing of the tea ships sent to these cities, but the people of Boston showed their resentment in a different manner j a party of men disguised as Indians, boarded the vessels, and threw the tea, consisting of three hundred and forty-two chests, into the harbor. 14. Nothing could exceed the indignation of parliament when the news of this transaction reached England. An act was immedi- ately passed, by which the port of Boston was closed, and the go- vernment and officers transferred to Salem, A. D. 1774. In May of the same year. General Gage, who had been ap- pointed commander-in-cnief of the British forces in North Ameri- ca, arrived in Boston ; and was shortly followed by two regiments more, with artillery and military stores. Bjr these proceedings, the Americans very justly concluded that it was the object of the British government to reduce them to obedience by force of arms; that the hour of reconciliation was passed ; that their rights could only be maintained by an appeal to force; therefore, without delay, they began to prepare them- selves f">': the contest. 15. An agreement was entered into by many of the most dis- tinguished men of Massachusetts, called a " Solemn League and Covenant," by which they determined to suspend all intercourse with Great Bntain, until their rights should be restored. A regular enlistment of soldiers was commenced, and five general officers were appointed. The general court of Massachusetts resolved that a congress of the colonies should be called ; accordingly, on the fifth ot September, delegates from all the colonies except Georgia met at Phdadelphia. Tiiis body, generally known by the name of the Continental Congress, of which Peyton Fandolph of Vir- ginia was the first president, consisted of fifty-five members. They published a declaration of the colonies, agreed to suspend all intercourse with Great Britain ; and drew up an address to the king, another to the people of England, and a third to the colonies. 16. When the proceedings of the Continental Congress were laid before the paniament, an address was presented to the king, declaring that Massachusetts was in a state of rebellion, and re- questing that effectual means might be taken to suppress it. Ac- cordingly, during the winter and spring of 1775, the number of royal troo^ in Boston were increased to ten thousand, a force deemed sufficient for that purpose. In February, General Gage despatched a lK)dy of troops to Salem, to take possession of some pieces of cannon, but they were disappointed of their object; the people In Mc What took place in 1773? —14. IVliat act was immediately passed ? In May of the some year, who arrived n Boston? By these proceedings, what did the Americans conclude? — 15. "What agrrce- ment was entered mto ? What was commenced ? What did the Court of Massachu- setts resolve ? By what name is this body known ? Who was the first President ? What did they do? — 16. What was done when the proceedings of Congress were laid before Parliament? In February, what did General Gage do 7 308 AMERICAN COLONIES. }: cannon having been removed through the precaution of the pre vincials, who nad received intimation of their design. 17. In April, Gage sent another body of troops under Coionei Smith and Major Pitcairn, to destroy the military 8t9res which had been collected at Concord, about^ twenty miles distant from Boston. On the morning of the nineteenth of April, as they passed through Lexington, they were met by a party of militia^ to the number of about seventy, who had assembled on the green for^ the purpose of opposing their progress. Major Pitcairn, riding up, called out to them to disperse j but not being obeyed, he discharged his pistol, and ordered his men to fire. Eight of the Americans were killed, and several wounded. Thus was shed the first blood in that memorable contest, which finally resulted in securing the liberty, and establishing the Independence of America. X 18. The royal troops after this, proceeded to Concord, and de- stroyed some military stores collected in the town. The British commander then attempted to cut off the approach of the Ameri- cans from the neighborhood by destroying or occupying the bridg^ Accordingly a small force was sent to take possession of a bridge over Concord river, but being attacked bjr the Ameri- cans, who were desirous of keeping open a communication with the town, a smart action took place, which terminated in the re- treat of the British, with a loss of several killed and wounded. Hastily burying their dead in the public square, the B.ritisii troops commenced their march, or rather their retreat towards Boston. In the mean time, the people of the neighborhood flew to arms, and attacked the retreating troops on every side j an incessant fire was kept up from behind trees, walls, and rocks, until they reached Lexington, where they were joined by a reinforcement, which secured their retreat to Boston, after sustaining a loss of sixty-five killed, and one hundred and eighty wounded. The Americans lost fifty killed and thirty-four wounded. 19. From the first appearance of the approaching contest, the Americans were anxious that when an attack should be made, the British should be the aggressors. In this they were gratified by the affair at Lexington, which was now considered as a signal for nostilities. The forts, magazines, and arsenals, within the limits of the colonies, were instantly secured for the use of the Ameri- cans. Congress, on hearing what had taken place at Lexinffton, immediately passed a resolution for raising an army of thirty thousand men in New England ; and in a short time a considera- ble force was collected in the vicinity of Boston. The first expe- dition was directed against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which were taken by surprise. Towards the end of May, a considera- ble reinforcement of British troops arrived at Boston, under the 17. In April, what took place ? On the nineteenth, by whom were they met? What did Major Pitcairn do? IIow many of the Americans were killed? — 18. What did the British commander attempt to do ? What took place at the bridge over Concord river T What did the British do ? How many were killed on both sides ? — 10. For what wera the Americans anxious ? What did Congress immediately ? What wa« the first ex- pedition ? In May, what arrived ii» Boston ? AMERICAN COLONIES. 309 command of Generals Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, officers of high reputation. 20. Itor the purpose of annoying, or, if possible, to drive the British from Boston, a detachment of one thousand men, under the command of Colonel Prescott, was ordered to throw up a breastwork on Bunker Hill, but by some mistake they took pos- session of Breed's Hill, an eminence much nearer Boston. Moving silently to the spot on the evening of the sixteenth of June, they prosecuted their design with so much expedition, that by the re- turn of day they hadnearlv completed an intrenchment of ten rods square. At the break of day their operations being dis- covered, a brisk cannonade was commenced from a vessel lying in the harbor, against the works of the Americans, without being able to retard their progress. During the morning, Colonel Pres- cott received a reinforcement of fivehundred men. About noon, a detachment of two thousand men, under the command of General Howe, were sent to drive the Americans from their intrench- ments. A severe engagement followed ; during which the British were twice repulsed with dreadful slaughter ; but from the failure of the ammunition of the Americans, they finally succeeded in car- giring the fortifications, after sustaining a loss of one thousand and fty-four in killed and wounded. The loss on the part of the Americans amounted to four hundred and fifty -three ; but among the slain they had to number the much lamented and patriotic Major-General Warren, who had hastened as a volunteer to the field otoattle. While the British were iidvancing to the attack, Charlestown was ordered to be set on fire, and in a few hours, the whole town, consisting of four hundred houses, was laid in ashes. 21. The Congress then in session in Philadelphia, resolved on immediate measures of defense ; they began the organization of a continental army, selected George Washington a member of their body from Vnginia, as commander-in-chier and made the appointment of subordinate officers under him. With much diffi- dence. General Washington received the appointment, but with- out delay entered immediately on the duties of his office, and by the second of July, joined the army at Cambridge. 22. With a view of guarding the frontiers, a plan was devised for the invasion of Canada, anti, if possible, to reduce the country. Ir pursuance of this object, a body of troops under Schuyler and Mmtgomery were sent to that province ; but the former having returned to treat with the Indians, was prevented by sickness from again joining the army. The chief command therefore de- volved upon Montgomery, who having taken Fort Chcmiblee, St. John's, and the city of Montreal, which surrendered without re- sistance, he pursued his victories to the very walls of Quebec. Colonel Arnold was sent with a reinforcement of one thousand 20. For the purpose of driving the British from Boston, what was done? How did they prosecute their desim ? At noon, wliat took place ? What followed ? What was the loss of the British ? 0( the Americans T What city was set on fire ?— 81. What did Congress resolve ? Who was selected as commander-in-chief? When and where did heioin the army ? — 22. What plan was devised ? Who was seat to that pToviace ? "W^ftt places did Montgomery take ? Hi I II 1 111! Nii'liil 310 AMERICAN CoLOKtCS. men to join Montgomery, and after a fatiguing march through the wilderness, during which his troops were exposed to incredi- ble suffering, he reached ^ebec in November. After remaining before the city for some time, without the slightest prospect of being able^to take it by a siege, they resolved to attempt it by an assault. Accordingly, on the last day of December, they made an attack upon the city in three separate divisions, which, how- ever, proved unsuccessful, and fatal to the brave Mocigomery, who fell in the act of scaling the walls. 23. Early in the following spring, the Americans being obliged to relinquish their design ot reducing Canada, evacuated the country. About this time the flourishing town of Norfolk was wantonly burnt.by order of Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia j and Falmouth, a town in the province ot Maine, shared the same fate, being laid in ashes by order of the British admiral. In October, General Gage having embarked for Eng- land, the command of the British forces devolved on Sir fP'illiam Howe, 24. During the summer and autumn of 1775, the army under 'i^enerul Washington, amounting in number to near fifteen thou- sand men, remained inactive for want of suitable arms and am- munition 5 but early in the following spring, an effort was made to dislodge the British from Boston. On the night of the fourth of March, a battery was erected with much secrecy and despatch, on Dorchester Heights, a situation that completely commandea the city. Unable to remove the Americans trom their position. General Howe deemed it expedient to evacuate the town ; accord- ingly, on the seventeenth of March, he embarked his troops for Halifax, and General Washington on the same day entered the city in triumph, amidst the joyous acclamations of the inhabitants. 25. Early in the ensuing summer, a small armament under the command of Sir Peter Parker^ and a body of troop?*, under Gene- ral Clinton, made an attack on Charleston, the capital of South Carolina : but after a violent assault upon the fort on Sullivan's Island, from which they were repulsed with considerable loss, the enterprise was abandoned. When the news of the battle of Bunker Hill reached England, it filled all minds with surprise and astonishment. Lord Chatham, Burke^ and Fox, endeavored, but in vain, to produce a change in the measures of the govern- ment. The ministry blindly persisted in their plans, and obtain ^d an act of parliament, authorizing them to employ sixteen th u- sand mercenary troops from the Landgrave of Hesse and the Dukeof Brunswick. All trade and intercourse with the colonies were prohibited, and their property on the high seas was declared forfeited to those who should capture it. 26. At the commencement of the controversy, the Americans had contended only for their rights as Britisli subjects, but these By whom was he }oined? "VTnat did they resolve ? What was the result?— 23. About this time what town was burnt? In October, what happened ? — 24. During the summer of 1775, what is sold of the army ? On the fourth of March, what was done ? On the seventeenth, what did General Howe do ? — 25. By whom ^va8 an attack made on Charleston ? What is said of Chatham, Burke, and Fox ? What did the ministiy obtain? UNITED STATES. 311 hostile measures induced them to assume a loftier jposition. Seeing there was no alternative left, but that of absolute freedom, or unconditional submission, they determined to sever entirely those ties that bound them to the mother country^ and assert their independence. On the seventh of June, a motion was made in Congress by Richard Henry Lee, of Viiginia, and seconded by John Adams of Massachusetts, for declaring the colonies free and independent ; and at the same time, a committee, consisting of Jefferson^ Adams, Franklin, Sherman, and Livingston, were appointed to prepare the Declaration of Independence, which was finally adopted after a full discussion, by a vote almost unani- mous, on the memorable fourth of July, 1776. \_See Declara- tion in Appendix."] UNITED STATES. SECTION V. 71ie tvar of the Revolution continued. 1. During the second Continental Congress, the provinces which had united against the oppressive measures of Great Britain, received the appellation of the United Colonies, but in the Decla- ration of Independence, they were styled the United States of America ; hence, from this period, the history of the United States should probably commence. The first important battle that took place after the Declaration of Independence, was that of Long Island. In June General Howe arrived off Sandv Hook, where he was shortly afterwards joined by his brother Admiral Lord Howe^ with a great naval armament. General Washington, who knew that the favorite object of the British was to get possession of New York, had removed to that city with the greater part of his army. 2. On the 22d of August the British landed on Long Island, and on the 27th a severe engagement took place, in which the Americans were defeated with a loss of nearly one thousand men. The American generals, Sullivan and Lord Stirling, fell into the hands of the British, whose loss was estimated at about four hun- dred men. During the engagement. General Washington had hastened from New York with reinforcements, to the scene of action; but considering the ineauality of numbers, it wai thought expedient to evacuate the island, which was accordingly effected on the night of the 28th of the same month, with so much silence 26. For what had the Americans contended ? Seeing no alternative left, what did they determine T On the seventh of June, what was done in Congress ? Who were appointed on the committee to prepare the Declaration? I. Why should the history of the United States commence from this period ? Where did the first battle take place after the Declaration ?— 2. When did tlie British landT What followed on the 27th? Daring the engagement what did General Washington dot, 312 UNITED STATES. and order, that the British army^ although not mora than a quat' ter of a mile distant, had no intimation of their design until the Americans, with all theic tents and baggage, were saifely landed in the city of New York. 3. General Howe, who^ had been commissioned to settle the difficulties with the colonies, thought this a favorable opportuni^ for making proposals for an accommodation. He therefore dis ' patched several letters to General Washington ; but as they were directed to George Washington, Esq., &c., the commanuer-in- chief refused to receive them unless addressed to him in his pro- per character. Howe then sent General Sullivan, who had been taken prisoner in the battle of Long Island, with a message to Congress; and in a few davs after this, Dr. Franklin^ John JidamSt and Edward Rutledge were commissioned to hold an interview with the British general. They were politely received, but no acc9mmodations of peace being effected, they returned to Philadelphia. 4. In September, the city of New York was abandoned by the American army, and shortly' afterwards occupied by the Bntish. Washington, with a part of nis army, had retired to Pf^hite Plains, where, on the 28th of October, a severe thougii indecisive action took place, with a loss of several hundred on both sides; and shortly afterwards. Fort Washington, on the Hudson, was re- ducecf by General Howe, and its garrison, consisting of two thou- sand men, was captured. General Washington now retired to Newark; from thence he passed through New Brunswick, Prince- ton, Trenton, and finally crossed over to the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware, being so closely pursued by the British under lA)rd CornwalliSf that the rear of the one army was often in sight of the van of the other. 5. The affiiirs of the Americans at this crisis bore the most gloomy appearance. The army under General Washington, re- duced by the loss of men in killed, wounded and prisoners, by the desertion of some, and the departure of others whose term of enlistment had expired, amounted to only about three thousand ; and of this number, many were without shoes or clothing suitable to screen them from the inclemency of the season. To add to these disasters. General Lee had been taken prisonek at Basken- ridge, and Rhode Island fell into the hands of the British. 6. It was at this critical moment; when despair had |)ervaded almost every breast, that the expiring hopes of the nation were roused by a daring exploit of General Washington. On the nijOfht of the 25th of December he crossed the Delaware on the ice, surprised the enemy at Trenton and took the whole body, con- sisting of about one thousand Hessian troops under the command of Colonel Rahl, who was slain. He then proceeded to Prince- ton, and on the 3d of January, 1777, defeated a party of the Bri- 8. AVliat did Howe IninkT What did he send to General Washington? Whom did he send with a message to CongreRS? What followed?— 4. What was done in Sep- tember? What took place at White Plainn? What (ort was shortly afterwards re- dueed ? What course did Washington take ? — 5. By what was the army under Wash* incton reduced T Where was Lee made prisoner ?— 6. On the 2Sth of Deoember, what dia General Washington do ? Where did he then proceed 7 TTNITCD STATES. 313 tigh, who lost about one hundred men, and compelled the remain- der, about three hundred in number, to suiTender themselves prisoners. In this action the Americans lost General Mercer, of Virginia, a brave and experienced officer. During the latter part of the year 1776, Conffress had manifested the greatest energy. Measures were adopted for increasing the army, and Dr. Frank- lin, Arthur Lee, and Sila9 Deane, commissioned to Europe to solicit the aid and alliance of foreign powers. 7. During the spring of 1777, Govewior Tryon was sent to destroy stores at Danbury in Connecticut; the design wAs exe- cuted and the town partly burnt; the British on their return were severely harassed by the Connecticut militia under General Wooster, who was unfortunately killed on the occasion. It had been long the object of General Howe to get possession of Phila- delpliia; for this purpose he embarked his troops, amounting to about sixteen ^hous^nd men, at Staten Island, entered the Che- sapeake Bay, and landing near the head of Elk river, commenced his march towards that city. General Washington perceiving his object, hastened to oppose his progress with a much inferior force. On the 11th of September, a oattle was fought on the banks of the Brandmvine, in which the Americans were defeated with considerable loss. ^ In this battle two eminent foreigners served under the American colors, — the Marquis de Lqfayette of France, and Pulaski of Poland, the former of whom was wounded. ^ 8. After this victory, the British General immediately directecl his march to Philadelphia, and stationed the principal part of his army at Germantown, about seven miles from that city. On the 4th of October, General Washington attempted to surprise the detachment at Germantown, but was repulsed with a loss of twelve hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, while the loss of the enemy was about half that number. While these operations were earned on in the Middle States, more auspicious events were taking place in th" north. General Burgoyne, who commanded the British- army in that quarter, took possession of Ticonderoga, which had been abandoned by the Americans under General St. Clair. But his progress was checked by the defeat of Colonel Baum, near Bennington, in Vermont, by a body of militia under General Stark. 0. Burgoyne having collected his forces^ crossed the Hudson and encamped near Saratoga, General Gates, who had lately been appointed to the command of the American army in the north, advanced towards the enemy, and on the 19th of Septem- ber an obstinate but undecisive engagement took place at StilU waters and shortly after this another severe action occurred, in which the British were defeated and General Fraser killed ; the American Generals Arnold and Lincoln were wounded. Gene- In this action, who was killed ? Who were commissioned to Europe ?— 7. What was done in the spring of 1777? What was the object of Howe? "What course did he take? On the 11th of September, what took place ? In this battle, what foreigners served ?— 8. After this victory, where did the British proceed ? On the 4th of Octobet what took place 7 What place did Burgoyne take ? How was his progress checked ? •>9. Where did Bargoyne encamp? On the 19th of September, what took place? 27 1 3 314 UNITED STATES. ral Bursojrne having made several ineffectual attempts to retreat, and finding his situ'lou growing hourly more critical, called a council of war, in which it was resolved to surrender bv capitu- lation. ^ Accordingly^ on the 17th of October, his whole armyi amounting to near six thousand men, surrendered to General Gates as prisoners of war. 10. This event diffused universal joy among the Americans, and inspired them with ardor in the cause of freedom. The court of France, which had secretly wished success to the cause of the United States, was restrained from giving open countenance to their agents until after the surrender of Burgoyne. This event determined the course of France. A negotiation was immediatelj formed with the American commissioners, and on the 6th oi February, 1T78, a treaty of alliance, of amity and commerce wa? concluded and signed at Paris. The British ministry, on receiv- ing intelligence of the alliance between France ana the United States, began to hold out terms of reconciliation to the Americans, but the Congress was now too sanguine in the hope of success, to listen to any terms short of an acknowledgmeLt of their inde- pendence. 11. In the mean time. General Howe, who had returned to England, was succeeded in the chief command by Sir Henry Clinton, It was now determined to concentrate the British forces in New Yorkj accordingly, Clinton, having evacuated Philadel- phia in June, crossed the Delaware, and proceeded on his march to that city. But as he retired, he was closely pursued by the American army under General Washington, and on the 28th of June a severe engagement took place at Monmouth Court-house, in which the British were repulsed with a heavy loss, and a sig- nal victory must have been obtained, had General Lee obeyed his orders. For his misconduct on that day, Lee was suspended from duty and never afterwards joined the army. 12. In July, a French fleet of twelve ships of the line and four frigates, under the command of Count d'Estaign, arrived at the mouth of the Delaware ; but towards the close of the season it sailed to the West Indies, without having performed any impor- tant service. The last transaction of this year was an expedition against Georgia, and on the last day of December the British took possession of Savannah. 