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Neither Esqui- malt nor New Westrainsler, which are the only regular meteorological stations main- tained near the coast of the Province, give any criterion by which to arrive at a knowledge of the climatic conditions of other districts ; for both these places — but especially Esquimalt — uro sheltered from the excessive precipitation which occurs where the moisture-bearing winds first strike the high coast line. Observations main- tained by myself while engaged in a geological examination of the Queen Charlotte Islands, during the summer of ISTS (published as an Appendix to the Report of Pro- gress of the Geological Survey, 1878-9), fairly represent the climate of that region during a few months. Observations kept up during many years at Sitka, two and a-half degrees north of Port Simpson, and considerably further west, doubtless repre- sent a climate considerably woi-se than that of the northern part of the coast of British Columbia. It may, however, be useful to extract from these the following facts. The latitude of Sitka is 57° 3 , or about one degree north of Glasgow (Scotland). Temperature observations extend over a period of forty-five years with little inter- ruption. "The mean temperature of spring is 41-2°; for summer, 54-6''; for autumn, 44"9° ; for winter, o2-5°, and for the entire year, 43*'i, F°. The extremes of temperature for 45 j'ears are 878° and -4-0°. However, the mercury has fallen below zero of Farenheit in only four years out of the 45, and has risen about 80° during but seven years of that period. The coldest month is January, the warmest August ; June is slightly warmer than September." The mean of the minima for seven years of the above period is 38-6°, and of the maxima for seven years, 4Sv°, shewing a remarkably equible climate. The average annual amount of rain, melted snow and hail from 1847 to 1864 (with the exception of the year 1855) was 82*66 inches, or within a fraction of seven feet ; and the average annual number of days on which rain, snow or hail fell, or heavy fogs prevailed, was two hundred and forty-five, or two days out of three, while it does not follow that the other days have a cleai* sky. Tables by Liitko, from observations in 1828 and 1829, show that on an average each year there were 170 days calm, 132 days moderate winds, and 63 days with strong winds.f The average annual precipitation of moisture at the mouth of the Columbia River, eleven degrees of latitude further south, is stated to be five inches greater than at Sitka, and it is therefore probable a priori that in the vicinity of Port Simp- son and about the mouth of the Skeena, on that part of the coast of the mainland * Tranamitted for publication in ac^rance of the forl^^oming detailed Report on the Explora> tious of 1879, hj peru ission of A. R. 0. Uelwrn, F.R.S., F.O.IS., Director Oeological Surrey of Canada. t Alaska Coast Pilot, 1869, and Pacific Coast Pilot, Appendix 1, 1879, p. 3Q, ..^ 1^ 108 lying open to the westerly winds between Queen Charlotte and Vancouver Island, and on the west coasts of these ishinds, that the precipitation is at least equally great, and amounts to between 80 and 90 inches per annum. This amount of precipitation, though small in comparison with that of a few exceptional phicoson the earth's surface, is greater than that characterizing even the western coasts of the British Islands, with the exception of a few peculiarly situated mountainous localities, where it is exceeded, and little less than the heaviest rainfall on the Norwegian coast (.^0 inches). Eecently published observations for Fort Tongas.s, thoui^h covering a period of but littleovertwoyears, must represent the climate of the region in the vicinity of Port Simpson and of the Queen Charlotte Islands pretty closely, as Tongass is situated on the north side of Dixon Entrance, little over tifty miles from Port Simpson in a direct line. The mean temperature is here 46-5*', or considerably warmer than Sitka. " This maybe due," Mr. W. II. Dall writes " to the reception in the open throat of Dixon Entrance of the warm waters of the Alaska Current, fresh from the great north Pacific Gulf Stream. "Fort Totigass is the locality of greatest known precipitation in Alaska, the rainfall averaging during the years of observation 118*'> inches, on which Mr. Dall remarks, that observations point to the Queen Charlotte Islands, and the region about Dixon Entrance as the most rainy part of the north-west coast. At TongasB about 200 days a year are either rainy or snowy, a proportion agreeing nearly with that observed at Sitka.