13. 1779. During this year the principal theatra of the war was changed from the north to the southern provinces of the country. On the 15th of July, a detachment under General ffawie was sent to dislodge the British from Stony Point, on the Hudson; the expedition was conducted with so much courage and resolu- tion, that the whole garrison, to the number of five hundred men, surrendered without the loss of a single individual on either side. Finding it impossible to retreat, what was resolved ? What was done on the 17th of October?— 10. What is said of this event? Of the court of France? On the 6th of February, what was done? What did the British ministry do? — 11. By whom was Howe succeeded ? What was determined? What did Clinton do? On the 28th of June, what took place? What is said of General Lee? — 12. In July, what arrived? What was the last transaction of this year? — 13. During this year, where was the principal theatre of the war ? AVhat was done on the 15tn of July '' UNITED STATKI. 315 In October, General Lincoln and Count d'Estaign made an attack upon Savannah, but were repulsed with considerable loss 'n this action the brave and patriotic Pulaski, of Poland, was u. r- tally wounded. 14. 1780. On the opening of the campaign of this year, the British troops evacuated Rhode Island. An expedition under Sir Henry Clinton and Lord Cornwallis was undertaken against Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, which was compelled to capitulate after a siege of six months, and the whole garrison, consisting of about two thousand live hundred men, together with all the adult male inhabitants, were surrendered as prisoners of war. Clinton, leaving four thousand troops under the command of Lord Cornwallis^ returned to New York. For the purpose of subjecting the interior of the province, a considerable force was sent to Camden under Lord Jiawdon.' His troops, however, were greatly harassed by small parties of the Americans under General Sumpter and other distinguished officers. 15. General Gates, who had been appointed to the command of the southern army in the place of General Lincoln, arrived in South Carolina in the latter part of July, and having concentrated his forces, prepared to oppose the progress of the British. Lord Cornwallis hastened to join Lord Rawdon with reinforcements, and on the i6th of August a severe engagement took place between the two armies, in which General Gates was defeated with the loss of upwards of seven hundred men. In this, Z?«ron De Kalb, an illustrious Prussian genera!, then in the American service, bravely maintained his position at the head of the regular troops of Mary land and Delaware, until overpowered by numbers and almost surrounded, he was taken prisoner and died on the following day of the wounds he received. In July, M. de Tcmay, with a French fleet, carrying six thousand land forces under Count de Rochambeau, arrived at Rhode Island. This event gave univer- sal joy to the Americans ; but the fleet, leaving the land forces, shortly returned again to France. 16. This year is distinguishedu for the treachery of General Arnold. General Washington, being called to Connecticut on business of importance, left the important fortress of West Point under the command of Arnold, who had previously distinguished himself at the siege of Quebec^ and subsequently received a severe wound at Saratoga. He afterwards commanded in Philadelphia, where his oppressive conduct rendered him subject to a trial by court martial, by which he was sentenced to be reprimanded. He determined to have revenge; and for this purpose he entered into a negotiation with Sir Henry Clinton, to deliver up West Point with all its garrison into the' hands of the British. 17. The British agent, through whom the negotiation with Arnold was conducted, was the unfortunate Major Andre. After And in Octooer? In this action, who was mortally wounded ? — 14. What was un- dertaken by Clinton and Cornwallis? "What was the result? — 15. What did General Gates do? What look place on the 16th of August ? In this battle, what is said of Baron De Kalb? In July, what arrived at Rhode Island ? — 10. For what is this year tivtinguiehed ? Into what negotiation did he enter ? iX.. Who was the British agent ? 316 UKITED STATES. havinff an interview with the traitor, Andre was on his return tft New York, with the papers in Arnold's own handwriting con- cealed in his boot, when he was detected by three Americans, and thus the treacherous designs were fortunately discovered in sea- son to prevent their execution. Andre being convicted as a spv, his life was forfeited by the laws of war. He was accordingly condemned and executed. His youth and his man;^ amiable qualities had endeared him to the officers of the British army, while his fate was deepiv regretted by all.^ Arnold escaped to the English, and receiveif as the reward of his treason an appoint- ment to the office of brigadier-general in the British army. ^ 18. 1781. The campaign of this year commenced by an expe- dition under Arnold, who made a descent upon the coast of Virginia, and committed extensive depredations. Alter the de- feat of Gates, General Green was appointed to the army in the southern department. From this period affairs in that quarter began to wear a more favorable aspect. Colonel Tarleton, the British commander, was defeated by General Morgan^ at Ihe battle of the Cow-Pens, The two armies at length, under tJi"ir respective commanders, met near Guilford Court-house, in North Carolina, where one of the best contested battles fought dnring the whole war took place. The Americans were obliged to retire from the field, yet the British suffered so severe a loss that they were unable to pursue the victory. 19. In September, General Green obtained an important vic- tory over the British, under Colonel Sluart, at Eutaw Springs, where General Marion particularly distinguished himself, and Colonel Washington, a relative of the commandr^r-iu-chief, was wounded and taken prisoner. After this battle, L) d Cornwallis, leaving South Carolina, marched into Virginia, and having col- lected his forces, fortified himself at Yorktown. General Wash- ington, learning the position of Cornwallis, secretly left his camp at Wliite Plains, crossed the Hudson with his army, and passing rapidly through New Jersey and Pennsvlvania, arrived at the head of Elk river, where he was joined by a considerable rein- forcement under Marquis de Lufayette, 20. In the mean time, Clinton, wh9 was not apprised of the departure of General Washington until it was too late to pursue him, sent a detachment of troops under Arnold, the traitor, against New London, in Connecticut, which was set on fi"e ana burnt to the ground. While Washington was on his march to Virginia, he received the cheering intelligence of the arrival of a French fleet, consisting of twentv-four shii>8 of the line, under Count de Grasse, in the Chesapeake. A British fleet of nineteen vessels, under Admiral Graves, soon after appeared off the Capes. A slight engagement took place between the two fleets, in which Relate the circumstances of Andre's capture. ^Vhat was his fate ? What became of Arnold?— 18. How was the campaign of this year commenced ? Where and by whom was Tarleton defeated? Where did the two armies again meet? What was the result?— 19. In September, what did Green obtain? After this battle, where did C!ornwallis fortify himself? What did General Washington do ?— 20. In the mean time what was done by Clinton ? While Washington was on his march to Virginia, wha* news did he receive ? What fleet appeared off the capes ? What took place ? UNITED STATES. 317 the French had the advantage, and remained in possession of the bay. 21. A body of French troops was now landed, in order to co- operate with the Americans, under General Washington, who by this time had embarked his forces and ariiyed at lorktoum. A close siege '^as now commenced, and carried on with so much vigor by the united forces of France and America, that Lord Cornwallis, on the 19th of October, was compelled to sign arti- cles of capitulation, by which the British army, military stores and shipping, were surrendered to General Washington. The number of the British forces that surrendered on that occasion amounted to something over seven thousand, but many of them at the time were unfit for duty. When the news of this glorious event, which was considered as deciding the contest, was report- ed to Congress, that body immediately recommended that a day of public thanksgiving should be observed throughout the United States. Shortly after the surrender of Comwallis, the Britisli evacuated nearly all their posts in South Carolina and Georgia, and joined the main army in New York. 22. As no rational hope now remained of conquering America, Great Britain at length resolved to discontinue the prosecution of a war which had already exhausted the nation and reflected discredit upon their arms. Accordingly, on the 30th of Novem- ber, provisional articles of peace were signed, in which the inde- pendence of the United States was acknowledged j and the 3d of September, 1783, there was concluded, at Versailles, by Franklin, Mams, Jay, and Laurens, on the part of America, and Mr. Oswald, on the part of Great Britain, a definite treaty of peace, by which the thirteen United Colonies were admitted to be " Free, sovereign, and independent States." Thus terminated that long and eventful war of the Revolution, which cost Great Britain, besides the loss of her colonies, the sum of £1,000,000 sterling, and the lives of fifty thousand other sub- jects. A contest, which produced for America, as the happy reward of her trials, her sufferings, and the blood of her patriots, the establishment of her freedom and independence. 23. Peace being thus restored, the first step of Congress was to disband the army. But here a serious difficulty arose respecting the payment of the arrears of the officers and privates, many of whom had not received for five years the smallest compensation. The most serious consequences were about to ensue, when the Btorm, which seemed ready to plunge the rising republic into all the horrors -of civil war, was happily quelled by the prudence and energy of General Washington. Congress having made arrange- ments for the payment of the soldiers, fixed upon the 3d of November for disbanding the army. £1. What was now commenced and carried on ?^ What was the number of forces that surrendered ? At the news of this event, what did Coneress do ? — 23. What did Great Britain at length resolve T What took place on the 30th of November ? And finally on the 3d of September, 1783 ? What did the contest cost Great Britain'— 23. Vvhat now was the first stef of Ck>ngre8s ? What difficulty arose ? How was A quelled ? 27* 318 UNITED 8TATE& 24. On the day previous, Waahin§r*un issued his farewell ad- dress, bidding an affectionate adieu lO the soldiers who had fought and bled by nis side. After taking leave of the army, he was called to the still more painful duty of separation from officers endeared to him by the mutual dangers and sufferings they had endured together. After this, he immediately repaired to Anna- polis, where Congress was then in session, resigned his militarv commission, and declared that he was no longer invested with any public character. Having thus given back the almost un- limited power he possessed to that source from whence he received it, he retired to his estate at Mount Vernon^ and again devoted himself to the peaceful pursuits of agriculture, carrying to his retirement the gratitude of his country and the applause and ad- miration of the world. 25. At the close of the war, when the states were released from the presence of danger, the government, under the jSrticles of Cordfederation, was found to be weak, and wholly insufficient for the public exigencies. The authority of Congress was but little respected ; a large public debt had been contracted, and no pro- visions had been made for paying the principal or the interest. The necessity, therefore, of a more efficient and general system of government was extensively felt ; and in accordance with a proposition of the legislature of Virginia, commissioners^ from several states met,^ in 1786, at Annapoljs, itbr the purpose of entering into certain commercial regulations. But after some deliberation they determined to adjourn with a proposal to all the other states to appoint delegates to meet at Philadelphia^ for the purpose of digesting a form of government equal to the exigencies tures were afterwards made ?— 8. Towards the end of January, what took pluce T Ii» April? And in May? 88 326 VjflTED STATES. \' n under General Brown. About the same time the Americans took Ibrt George; but the progress of their victories suflfered a mo- mentary check, by the capture of a considerable force under Generals Chandler and Winder, who were taken by surprise by the British under General Vincent. 0. But the most brilliant achievement of this year was FeiTy's victon^ on Lake Erie, which took place on the 10th of September. The British fleet consisted of six vessels, carrying sixty-three guns; that of the Americans, of nine with fifty-six guns. For some time the contest appeared doubtful. The flag-ship of the Americans^ at the commencement of the action, suSerec «jverely, and bein^ in a sinking condition, Perry descended into n open boat, and passing through a shower of balls, transported iiis nag to another vesseiT After a tremendous conflict of three hours, victorv declared in favor of the Americans, who reduced the British fleet to almost a total wreck. After this victory. General Harrison embarked his forces and landed on the Canada shcre, and on the 5th of October defeated the British, at the battle of the Thames, under General Proctor. In this battle the cele- brated^ndian chief Tecumseh was killed by Colonel Johnson. 10. Little more was done this year towards the conquest of Canada. General Wilkinson made an attack on Williamsburg, but was repulsed with considerable loss. During this year the British fleet, under Admiral Cockburn, committed various depre- dations in the south. The English, however, were more fortu- nate on the ocean during this season than they had been previous- ly. In February, the Someti, commanded by Captain Lawrence, captured the PeacocA:, a British sloop of war. In the course of the summer. Captain Lawrence was appointed to the command of the Chesapeake, which was captured by the Shannon, com- manded by Captain Broke. 11. 1814. The campaign of this year was distinguished by several important actions on the frontiers. On the 12th of July the Americans^ under General Brown, took Fort Erie, and shortly afterwards defeated the British under General Drummond, after an obstinate engagement, at Chippewa; and the 25th of the same month. Generals Brown and Scott, at the well contested battle of Bridgewater, defeated the British, commanded by Generals Drummond and Rial; the loss of the enemy was nine hundred men, in killed, wounded, and prisoners. In September, a com- bined attack was made on Plattsburg by a British squadron, car- rying ninety-five guns and one thousand and fifty men, com- manded by Commodore Downie, and a land force under Sir George Prevost. But the naval force was totally destroyed by the American fleet, commanded by Commodore Macdonough. During the engagement of the fleets, the British were effectually What fort did the Americans take? By what was their progress checked? — 9. "What was the most brilliant achievement of this year? What w^s the number or vessels In each fleet? Describe the battle? AAer this, what was done by Gen. Har« rison? In this battle, who was killed? — 10. Where did (Jen. Wilkinson make «u attack* What is said of the British fleet? In February, what took place? And in the coui ;e of the summer ? — 11. For what was the campaign of this year distinguiahadT On the 12th of J uly, what was done ? And on the 25th ? And in September f tJNlTED STATES. 327 i*epulsed in their attack on the forts of Plattsbur^ by the Ameri- cans under General Macomb. The whole loss ot the British on this occasion amounted to two thousand five hundred men, while the total loss of the Americans, on land and water, did not exceed two hundred and thirty-one. 12. In the month of Auffust, a British fleet of sixty sail under Admiral Cochrane, entered the Chesapeake and landed a force of six thousand men, commanded by General Rosb, on the banks of the Patuxent, about forty miles from Washington. The British general immediately commenced his march towards the capital, but at Bladensburg he met with a momentary repulse. At this point, the Americans under General Winder hau assembled to oppose his progress, and a slight engagement followed. At the commencement of the action, nowever, the American militia fled, leaving Commodore Parney, with a few eighteen pounders and about four hundred marines, to sustain the whole weight of the conflict. Barney W'as at length wounded and taken prisoner. After this the British hastened to Washington, which they enter- ed the same evening, burnt the capitol, the President's house, and other public buildings, and retired without molestation. 13. About a fortnight after this event, a combined attack was made on the city ot Baltimore, bv the British fleet of fifty sail under Admiral Cochrane, and a land force of seven thousand men under the command of General Ross. On the morning of the ISth of September, they eff*ected a landing at North Pomt, about fourteen miles below the city. General Strieker was detached with about three thousand five hundred men, chiefly militia, to oppose their advance. General Ross, having preceded his army with a small reconnoitering party, was shot tnrough the breast by one of the American riflemen, and falling into the arms of his aid -de-camp, he expired in a few minutes. The con\|pand then devolved upon Colonel Brook, who led on the attack. After maintaining his position for an hour and a half against a great suj/eiiority of numbers. General Strieker drew oft nis men and retired to Worthington Miils, about half a mile in advance of the main body. In the mean time a furious assault was made upon Fort McHenry, by a discharge of bombs and rockets from the British squadron. But after the bombardment had continued for twenty-five hours, the attempt was abandoned, and the fleet having taken on board the forces under Colonel Brook, moved down the bay. 14. Up t » this period, the British had discovered no disposition to trea<: with commissioners of the United States; but the intelli- gence of the defeat of their army at Plattsburg gave a new turn to the negotiation ; and a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, on the 24th of December, 1814. While the negotiation was in progress, a large armament had What was the loss on both sides?— 12. In the month of Aupiist, what was done T What took place at Bladensburg? What whs done by the militia? What is said of Barney? What places did they burn?— 13. On what city was an attack made? On the 12th of SeptCiTiber, what was done ? What was the fate of Gen. Ross ? What di*' Gen. Strieker do ? In the mean time, what assault was made ? — 14. When and wher« was the treuty of peace signed ^ 328 UNITED STATES. il • 1 ■' been despatched under the command of Sir Edward Packenham, for the purpose of making an attack upon the city of New Orleans. Fortunately for the city, which was in a \er}[ bad state of defense. General Jackson, the commander-in-chief of the forces in the southern district, arrived there on the 2d of December from Mobile. His presence was immediately felt by the confidence which it inspired, and by the unanimity with which the people seconded his prompt arrangements. ^ 15. The British, after enduring incredible fatigue and difficul- ties, at length succeeded in reaching the main entrench) lent of the Americans, which had been thrown up for the defense of the city. This they determined to take by an assault. Accordingly, on the 8th of January, 1815, they advanced to the attack, but were repulsed with immense slaughter by the Americans under General Jackson. In this memorable engagement, the British lost seven hundred killed, and fourteen hundred wounded, and five hundred prisoners. Generals Packenham and Gibbs were mortally wounded. The loss on the part of the Americans is said to have amounted to only seven killed and six wounded. This Was the last important event of the war j the news of the treaty of peace, whicn arrived shortly after, put an end to further hostilities. 16. In the treaty of Ghent no allusion is made to the causes of the war. " Security against future egression," as Mr. Grimshaw observes, '^ rests on a much firmer basis than the provisions of the most solemn treaty. Great Britain has been taught to appre- ciate the strength of the republic. She will read in the history of the late struggle, the most convincing arguments against the invasion of neutral rights." 17. Mr. Madison having filled the office of President for two successive terms, was succeeded, in 1817, by James Monroe. During the administration of Monroe, Florida was ceded to the United States by Spain, and erected into a territorial government in 1822. Mr. Monroe was succeeded in 1825 by John Quincy AdamSy whose administration for four years was not marked by any events of great iniportance. This year was rendered memo- rable for the visit of General La Fayette to the United States. Before his departure for France, Congress voted him the sum of two hundred thousand dollars and a township of land, as a remu- neration for his services during the revolutionary war, and as a lasting testimony of their gratitude. On the 4th of July, 1826, while the nation was celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of its independence, John Adams died at Ouincy in Massachusetts, in the ninety-first vear of his age, and on the same day, Thomas Jefferson expirea at Monticello in Virginia, having completed his eighty-third year. 18. In 1829, General Andrew Jackson succeeded Mr. Adams While this was in progress, what city was attacked? What was fortunate for the city?— 16. What is said of the British? What took place on the 8th of January? What was the loss on both sides ? — 10. What is said of the treaty of Ghent ? Whai does Mr. Grimshaw observe? — 17. By whom was Madison succeedeG? AVho succeeded in 1825? For what is this year rendered memorablft? AVlien and where did Adara» and Jcff«rson die?— 18. In 1689, what took place? THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 329 at President of the United States, and in his first message to C«>ngress he called the attention of that body to the Bank qf the UiAted States, the charter of which was about to expire. h\ the spring of 1832, a bill passed both houses for re-chartering the bank, with some new modifi'' "ons and restrictions. The bill, however, was vetoed by the president, who, in his message return- ing the bill, declared the bank to be, in his opinion^ inexpedient and unconstitutional, and announced his firm determmation never to sanction, by his approval, the continuance of that institution, or the re-establishment of any other on similar principles. Gene- ral Jackson was succeeded in the presidency in 1837 by Martin Van Buren, \yho held the office for four years. His administra- tion was particularly distinguished by a treaty with the Sioux Indians, and also a treaty with the Winnebagocs, by which they agreed to relinquish all their land east of the Mississippi ; in con- sideration of which, the United States government agreed to pay them the sum of $2,500,000. 10. On the 4th of March, 1841, General TViUiam Henry Har- rison was inaugurated President of the United States, but died on the 4th of the following April. In consequence of his decease, the Vice-President, John T'yler, was inaugurated in his place, according to a provision of the Constitution. ent for two as a remu- Mr. Adams THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. SECTION L From the Birth of Christ to the Triumjih of Christianity , in the reign of Constantine, the , first Christian Emperor, Jt. 1),S12. 1. In order to render this compendium more complete, it has been thought quite expedient to add a short history of the Chris- tian Church, or of Christianity from its first promulgation to the present time. This interesting portion of history embraces a period of more than eighteen centuries, and may be divided into three separate portions. The first division extends from the birth of Christ to the triumph of Christianity, when it became the religion of the Roman Empire, under the reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 312. The second division extends from Ihe reign of Constantine to the Reformation, A. D. 1517j and the third, from the Reformation to the present time. 2. At a time when the Roman Empire had reached the meri- dian of its greatness ; when every nation accessible to its arms To what did he call the attention of Congress? In 1833, what passed? What ii said of the bill ? By whom was Jackson succeeded ? By what was his administra- tion distinguished ?— 19. On the 4th of March, what took place ? When did he die ? What was done in consequence ? 1. What pel iod does this history embrace? How does the first division extend? The second? The third? 28* i 330 THE CHRISTIAN CHUKCH. M J 1:1 had yielded submission to it» power; when rival monarchs and contending chieftains had ceased their strife, and the troubled elements of war, which had for ages convulsed the world, had sunk to repose under the mild reign of Augustus Csesar, Jesus Christ, the Prince of Peace, was born at Bethlehem^ in Judea. At the time when this remarkable event took place, an expecta- tion universally prevailed, even among the pagan nations, that some extraordinary personage was about to appear in the world. The Jews, in particular, were anxiously expecting the coming ol the Messiah, whose birth had been long foretold by the prophets; but they very erroneously imagined that he would appear as a teniporal prince, clothed with worldly splendor and power; as a* mignty conqueror, who would deliver their nation from the do- minion of the Romans. 3. The Pharisees, who were the most powerful of the three sects* into which the Jews vvere at that time divided, presided in the schools, and were the chief doctors of the law. They received all the books of the Old Testament, to which they aaded their traditions or oral law, which was regarded of high authority. They Jtifected the appearance of great sanctity, but being desti- tute of the true spirit of religion, they are cnargeable with the f:rossest hypocrisy ; they looked for a Messiah only as a great de- iverer, vho should rescue Judea from the yoke of a foreign power, and subject the whole world to the Mosaic institutions. It is not surprising, then, that the manner of our Saviour's appear- ance on earth disappointed the expectation of the Jews. No royal palace designates the consecrated spot where the long- expected Messiah first appeared among the children of men ; a lowly manlier is the place of his nativity ; Joseph, his reputed father, is an humble carpenter, and Mary, his virginal mother, i:hough descended from the royal house of David, is undistin- guished among the daughters of Judea. 4. The life of our divine Saviour was one of labor and suffer- ing; his death was finally consummated upon an ignominious •cross. He had chosen for his disciples men of the humblest walks of life. To twelve of these, styled j3postles,he gave a di- vine commission to propagate his heavenly^ doctrine, in these remarkable words : *' To me all power is given in heaven and earth ; go ye, therefore, and teach all nations ; baptizinff them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost; teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I have commanded • The other two sects were the Saddueees and Essmets. The Sadducees were unbe- lievers in religion ; they admitted the authority of the books of Mosts, but denied tlie snored character of the other parts of the Old Testament ; they rejected the doctrine of a future life, and the existence of angels and spirits. The j&««ieeawere a class ot men who took no concern in the affairs of state, but professed to live in retirement, and to attempt to purify the soul by abstinence, silence, and mortification. 2. When and where was Jesus Christ born ? At that time, what prevailed ? ^Vhat •were the Jews anxiously expecting? But what did they imagine ? — 3. What is said of the Pharisees? What did they aflfect? What is not surprising? What was th6 place of his nativity ? What was Joseph ? What was Mary ? — 4. What is said of our divine Saviour? What had he chosen? In what words did he commission the twelvo Apostles 7 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 331 you ; and behold I am with you all days, even to the consumma- tion of the world."* 5. Thu3 divinely commissioned, the apostles, on the day of Fiiifecost, being imbueil with the gifts of the Jioly Ghoat, enter upon their mission, and in the streets of Jerusalem, promulgate the law of Jesus Christ, and so astonishing were the fruits of their Iibors, that no less than three thousand persons were converted by the first sermon of St. Peter. This success did not fail to awaken in the breast of the Jewish rulers a spirit of jealousy ; they dreaded the total subversion of the Mosaic law, and left nothing undone to retard the labors of the apostles. A violent persecution followedj during which St. Stephen, one of the seven deacons, fell a sacrihce to their fury, and is honored as the first martyr of the Christian church. The most active of the perse- cutors of the Christians ^yas a young man named Saul, who, not satisfied with the cruelties he had committed at Jerusalem, ob- tained permission of the high-priest to pursue them even to the adjacent towns. With this view, he set out to Damascus, but on his road he was suddenly struck blind, and cast upon the ground; at the same time he heard a voice, saying to him, '* Saul, Said! why dost thou persecute me ?" His attendants raised him up, and conducted him to tiie town ; he was there baptized by a holy priest, named Ananias, and Saul, from being a violent persecutor of the Christian church, became one of its most illustrious apostles, and assume^' the name of Paut. 6. In the mean time, the twelve apostles having composed a symbol of their belief, commonly called the Apostles' Creed, and having appointed St. James, the son of Jilpheus, as the first bishop of Jerusalem, set out to announce the truths of Christianity to the pagan world. They confirmed the doctrines they taught by the most astonishing miracles ; they healed the sick ; raised the dead to life j and being endowed with the gift of tongues, they were enabled to speak the language of the different nations through which they travelled. The rapidity with which Chris- tianity was propagated, will appear extraordinary, when we reflect that its founder belonged to a nation undistinguished for power or importance; that he suffered a public and ignominious death; that his apostles, with few exceptions, were poor and illiierate, destitute of power or influence; that the religion which they preached held out no promise of temporal goods, no worldly pleasures, honors or riches ; but on the contrary, often exposed its professors to scorn and ""eproach, persecution and temporal loss; finally, that it had to contend not only with the lono" established superstition and popular dogmas of pagan worship, but also with the prejudices, passions, ana vices ot the world. •St. Matt. chap. 28. 5 Peter . "WJiatdid the Apostles do? How many were converted by the first sprmon of St. . „ier? What followed ? Who fell a sacrifice to their fury? \Vho was the most ac- tive of the persecutors? On the road to Damascus, what happened to him ? By whom was he baptized ? What name did he assume?— «. In the mean time, what did the twelve Apostles do ? How did they confirm the doctrine they taught ? What is said of the rapidity with which Christianity was propagated ? 332 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 'II 7. This rapid success, under these opposing^ circumstances, can be no other than the work of a divine hand. To the divine power of its founder alone, must we ascribe the wonderful triumph of the gospel. Allured by no earthlv advantage, subdued by no other force than that of*^ truth, the learned and the ignorant, the Jew and the Gentile, the Greek and the Barbarian, meekly bend their necks to the yoke of Christ, shake oft" their ancient preju- dices, and profess themselves the followers of a crucified God. 8. In a lew years, we find that the light of Christianity has spread its cheering rays over the various provinces of the Roman Empire. St. Peter visited the towns of Samaria, Judea, and Syria, and first fixed his episcopal chair at Antioch. He after- wards traversed the provinces of Asia Minor, and preached to the Jews in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia; he visited Rome about the year 44, to which city he removed his episcopal seat, wisely judging, that from the capital the light of Christianity would spread more rapidly through the empire. St. Paul, who had lately been introduced to the apostles, was conse- crated bishop, and sent to carry the glad tidings of Christianity to the^Gentile nations. Passing through the provinces of Asia, Pamphylia, and Phrygia, he converted tnousands to the Christian religion; from thence he visited Greece, a country which had been long renowned for science, for eloquence and for arts. Here the apostle resolved to introduce a more sublime and precious knowledge^ the knowledge of the true God. His labors were crowned with ouccess ; icu)latry fell before the power of his hea- venly eloquence ; flourishing churches arose in the cities of Co rinth, Philippi, Thessalonica, Athens and Ephesus. From Greece he directed his course to Rome, and carried the knowledge of Christ into the very apartments of Nero's palace. 9. Notwithstanding the many shining virtues which adorned the lives of the first professors of Christianity, they were not, however, exempt from the frailties of men. A misguided zeal on the part of many of the Jewish converts at Antioch, led them to propose, as matter of obligation, that the Gentiles who became Christians, should submit to the law of circumcision, if they hoped to attain salvation. The proposition gave rise to warm dis- putes ; charity and religion were likely to suffer, when the affair was happily settled by a council held at Jerusalem. St. Paul and Barnabas repaired to that city to be present on the occasion. St. Peter opened the di*cus^sion, and after relating the wonders which God had wrought through his ministry among the Gentiles, concluded that no superfiuousl)urtlen of the ancient law ought to be imposed upon them. St. James concluded the debate by ex- pressing his approbation of the decision given by St. Peter. 10. In this, the first council of the Christian church, the apos- tles established a judicial form of proceeding, which the church, 7. What IS said of this rapid success? AVhat is further observed in this paragraph? — 8. In a few years, what do we find? What places did St. Peter visit? VVhen did he visit Rome ? What is said of St. Paul ? What places did he pass through ? Whera did he finally direct his course ? — 9. What did a misguided zeal lead many of the Jew- ish converts to propose? How was the affair settled? Who opened the dittcusHion and who concluded the dubate? — 10. In this council, what was established? THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 333 ich adorned m atter ages, followed, in deciding all questions that relate to faith and discipline. A dispute, important in its consequences, had arisen among the faithful ; private authority, even that of Ht, Paul, is unable to calm into silence the contending parties; rc> course is had to the pastors of the church assembled in council : the points in dispute are rej^ularly discussed ; a decree is formed upon the subject; the faithful bow in acquiescence to the decision; the cause ot disagreement is removed ; harmony and peace are again restored. 11. After the death of Festus, the Roman governor, by whose authority the violence of the Jews had been restrained, the flame of persecution was again renewed against the Christians in the Holy City. A'/. James, the bishop of Jerusalem, surnamcd the Just, on account of his exemplary piety and charity, fell a victim to their fury. Being summoned before the council of the Sanhe- drim, he was ordered to declare his opinion concerning Jesus Christ; but in order that the declaration might be more public, they commanded the apostle to ascend the battlements of the temple, and from thence declare his sentiments to the surrounding multitude. No sooner had the venerable confessor appeared on the summit, and proclaimed the divinity of Jesus Christ, than he was precipitated from the battlement, and perished amidst a furious discharge of stones from the hands of the populace, while, in imi- tation of his divine Master, he prayed for his persecutors, and besought God to forgive them, because they knew not what they did. 12. Although the faithful had suffered in many places, both from the Jews and Gentiles, they had not, as yet, unuerffone any general persecution. The first ot the Roman emperors who armed the sovereignty of the state against the professors of Christianity, was Nero, whose cruelty wa^ enly surpassed by his moral de- pravity. In his wild extirtvagance, he set fire to the city of Rome, that he might have the vain satisfaction of rebuilding it on a more magnificent plan. Hut finding that his excesses created against him the murmurs and disaffection of the people, he artfully con- trived to throw the tnlium upon the Christians, whom he openly accused as the authors of the late conflagration, and publis-hed a decree, which made it a capital offense to profess the Christian religion. Revolting were the cruelties exercised against the un- offending professors of Christianity. Some were covered with the skins of wild beasts and devoured by dogs ; others were braced in tunics steeped in pitch, and placed at c itain distances, then set on fire to light the streets by night. A nong the many who suffered on this occasion, were the two illustrious apostles, St. Peter and St. Paul. They were confined foi nine months in a loathsome prison, at the foot of the capitol, before they were called to receive the crown of martyrdom. St. Peter was crucified with his head downwards, but St. Paul, being a Roman citizen, had the honor of dying by the sword. "NVhat is observed about it? — 11. AAer the death of Festus, what followed? AVho fell a victim to their fury? Relate the circumstances of his death. — 12. Who first armed the sovereign power against the Christians? What did he do? On whom did he throw the odium? What did he publish ? How were some put to death? Wh were the most distinguished? 334 THE CHUISTIAN CHURCH. 13. The second persecution commenced during the_ reign ol tlie emperor Domitian, about the year 95, during which, it is com- puted tnat forty thousand Christians received the crown of mar- tyrdom. The most illustrious sufferer was St. John,ihe Evangelist. He resided chiefly at Ephesus, in Ionia; but on information oeing lodged against him, he was cited by the emperor to appear at Rome, and on account of his faith, he was condemned to be cast alive into a caldron of boiling oil. The sentence was carried into execution before the Latin Gate, but by the miraculous power of God, the holy martyr came forth from the caldron, not only unhurt, but more fresh and vigorous than before. The emperor having failed in his attempt to depnye him of life, banished him to the Isle of Patmos, where the saint was favored with those heavenly visions recorded in his book of Revelations. On the death of Domitian, in the year 96, St. John again returned to Ephesus. At this early period of Christianity, the church had the mortification to see many of her children fall from their first faith, and teach erroneous doctrines. Of these, the most con spicuQus were Ebion and Nicholas of Antioch. Among other errors, they denied the divinity of Jesus Christ, and asserted the necessity of observing the ceremonies of the Mosaic law. To silence the heretical declaimers, St. John, at the request of the bishops of Asia, wrote his gospel, which he commences in a strain of sublime eloquence. 14. The third persecution. After the death of Domitian, the Eeace of the church was restored, under the mild reign of Nerva ; ut the reign of that prince was of short duration, and on the accession ot Trajan to the imperial throne, the sanguinary edicts of Nero and Domitian were again renewed, and again the cities artd provinces flowed with Christian blood. The younger Pliny, who was then governor of Bithynia, in a letter to the emperor, bears ample testimony to the exemplary lives of the Christians, and tells us, that so great was their number, that they filled the fields, the towns, and villages ; that on his arrival in the province, he could scarcely find a man of whom to purchase victims for the pagan altars. The most illustrious of those who suffered for the Faith, on this occasion, were St. Clement, bishop of Rome; St. Ignatius, of Antioch, and St. Simeon, of Jerusalem. Simeon was nearly related to our divine Saviour, and had reached the one hundred and twentieth year of his age. 15. The fourth persecution commenced about the year 168, under the reign of Marcus ^nrelius, during which thousands sealed with their blood the doctrines of Christianity. Among the most illustrious of those who suffered was St. Polycarp^ the venerable bishop of Smyrna. The fifth persecution commenced in the year 202. From the 13. When did the second persecution commence ? Who was the most illustrious iufTerer? Where did lie reside, and to what was he condemned ? How did he come forth from the caldron? Where was he banished? At this early period, what had the church? Of these, who were the most conspicuous? To tilence them, what did St. John do? — 14. When did the third persecution commence? What does the younger Pliny say of the Christians? Who were the most illustrious of the sufTerers ? — 15. When was the fourth persecution commenced, and who suffered? When did the fifth Dersccution commence ? THE CHRISTIAN CHtRCH. 335 death of Aurelius, the Christians had enjoyed the free exercise of their religion^ under various emperors, to the reign of Severua who was thought even favorable to Christianity, cluring the first seven years of his administration. At this period, seemingly with- out any provocation, he published against them a most sanguinary edict, forbidding them to hold their religious assemblies, and to profess the name of Christ. A dreadful pen^ecution followed, particularly in Egypt, in Gaul, and Afnca, where thousands sealed the profession of their faith by the effusioq of their blood. 16.^ The sixth persecution was commenced under the reign of Maximirit who had reached the imperial throne by imbruine his hand in the blood of his predecessor. The emperor pointed not his shafts against the great bodv of the Christians, who had now become too numerous to be marked out for slaughter, but directed his malice against the pastors of the church, ^ith the death of MaxiLiin, the persecution ceased in 240, after it had lasted three years. The seventh persecution of the Christians was published on the accession of Decius to the throne. It was the most dread- ful hitherto experienced ; prisons, stripes, fire^ wild beasts, melted wax, boiling pitch, racks, and iron hooks to tear the flesh from the bones, were employed to torment and to kill. The most distinguished of those who suffered during this persecution, were Fabianus, i\iQ bishop of Rome, Alexanaer, of Jerusalem, and Balytaa, of Antioch. The eighth persecution was commenced under the emperor Valerian, who, in the beginning of his reign, had shown the greatest lenity towards the Christians. With a view of rendering the gods propitious to his arms, on the eve of an expedition against the Persians, he published a violent edict against the professors cf the Christian name. Among the first who suffered, were St. Stephen, bishop of Rome, and St. Sextua, his immediate successor, with the illustrious martyr, St, Law- rence, and also St. Cyprian, of Carthage. 17. To gratify the senate and people of Rome, the emperor Aurelian published a sanguinary edict against the Christians, about the year 274 ; but the hand of an assassin put an end to hig life, before he had the satisfaction of seeing it properly carried into effect ; yet in several places, many received the crown of martyrdom. The tenth and last persecution took place about the year 302. The church, after enjoying a general tranquillity for thirty years, was again doomed to experience another sanguinary persecution, under Dioclesian, and his colleagues in the empire. For some time, Dioclesian rejected the measures on political motives, until he was at length overcome by the soothsayers, who declared that the empire could never flourish as long as the impious, meaning the Christians, were suffered to exist. The deluded emperor What edict was publiihed ?— 16. When was the sixth persecntion commenced? Against whom did he direct hio. malice ? When was the seventh persecution pub« lished? What were the modes of torture? VSTio were the most distinguished suf- ferers? What did Valerian publish on the eve of his expedition against Persia? Who tuflered on this occasion?— 17. To gratify the people of Rome, what did Aurelian do? When did the tenth persecution take place ? For acme time what did he reject? At length, what did ha publish ? 336 TflE CfiRISTUK CHUBCfi. weakly yielded to their persuasions, and published an edict for the total extirpation of the Christian religion. This violent decree well suited the sanguinary dispositions of his colleagues, Maxi- minus and Galerius, whose respective provinces were deluded in Christian blood. In Britain and Gaul, under the mild admin- istration of Constantius, the horrors of the persecution were less severe; still the authority of Constantius was insufficient in some instances to restrain the more superstitious of the magistrates; hence, even in Britain, we find St. Alban, and also St. Angelus, bishop of London, dying for the faith ; and in Gaul, St. Qusntin. and others, with the whole Theban legion, barbarously sacrificed to gratify an inferior officer of state. 18. At this period, when the power of darkness seemed to threaten the total extirpation of the Christian name, we are called to look for the rise of that coming dawn which is to usher in a brighter and happier era; when the church is to triumph over the ruins of pagan superstition ; when the croso is to adorn the diadem of the Caesars. By a sudden revolution in the state, or rather by the pKpvidence of God, whose superintending power directs the destmies of nations, Constantine, having triumphed over all his competitors, was placed in the undisputed possession of the impe- rial throne. The first care of this enlightened prince was to de- clare himself the protector of Christianity, and to publish an edict, by which all the penal rfestraints respecting religion were removed, and full liberty allowed to every one to profess and exercise that form of religious worship he snould thinlc proper to adopt. To break the force of prejudice, which time and custom had thrown around the religion of the empire, Constantine wisely judged that lenient measures were the most likely to effect his object ; and he concluded that to overthrow the system of error, nothing more was requisite than to grant protection to the true religion, and to let the wisdom of her doctrines, and the purity of her precepts, appear in open view. 19. To remedy the evils occasioned by the edicts of his prede- cessors, he recalled the exiles ; restored to the Christians their places of worship, and treated their ministers with the deepest respect. To the bishop of Rome, he granted the Lateran Pataee as the place of his future residence, and the adjoining palace was converted into a Christian temple, now called the church of St. John qf Lateran, Thus was the church finally triumphant, after undergoing the ordeal of ten sanguinary persecutions. A change with respect to their religion, so sudden, and so unexpected, inspired the Chris- tians with the prospect of joy for the present, and the most flat- tering anticipations for the future. What is said of the persecution in Britain ? — 18. At this period, what are we called to look for 7 What is said of Constantine T What was his first care, and what did he publish T To break the force of prejudice, what did he conclude ? — 19. To remedy the evils, &€., what did ha do? To the bishop of Rome what did he grant? What it observed of the Church ^ ' THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 337 SECTION II. FVom the triumph qf Christianity to the Heformattonf from A, D, 312 to 1517. 