=^ The excessive rainfall, considered in conjunction with the fact that the sky throughout the year is essentially cloudy, preventing rapid evaporation and keeping the dew point near the actual temperature of the air., accounts for the peculiar character of the vegetation, and the fact thatordinary cereals 'jannot begrown in the districts exposed to these conditions. At Fort Simpson, on the west coast of the Queen Charlotte Islands, and elsv>whero, many of the hills are but partially covered with forest, the remainder of the surface being occupied by sphagneous moss several feet in depth, and saturated with water oven on steep slopes. The low north-eastern part of the Queen Charlotte Islands is in great measure sheltered from the rain-bear- ing winds, and constitutes, in fact, the only extensive area of land which appears to be suitable for agriculture on the northern part of the coast. Mr. Duncan, of Metla- Katla, who kept a meteorological register for some time after his first arrival in the country, estimated that there wore on an average about seven fine days in a month in that place. The behavior of the winds and barometer in both Vancouver f.nd the Queen Charlotte Islands, appear to indicate that the centres of most storms, travelling from west to east, pass to the northward of the coast of British Columbia. This being so, it is probuble that the force of the gales is somewhat greater on the northern part of the coast of the province than on the southern. I have elsewhere stated that fogs do not seem to occur with such frequency in the vicinity of the Queen Charlotte Islands as in the southern part of the Strait of Georgia. It may be interesting to quote, in this connection, the following statement by the great but unfortunate navigator. La Peroure, bearing on the northern part of the west coast. fHe writes: "I first thought these seas more foggy than those which separate Europe and America, but I should have been greatly mistaken to have irrevocably embraced this opinion. The fogs of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson's Bay have an incontestable claim to pre-eminence from their constant density." The cause of the exceptional mildness of the climate of this region is to be found not alone in the fact of the proximity of the b3a, but in the abnormal warmth of the water, due to the Kuro-Siwo or Japanese Current. The average temperaturo of the surface of the sea, during the summer months, in the vicinity of the Queen Charlotte Islands, as deduced from a number of observations taken by myself in 1878, is 53*8°. Between Victoria and Milbank Sound, by the inner channels, from May 28th to June 9th, the average temperature of the sea surface was 54"1". In the inner • Pacific Coast Pilot, Appendix 1, loe. cit. t Quoted by G. DaTidson ia Alaska Ooast Pilot. 1D8 channels between Port Simpson and Milbank Sound, between August 29th and Sep- tember 12th, 54-5°, and from the last mentioned dale to October 18th, about the north end of Vancouver Island, and thence to Victoria by the inner channels, ftOI"^. Ob- servations by the United States' Coast Survey, in 1867,* gave a mean tempei-ature for the surface of the sea between Victoria and Port Simpson and outside the Prince of Wales Archipelago, from Fort Simpson to Sitka, in the latter part of July and eai'ly in August, of 52- P. In the narrower inlets of the coast, the temperature of the sea falls, owing to the quantity of cold water mingled with it by the entering rivers. These observations serve to show the existence, otf iho coast, of a great body of warm water, and the temperatures closely correspond with those found in similar latitudes, and due to the Gulf Stream and J!^orth Atlantic surface drift, on the west coast of Britain. The annual average temperature of the sea surface otf the west coast of Britain is stated as 49°, while that of the eastern North Atlantic, influenced by the Gulf Stream, varies from 44° to 54°. f It will bo observed that the summer temperature of this body of warm water appears to be somewhat lower than the mean summer temperature of Sitka, its influence on the climate is not, how«!ver, a direct one, but is chiefly exercised in the following way. — The prevailing south-westerly winds, sweeping over the warm surface of the sea are raised to its temperature, and become saturated with moisture, abstract- ing from it, as they do so, and rendering latent in conformity with well known physical laws, a still greater quantity of heat. When, on