1. Under the protection of Constantine, Christianity widely extended and rapidly increased ; magnificent churches arose where pagan temples had stood for ages | the storm of persecution had ceased ; the bishops no longer lay under any restraint in the public exercise of their pastoral functions ; the people hastened to embtuce a religion sanctioned by their sovereign. Such was the pleasing prospect of affairs when the church beheld hei peace interrupted, and prosperity marred, not indeed by the hand of a pagan persecutor, but from the undutiful conduct of her own children. 2. Arius, a turbulent priest of Alexandria, had aspired to the episcopal chair of that city, but being defeated in his pretensions, he began to assail the doctrines of the church, and openly denied the divinity of Christ, and asserted that the Son (»f God was not equal to his Father in nature and substance. At this doctrine, the faithful were shocked and scandalized ; the pastors were alarmed ; and in order to check the progress of error, and to define the doctilr 'he church on the point in question, the convocation of a gf i v^ council was deemed expedient. Accordingly, during the mouin of June, in the year 325^ the famous council of Nice was convened. It was composed oi three hundred and eighteen bishops, besides a much greater number of inferior ecclesiastics. Osius, the venerable bishop of Cordova, in Spain, with two priests, presided in the name of St. Silvester, bishop of Rome, who was unable to attend in person. Constantine also, with many of his chief officers of state, was present on the occasion. ^ After mature deliberation, the fathers, with exception of five bishops., unani- mously condemned the opinions of Arius as erroneous, and con- trary to what had been taught bv the apostles and their imme- diate successors, and published tne Nicene Creed, which should stand to all succeeding ages, as the test of orthodox belief in the divinity of Jesus Christ. The question of faith being thus finally decided, the council proceeded to enact certain canons, for the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline. The uniform celebration ofEaster-day was fixed, and directed to be universally kept in future, on the first Sunday after the first full moon that follows the vernal equinox. Before the council separated, a synodical epistle was drawn up, and directed to St. Silvester, who is styled in that document, the blessed pope of Rome, requesting that he would confirm its decrees. 3. Arianism was checked for the present, but not suppressed ; it continued to find many patrons and supporters among those 1. What If said of Christianity under the protection of Constantine f What aroie? What did the people do ?— 3. What is said of Arius T What did he deny and assert T In order to oheck the progress of error, what was done T When and where did it meet T Of what was it composed ? Who presided T How were the opinions of Arina condemned T What was fixed and directed ? Before the council separated, what WU dona?— 3. What it said of Arianism t 29 338 THE CHRISTUN CHUBCH. whose rank and power g?,ve it considerable influence. Constan" tiua, the son and successor of Constantine, with several subse- quent emperors, favo;ed the Arian heresy, and under their re- spective reigns, the orthodox^ portion of the church expcrienccti a series of persecution little inferior in point of cruelty and vio- lence to those carried on when pagan sovereigns swayed the im- perial scepter. Under the reign of T/ieodosius the Great, peace was again r<*3tored to the church ; and in order to remedy the evils, and c rect the general confusion of doctrine that pervaded the east, occasioned by the violence which prevailed for nearly forty years, a second general council was convened at Constan- tinople in the month of May, A. D. 381. 4. This council consisted ot about one hundred and fifty ortho- dox bishops, besides thirty of the Macedonian party. The I.^a- cedonians, who took their name from Macedomus, the leader of their sect, not only maintainec' the Arian heresy, but also denied the divine procession of the Holy Ghost, The fathers of the council condemned, in the most explicit terms, this new error, declaring the Holy Ghost to be •* The Lord and Giver of life, who, with the FatherSni Son, is equally adored and glorified." Among the Sersons most distinguished for their le;>''ning and sanctity, we nd the names of St, ,^thanasius^iaho\i of Alexandria ; St, BaaiU the Great, bishop of Caesarea ; St. Gregory Nazianzen, no less distinguished for his eloquence thaiT for the holiness of his life } St. Chegory, bishop of Nyssa,and St. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem, To these may be added the names of St. Ambroae, bishop of Milan 5 St. Jerome, the learned Secretary of St. Damasus, bishop of Rome, and finally the illustrious St. Chryaostom, who died in the earljr part of the succeeding century. 5. As the Anan heresy ^dually declined, the schism of Dona- tua began to rise on its ruins. The first appearance of this schism is dated from about the middle of the fourth century. Donatus^ a turbulent prelate, with seve'*al other bishops, contested the validity uf the election and consecration of Ceciiian, bishop of Carthage, and even went so far as to pass sentence of deposition against him, and to elect Majorian in his place. In defiance of all authority, they supported this violent measure, and on the death of MaJonan, thejr elected one Donatus, from whom the party properly derives its name. To schism, they added heresy ; as • serting that God. the Son, was less than the &ther, and greater than the Holy Ghost; that the church had failed » and that with them alone existed true virtue. Towards the close of the fourth, and the beffinning of the fifth centurj^, they had greatly mut- tipUed $ ana with their numbers, their violence also increased ; they denounced open hostilities against the orthodox clergy* drove them by force from their, churches, profaned tlie sacred Of Cbnstantiut ? Under Theodostus the Great, what took place ? When was the ■econd counofl convened? — 4t Of what did this vMiuncil connat? What did the Ma^ cedoaiaoai maintion and deny ? What did the fathers of this oooncil dedara ? Who Who ara among the persons most distingoished for their learning, te^ T.^'-A Aath« Aita« heresy* deoUued, what sohism atoae.? V/liat isaaid: of Dtumtm? T<» schism whatdid tkey add and assertt What did ther d^notmeeT After th«le exclusion of St. Ignatius, its lawful incumbent. Proceeding from one extravagance to another, Photius at length calling together a synod of twenty-one bishops, pronounced sen- tence of deposition and excommunication against Nicholas, the Roman pontiff*. Upon the accession of Leo, surnamed the Wise, Photius was compelled to relinquish his usurped dignity and to retire to a monastery in Armenia, where he died in the year 893. The foundation of the Greek Schism was thus commenced, and finally completed by Michael Cerularius, in 1053. On the death of w^/m«, Michael J from the humble condition of a monk, was to succeed him in the patriarchal chair. Shortly after his elevation, he began by his acts and writings to display his inveterate preju- dice against the discipline and doctrine of the Latin church. 11. St. Leo, the Roman pontiff', seeing that everything seemed to threaten an open rupture, did all in his power to prevent it. He sent the celebrated Cardinal Humhcr to Constantinople for the purpose of effecting an adjustment of the difficulties, but without success. Michael now threw off" all restraint, assumed the title of universal patriarch, and published an act of excommu- nication against the bishop of Rome and the whole Latin church ; and proceeding tVom schism to heresy, he denied the procession of the Holy Ghost from God the Son, as well as from the Father. The maintenance of this article with the rejection of the papal jurisdiction, besides some variation in points of discipline, form the only difference at present between the Greek and Latin churches. What is said of Leo? When was the seventh general council held? By whom was it attended? What did they unanimously declare? — 10. In 606, what took place' What did he at length pronounce ? On the accession of Leo, what is said of Photius ? By whom, and wlien was the Greek schism completed? — 11. V»'^hat did St. JjCO dot What did Michael assume, publish, and d^iiy ? THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. 341 12. While these things were transacting in the East, new errors were broached in the West. Beregarius, archdeacon of Anglers, and a native of Tours, in France, began to dogmatize against second marriages, also against the necessity of infant bap- tism, and lastly, against the real presence of Christ's body in the Holy Eucharist. Several local councils were held for the purpose of ascertainingthe opinion of the church on these different points of doctrine. Beregarius being cited to appear before theiu, re- nounced his positions, but afterwards propagated them in the new. In the year 1079, during the pontificate of St. Gregory VII., a great council was held at Rome, at which one hundred and fifty bishops assisted. Before the assembled prelates Beregarius again -'-mnly recanted his opinions, confessed that he had been de- ceivcJ. •'nd threw his writings into the fire. It is generally be- lieved thav *'*'»r this he remained in the communion of the Catnolic church until hi- '«»ath, which took place during the year 1088. 13. From an eai.. *)enod, it had been customary for emperors or kings to present tht . **' had im- reneva. Faith, the . religious lat was pub- ;)pellation of )Iedge them- In tne mean ith Luther t ipciety of men^ destined to carry the light of Christianity to na- tions over which the gloom of paganism still prevailed. The founder of this new order was Jgnatius of Loyola, born in the jear 1401, of a noble family in Spain. On the 15tn of August, in the year 1534, Ignatius and nine champions, by vow conse- crated themselves to God, for the purpose of promoting his ser- vice, and procuring the salvation of souls. In 1537, they repaired to Rome, and made an offer of their services to pope Paul III. The pontiff gave them a gracious reception, applauded their zeal, and in 1540 erected them into a religious order, under the title of the Society qf Jesus. To instruct children and the ignorant in the principles and duties of religion ; to assist the faithful in their spiritual wants; to announce the truths of Christianity to pagan nations, marked the spirit and design of the institution of St. Ignatius. 11. But as these objects could not be attained without the united force of virtue and learning, the study of the various branches of polite literature, from the first rudiments of grammar to the sublime lessons of astronomy, is enjoined as a sacred c^uty on the members of this order. Shortly after the fourdation M the society, its members rapidly increased, and in a few years, they had colleges established in various towns of Italy, Portugal, and Spain. St. Francis Xavier, one of the first companions of Igna- tius, was sent to carry the light of Christianity to pagan rtions of the east. The principal scene of bis labor was in the en./nre of t/opan/ from thence he passed over to China, where he Jieil in 1552. So abundant were the fruits of his labor, that in the short space of one month, he is said to have baptized with his own hand ten thousand persons. About the time that St. Francin had finished his a]X)stolic course in Asia, Joseph Anchieta undertook a similar mission among the Indians of South America. 12. The Reformed churches differ materiallv from each other in form and in belief; all, however, take the Bible as the sole rule of faith, and maintain the right of private interpretation. 10. What did the church of Rome behold ? Who was the founder of this order "* What was done on the 15th of Au^ni't ? And in the year 1534 T What did the pontiff dot What mark the spirit of the institution of Ignatius ?— 11. What is enjoined as a ■acred duty on the members of this order? What is sair' of St. Francis Xavierf When did he die ? What is said of the fruit ef his labor ? l>y -horn was a similar miMion undertaken in South America?— 12. How do the Rci >'. v^d churches differ ? II ■ • W peop anot and entit r\ they w W equa righl Thai rivin ever ther gove pow( safet long andi pose( aboli tr?un evim right guan ofth( toalf ^H all hi these - He fbrtlj \ I He impo beob to the lazge of re] "beau APPENDIX. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. Iir GoiroKKSA, July Ath, 177ff The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of Amerr ca- Whbit, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary f .* wue people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them witb another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident; — that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, de- riving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that when- ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate, thai governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more cUs* posed to suffer while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long trfun of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is thnir duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for tiicir future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain, is a history of repeated injuntss and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary ibr the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation, till his assent should be obtained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to thenu He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of lajige districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislalure — a nght inestimable to thsm, luid 'bsnuMde to Qrraiits only. 80 340 350 DECLARATIOlf OF INDEPEKDEKCC. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortable, and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with bis measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time aAer such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large, for their exercise ; the state remain- ing, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from with- out, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the con- ditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of their ofiices and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new othces, and sent hither swarms of officei^, to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies without the consent of our legislatures. He has afiected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any mur* ders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states * For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : For imposing taxes on us without our consent: For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences .* For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring pro- vince, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments : For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves in« vested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro tection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy, scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by iheir hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored DECLASIATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 351 to bring on th inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of aL ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms : our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our migration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations., which would inevitably interrupt our connexions and correspondence They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind— enemies in war, in peace friends. WE, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general cong-ess assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the au- thority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and de- clare, that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent slates ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connexion between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the sup- port of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. JOHN HANCOCK. Nno-Hampshire. JOSIAH BARTLETT, WILLIAM WHIPPLE, MATTHEW THORNTON. Massachusetts-Bay. SAMUEL ADAMS, JOHN ADAMS, ROBERT TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY. lihode-Island, S^c. STEPHEN HOPKINS, WILLIAM ELLERY. Connecticut. ROGER SHERMAN, SAMUEL HUNTINGTON, WILLIAM WILLIAMS, OLIVER WOLCOTT. New- York. WILLIAM FLOYD, PHILIP LIVINGSTON, FRANCIS LEWIS, LEWIS MORRIS. New-Jersey. RICHARD STOCKTON, JOHN WITHERSPOON, FRANCIS HOPKINSON, JOHN HART, ABRAHAM CLARKE. Pennsyh'ania> ROBERT MORRIS, BENJAMIN RUSH, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, JOHN MORTON, GEORGE CLYMER, JAMES SMITH, 352 1 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES GEORGE TAYLOR, BENJAMIN HARRISON, JAMES WILSON, THOMAS NELSON, Jr GEORGE ROSS. FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEU Delaware. CARTER BRAXTON. C^SAR RODNEY, North Carolina. GEORGE READ, WILLIAM HOOPER, THOMAS McKEAN JOSEPH KEWES, Maryland. JOHN PENN. SAMUEL CHASE South Carolina^ WILLIAM PACA, EDWARD RUTLEDGE, THOMAS STONF, THOMAS HEYWARD, Jr. CHARI.es CARROLL, of THOMAS LYNCH, Jr. CarroUton. ARTHUR MIDDLETON. Virginia. Georgia. GEORGE WYTHE, BURTON GWINNETT, RICHARD HENRy LEE, LYMAN HALL, THOMAS JEFFERSON, GEORGE WALTON r*r\-%rctrT\TmT-rrTtTr\-%.r /^■n^ mTTITl TT-»T"rmT-»-r^ />m > m-w-tr^ CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. Wb, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfcti Qnion, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide foi the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and estabii^h this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. SECTION I. I. All legislative powers herein granted, shall be rested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and house of repre- sentatives. SECTION IT. 1. The house of representatives shall be composea of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states ; and the electors in each state shall have the i;ualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been saven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, ani excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 353 3N, fr D, Jr. r. ON. FT, AXES. nore perfeci vide foi ihe le blessings tahlikh this a Congress ise of repre- of members es; and the for electors e attained to tizen of the )itant of that 1 among the ccording to dding to the ervice for a of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within the three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative , and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New-Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massachusetts eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one; Co7inecticut five; Neiv-York six; Nctc- Jersey four ; Pennsylvania eight ; Delaware one ; Maryland six ; Virginia ten ; North-Carolina five ; South-Carolina five ; and Georgia three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill up such vacancies. 6. The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and other oflicers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. sxcTioir III. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three Classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacan- cies happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legis- lature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary atpoint- ments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then all such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a senator "who shall not have attained to the age of Airty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall notT?hen eleci3d,be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be cho^sen. ■, 4. The victf-president of the United States shall be president of the senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro-tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall ex- ercise the office of president of the United States. 6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the president of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqtialification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit, under the United States ; but the party con- victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law. sxcTioar ir. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by thr legislature 30* •'!>*'■.«"'< 354 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. thereof; but the congress vr.iy, at any time, by law, make or alter i^acn regulations, except as to th<. places of choosing senators. 2. The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION y. 1. Each house shall be "he judge of the elections, returns, and qvijdi- fications of its own membeit;, and a majority of each s,hall i-ristituto a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjouia trcm day to day, and maybe authorized to compel ike atl-udancc ;«..* ab-e-u im . > bers, in such manner and uxider such pen;? hies j s each h Ause may pro- vide. 2. Each house may determine the rules :>f its prccu.i'dings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, wxih the concurronce of two- thirds, expel a member. 9. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from tir« eers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this constitution, but no religious test shall ever be required a9 a qualification to any office or public trust UAder the United States*, ABTIGIiC TJI. %. The- ratification of the conveaticma of tune states shall be safflcieat for the establishment q£ this constitutioix^ between the states so^ ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the states present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth* Im witness whereof, wc har.* hereunto subscjdbed our names. dORCrE WAaWNQTOH^ 1 1 - AMEMiniENTS tO THE COKSTITUTIOlf. 361 Nno-Hampthiru JOHN LANGDON, NICHOLAS GU.MAN. Mauachutttn, NATHANIEL GORHAM, RUFU8 KING. Conntdicut. WM. SAMUEL JOHNSON, ROGER SHERMAN. New- York. ALEXANDER HAMPTON. New-Jersey. WM. LIVINGSTON, DAVID BREARLY, WM. PATTERSON, JONATHAN DAYTON. Penntylvania, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, THOMAS MIFFLIN, ROBERT MORRIS, GEORGE CLYMER, THOMAS FITZ8IM0NS, JARED INGERSOLL, JAMES WILSON, GOUVERNEUR MORRIS, Attest: Delateare, GEORGE READ, GUNNING BEDFORD, Jr^ JOHN DICKENSON, RICHARD BA8SETT, JACOB BROOM. . Maryland. JAMES McHENRY, DANIEL, of St. Thomas Jenifer, DANIEL CARROLL. Virginia* JOHN BLAIR, JAMES MADISON, Jr. North Carolina. WM. BLOUNT, RICHARD DOBBS SPRAIOHT» HUGH WILLIAMSON. South Carolina. JOHN RUTLEDGB, C. COTESWORTH PINKNEY, CHARLES PINKNTEY, PIERCE BUTLER. Georgia. WILLIAM FEW, ABRAHAM BALDWIN. WM. JACKSON, Secrttary* AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. Article 1. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, or abridging the fireedom of speech, or of ^e press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Art 2. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Art 3. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house Without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Art 4. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable came, supported by oath or aflSnnationa and particularly descnbing the place 10 be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 81 362 AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. Art. 6 No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otheitds« infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb, nor shall be compelled, in any criminal ease, to be a wit- ness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, with- out due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. Art 6. In a!l criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and dis- trict wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the na- ture and cause of the accusation : to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. Art. 7. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved ; and no fact tried by a jmy shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. Art. 8. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Art. 9. The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Art. 10. The powers not delegated to the United States by the consti- tution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states re- spectively, or to the people. Art. 1 1. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. Art. 18, § 1. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for president and vice-president, one of whom at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as president, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as vice-president; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as president, and of all per- sons voted for as vice-president, and of the number of votes for e ich. which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the senate ; the president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the cernficates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for president, shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed : and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceed- ing three, on the list of those voted for as president, the house of repre sentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the president. But, in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the represen- tation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the house of representatives shall not choose a president whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next BlOGRAPtiY OF EMllTENT PERSONAGES. 363 following, then the vice-president shall act as president, as in tte case o* the death or other constitutional disability of the president. 2. The person having the greatest nuniber of votes as vice-president, shall be the vice-president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the senate shall choose the vice-president : a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, ^nd a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of president, *hall be eligible to that of vice-president of the United States. BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. The design of this biographical sketch, is to give a short account of such distinguished characters as could not have been previously intro- duced, without interrupting, too materially, that close connection of events, so requisite in a compendium of history. Hence the names, kings, emperors, &c., whose lives are immediately connected with the countries to which they belonged, are generally omitted in this outline. Aram, the first of the human race, created by the Almighty from the dust of the earth, and placed in a delightful garden of Eden, with only one restriction laid upon him, namely, to abstain from eating the fruit of the tree of Ihe knowledge of good and evil; this injunction, however, he violated; and in consequence of his disobedience, he was driven from the earthly Paradise ; and died at the age of 930 years. AsHun, one of the sons of Shera, built Nineveh, and is supposed to have been the founder of the Assyrian empire; little is recorded of him in scripture. Anachkon, a Greek poet, who floi#i3hed about 500 years before the Christian era. His odes have been much admired for their sweetness, gaiety and elegance. He lived to the age of 85 years, and his death was occasioned by being choked by the seed of a grape. Archimkiibs, a famous geometrician, was born at Syracuse. At the time when the Romans under Marcellus besieged that city, he con- structed machines which sunk several of their vessels, and others he set on fire by burning glasses. He was killed by a Roman soldier, who was ignorant of his character, while the philosopher was engaged in his study, A. C. 208. .^sop, a Phrygian philosopher and fabulist, flourished about 580 years before the Christian era, and is supposed to have been the in- ventor of fabulous writing. He was originally a slave, but finally ob- tained his liberty. He travelled over a greater part of Greece and Egypt, bui spent much of his time at the court of Croesus, king of Lydia, by whom he was commissioned to consult the oracle of Delphi. He offended the Dclphians by his sarcastic remarks, by whom he was killed by being thrown from a rock. 364 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. AuisTOTLi, one of the most distinguished philosophers of antiquity, was a man possessed of extraordinary powers of intellect. His writings treat on almost every branch of knowledge in his time ; — moral and natural philosophy, metaphysics, mechanics, grammar, criticism, anci politics, all occupied his pen. He was moderate in his meals, slept little, and was indefatigably industrious. He taught in the Lyceum at Athens. A few moments before his death, he is said to have uttered these words: «I entered this world in impurity; I have lived in anxiety; I depart in perturbation. Cause of causes, pity me." He died at the age of 63 years. AtsxAirnER, the Great, the son of Philip, king of Macedon, was born at Pella, 336 years before the Christian era. At the age of ten years, he was placed for education under the care of Aristotle. When J/p came to the throne, he immediately determined on the invasion of Asia; defeated Darius in three sanguinary battles, reduced Egypt, Media, Syria, Persia, and spread his conquests over a great part of India. On his return from India, he made Babylon the seat of his Asiatic empire, where he died in the 32d year of his age, of a fever occasioned by ex- ■cessive intemperance. Alexander was the most renowned hero of an- tiquity, surpassing all others in the rapidity, extent, and splendor of his conqueMs ; perhaps no other individual ever produced greater misery on mankind, if, to the slaughter occasioned by his own wars, we take into consideration the influence which example has had on the career of others, who have made him their model. He possessed abilities and talents, which might have rendered him distinguished as a statesman and a benefactor to his species, yet his military achievements alone have acquired him the surname of Great. Anoelo, Mirkael, a distinguished painter, sculptor, and architect, was born in 1474. In t.rchitecture he surpassed all the moderns, and is thought to have been the greatest designer that ever lived. His most celebrated painting is the Last Judgment: His architectural abilities are best displayed on the Church of St. Peter, at Rome, the building of which he completed. His style is that of grandeur and sublimity, united with the utmost simplicity and beauty. He died in the 90th year of his age. Addison-, Joseph, an elegant English essayist and poet, was the son of a clergynsan, and born in thQ, year 1672. His merits, as a writer, procured for him public employment, and in 1717, he was raised to the office of Secretary of State. His most admired productions in prose, are to be found in the Spectator. He is distinguished for a delicate and gentle humor, and his style is remarkable for purity and ease. His poetry is less admired. His tragedy of Cato, however, has some merits. Addison died at the age of 57. Aprahau, the immediate progenitor of the Hebrew nation, was the son of Terah, and born in Chaldea. After the death of his father, he removed into the land of Canaan, which God promised to give to his posteiity. In the lOOih year of his age his son Isaac was born. After passing through various scenes of life, he was called to the severe trial of ofiering up his son Isaac in sacrifice at the command of the Deity. Ail his fondest hopes were reposed in that sen, yet he hesitated not a moment ia the execution of the divine behest. But at the moment, how- ever, in which his arm was raised to take the life of his son, God inter- posed, and accepted the obedience of the patriarch in the place of the BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 365 sacrifice, commended his faith, and thus rescued Isaac from his im- pending fate. Abraha n died at the age of 176 years. Beue, an English historian, surnamed the Venerable. He was born at Wearmouth, about the year 672. In his youth he studied with much diligence, and soon became eminent for his learning. His most cele- brated work is his Ecdesiaslical History of England, which he published in 731 He was a man of exemplary piety. His last sickness was a consumption, which terminated in *he asthma. He supported his afflic- tion with great firmness, and during his extreme weakness, never omitted the duties of his slati )n. He died in 736. BuRNH, Robert, a celebrated Scotch poet, was born at Ayr, in 1759. He seems to have been a poet by nature; his poems in the Scottish dialect, are remarkable for their beauty, elegance, and simplicity. They no sooner appeared in print, than he was called frasa the plough to asso- ciate with men of letters. He died at the age of 39. His death was hastened by intemperance and licentious pleasures. Belisarius, an illustrious general under the emperor Justinian. Ht repeatedly saved the empire by his valor ; even when far advanced in .years and scarcely able to wield his sword, he marched against the Huns, who made an irruption into the empire, and defeated them with great slaughter. In return for his many services, the suspicious empe- ror deprived him of all his honors, and condemned him to an igno- minious confinement, which lasted for several months. It is believed that he again recovered the friendship of the emperor. He died, A. D. 565. Bacoit, Roger, an eminent philosopher, was born in the year 1214, in England, of a respectable family, and became a monk of the Franciscan order. To the comprehensive mind of Bacon, many of the discoveries made by the genius and toil of later ages were known. He was ac- quainted with the structure of the air pump, with laws of optics, and the power of glasses. He gave such a clear description of gunpowder, that it is evident that he was its inventor. His writings amount to above 80 treatises on various subjects, but his chief production is his Opus Maius, or Great Work, which he wrote while imprisottp'^ through the jealousy of his enemies. He died at the age of 80. Bacok, Sir Francis, an eminent EngUsh phil'^sophcr, was born in 1561. His astonishing faculties were early developed, and gained him the favorable notice of Elizabeth. On the accession of James I., he rose to power ; was made attorney-geiieral, keener of the seals, lord chan- cellor, and finally raised to the peerage, ln^ elevation excited iheenvy of his enemies, and he was accused of bribery and corruption in the office of chancellor ; in consequence of which he was fined £40,000, and sentenced to imprisonment in the il'ower. As an author, his Novum Or' ganum Scientiarum, has immortalized his name. He was the first who taught the proper method of studying the sciences, or lather, to point out the way in which we should begin and carry on our pursuit of know- ledge, in order to arrive at truth ; and has beer styled the pioneer of nature, ant. *he priest of nature's mysteries. BuRKK, Edmund, an Eminent Irish orator and political writer, was the ■on of a re.v;pectable attorney, at Carlow, where he was born, in 1730. After studymg at Trinity Co/fegf, Dublin, he went to London and entered at the Middle Temple; but without paying any serious attention to the law, he devoted his time principally to literature and politics. His style and arguments as a writer soon attracted notice, and his Euay on tht 31* 366 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. Sublime, gained for him universal admiration. In 1765, he was sent to parliament, where he combined the character of an elegant writer with an eminent speaker. During the war of the American Revolution, he exerted all the power of his eloquence against the measures of the British. When the French Revolution broke out, he became alarmed at the progress of licentious principles, and with a view of , counteract- ing them in England, he published his celebrated Reflections. For some time before his death, he retired from public life. He died in 1797. As an author, his merits are universally acknowledged; he was copious, elegant, and forcible. BuoNAPAHTE, Napolcon, was a native of Corsica, where he was born in 1769. The career of this extraordinary man surpassed, in many re- sp?cts, that of every great conqueror who preceded him. In his 2?th year, he was raise(l*to the command of the French army ; at the age of 30, he caused himself to be elected first consul; and in his 35th year, he was proclaimed emperor of France. During the ten years that he possessed the imperial throne, he was the most powerful potentate, not only of his age, bui of modern times, and made the world tremble at the terror of his name. He raised to the rank of kings, his three bro- th'' -.c, his brother-in-law, and three German electors; also Bernadotte, one of \i% generals, was raised to the throne of Sweden. He united in his person the three-fold character of conqueror, usurper, and legis- lator. He triumphed over civilized enemies; legislated in a refined age ; and seized upon the scepters of his mo6t powerful rivals. To him, France is indebted for an admirable code of laws, in the formation of which he was the efficient agent. No man ever enjoyed a greater op- portunity of bcnefitipg his fellow man than Buonaparte ; yet this oppor- tunity was cast away, except so far as it suited his insatiable ambition and lust of power, to which he was ready to sacrifice every principle of justice and humanity. He chose to be an Alexander, or a Caesar, rather than a Washington ; a subverter, rather than a protector of liberty ; a 'terror and a scourge, rather than a delight and a blessing to mankind. 'The close of his eventful life, furnishes a most instructive lesson on the instability of all humafi things, and the vanity of human glory. He died on the island of St. Helena, on the 5th of May, 1821, in the 6th year of his captivity, and 52d of his age. \^For the principal events of his life, see France.] Cain, the first born of the human family, was distinguished for his wiclredness and for being the first of murderers ; he killed his brother Jbel through jealousy, because his brother's sacrifice was tiiore accept- able to the Lcn^ than his own. Nothing is mentioned in scripture of the time or manner of his death. Cato, an illustrious Roman general who took part against Caesar. After the battle of Pharsa1ia,he returned to Utica; but finding it impos- sible to resist the power of the conqueror, he resolved not to survive the liberty of his country. After supping cheerfully with his friends, he Tfilurned to his chamber, and having read Plato's dialogue on the im- mortality of the soul several times, he stabbed himself w ' >. his own sword. Ceckops, a native of Egypt, who led a colony into Greece and laid the foundation of Athens, A. C, 1556. He taught his subjects the cultiva- tion of the olive, and was the first who raised an altar to Jupiter, and offered sacrifices to him. He reigned over the country frr 50 years, and »ou his death he was succeeded by Cranaus. filOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 367 3 sent to iter with ution, he ;s of the alarmed unteract- For some 1797. As copious, vas born manv re- his 27th ye age of i5th year, ; that he titate, not emble at tiree bro- hrnadotte, [e united .nd legis- a refined , To him, aation of reater op- lis oppor- ambition nciple of ar, rather iberty; a mankind, on on the He died 1 year of lis life, set for his brother e accept- [pture of t Caesar, it impos- irvive the iends, he the im- his own d laid the e cultiva- )lter, and ears, and Cadmcs, a Phoenician who built Thebes, andwas the first who intro- duced letters into Greece. His alphabet consisted of only sixteen let- ters, to which eight were afterwards added. C\cr no, MarciisTuUius, the prince of Roman orators and philosophers, was the son of a Roman knight. His father perceiving his promising abilities, procured for hira the most celebrated masters of his time. He served one campaign under Sylla, but on his return to J7.ume appeared as pleader at the bar, where the greatness of his genius and superior eloquence soon raised him into notice. Having passed through tlie in- ferior honors of the state, he was at length elevated to the office of consul; and daring his administration, he detectef^ and crushed the conspiracy of Catiline. On this occasion he received the thanks of the people, an i was styled the father of his country; but his refusal to second the arbitrary measures of Caesar and Porapey caused his banish- ment; he retired to Greece, but was allowed to return after an absence )f sixteen months. After th( death of Coesar, he again espoused the repujlican party, and thus incurred the hatred of Antony, one of the leading members of the triumvirate, by whose order the illustrious orator was assassin ted in the 64th year of his age, A. C. 43. C^sAn, Cains Julius. This extraordinary man united in his person the threefold character of warrior, historian, and statesman. Though ambition was his ruling passion, yet he possessed the most splendid en- dowments of genius, and many noble qualities of the heart ; clemency seems to have been his predominant virtue. On passing a small vil- lage among the Alps, on his way to take possession of his government in Spain, before the formation of the triumvirate, he remarked, that " he would rather be the first man in that village than the second man in Rome." He frequently made use of this verse of Euripides: "That if right and justice were ever tc be violated, they were to be violated for the sake of reigning." In his military career, he was probably never surpassed. He was so much the idol of his troops, that in any impor- tant conjuncture, his lieutenant could say nothing more impressive to them than, " Soldiers, imagine that Caesar beholds you !" He fought no less than fifty battles, in which 1,192,000 men are said to have been slain. In the midst of his military enterprises, he found time to become the author of several works, of which only the memoirs of his wars are now extant ; these are much admired for their elegance as well as the cor- rectness of style. As an orator, he would have rivalled Cicero had he devoted himself to the bar; he spoke with the same spirit with which he fought. He was assassinat3d in the senate house in the 56th year of his age, A. C. 44. [For his achievements, see Rome.] CowpEn, miliatn, a celebrated English poet, was born in the year 1730. In the early part of his life, he was afflicted with a distressing melancholy brought on by serious reflection on religious subjects; on jne occasion he even attempted his life. He did not become an author antil the age of 50 years. The first volume of his poems appeared in 1782, and the second volume in 1785. His most admired work is his Task, which abounds with beauty of sentiment, combined with harmony and sweetness of style. Cowper died in 1800; aged 70. Cat-vijt, Joan, a coadjutor of Luther in the Reformation, was born at Noyon, in Picardy, July 10th, 1509. He spent most of his active life at Geneva, where he filled the chair of professor of v.ivinity, and warmly espoused the cause of the Reformation. He d' d in 1564. CoBBSTT, William. This distinguished man was born in England 368 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. ID the year 1762, of humble parentage, and possessed but few adyan< tages for education. In early life, he followed the profession of arms as a common soldier, but employed his leisure moments in atten* tive reading. He soon emerged from this situation, and appeared in public as a bold and elegant writer. The general characteristics of his style are purity, perspicuity and masculine vigor ; frequently eloquent, but often attended with a strain of torturing sarcasm, contemptuous jocularity and fierce invective. Cobbett is by far the most voluminous writer who has lived for centuries. He died in 1835. CopERwicus, Nicholas, an eminent astronomer and the discoverer of the true system of the universe, was born at Thome, in Prussia. He early devoted himself to the study of mathematics, applied his knowledge to an examination of the different theories respecting the universe ; and after twenty years of profound investigation, he arrived at this impor- tant truth, that the sun is placed in the centre of the universe to illumi- nate and control the whole system. For various reasons he concealed itiis great discovery for thirty years. At length, through the importuni- ties of his friends, he consented to have his work pi^l lished ; as soonas completed, a copy of it wts brought to him^and in a few hours after- wards he was seized with a violent effusign of blood, which terminated his life Til the 70th year of his age, A. D. 1643. Columbus, Christopher, an eminent navigator, and discoverrjr of Ame- rica, was bom at Genoa in 1442. At the age of fourteen he entered on seafaring life, and after a variety of adventures, he wert to Lisbon, where he married the daughter of Perestrello, a navigator of considerable eminence, whose journals were pticuliarly beneficial to Columbus. At this period the attention of the Portuguese was directed towards finding a passage to the East Indies ; this they expected to attain by doubling the Cape of Good Hope, and then sailing towards the East. Inflamed by the desire of accomplishing so noble an enterprise, the active mind of Columbus, after attentively comparing the observations of modern pilots with the conjectures of the ancients, at length concluded, that by sailing directly west from Europe across the Atlantic, new countries, which he supposed to formapart-of Asia, must infallibly be discovered. The spherical figure of the earth was known, and its magnitude ascer- tained v/ith some degree of accuracy; and Sir John Mandeville had even demonst.'