reaching the mountainous coast, this moisture in again condensed and discharged, the latent heat becomes again apparent, and greatly raises the temperature of the atmosphere in which the reaction occurs . According to Dove's tables, the mean annual temperature of a place situated in the latitude of Glasgow, derived from the temperature of the whole northern hemi- sphere, should be ;-i5°. Owing to the Gulf Stream and south-westerly winds, the actual mean annual temperature of Glasgow is about 50°, or exceeds the normal by 15°. The mean temperature of the ^-reater part of the North American continent in the s ne latitude is 5° to 12° below Dove's normal temperature, but that of the regions o. the west coast of America — which is related to the course of the Japanese Current in a manner similar to that of the west coast of Europe and the Gulf Stream — as represented by the above detailed observations at Sitka, exceeds the general mean by eight degrees. The mean annual temperature of Sitka being, in fact, nearly the same as that of Montreal, ten degrees of latitude further south. Many of the islands lying off the northern coast of British Columbia, and form- ing the great archipelago which fringes it, are low; but, though covered with luxurient forest, possess very little soil, and are in many cases composed of almost solid rock. About Metla-Katla and Port Simpson, small patches of ground are cultivated by the Indians as potato gardens, and good crops secured ; but the total area of arable land existing on this part of the coast, with the exception of the portion of the Queen Charlotte Islands before referred to, is so inconsiderable as to be scanely worth mention. The coast about Port Simpson and the mouth of the Skeena is very imperfectly sheltered from the luin- bearing winds by the Queen Chai-lotte Islands, while the islands of the coast archipelago, being for the most part of moderate elevation in this region, abstract little moisture. Where these winds first impinge on the monuntainous mainland the heaviest precipitation occurs, in exact correspondence with the height to which the moist air is forced up into the higher regions of the atmosphere, and cooled there by its expansion and loss of heat by radiation. As the mountains attain a considerable elevation at the coast, and the increase in elevation of the peaks * Alaska Coast Pilot, 1869, p. 20. t "That portion of the Kuro-Siwo having a temperature of 55" F., or more, approaches the coast of North-west America in the vicinity of Vancouver Island. The precipitation is greater, and sudden meteorological disturbences are more common between latitude 48" aud 55° N. than on any other part of the coast, so far as we know. But the water near the coast is less than 65" in temperature, and may average not more tljan 50<>." — Pacific Qoaat Pilot, Appendix 1, p. 21. 110 towards the axis of the range is comparatively gradual, the heavy rainfall of the coast is not found to be maintained in travelling eastward by the Skeona River. At forty-tive or fifty miles above Port Essington, evidonco of deci'oasing moisture is found, and is still more clearly apparent when Kitsalus Canyon, about half way from Port Essington to the Forks of Skeena. is reached. The devil's club and skunk cabbage (^Echinopanax horrida and Lysicluton Kamtschatsense) lu..,uriant in the lower reaches of the river and indicative ot a humid climate, no longer abound. At Quatsalix Canyon, ninety-tive miles from the co ist, the highest summit of the Coast Range having been passed, the vegetation characteristic of the northern interior of British Columbia may be said to Hot in ; the western scrub pine and aspen (Pinus contorta and Populus tremuloides) growing abundantly on the flats and slopes. The change is so gradual, however, and the blending of the coast and interior floras on the Skeona so complete that it is difficult to assign the precise position of the line. With regard to the snowfall on the Skeena, Mr. H. J. Cambie during his survey here in 1877, gathered that from Port Essington to near the month of the Lakelse (56 miles), it was exceedingly heavy, reaching a depth of ten feet or more. Prom this place to Kitsalas Canyon it reaches, at least occasionally, n depth of six feet ; while about Kiiwungah, — sixteen miles below the Forks — it averages three feet. So far as information can be obtained from the Indians it appears to confirm these estimates. The depth on the benches about the Forks is not over one foot, but owing to local circumstances the snowfall is here considerably