-ated that it might be circumnavigated. Convinced of the correctness of his theory, Columbus was anxious to test it by experi- ment. At length, after many delays, he obtained assistance from Isa- bella, queen of Spain, and on the 3d of August, 1492, sailed" on his voyage of discovery. On the 11th of October, the same year, he came in sight of an island, to which he gave the name of St. Salvador, one of the Bahamas; he also a "covered Cuba amd St. Domingo, which he called Hispaniola, and returned in May of the foV wing year. He made three other voyages to the New World, in the last of which he was ship- wrecked on the coast of Jamaica. Here for a time he obtained astonish- ing command over the Indians by predicting an eclipse of the moon. He died shortly after his return to Spain, atValladolid, in the 70th year of his age, A. D. 1506. [^For further pariuulars, see A.ts.t&vlicx.'] Dino was the daughter cf Bdus, king of Tyre. Her husband was murdered by Pygmalion, the successor .of Belus. The disconsolate princess, with a number of Tyrians, set sail in quest of a settlement. A storm drove them upon the coast of Africa, whore they founded the .Qxty of Carthage. Her beauty and the fame of her enterprise, gained BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. d69 V adrnn- of arms in atten- )eared in Lcs of his eloquent, imptuous [urainous )verer of He early vledge to ;rse; and is impor- to illumi- joncealed nportuni- .s soon as urs after- ;rminated r of Ame- mtered on Lisbon, isiderable Qbus. At ^s finding doubling Inflamed tive mind f modern d, that by countries, scovered. de ascer- iville had jed of the )y experi- from Isa- id'on his , he came jr, one of he called ade three vas ship- astonish- le moon. 70th year and was coiisolate ;ttlement. inded the e, gained her many admirers ; her subjects wished to compel her to murry tlM! king of Mauritania, but she killed herself rather than enter into a matri- monial alliance with one for whom she could entertain no aflectinn. DaTBxir, Johrtf a celebrated English poet, was born in the year 1631. He first exhibited his poetical powers in an eulogium on Oliver Crom" well ; and this was followed, in 1660, by a poem, " on the happy return and Restoration of his sacred majesty, Charles II." On the accession of James II., he became a Roman Catholic, and was continued in the appointment of Poet Laureat, which he had held under Charles. After the revolution, he was deprived of all his honors, and from that time until his death, he was obliged to rely for subsistence on the immediate profits of Ws poetical productions. His Ode on St. Cecilia's Day, his translation of Virgil, Juvenal, and Perseus, are lasting proofs of his poetical genius. His style is flowing and musical, at the same time grand and energetic. He died in the year 1700. Demosthenes, the prince of orators, was born at Athens. His early education was much neglected, through the treachery of his guardians, who squandered away his property. Perhaps no individual ever aspired to the art of oratory with more impediments to overcome than Demos- thenes ; and no one ever attained to a higher excellence in that art. Besides an impediment in his speech, he had a weak voice, accom- panied with a shortness of breath; the movements of his body, more- over, were most ungraceful. That he might remedy the imperfection in his speech, he accustomed himself to declaim with pebbles in his mouth; and in order to strengthen his voice and lungs, he frequently harangued on the sea shore, where the agitation of the waves caused him to exert his utmost strength, that he might be heard above the noise, and at the same time served to give him an idea of the commotion of popular assemblies ; and finally, he corrected the awkwardness of his gesture, by speaking before a mirror, and by taking lessons from the most accomplished comedians. That he might apply himself more to his studies, he retired to a cave, and shaved one half of his head, so that he could not decently appear abroad. Having thus qualified him- self, he came forth from his retreat, and presented himself before the public. His great abilities as an orator soon placed him at the head of the government, where he exerted all the powers of his eloquence against the ambitious designs of Philip, Ifing of Macedon. His orations against that prince, are called Philippics, a name since applied to all f.atirical productions. On the death of Alexander, Demosthenes once more endeavored to rouse his countrymen to an efibrt for the recovery of thtir liberty; the attempt wos ineffectual, and Athens was obliged to purchase peace by the sacrifice of ten of her public speakers. Demos- thenes, to avoid falling into the hands of his enemies, suffered a volun- tary death by taking poison, in the 60th year of his age, A. D. 322. EvK, ihe name of the first woman; she was formed by the Creator, of a rib taken from the side of Adam, while in a deep sleep ; thus she became the " bone of his bones, and the flesh of his flesh," and was given to him as his wife. She was the first transgressor; being deceived by Satan in the form of a serpent, she eat of the forbidden fruit, and offered it to her husband, who also fallowed her example. In punish- ment for this offense, she was banished from Paradise with Adam, and subjected to all the miseries that have since afliicted the human family. EuRipiDiLs, an eminent tragic poet of Greece, was born at Salamis. As a poet, he is peculiarly happy in expressing the passions of love. 370 BIOGRAPHY OF EMINENT PCRSONAGCS. particularly the more tender and animated ; his thoughts are sublime, and his productions abound with many moral reflections. He spent the latter days of his life at the court oi ArcheJaus, king of Macedonia. His end was tragical ; in one of his solitary walks, he was attacked and devoured by the hounds of the king, in the 78th year of his age, A. D. 407 Euclid, the greatest mathematician of antiquity, was born at Alex- andria, and flourished near 300 years before the Christian era. His writings, were numerous; but his 15 books on the elements of mathe- matics, which consist of problems and theorems, with demonstrations, have acquired an imperishable fame, and have suffered bu( little altera- tion to the present time. Tnx-sK-Lxs, Benjamin. This distinguished philosopher and discoverer of electricity, was born at Boston, in 2 706. In youth, he was appren- ticed to an uncle in the printing business. As his occupation allowed him but little time for study, he supplied the deficiency by carefully reading at night the works which he had printed during the day, and by this me ins soon acquired extensive information. He was a member of the American Congress during the eventful period of the Revolution. As a public negotiator, he effectually secured the honor and interest of the country. He died in 1790, while governor of Pennsylvania, at the advanced age of 84 years. His discoveries in science have associated his name with that of Newton. He is the fa'her of that branch of phi- losophy, which explains the laws of the electric fluid, and the utility of lightning rods will for ever point to him r.s a temporal benefactor of the human race. GiBBos-, Edward, an eminent English historian, was born at Putney, in 1737. His most important work is his " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," which he completed after twenty years' labcnc It is an elaborate production and generally accurate. In principle, he was a decided skeptic and unbeliever ; he wrote with a view of establishing his principles ; hence throughout his works the seeds of infidelity are widely disseminated, a fact which renders his productions highly danger- ous to the uncautious reader. He scoffs at Christianity, and endeavors to turn it to ridicule whenever an opportunity offers. He died of the dropsy in 1794. Galilko, an Italian, distinguished for his discoveries in mathematics and astronomy. He embraced the Copernican system, which he en- deavored to establish from the Bible. For thus attempting to blend his astronomical theories with the sacred writings, he was summoned be- fore the tribunal of the inquisition at Rome. Some years after this, he published his Dialogues and Memoirs, in which he again endeavored to raise the system of the rotation of the earth to the dignity of a dogmati- cal tenet. Being again cited before the tribunal at Rome, he was lodged in the palace of Tuscany, and for a short time in the apartment of the attorney-general. After having received his sentence and made his recantation, Galileo obtained permission to visit his mitive country, where he died at the advanced age of 78 years. Goldsmith, Oliver. This eminent poet, historian, and miscellaneous writer, was born in Ireland in 1729. He made a tour throuph Europe on foot, and supported himself by playing on the flute. Having at length returned to London, he commenced his literary career. The publication of The Traveller, in 1765, obtained for him a high poeti- cal celebrity, with many distinguished friends. The Deserted Villagt, BIOfitlAP^ OF EMU^ENT PER30NAC4C8. m the most admired of his poetical productions, was published in 1769. His comedies, The Good'tiaiured Man, and She Stoop$ to Conquer, are also much admired. His JJiatory vf Rome, History of Ettglamf, and HUlory of Animated Nature, with the Vicar of Wakefield, are among his principal works. He died in the 46th year of his age. His life and character were eccentric, but interesting. Generosity, carelessness, and impru- dence, were the distinguishing features of his disposition. His prodi- gality always kept him in poverty. Sweetness of fancy and tenderness of feeling are the peculiar features of his poetry. His eJipression is natural and idiomatic, yet in the highest degree select and refined. GcTTSNBKBo, Johft, the inventor of the art of printing. It has been contended that Lewis Coster, of Haarlem, invented the use of move- able type; but it seems that opinion is without foundation, and that the art of printing, as practiced at present, was discovered by Gttttenberg, of Mayence, about the year 1438, although it was several years after this period, before the art was brought to any perfection. In 1450, Gut- tenberg entered into partnership at Mayence, with John I'ms.. It was about this period, that the method of casting the character in metal was discovered. This improvement is supposed to have been made by Schaeffer, who assisted them at this time. The first printers carried their types about in bags, and printed small p&mphlets and the like. The first entire book issued from their press, was the Psalter in Latin, printed at Mentz, in 1457, of which there are two copies yet extant, one in the imperial library at Vienna, the other purchased by Louis XVIII. of France, for the sum of 12,000 francs. A complete edition of the Bible, in Latin, was printed in two folio vols., at Mentz, in the year 1462. From this epoch, the progress of typography was rapid, and before the close of the fifteenth '■-'^tury, various editions of the Bible, with a vast number of other Wv..j£s, were published in different parts of Europe. HoHEK was not only the greatest of the Greek poets, but also the earliest, whose works have survived the devastations of time. He is regarded as the most ancient of all profane classical writers. The place of his nativity is unknown ; several cities claim the honor of having given him birth. Little is known of his parentage, or his circumstances of life ; but it is generally agreed that he was a wandering poet, and that he was blind, at least towards the close of his life. His greatest poems are the Iliad and Odysssy. The Arundelian marbles fix the perir ^ in which he flourished at 907, before the Christian era. HsAosoTus, a celebrated historian, was born at Halicarnassus, and is styled the father of history. His most celebrated work describes the wars of the Greeks against the Persians, from the age of Cyrus to the battle of Mycale. His style abounds with elegance, ease, and sweetness. HiFFocBATEs, Styled the father of medicine, was born in the island of Cos. He devoted his whole attention to medical applications ; his writings, a few fragments of which remain, procured him the epithet of divine. He died at the age of 99 years, A. C. 361. Hksiod, an eminent Greek poet, who is supposed to have flourished about the time of Homer. His greatest production is a poem on agri- culture, which contains many moral reflections, mingled with instruc- tions for cultivating the fields. His Theogony, another poem, gives a faithful description of the gods of antiquity. So partial were the Greeks to his moral productions, that they required their children to commit th . >'..' vfas admitted to practice. He served his country m various posti ' T?j ' 765, he was elected a member of the Virginia legislature, nw^ i Produced his celebrated resolutions on the Stamp .Act; he aAervrards ;:or "; a distinguished part in the period of the Revolution. He died at the age o? 61, in 1797. Isaiah, the Prophet, was the son of Amos. He prophesied upwards of 700 years before the Christian era. He was the greatest and most sublime of all the prophets. He boldly censured the vices of his time, and according to the Hebrew tradition, he was put to death by being sawed in two, during the reign of king Manasse. JvBAi: is spoken of in the Scripture as " the father of such as handled the harp or organ ;" a fact which proves that music must have been one of the earliest arts known and t.:r^ght among men. Joshua, the successor of Moises, l^J. the people of Israel into the pro- inised land, and having divided the country among the ten tribes, he died in the 1 10th year of his age. JoBsra, tlie patriarch, was on« of the twelve sons of Jacob, whoto eventful life is so patheticidly described in the scrpture. He was sold by his brothers to merchants, who carried him into Egypt, where, through the interposition of heaven, he finally >ecame the ruler of th ikt country, under Pharaoh. The triumph of his nnocence, as the rewaid of his piety, proves the care of Gk>d manifested towards the virtuous, and should lead them to place their confidence in his protection under the most trying scenes of life. JoHKsoK, Samuel, an eminent lexicographer, critic, and essayist, was BIOGBAPHY or EMINENT PERSONAGES. 373 I born at Litchfield, 1709. He commenced his education at Oxford, biU owing to the insolvency of his father, he was obliged to lea\ e the uni- versity prematurely. Involved in poverty, and ithout any prospect 6efore him, after trying various expedients to obtain a livelihood, he went to London in quest of employment, in 1~37. From this period until 1763, he was engaged in literary labors, under the jpressure of poverty and disappointment. On one occasion he was arrested for a del ( of five guineas, from which he was relieved by the kindness of a friend. His first important work, was his celebrated Englith Dictionary, which he completed in the space of seven years, and for \» hich he re- ceived only the sum of £1575. The Rambler, and The Livtt of Poets, ar» among some of his principal productions. He died in 1784, aged 75 years. JxFFxnsoK, Thomas. This eminent statesr^n was born at Shadwell, Virginia, in 1743. He was elected a mo if the continental Con- ^^ess in 1775, and was one of the co0i> -^tinted to draw up the Declaration of Independence, which docum. vv alterations, was his own composition. In 1801, he was c office of President of the bnited States, and after serving to , ation of his second term, he retired from public life to his seat at Munticello, where he died on the 4th of July, 1827. In private life, he was hospitable and agree- able in his manners ; in public, the uncompromising, sagacious, and talented leader of the democratic party. jACKsofT, General Andrew. This distinguished man was born on the 16th of March, 1767, in the Waxhaw settlement, South Carolina. His parents were emigrants from Ireland, and followed the industrious oc- cupation of farming. Andrew -, while yet in his infancy, was bereft of his father, and left with two elder brothers, to the care of a devoted mother. During the war of the Revolution, Jackson, though young, partook largely of the calamities of that eventful period. One of his brothers was slain in the battle of Slono; he himself, with the other brother> was taken prisoner, and carried to Camden. During his cap- tivity, Andrew was ordered, by a British ofiict^r, to wipe the mud off his boots, whicU he peremptorily refused to do, demanding th*^ treatment due to a pr soner of war. The officer, enraged at iiis refusal, drew his sword and struck at the head of Jackson, who warded off the blow with his left hand, but received a wound, the mark of which he carried with him to his grave. His brother, for a similar offense, received a wound upon his head, inflicted by a sword, ot which he eventually died. AAer the war, he turned his attention towards tbo law, and was admitted to practice at the age of twenty. In 1788, he xocated himself permanently at Nashville, Tennessee. In 1796, he was elected one of the member's of a convention, assembled to frame a constitution for the state. In the following year he was sent to Congress, and the year after to the Senate of the United States, which situation he shortly resigned, not being satisfied with his political duties at Washington. On his return from Congress, he was appointed one of the judges of the Supreme Court of Tenjuessee. During the late war he received the appointment of Major General in the regular army, and defeated the British on the 8th of January, 1815, in the memorable battle of New Orleans. In 1828, he was elected to the office of President of the United States. After the expiration of his second term, he retired again to the repose of the Hermiiage, where he died on the 8th of June, 1845, in the 78th year of his age. 32 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) V. 'Jo {/ w ^d <° C?x S %^^/.^ < t^/. ^ A 5ft & ^ 1.0 I.I ffflM IIIIIM '" :i: !lI!l2-0 2.2 I.B 11:25 ill 1.4 IIIIII.6 V] <^ c^^ K '/ /A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 f^ % & ^ ^ \ \ c> 374 BXOGBAPMY OF EMiKfiNT PeitSONAOfid. LveiKivs, an early Roman poet. He is considered as the first great satincal writer among the Romans ; his productions are harsh and in- elegant; of his thirty satires, only a few verses remain. He died at Naples in the 46th year of his age. LvcBSTiiTs, a Roman didactic poet. He studied at Athens, and ira- hibed the tenets of Epieunu. In his poem on the nature of thing$, he advocates Atheism, and endeavors to establish the mortality of the souL He is thought to have caused his own death in the 44th year of hin age, A. C. 64. LivT, a distinguished Roman historian, who wrote the histoiy of his country in 140 books, of which only 36 are extant. His style is clear and spirited; his descriptions bold and concise. He died at Padua in the 67th year of his age, A. D. 17. LrcvBeirs, the great Spartan legislator, flourished about the year 884 before the Christian era. He was regent of Sparta during ^e minority of CharUaus, his nephew. After returning from his travels in Asia and Egypt, lie framed the celebrated code of laws for his country, which rendered Sparta for so many ages one ot the leading states of Greece. Having established his laws, and engaged the citizens nof to alter them until his return, he left his coimtry, and by a voluntary death he rendered their establishment effectual. Locxa, /oAn, a celebrated English philosopher, was bom in the year 1633. By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, he held a respectable situ- ation under government, an wrote at tiiat time several political tracts. His lordship being compelled to retire from England, on a charge of being concerned in Monmouth's rebellion, Locke also removed to Hol- land, where he devoted himself to literary pursuits, but subsequently returned to his native country, and published his Etsay on the Human Mind. He died in the year 1704. LuTHXK, Martin, the celebrated reformer, was bom at hhben, in Saxony, 1483. He was designed by his parents for a civilian, but the following awful incident directed his attention towards the church. As he was walking in the fields with a fellow-student, his companion was struck by lightning, and killed by his side. His mind was so much affected by this event, that he formed the resolution ol retiring from the world. He accordingly entered into the order of Augustine Friars, at Erftirt From this place he removed to Wittenberg, being appointed professor of divinity in the University, founded in that city by the elector of Saxony. In 1617, he commenced the Reformation, the particulars of which have been given under the head of the Chriitian Church, In 1624, he threw aside the monastic habit, and the following year mar- ried a nun ; he had three sons, whose descendants are sl^ respected in Oermany, Luther died at his native place in 1646. MsTHirsxKAH is not kttown to have been remarkable for any thing except his age, having completed 969 years, the oldest of the human qriace. Msmcs, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy, was worshipped as a god after his death. He is supposed to have built the city of Memphis, and is said to have reigned 62 years over Upper Egypt, and 86 over Lower Egypt. Mr.LCBisKDso. Little is known of this personage. After the return ot Abraham from an expedition against some of the neighboring princes, who had committed depredations on his territory, Melchisedec met and blessed him. The scriptural account is in the following words : « Ba fitO^RA^aY 01? EMINENT PE&SONAGES. 376 Melchisedec, the king of Salem, bringing forth bread and wine, for he was a priest of the Most High God, blessed him and said : Blessed be Abraham by the Most High God, who created heaven and earth; and he (Abraham) gave him tithes of all." Mosxs, the great lawgiver of the Jews. In his infancy he was ex- posed on the banks of the Nile, in a small basket made of rashes ; in this situation he was found by the daughter of Pharaoh, who saved his life, and adopted him as her own child. After having led the Israelites from the land of Egypt, and having given them the divine law at the foot of Mount Sinai, he died on Mount Nebo, at the age of 120 years, ai^er having taken a view of the promised land, A. G. 1447. M11.TOX, John, the greatest of the epic poets of modem time, was bora in London, 1608. As a political writer, he has been much admired, but as a poet he has been justly celebrated as a compeer of Homer and Virgil. His Paradise Lott is the greatest poem which modern ages have produced. Towards the close of his life he became blind; he suffered considerably from personal and political enemies, and finally died comparatively poor and forsaken by the world, A. D. 1674. M0NT6OMEHT, General, a distinguished officer in the war of the Revo- lution. He fell in an attempt to storm the walls of Quebec. Few men have fallen in battle more regretted on both sides, than General Mont- gomery. He had engaged in the American cause from the purest prin- ciples ; he left the enjoyment of ease and the highest domestic happiness, in Ireland, his native land, to share the toils, the dangers, and the fortunes of a war, undertaken to defend the rights of a community, of which he was only an adopted member. Nkwtox, Sir Isaac, one of the most illustrious and greatest philoso- phers and mathematicians that ever lived, was born at Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire, England. Having lost his father at an early period of his life, the utmost attention was bestowed on his education by his mother. He studied at Trinity College, and at the age of 22 discovered the method of fluxions, which he afterwards greatly improved. But his most important discovery was the principle of gravitation. He was led to the investigation of this principle by observing an apple fall from a tree ; by inquiring the reason, why it fell to the ground after leaving the stem, in preference to taking any other direction. He died in the 65th year of his age, A. D. 1727. Noah, from whom the earth was a second time peopled, is considered by some as the Chronos of the Greeks. His eminent piety procured for him and his family an exemption from the awful calamity of tbf^ deluge. Having built the ark according to the Divine direction, he eiitered it, taking with him his wife, his three sons, and their wives, together with the various animals of the earth, and thus under the special care of God, survived the destruction of the world. He died 360 years after the deluge, at the advanced age of 960 years. NiMBOB, a great warrior, is the first king we read of in authentic history. NiiriTs, an Ass]nrian monarch, who conquered a great part of Asia. He married the celebrated Semiratma, to whom he left his kingdom after a reign of 62 years. Obphsub, called the father of poetry, is said to have been the son of Apollo. The power of his music was such, as f ction reports, that at the strains of his lyre, the rivers were stayed in their course, the moun- tains were moved, and the ferocity of wild beasts subdued. He is said BIOGBAPHY or EUIKENT PEBSONAOE». to have been one of the Jtrgontmttt of which celebrated ez]^edition he wrote a poetical account; this, however, is doubted; and the poems that pass under his name, are supposed to have been written by a later author. Orpheut flourished 1284 years before the Christian era. OriB, a distinguished Roman poet, who flourished during the reign of Jhtguttm, and under a part of the reign of TSbtriu$, The most of his poems are still extant; they are characterized by sweetness and ele- gance, tiiough often debased by indelicate expressions. OssiAv, a Caledonian bard. He is supposed to have flourished in the fourth century, and to have been the son of Fingal. He wrote in Gaelic; and poems that go by his name, translated by Macpherton, are marked by a simple and sublime wildness. PxuTABOH, an eminent biographer. His principal works are his lM€t of Bbutriom Men. Having travelled through Egypt and Greece in quest of knowledge, he returned to Rome, where he opened a school with great reputation. He enjoyed the special favor of the emperor Trajan, and after the death of his patron, he retired to his native place Clueroneat where he died, A. D. 140. PiKSAB, a Grecian lyric poet, was a native of Thebes. His compo- sitions were universally admired, and his hymns were repeated in 'he temples, at the celebration of the festivals ; his odes, which have sur- vived the wreck of time, are greatly admired for their grandeur of ex- pression, magnificence of styk, and harmony of numbers. Pindafdied at the age of 86, A. C. 436r PaiiiiAs, a Grecian, the most famous sculptor of antiquity, was born at Athens. His statue of Jupiter Olympiua passed for one of the wonders of the world. That of Minerva, in the Pantheon of Athens, measured 89 feet in height, and was made of gold and ivory. He died A. C. 433. PoLTBivs, a learned historian, who wrote the history of the Greeks and Romans. He fought against the Romans in the war of Perseus, and being made prisoner he was brought to Rome, where he was befriended by the younger Scipia. He was present at the siege of Carthage, and alter the destruction of that city, he retired to Megalopolis, where he died in his 82d year, A. C. 124. Ptthjloobas, a Greek philosopher, was bom at Samos. F veiled through Egypt and other coantries, and finally settled at Crot vhere his universal knowledge gained him many friends and admit «.!!». The world is indebted to him for the demonstration of the 47th proposition of Euclid, respecting the square of hypothenuse. The time and place of his death are unknown. Plato, an eminent Grecian philosopher, called the Divine, was for eight years the pupil of Socrates. He taught in the grove of Academus, near Athens, where he was attended by a crowd of noble and illustrious pupils. His works are numerous, and generally in the form of dia- logues. The ancients, and even the learnod of modern times, have admired and studied the writings of this great philosopher. They dis- play great depth of thought, with elegance and harmony of expression. Among other truths, he maintains, by many powerful ai^uments, the immortality of the souL He died in the 8 1st year of his age, A. G. 348. Plikt, the elder, was born at Verona, of a noble family ; he is the earliest writer on natural history, whose works are extant. To his Sublic duties he attended through the day, but devoted himself to study uring a portion of the night. His work on Natural History was com- prised in 37 books. He is said to have written 160 volumes of remarks BIOOBAPtnr 09 EMINENT PEftSONAGCB. 