less than in any neig boring locality, the average for tbis part of the Skeena Valley being probably a little under two feet. At about twenty miles below the Forks, the higher benches at the sides of the river and a few hundred feet above its level, extend several miles back from it, and show soil of fair quality, composed of sandy loam with more or less vegetable matter. It is reported that the Skeena valley continues to present the same appearance further up, and it is certainly wide and low for some distance above the Forks, while a cinsiderable width of land suited for agriculture is also found in the valley of ihe Kispyox to the north-westward. The summer temperature of the region about the Forks or Hazelton is often high, and the rainfall by no means excessive. According to Mr. Hankin, a trader who has resided many years here, snow generally first falls in October, but melts again, the winter snow not coining till about the middle of December. The winter is in general steadily cold, though there is almost always a thaw in February. The thermometer has been kaown to reach 48° below zero and to remain for days at a time below — 30°. The winter is in fact about the same as that of Stuart Lake, but the spring is said to open much earlier. Grass begins to grow gieen and some trees to bud out about the first week in April. Some cultivation is carried on. Potatoes are occasionally nipped by frost in the spring and on two occasions have been effected by summer frosts. They are generally harvested in the end of September, but are ripe before that time, and can be obtained large enough for use about the first Df July. Indian corn does not ripen, and wheat, Mr. Hankin believes would be an uncertain crop, The season of 1878 was exceptionally long, and two successive ci'ops of oats ripened before the frost; the second being a ' volunteer crop.' In favorable seasons, squashes, cucum- ber and other tender vegetables come to perfection. A few cattle and horses have been wintered hei-e, the former requiring to be fed for five months, the latter have been kept by clearing away the snow to a certain depth in strips to allow them to scrape for grass. The Skeena usually opons during the last week in April or first week of May. Ice begins to run in the river early in November, but the river does not generally freeze till the end of December. The river being very rapid, the occasion of its freezing is usually the occurance of a thaw. This sets free gi eat quantities of anchor ice, sometimes very suddenly, blocking the river and causing it to freeze over. In 1867 the river closed on the 13th of November, which was exceptionally early. The river is generally highest in July, deriving most of its water from the melting snow on the moun talcs. It is lowest immediately after the ice goes. Ill Without entering into details ns to tlio natural vegetation of the region, it may be Haid that it appears to indicate that the rainfall is nearly the same as about (^ues- ncl, on the Fraser, while the climate is in general much like that of Quebec or Montreal, with the exception of the winter, which, according to the statements above given, though rather shorter, is more severe. I am induced to think that Mr. llankin is wrong in supposing that wheat would not succeed well about the Forks, but this must remain a matter for future experiment. Meteorological observations kept by myself while on theSkeena, from June 7th to 23rd, being taken en route from Port Essington to the Foi-ks, are necessarily imperfect, and as wo were engaged in travelling during the day it was impossible to ascertain the maximum temperature. The mean minimum temperature read on a good ther- mometer carefully placed on nine nights; between Port Essington and Kitsalas Canyon is 434° F, the actual lowest reading being 3!i°. The mean of seven nights from the Canyon to the Forks, 436°, the actual lowest being 37*5*'. The mean of observations taken about 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. ; every day, on the first mentioned part of the river is 50-8°; on the upper part part of the river, 52-8°. The mean of morning readings taken below Kitsalas Canyon is 45° of evening reading, 56 4°. These reduced for the hour and time of the year by Dove's table of corrections, derived from observations at Sitka, indicate actual mean temperature of 49*1° and 53*1°, respectively. The mean doubtless lies between these figures, but their discord shows that wo have already a considerably greater range and a climate more continental in character than tuat