377 and annotations on various authors, but these have not survived the wreck of time. His love of knowledge cos; hiu his life. During an eruption of Yesuvius,^ he was induced to approach the mountain, for the purpose of making his observations on this interesting phenomenon. While thus employed, he was overtaken by the burning lava and per- ished, A. D. 79. PopB, Alexander^ an eminent English poet, was bom in London in 1688. At the age of twenty^ he published his Etnay on Critieitm, a pro- duction which evinces all the reflections of a more mature age. The Temple of Fame, Rape of the Lock, the Dunciad, and Eluay on Man, are among his most celebrated productions. His translation of Homei^s Uiad is still read and universally admired. In person. Pope was dimi- nutive and somewhat crooked. In disposition he was fretful, but his manners were easy, and his wit fascinating. He died in his native city, at the age of fifty-six years. Pitt, William, a distinguished statesman and orator, was earl of Chatham, and born in the year 1708. — Being elected to Parliament at the age of twenty-seven, he was soon distinguished for his eloquence, and early enlisted in the ranks of the opposition. In 1766, he was ap- Sointed Secretary of State, but his continuance in office was of short uralion. His popularity, however, was with the mass of the nation, and he was recalled to the Secretaryship in 1757. He deprecated, with all the power of his eloquence, measures relating to the American war, in the House of Lords. His constitution was at this time so enfeebled that on one occasion, as he rose to speak, he fell into a swoon, and died in a few days, in the seventieth year of his age. As an orator and statesman, he is perhaps unrivalled in modem times ; the music and majesty of his voice, the gracefulness of his action, the power of his eye, carried conviction with his arguments. It is said that Walpole, the minister, though supported by a decided majority, never heard his voice in the House of Commors without being alarmed. QuiiTTiLiAir, an eminent rhetorician, was a native of Spain. After twenty years employed in teaching rhetoric, and pleading at the bar at Home, he retired from public life, and devoted himself to composi- tion. His institutions, in twelve books, form the most perfect system of oratory extant He died A. D. 96. R0MIT1.VS, the founder, and the first king of Rome, was the son of Rhea Sylvia, and bom at the same birth with Remus. He was distin- guished as a legislator, though his institutions were almost exclusively of a warlike tendency. We are fabulously told, that he was taken up to heaven whilst reviewing his army, although it is generally believed that he was killed by the senators. The Romans paid divine honpfs to hi n under the name of QwrtniM. Raphael, an eminent painter, was bom at Urbino, in 1483. By stu- dying the best masters in painting, he soon rose to eminence, and merited the appellation of the divine Raphael, He also excelled as an archi- tect, and was employed in the building of St Peter's at Rome. By the general consent of mankind, he was acknowledged as the greatest of painters ; he excelled particularly in beauty and grace. He died at the age of thirty-seven ; his death is said to have been hastened by intem- perate habits. RouBBSAV, John Jamti, was bom at Geneva in 1712. He was of a weakly constitution, but his mind was strong and active, and the eariy reading of Phriarch and Tacitut tended to expand his ideas, and to in- 3a» 378 BIOGRAPHY OF ElflKENT PERSONAGES. spire him with courage. Though equally skeptical with Hume and Voltaire, yet he quarrelled with tixe former, who had been his protector in England, and incurred the displeasure of the latter^ ^or maintaining the immoraJ tendency of the stage, although he himself had written for it He died at his native place, Geneva, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. His works prove him to have been a man of transcendent genius, but a,t the same time exhibit the utmost eccentricity, joined with licen- tiousness and skepticism. He has been called the Diogenes of modem times; ' * Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet of Greece, the cotemporary and rival of Euripide$f was born about 497, A. C. Towards the close of his life, being accused of insanity by his children, who wished to obtain his possessions, the poet composed and read his tragedy of (Edipus, and then asked his judges whether the author of such a performance could be insane ; he was immediately acquitted, to the confusion of his ungrateful offspring. He died in his ninety-first year, of excessive joy, on hearing that he had obtained a poetical prize at the Olympic games. ISocRATi^s was a native of Athens. In early life he followed the pro- fession of his father, who was a statuary ; he also for some time fol- lowed the profession of a soldier. But he is far more distinguished as a philosopher and moralist, than as a warrior. He was remarkable for the mildness of his disposition, and acquired that serenity of mind, and firmness of countenance, which the most alarming dangnrs coulq not destroy, nor the most sudden calamities alter. He inculcated the purest principles of morality, and supported the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. Being accused by his enemies on a false charge of corrupt- ing the youth of Athens, he was condemned to death ; accordingly, he drank the juice of the hemlock, and calmly expired in the seventieth year of his age, A. C. 401. SoLOK, the great Athenian legislator, and one of the wise men of 'Greece, was bom at Salamis, and educated at Athens. Having been eleeted archon, he reformed every department of the government. He instituted the Areopagus, regulated the Prytaneum, and his laws con- ' tinned to flourish for near four hundred years. He died in the eigh- tieth year of his age, A. C. 668. Sappho, a celebrated Greek poetess, and inventor of the Sapphic verse, was bom in the island of Lesbos, about six hundred years before the Christian era. She was celebrated for her poetical talents and beauty. Her poems were much admired for their sublimity, harmony, sweetness, and elegance ; but of all her productions only a few frag- ments are now ejttant. SoLOHOir, the wisest of mankind, was the son of David, king of Israel. The early part of his life was distinguished for exemplary piety, but he afterwards fell even into idolatry. He married no less I than one thousand wives, seven hundred of whom held the title of ■queens. It is believed that he repented before his death. The temple which he built at Jerusalem rendered his name memorable. He wrote 'the books of Proverbs, Ecclenattet, and Canticles. He died in the fiily •eighth year of his age, and fortieth of his reign, A. C- 975. Sbmiramis, a female conqueror, celebrated for her beauty, and heroio ■mind. In her infancy, she is said to have been exposed in the desert, Jbut her life was preserved a whole year by doves. After the death of iier husband, Ninas, the Assyrian monarch, she assumed the reins of filOGRA^fiY OP EMINENT PERSONAGES. 379 government, and immortalized her name by enlarging and embellishing Qie city of Babylon. She also extended her dominions by the conquest of a part of Ethiopia ; but her greatest and last expedition was directed •gainst India. Having advanced to the banks of the Indus, she crossed the river with her army^ after a sanguinary contestf on a bridge of boats, but was finally defeated, and fled with precipitation to her own dominions. Having discovered that her son had entered into a con- spiracy against her, she abdicated the throne in his favor, and died alter a reign of forty-two years. Sahbok, one of the Judges of Israel, was endowed with extraordi- nary strength. On one occasion he slew one thousand PkUutifUM with the jaw bone of an ass. The secret of his strengtlr, which lay in his hair, was at length discovered by his wife Delilah, who treacherously cut off his hair while he was asleep, and thus rendered him powerless. In this state he was taken by his enemies, who deprived him of his sight, and retained him a prisoner. In the mean time his hair increased, and with it his strength also returned On a certain occasion, as the Philistines were holding a festival in the temple of Dagon, Samton was brought in for their amusement ; but by an effort of his strength, he pulled down the pillars supporting the edifice, and perished with three thousand of his enemies in the general ruin. Strabo, a celebrated geographer and historian, was a native of Amasia, and died A. D. 25. His geographical work, in seventeen books, is the only one now remaining. It is written in Greek, and is justly considered an elegant and classical production. Seksca, Lucius, a celebrated moralist and philosopher, was born at Cordova, in Spain. He became early distinguished for his abilities, and acquired considerable eminence for his eloquence in pleading at the bar. He was intrusted with the education of Nero, and while the voung emperor v^as guided by the counsels of his illustrious preceptor, he governed with universal approbation. But at length becoming im- patient of the restraint imposed on his vicious inclinations, he pre- tended that Seneca had conspired with Piso against his life, and. sent a messenger to inform him that he must die ; permitting him at the same time to choose the manner of his death. The philosopher received the mandate with cheerfulness, and ordered the veins of his legs and arms to be opened ; but as the blood flowed extremely slow, his life was at length terminated by warm vapor, in the seventy-second year of his age, A. D. 66. Sallust, a Roman historian. He was a man of depraved and licen- tious manners. Of his Roman history, the conspiracy of Catiline and the wars of Jugurtha are the only portions extant. He died in the fifty-first year of his age, A. C. 35. Shxridait, Richard Brinsley. This celebrated wit, statesman, and orator, was born in the city of Dublin, in 1751. At an early age, he married Miss Lin ley, a beautiful young lady i but he did not obtain her without some difficulty, being obliged to fight two duels, with a Captain Matthews, on her account. On the conclusion of Mr. Sheridan's speech on the impeachment of Mr. Hastings, the whole assembly, members, peers, and strangers, in Westminster Hall, joined in a tumultuous burst of applause. A motion was immediately made to adjourn, in order that the members might recover from the effect of his overpowering elo- quence. Sheridan undermined his constitution by intemperance, and died in needy circumstances. u 38C BlOQJkAJNSY or KMQIKNT PgBSOMAOEf. SvuMB, Edmwfd, an eminent English poet, flourished daring the reign of Qaeen Elizabeth, by whom he was employed for som^ time Iq Dublic lift. His most celebrated production is his FavTf 0/****^. He* oied at London, in 1698. BaxKMtnxMM* WUKam, the greatest of the dramatic poets, was bora in England, in the year 1564. He came to London at an early age, and first enlisted among the players and became an actor on the stage. He* however, shortly aAerwards applied himself to dramatical writing;, and soon gained a universal reputation. Towards the close of his life, he retired to his native place, where he died in the 63d year of his age, A. D. 1617. As a writer of plays, he has never been surpassed; he if admired for the beauty, elegance, and simplicity of his style. His writ* i|igs, however, are frequently interspersed with blemishes and moral deflects. 8wirr, Jonathan, distinguished as a wit, poet, and prose writer, was bom in Ireland in 1667. About the year 1694, he took orders as a minister in the church of England, and as dean of 8t. Pairid^t in Onb^ lin. After -the accession of Queen .^ntu, he became deeply engaged i|L political controversy, and wrote some able political works. He died in 1746. Among other works, he was the author of GitUa>er'$ Travels and Tale of a Tub. Swift was eccentric in the extreme ; he delighted to differ f^om all other men, on those subjects in which all others agreed. Though married, he was never known to be in the company of his fiSe except in the presence of a.third person. Whether he really belieired in the truth of Christianity, is a subject of doubt. Thakss was born at Miletus in Ionia. He was distinguished for his high attainments in philosophy, geometry, and astronomy. He was the. first who calculated the solar eclipse, and the founder of the Ionic sect of philosophy. He died at the age of 96 years, A. G. 548. Tbsocbitus, a pastoral poet, who flourished at Syracuse, A. G. 383. A few fragments of his poetical compositions, written in the Doric dialect, are yet extant, and admired for their beauty, elegance, and sim* plicity. He is said to have written several invectives against Hiero, king of Syracuse, by whose order he was put to death. YiHoii., an illustrious Roman poet, was bom in a village near Mintua, about 70 years before the Christian era. Having lost his farm in the distribution of the lands to the soldiers of Jiuguttui, he repaired to Rome and procured the restoration of his property through the influence of Mecaenas. His most celebrated writings are his Bucolics, Georgics, and the JEneid. He enjoyed the particular friendship and patronage of Aur- gustus. He died at Brundusium in the 51st year of his age, A. G. 19^ ^ Vabso, a learned Roman, who is said to have written no less than 300 volumes ; all of which are lost, except two fragments. He died at the age of 88 years, A. C. 38. VoLTAiBB, Marie Francis, an eminent French poet and writer, was born/ in the year 1694. In early life he evinced superior powers of mind ; his fondness for satire, directed against the government^ caused his imprisonment in the BattiU, from whicl. he was at lengUi liberated through the influence of the Duke of Orleans. After thissC^rent, he de* voted himself more to the composition of poetry. His principal efibrts were directed towards the drama ; and his Metre, Mahomet, and Merope, place him at the head of the dramatic poets of France. He spent much of his time at the court of Frederick I|.» king of Prassia; but at length fixed his residence in a village on the borders of Fr^^nce. The boldness BlOORAPfiy or ElflNENT PEESOMAOfiS. ddi and extravagance of his writings often exposed him to danger, and com- pelled him at different times to retire from it. He died while on a visit to Paris, in the 84th year of his age. His last moments are said to have been attended with the utmost horror, and dread at the reflection of the irreligioos and atheistical tendency of his writings, which have beenregarded as one of the agents in bringing about the awful calami« ties that befell France. WAiuir«ToV( OMrgd Tliis ilhutrions general, patriot, and stataar man, was bom in. the year 1789, in the cooaty of Fair&x, Virginia. He was educated under the care of a private tutor, and distinguished himself for his progress in mathematics and engineering. The prin- cipal events of his life have been already noticed. After the struggle, which procured the Independence of America, he resigned his militaiT command and again retired to the tranquillity of private life. In 1789, he was called by the unanimous voice of his countrymen to fill the higlj office of President of the United States. Having filled that station |t second term, or eight years, he declined the honor of being 'again re- elected, and returned to his peaceful residence of Mount Vernon, where he died after a few days* illness, on the 14th of December, 1789, in tiie 68th year of his age. The history of his country is the best eulogium oi this great man ; his most lasting monument, the love and admiration of the world. Washington never had any offspring. In his S7lh year, he married Mrs. Custis ; a lady possessed of every accomplishment that contributes to domestic felicity. At his death, he directed all his sei^ vants shqpld be emancipated after Mrs. Washington's decease. Xr^iro^Hoir, a celebrated general, historian, and philosopher of Greeee. He served in the army of Gjrrus, the Younger, and chiefly conducted the retreat of the Ten Thousand after the battle of Cunaza, After this event, he continued the hist0ry of Thucydide$t wrote the life of Cyrus, the Great, and collected the Memorabilia of Socrates. He died at Corinth in the 90th year of his age, A. C. 360. Zairo, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, was a native of Cyprus. The early part of his life was devoted to commercial pursuits ; but he at length turned his attention towards the study of philosophy, which he afterwards taught at Athens for 48 years, and died at the age of98, A. C. S64. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE or REMARKABLE EVENTS, DISCOVERIES, AND INVENTIONS, FROM THE CREATION OF THE WORLD TO THE YEARIMO 71 70( 60 664 a. 0. 404Vi The Creation of the World, according to the Helrew text of the Scriptures. 8876 Cain murders AbeL 8017 Enoch translated to Heaven. 2848 tfniyersal Deluge. 2347 The Building of Babel ; the Dispersion of Mankind ; and the Con- fusion of Languages. 2217 Nimrod supposed to have built Babylon, and founded the Baby- lonish Monarchy ; and Assur to have built Nineveh, and founded the Monarchy of Assyria. 2188 Menes (in Scripture Misiraim) founds the Monarchy of Egypt. 1906 The Birth of Abram. 1807 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed by fire from Heaven. 1806 Isaac bom. 1886 Jacob and Esau born. ' , 1828 Death of Abraham. ^ 1716 Isaac dies. 1686 Joseph dies in Egjrpt 1571 Moses bom in Egjrpt. 1666 Cecrops founds the kingdom of Athens. 1646 Scamander founds the kingdom of Troy. 1620 Corinth built. 1408 Cadmus builds Thebes, and introduces Letters into Greece. 1401 Moses brings the Israelites out of Egypt. 1462 The Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, written. 1451 The Israelites led into the land of Canaan by Joshua. 1484 Joshua dies. 1207 Gideon, Judge of Israel. 1108 The Trojan War begins. 1184 Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. 1156 Samson bom. 1000 Samuel delivers IsraeL 1070 Saul, King of Israel. 1066 David, King of Israel, begins his reign. 1004 Dedication of Solomon's Temple. 080 Rehoboam and Jeroboam begin to reign over IsraeL 066 Abijah, king of Judah, dies, and Asa succeeds him. 014 Jehoshaphat succeeds his father Asa — ^Ahab, Ahaziah, and Jeho- ram, reign over Israel. 860 The City of Carthage built by Dido. 762 The foundation of Rome, by Romulus. 882 e^ftONOLOOlCAL ^ABLE. ■. 0. 7S4 Hezekiah, tenth king of Jndah. 731 Salmanazar takes Samaria, and carries the Ten Tribes into cap tivity, which pnts an end to the Israelitish kingdom. 711 Sennacherib, king of Ass3rria, invades Jadea. 708 Habakkak prophesied. 696 Manasseh, sixteenth king of Judah. 668 Brzantium founded by Pansanias, king of Sparta. 6S7 The Forty Team of Hezekiah began. 610 Josiah slain. 606 Mebuehadnezzar takes Jerasalem, and carries the Jews into cap-. tivity. 601 End of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 600 Jeremiah prophesied. 699 Birth of Cyrus the Great. 688 The Jewish Capital and Temple are burned to the ground. 672 Nebuchadnezzar subdues Egypt. 661 Confucius, the Chinese Philosopher, bom. 638 Babylon taken by Cyrus. End of the Babylonian Empire. 686 Cyrus ascends the throne of Persia. He puts an end to the Jew> ish Captivity, which had lasted seventy years. 634 Daniel prophesied. 629 Death of Cyrus the Great 620 The Jews begin to build the second Temple, which is finished in four years. 608 The first Alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians. 604 Sardls taken and burnt by the Athenians. 490 The Battle of Marathon, in which Miltiades defeats the Persians. 488 The first Tribunes of the People created at Rome. 486 Xerxes succeeds his father, Darius, in the kingdom of Persia. 486 Coriolanns banished from Rome. 480 The Spartans, under Leonidas, slain at Thermopylae. — Naval Victory gained by the Greeks over the Persians, at Salamis. 476 Themistocles rebuilds Athens. — A great Eruption at ^tna. 456 Cincinnatus, Dictator at Rome. 456 Commencement of the Seven^ Prophetical Weeks of Daniel. 452 The two books of Chronfcles, supposed to have been written at this time by Ezra. 481 The Peloponnesian War begins, which lasted twenty-seven years. •— Malachi, the last of the Prophet; ;. 422 Sanballat builds a Temple on Mount Gerizzim for Eleazar, his son>in-law. 418 Disturbances at Rome on account of the Agrarian Law. 409 Nehemiah dies. 404 Malachi prophesies. 403 Lysander takes Athens. Government of the Thirty Tsrrants. 401 The younger Cyrus defeated by his toother Artaxerzes, and killed. — — > Persecution and death of Socrates. 885 Ro«ne taken by the Gauls, under Brennns. 856 Alexander the Great bom at Pella, in Macedonia. 848 End of the Sacred War. Mi CBmOMOLOGlCAL TABLC. a. o. 848 The War between the Romus and Samnites, which ied 16 ttia Ck>nqiiest of all Italy. < 886 Philip mmdered by Paasaniaa. Alexander the Great destroys Thebes. 883 Alexander conquers Egypt, and takes Tn«. 880 Darius Codomanus kified. End of the Persian Empire. 838 Alexander passes into India, defeats Poms, founds sevend cities and penetrates to the Ganges. — The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates. 884 Alexander the Gh«at dies at Babylon, at the age of thirQr-ihree. 820 Ttaiemy carries 100,000 Jews captives into Egypt 886 The Astronomical Era of Dionysius of Alexandria. 888 The Library of Alexandria founded. 380 Pyrrhus invades Italy. 877 liie translation of the Septuagint made by order of Ptolemy Phil* adelphus. 366 Silver money is coined at Rome for the first time. 368 Manasseh chosen high priest of the Jews. 841 End of the first Punic War. 386 The Temple of Janns shut the first time since the reign of Numa. 336 Great victory of the Romans over the Gauls. '» 819 Hannibal takes Saguntum. 318 The second Punic War begins. 306 Ctold first coined at Rome. 303 The Carthaginians recall Hannibal to Africa. 186 The battle of Zama, and end of the second Punic War. 170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes and plunders Jerusalem. 167 End of the kmgdom of Macedon. 166 Judas Maccabeus drives the Syrians out of Judea. . 149 The third Punic War begins. 146 C(»inth taken b|r the Consul Mummius. '— — Antiochus besieges Jerusalem. 103 Jugurtha starved to death at Rome. 91 The War of the Allies against the Romans. 83 Sylla perpetual Dictator. His horrible proscription 80 Julius Caesar makes his first ^ub^aiga. 79 Cicero's first Oration for Roscius. 73 Herod the Great is bom. 63 Victories of Pompey. He t9kea JeniBalem, a^d restores ttyr- CUIUS to the government of Judea. 63 Catiline's conspiracy quelled at JEtome by Cicero. 61 Pomp^ mtos Rome in 1rinm]rfi. 69 The first Triumvirate, Pompey, Crassus, and Cessar. 65 CsBsar lands in Britain, and makes a short campaign. 