of Sitka. Morning observations above the Canyon indicate a mean of 46-6°. Evening observations 58-9°, which, corrected in the same way, yield 5058° and 55-6° as approximations to the true mean temperature. Of the Watsonquah Eiver, which joins the Skeena from the south-eastward at tho Forks, Mr. Cambie reports that the valley throughout its entire length is in part prairie and sustains a magnificent growth of grass, but is subject to frequent summer frosts and unsuited to agriculture. * The Sus-kwa valley which joins the Watsonquah, and up which the trail from the Forks toward Babine Lake runs, contains no agricultural land worth mention, but its northern side has been in many places very completely burnt over, and is covered with exceedingly luxuriont grass and pea-vine, forming an excellent summer range for cattle or I orses. Babine and Stuart Lakes occupy portions of a single great valley, which is bounded by mountainous country on either side, and communicates northward with the flat country of the Lower Nechacco. The upper end of the lake raraly freezes completely across, but this is due, net to the mildness of the winter, but to the great depth of the water. A similar circumstance has already been reported for Francois Lake, t A terrace at a height of about 200 feet is specially prominent round tho lake, and after reaching this height the land frequently runs back several miles as a level or gently undulating plain. In other places it slopes gradually up, reaching an elevation of 500, 600, or 800 feet above the lake at from two to five miles from it. The valley is not even then shut in by high mountains in its central part, but appears to continue at nearlj' the same or a lower level in some places for many miles. The woods are generally light, aspen and poplar frequently preponderating over spruce, and considerable tracts with a southern exposure, from which fire has removed the forest, are covered with luxurient grass, peavine, epilobiura, &c. The portage between Babine and StuartjLakes is low, across wide spreading benches, and from half to one third of tho surface appears fit for cultivation. Considerable areas of low land also border Stuart Lake. Tho aggregate area of land below tho 3,000 feet contour line, with light slope* or nearly level, and which may be supposed to have some prospective value, is groat ; but it is impossible to form even an approximately correct estimate of it till the maps are further advanced. That in sight from the lakes must exceed 500 square • Canadian Pacific Railway Report, 1878, p. 70. t Repoii jf Progress, Geol. Survey of Canada, 1876-77 p 47. ' '^ 112 miles. Tlio soil in genornlly good, and tho only roniiiiiiing «|uo.stion is in rcgaid to the character of Uie climate. The noithoin or lower extremity ofBubino Lake being more closely hemmed in by snow-clad mountains, is evidently less favorably situated than the 'cniainder of this lake and Stuart Lake, and vegetation was found to bo decidedly behind that of the Sus-kwa Valley. Air. Sanj)ero, who is in charge of two Uudson Bay posts, one. at the north end, the other at the middle ofBabino Lake, states thatat the latter ho can g 'ow potatoes and many kind of vegetables, and that l»is predecessor grow barley, whicli ripened well. An Indian living on the portage between the two lakes culti- vates a little patchof land, and, though very poorly attended to, ho had a tine looking crop of potatoes and a little Held of barley, the latter about throe feet high and with the oarjust appearing at the date of our visit (.July 4tli). lie also keeps sonio cattlo here, cutting hay for thorn in swamps around Stuart Lake. At Fort St, Jainos wo found potatoes flourishing, but rather lato, having boon cut down by a frost in Juno. Barley was doing well, anil has been grown as u regular crop for many years. * In the garden wore peas, lettuce, boots, carrots, onions, garlic, turnips, cabbages and cauliflowers, doing well enough, but not carefully cultivated. Wheat has boon sown this year as an experiment, and had not sutlercd from frost at the date of our visit (July 7th). Temperature observations kept while on Babine and Stuart Lakes, June 27th to July 8th, gave a mean minimum temperature of 40-2°. The • lean of the early morn- ing and evening observations is 51*5°. Tho temperature is hero subject to greater and more rapid changes than in the Skoona Valley, and on tho night of Juno 29th we experienced a frost, tho thermometer registering 2(»°, near tho northern end of Ba- bine Lake, and in the vicinity of the snow-clad