54 Oeesar inivades Britain a second time, and conquers part t>l it* 49 GiBsar passes the Rubicon, and marches to Rome. 48 Battle of Pharsalia, in which Pompey is defeated. — The Alexandrian Library of 400,000 volumes burnt. 45 The Calendar reformed by Julius Caeaar, by introducii^g diedolar Year iiiBtewtl of ihe Lunar. The first Ji^iian Year bej^n-Jtau- ary 1, 45 A/ C. .'>«££ tmrntthtmetOj toSiB. ••0. _ ^ 44 Julias Cmar MftttliUiMd fn. dM BtmM^nttiae, luttfil^ kOM SS MftiuilBBia ndficcd to & lloBuui Piuilii66« as War declared by the Senate against AatoHf a&d Chof. 9 The Roman Legions under VafOs, destroyed in QlnWiBy. 14 Tiberius emperor of Rome. 17 Twelve cities of Asia destroyed by^ an eartbqua&e. 86 John'the Baptist preaches in Judea die conung of the Messiah. 89 Jesus baptized in Jordan by John. 88 JESUS CHRIST crucified. •— The conversion of St. PauL 87 Caligula emperor of Rome. 89 St Matthew writes his Oospet 40 The name of Christians first given to tha Discipldy of ChfiBC|t Antioeh* ' ^ 41 Claudius, emperor of Rome. — Herod persecutes the Christians^ and ilttpitsjo^t I^ter. ^8 Seivius Paulas, proconsul, ecmvertedby'll^PaMt 44 St. Mark writear his Gospel. •— Herod is smitten by an angel, and dies. 60 London is founded by the Romans. ^» St. Paul preaches in the Areopagus at Adietts. Si St Luke wrkes his Gospd. 64 The first persecution ofthe Christians raised by Nero. -^ ^me set on fire by Nero. 07 Massacre of the Jews by Floras, at Csesarea Ptolemtfis and Alexandria. — St Peter and St Paul put to deadu — Josephus, the Jewish historian; Governor of Galilee; 70 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus. 78 A great pesdlenoe at Riome, 10,000 dying in one dtiy» 79 Titn^, empworofRomeu — HeraculaneumandPom^if destroyed by on eruption of Testtvins. 93 The Evangelist John banished to Patmos. 95 Dreadful persecution of the Chcistians at Roue^ attd itt die provinces. — St John writeahis Apocalypte, and his Gospef. 98 Tnjan fisrbids die C%rrstiaii assemblies. 108 St l^atins devoured by wild beasts at Rome. ttft The Jews in Gyrene murder 200,000 Greeks and Romftna. 118 Pe rsecuti an of the Christians renewed by AdrilOi, biitalMnracaa suspended^ 180 Adrian's wall boilt aaross Britain. ^ CHBONOLOClCAt TABLfi« A.D. 186 The Romans destroy 680,000 Jews in Judea. 187 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem by the name of JBlia Oapitolina. 164 Justin Martyr publishes his apology for the ChristiaDi% 168 A plague over the known world. 177 Persecution of the Christians at Lyons. 189 The Saracens defeat the Romans. This people first mentioned in history. 191 A great part of Rome destroyed by fire. 196 Byzantium besieged, surrenders to Severus. 302 The fiilh persecution gainst the Christians, principally in Egypt 217 Macrinus, emperor of Rome. 222 The Roman empire begins to decline. 226 Mathematicians allowed to teach publicly at Rome. 236 The sixth persecution of the Christians. 248 The secular games celebrated at Rome. 260 The seventh persecution of the Christians under Decius. 267 Tlie eighth persecution of the Christians. 269 The Persians ravage Syria. 260 The temple of Diana at Ephesns, burnt. 267 The Heruli invade and ravage Greece. 274 Silk first brought from India. '\ 276 Wines first made in Britain. 296 Alexandria, in Egypt, taken by Diocletian. 802 The tenth persecution of the Christians. 306 Constantine the Great, emperor of Rome. He stops the persecu' tion of the Christians. 816 Crucifixion aboUshed. 821 Observation of Sunday enjoined. 826 The first general council at Nice, where the doctrmes of Arius were condemned. 330 Constantino removes the seat of empire to Constantinople. 837 Death of Constantine. The empire divided among his three sous. — — Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius, Emj^eror:. of Rome. 341 The Gospel propagated in Ethiopia by Foumentius. 861 Julian, Emperor of Rome. He abjures Christianity, is elected Pontifex Maximus, and attempts fruitlessly to rebuild the T^m pie of Jerusalem. 867 Gratian, Emperor of the West. 378 The Goths advance to the gates of Constantinople. , 370 Theodosius, the Great, Emperor of the East. 381 Second general council held at Constantinople. 383 The Huns overrun Mesopotamia ; are defeated by the Goths 410 Rome sacked and burnt by Alaric Death of Alaric. 426 The Romans withdraw finally from Britain. 431 The third general council held at Ephesus. 432 Gospel preached in Ireland. 439 Genseric the Vandal, invades and plunders Italy. — Carthage taken by the Vandals. Kingdom of the Vandals in /-frica. 446 The Britons in vain solicit the Romans to assist them against the Picts and Scots. 461 The Saxons arrive in Britain, under Hengist and Horsa. 487 Fourth general council at Chalcedon. CmtOKOLOfilCAL TABL£. 387 A.D. 1. 462 478 481 490 med in 493 497 608 Egypt. 510 611 616 619 529 532 543 551 553 . * 671 \ 580 581 609 Tseca- 616 622 St — 632 Arins 636 640 s sous. 641 ome. lected 643 653 T«m 658 fi .-.. 660 680 686 1 713 " '. c 737 i: .Si- 748 lls in 765 762 sttht 767 772 779 Foundation of the city of Venice. Great eruption of Mount Vesuvius, seen from Constantinople. The kingdom of France begins. Ireland, called the Isle of Saints, famoas for its schcole. Odoacer put to death by Theodoric Glovis and the Franks converted to Christianity. Theodoric, the Great, defeats Clovis in the battle of Aries, and then makes peace with him. Clovis makes Paris the capital of the kingdom of the Franks. Death of Clovis. Division of his kingdom among his four sons. The computation of time by the Christian era inUoIuced by Dio- nysius the Monk. Justin restores the Orthodox Bishops, and con'lemns the Eu- tychians. The books of the Civil Law published by Justinian. Great Insurrection at Constantinople quell'id with prodigious slaughter. An earthquake all over the world. The manufacture of Silk introduced into Europe. Fif^h general council at Constantinople. Birth of Mahomet, the false prophet The Latin tongue ceases to be spoken in Italy about this time. The city of Paris destroyed by fire. The Jews of Antioch massacre the Christians* Jerusalem taken by the Persians. Flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina. Death of Mahomet Jerusalem taken by Omar and the Saracens, who keep possession of it 463 years. The library of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, is burnt by the Saracens. Constantine, Emperor of the East for a few months, poisoned by his step-mother. The temple of Jerusalem converted into a Mahometan mosque. The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus. The Saracens obtain peace of the Emperor Constans, and agree to pay a yearly tribute. Organs first used in churches. The sixth general council of Constantinople. The Britons, totally subdued by the Saxons, retreat into Wales and Cornwall. Spain conquered by the Saracens under Muce, the general of the Caliph Walid. Death of Pelagius, who preserved the Christian monarchy in Asturia. The computing of years from the birth of Christ began to be used in history. Temporal dominion of the Pope. Almanzar builds Bagdad, and makes it the seat of the Empire of the Caliphs. The Turks ravage Asia Minor. Charlemagne, sole monarch of France. Charlemagne conquers Navarre and Sardinia* V vBd CHROHOLOGICAL TAJUJEi A.D. 787 The Danes first laud in England. — <^ The seventh general council, or second of Nice. 788 Irene puts to death her son, Constantine, and is proclaimed acle Empress. 800 Charlemagne crowned Emperor at Rome. 816 The Eastern Empire ravaged by earthquakes, famine, conflagra* tions, ice, 827 Egbert unites the kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy. — — Beginning of the kingdom of England. 846 The Normans plunder Hamburgh, and penetrate into Germany. 848 The Venetian fleet destroyed by the Saracens. 867 The Danes ravage England. 866 The University of Oxford founded by Alfred. 887 The Normans besiege Paris. 890 Alfred, the Great, composes his code of laws, and divides England into counties, hundreds, and tithings. 891 The first land-tax in England. 915 The University of Cambridge founded by Edward, the Elder. 941 Arithmetic brought into Europe. 967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens by Nicephoms. 991 The Arabic numeral ciphers first introduced into Europe. 1000 Paper made of cotton rags, in use. 1013 The Danes, under Sit&no, get possession of England. 1026 Musical characters invented by Guido Aretino. 1040 Macbeth usurps the throne of Scotland by the murder of Duncan 1055 The Turks take Bagdad, and overran the Empire of the Caliphs. 1065 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens. 1066 William (the Conqueror) king of England. 1070 The Feudal Law introduced into England. 1079 Doomsday-book begun by WUIiam, the Conqueror. 1080 Tower of London built. 1087 William 11. (Rufus) king of England 1095 The first Crusade to the Holy Land. Peter, the Hermit. 1098 The Crusaders take Antioch. 1099 Jerusalem taken by (xodfrey of Boulogne. The Knights of St. John instituted. 1100 Henry L (Beauclerc) king of England. ' 1110 Writing on paper made of cotton rags common about this time. 1135 Stephen, king of England. 1 141 Stephen, king of England, taken prisoner in the battle of Lincoln by the troops of Matilda. 1 143 He recovers his kingdom. 1147 The second Crusade preached by St. Bernard. 1150 The study of fi^e civil law revived at Bologna. 1161 The Canon Law is collected by Gratian, a monk of Bologna. 1166 Moscow in Russia founded. 1157 The Bank of Venice instituted. 1163 London Bridge built the first time of stone. 1170 Paper made of linen rags. 1172 Conquest of Ireland, by Henry II. 1187 The city of Jerusalem taken by Saladin. 1188 Third Crusade. 1190 Teutonic Order. A. 11 I2( 12( 12( 12 121 12! tmiOl^OLOGieAL f ABLfi. 389 at from Venice. ■wdsole mflagra* many. Bngland ler. Duncan 'aliphs. 1393 1894 1299 1302 of St. time, jincoln la. 1196 Fonnh Crusade r^ 1200 Fifth Crusade. 1204 Latin Empire at Constantinople. 1208 London incorporated,, obtains a charter for electing a Mayor and Magistrate. 1215 Magna Charta signed by king John. 1217 Sixth Crusade. 1233 Houses in London, and other cities of England, France, and Ger- many, still thatched wiih straw. 1248 Seventh Crusade. 1258 Bagdad taken by the Tartars. End of the Empire of the Saracens. 1261 Fall of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. 1270 Eighth and last Crusade. 1270 Death of St Louis. 1282 The Sicilian Vespers, when 8,000 French were massacred. 1283 The covquest of Wales, by Edward L 1290 University of Lisbon founded. 1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. From this year there is a regular succession of English Parlia- ments. Parliaments established in Paris. Interregnum in Scotland for eight yeu's. Sir William Wallace nobly supports the liberty of his country, defeats the English at Stirling, and drives them out of the kingdom. The Mariner's Compass said to be discovered at Naples. 1304 Wallace betrayed, delivered up, and put to deatli by Edward I. 1307 The establishment of the Swiss Republics. » Coal first used in England. 1308 The seat of the Popes transferred to Avignon for seventy years. 1314 The Scots under Robert Bruce defeat the English under Edward IL, at Bannockbum. 1319 The University of Dublin founded. 1320 Gold first coined in Christendom. 1340 Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a Monk of Cologne. -^ — Oil Painting invented by John Van Eyke. Copper Money first used in Scotland and Ireland. 1346 Battle of Cressy, won by Edward III. and the Black Prince, over the French. 1350 The Order of the Garter instituted by Edward m. 1351 Coals first brought to London. 1352 The Turks first enter Europe. 1356 The battle of Poictiers, in which John II., king of France, is taken prisoner, and afterwards brought to London. 1362 Law pleadings in England changed from French to English. 1365 Universities of Vienna and Geneva founded. Peace between Venice and Genoa. Bills of exchange first used in England. Cannon first used by the English in the defence of Calais. Cards invented in France for the king's amusement 1392 The Cape of Good Hope discovered by the Portuguese. 1394 The Jews banished from France by Charles VI. 1406 The Canary Islands discovered. 1412 Algebra brought from Arabia into Europe. 33* 1381 1381 1383 1391 390 A. D. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1412 The University of St. Andrews, in Scotland, founded. 1416 John Huss condemned by the Council of Constance for heresy. and burnt. 1420 The Islanl of Madeira discovered by the Portuguese. 1426 The court of sessions in Scotland, instituted by James I. 1428 Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, compels the English to raise the siege of that town. 1436 Paris recovered by the French from the English. 1439 Reunion of the Greek and Latin churches. 1 440 Invention of the art of printing, by John Guttenberg, at Strasburg. 1446 Great inundation of the sea in Holland. 1463 Constantinople taken by the Turks. — — End of the English government in France. 1469 The art of engraving on copper invented. 1460 Battl(> of Wakefield, in which the Duke of York is killed. 1474 The Cape de Vt^rd Islands discovered by the Portuguese. 1479 Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms of Arragon and Castile. 1489 Maps and sea charts first brought to England. 1492 America discovered by Christopher Columbus. 1497 The Portuguese, under Yasco de Gama, double the Cape of Good Hope, and sail to the East Indies. 1497 Sebastian Cabot lands in North America. • 1600 Brazil discovered by the Portuguese. ^ 1607 Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese. 1614 Cannon bullets of stone still in use. 1617 The Keformation in Germany begun by Luther. 1621 Cortez completes the conquest of Mexico. 1622 The first voyage round the world performed by a ship of Magel- lan's squadron. 1634 The Reformation in England. 1639 The first English edition of the Bible authorized; the present translation finished 1611. About this time cannon began to be used in ships. 1 639 Six hundred and forty-five religious houses suppressed in England and Wales. 1543 Pins first used in England, before which time the ladies used skewers. 1645 The council of Trent, the last of the General Councils, opens and continues, with various interruptions, for eighteen years. ;1662 The book of common prayer established in England by act of Parliament. 1663 Lady Jane Grey beheaded. 1580 Beginning of the civil wars in France. The Reformation completed in Scotland by John Knox. 1661 Mary queen of Scots arrives in Scotland from France. 1663 Knives first used in England. 1668 Mary queen of Scots flees to England for protection. 1669 The earl of Murray, regent of Scotland, assassinated by Hamilton 1672 The massacrn of St. Bartholomew, August 24. 1674 Socinus propagates his opinions. - Don Sebastiar , king of Portugal, invades Africa. 1676 The League in France formed against the Protestants. a 679 Commencement of the republic of Holland, by the union of Utrscht CHRONOLOOICAL TABLE. 391 A. D. heresy, 1580 i682 1584 > raise 1588 1580 1501 1502 isburg. 1604 1607 1600 1603 1606 1607 1608 /astile. 1610 fGood 1614 * 1619 • 1620 1623 tfagel- 1024 1625 resent 1627 1633 1634 gland 1636 1630 used 1642 1643 s and 1640 1660 ct of 1661 1662 1664 .J 1660 V ' . i 1662 1663 ilton 1666 1666 ■echt 1678 1681 The world circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake. The New Style introduced into Italy by Pope Gregory XIII., the 6th of October being counted the 16lh. Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh. Manufacture of paper introduced into England. Coaches first introduced into England. University of Dublin erected. Presbyterian church government established in Scotland. The Bank of England incorporated. Watches first brought into England from Germany. The English East India Company established. Decimal Arithmetic invented at Bruges. The Gunpowder Plot discovered. - , , , Settlement of Jamestown, Virginia. . . . Galileo discovers the satellites of Jupiter. Arminius propagates his opinions. Quebec founded. Hudson's Bay discovered. Logarithms invented by Napier. New York settled. Discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey. The broad silk manufacture from raw silk, introduced into Eng- land. Copper money first introduced into England. Settlement of Plymouth, Massachusetts. New-Hampshire settled. New-Jersey settled. The Island of Barbadoes the first English settlement in the West Indies. Delaware settled. Connecticut settled. Maryland- settled. Rhode-Island settled. The first printing-press established in the American colonies. Beginning of the civil war in England. Archbishop Laud condemned by the comn;kons, and beheaded. Commonwealth of England begins. North and South Carolina settled. The Quakers first appear in England. The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope established. The first war between the English and Dutch. End of the commonwealth of England. The English, under Admiral Penn, take possession of Jamaica. Charles II., king of Great Britain. The Royal Society instituted in England. Charter of Carolina, and a colony settled soon after. The French Academy of Inscriptions instituted. Great plague in London. Tea first used in England. Gh'eat fire in London, The Academy of Sciences instituted in France The habeas corpus act passed in England Pennsylvania settled. 3^ cmiOKOLOCttCAL TABLS. ▲.» 1686 1686 1688 1689 1700 1702 1703 1704 1776 1777 1780 1781 1782 1788 1789 1791 Duke of Mofimonth beheaded. The Newtonian philosophy first published in EnglatkL Revolution in Britain. King James abdicates the throne, Decern ber 23. Episcopacy abolished in Scotland by king William. Yale College (Conn.) founded. The English and Dutch destroy the French- fleet at Vigo. The French send colonies to the Mississippi. Gibraltar taken by Admiral Rooke, July 24. | Peter the Great founds St. Petersbui^. First newspaper published in America at Boston. Union between England and ScoDaUd. . Great earthquake at Palermo, August 21. Inoculation first tried on criminals with success. Washington born, Feb. 22k . Georgia settled. Commodore Anson completes his voyage round the W6rld. Louisburg and Cape Breton taken by the British troops, June The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, July. Academy of Sciences founded at Stockholm. New Style introduced into Britain, September 3 reckoned 14. Grteat eruption at iBtna. Great earthquake at Constantinople and Cairo, September 2. Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 1. Defeat of Braddock. War declared between Great Britain and France, Ittay 18. General Wolfe takes Quebec, in Canada, Sept. 17. Montreal and Canada taken by the British. American Philosophical Society established at Philadelphia. Stamp Act passed. Battle of Lexington, April 19. Battle of Bunker's Hill in North America, June 17. The Americans declare their independence, July 4. Battle of Long-Island, August 27. New- York taken, in September. Battle of Trenton, Dec. 25. Battle of Brandy wine, Sept. 11. Philadelphia taken, Sept. 26. Surrender of the British army under Bnrgoyne, at Saratoga, in the state of New- York, Oct. 17. Treachery of Arnold, Sept. 22. Battle of Cowpens, January. Battle of Guilford, March 15. Battle of Eutaw Springs, Sept. 8. Surrender of the British army under Comwallis, to the Americans and French at Yorktown in Virginia, Oct. 19. Articles of peace, between Great Britain and the United Slates, signed at Paris, Nov. 30. First English Bible printed in America at Philade1jkhia< Constitution of the United States adopted. George Washington, first President of the United States, April. Vermont became a state. First Sunday School in theUnited States commenced at Philadelphia. CH&OnOLOGICAX. TABLE« seem eO 1799 1800 1801 1804 1806 1806 1808 1810 1810 1811 1812 the 1813 1814 es, ).815 la. Mediodiat Mistio&wrjr floekrjr insutated in Bugland. Kentacky became a state. Baptist MimionaiT Society ibnned ia Engiboid. Louis XVL and Marie Aatoin^te bdieaded. The Ci^ of Good Hope taken bf die Britirii, Sept. 16. John Adams, President of the United States, Mardi 4. Ireland ia open rebellion, Ma;j% Jane, fte. Admiral Nelson destroys theTrenck fleet in the battle of ilie Nile, August 1. Geoine Washfaigton dieis, Dec 14. London Religious Tract SocieQr. Union of Britain and Ireland. First meeting of the Imperial Parliament of Britain uA Ireland, January. Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States, March 4 British and Foreign Bible Society. Lord Nelson defeats the combined fleets of France and Spain off Cape Trafalgar, takes or destroys 19 ships of the line, and is killed in the battle, Oct. 81. War between England and Spain. The British Parliament vote the abolition of the slave trade, Jane 10. Abolition of the slave trade in the United States of America, Jan. 1. American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions formed ; incorporated in 1813. Population of the United States, 7,339,008. Two hundred buildings and lai^e quantities of goods burnt in Newburyport, Mass. An unusually large comet appeared, Sept. 1. Richmond theatre burnt, Dec. 86. War against Great Britain declared by the United States, June 18. General Hull and his army taken prisoners in Canada, August 16. The French army enter Moscow, Sept 14. British frigate Guerriere captured, August 89. do do Macedonian captured, Oct 26. do do Java captured, Dec. 89. Commodore Perry captures the British squadron, on lake Erie, Sept 10. Napoleon .Buonaparte dethroned, April 4, and banished to the island of Elba, for which he sailed, April 88. City of Washington taken by the British, August 84. British squadron on lake Ghamplain captured by Commodore McDonough, Sept 11. Pensacola taken by General Jackson, Nov. 7. Treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain, signed at Ghent, Dec. 24. The British repulsed at New-Orleans, Dec. 88. The British completely defeated, and General Packenham slain, at New-Orleans, Jan. 8. United States frigate President taken by a British squadron, Jan. 15. Peace between Great Britain and the United States ratified, Feb- ruary 84. American Education Society instituted at Boston. Battle of Waterloo, V 394 CB10N0L06ICAL TABLE. A.D. 1816 1817 1818 1818 1819 18S0 1821 1826 1829 1830 1836 1837 1641 1846 Deaf and Dnmb, Society for the instrnctioii of, institated at Har^ ford, Connecticnt, Jane 24. American Bible Society formed. • Indiana admitted into the Union as a state. United States Bank opened for business at Riiladelphia, Jan. 1. American Colonization Society for free blacks organized, Jan. 1. James Monroe, President of the United States, March 4. Mississippi admitted into the Union as a state, Dec 11. Illinois admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. 4. Commercial treaties concluded between the United States on the one part, and Great Britain and Sweden on the other. A trea^ for the cession of Florida to the United States signed at Washington, Feb. 23. First steam-ship sails for Europe, May. Alabama admitted into the Union as a state, Dec. Gteorge in., king of England, dies, Jan. 29. George lY. succeeds to the throne of Great Britain and Ireland. Maine admitted into the Union as a state. The American Colonization Society sent out their first colonists to Liberia. Population of the United States, 9,626,734. . Missouri admitted into the Union as a state. -\< Napoleon Buonaparte dies at St Helena, May 6, aged 62. Elias Boudinot, president of the American Bible SocieQr* dies. Columbia College established. Massacre of Greeks at Scio. The Marquis de la Fayette visited the United States. American Sunday-School Union instituted at Philadelphia. John Quincy Adams, President of the United States, March 4. American Tract Society instituted at New-York. The Ex-Presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, died, July 4. Andrew Jackson, President of the United States, March 4. An act passed by Congress, to remove the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, to the west of the Mississippi. Fifth census of the United States taken. Number of the popula* tion, 12,860,240. George lY., king of England, dies, Juiie 26. William lY. succeeds him. Formation of the Republic of Texas. Martin Yan Buren inaugurated, March 4. William Henry Harrison inaugurated, March 4, and dies, April 4» Yice-President, John Tyler, inaugurated in his place. James K. Polk inaugurated. Gcnt^ral Jackson dies, June 8. THK XMD i.