mouniJns already referred to. In the valley ofBabino and Stuart Lakes tLd summer season eeoms to be sufii- ciently long, and the absolute amount of heat great enough to bring all ordinary crops, including wheat, to maturity, but the question remains to what extent the liability to summer frosts may interfere with the cultivation of some plants, more especially wheat. Though this valley may be regarded as a continuation of the country of the Lower Nechacco, its vicinity to mountains appears to render it some- what inferior to that district in climate, and places it in this regard, in ray opinion, nearly in tho same position with the country bordering on Frauyois Lake. In pre- vious reports y I have described the flat country of the Lower Nechacco basin as constituting the greatest connected region susceptible of cultivation in tho Province of British Columbia. Its area has been estimated at 1,000 square miles. It is based on fine white silty deposits of the later portion of the Glacial period, constituting a soil almost uniformly fertile, and is remote from high snow-clad ranges. In the ab- sence of further information, I can merely repeat what was said of this region on a former occasion, viz., that while it is not probable that wheat can be grown over all parts of its area, it can scarcely be doubted that barley may be ripened almost every- where in it, while wheat would succeed in chosen spots. This region will, doubtless, at some time support a considerable population, but it is to be remarked that the passage of a railway through it would do little at pi-esent toward settling it ; for in the first instance, tho country to tho east of the Kooky Mountains, in the Peace River or Saskatchewan Valleys, would otter superior inducements to farmers and stock I'aisers. The country lying in the vicinity of the trail between Fort St. James, on Stuart Lake, and Fort McLeod has already been described by Mr. Solwyn and by Mr. Hunter. J The elevation of the watershed which is characterized by wide sandy * Report of Progress. Geol, Surrey rf Canada, 1876-77, p 51, t Report of Progress Geol, Survey of Canada, 1876-77, p 45, Canadian Pacific Railway Report, 1877, p. 252. . » r J ir m t Report of Progress, Geol, Survey tf Canada, 1675-76, p. 34. Canadian Pacific Ry. Report, 1878, p, 73, 11.} flats liV about 2,81(J foot, talcin-^f tho hoi<^-ht of Stuait Lako at 2,200 foot. With tho •exception ot'u bolt a few milos wide noai .Stiuvft Lako, and rising in places about 400 foot abovo it, this region is scarcoly to bo con.sidored as of any agricultural vahie. It lies to tlio nortii of tho Nochacco basin previously mentioned. Its surface is consi- derably broken and tho soil generally light, sandy or gravelly. It is at present covered for the most pai"t with burnt woods. ^ coiisidorable area would doubtless 1)0 available for pasture hind if tho forest wore completely removed by tiro, and there are numerous swamps and meadows along streams yielding good natural hay. A frost was oxporienced on tho night of July 13. h, my thormomotor going down to 27°, on Iriquois Crook. No frost occurred at Fort McLood, nine miles otf, and between 400 and 5i)0 feet lower. At Fort McLood the potatoes had been cut dovvn bv frost in June, but had reco- vered completely and wore growing well in July. The soil is, however, rather poor, and the area of cultivable land not extensive. D. W. liai-mon, in his " V(»3'agos and Travels" published at Andovor, Alass., in 182i>, states that tho snowfall at Fort McLood is sometimes a^. much as iivo feet, and this is confirmed by tbose now acquainted with tho region. At Fort St. James the snow reaches a depth of about throe feet. A ditforenco remarkably groat lor two places so close together. From Fort McLood to tho Middle Forks of Pino Eiver, seventy-two miles distant, may bo treated together .is representing the Rocky Mountains, including the fu5t hills of both slopes and the higher plateau attaching to these on tho north- eastward. From July 17th to August 5ih, tho mean of the observed minima on this part of the route is 39'7°. Tho mean of the early morning and evening readings of the thermometer, 49"4''. This must bo much below the actual mean temperature, for tho thermometer had seldom risen much abovo its minimum when observed at 6 a.m. The heat was sometimes great in the middle of the day, but as we were then always travelling, could not be registered. Three frosts were experienced, on the nights of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th of August, the thermometer reP'Ung30'5°, 28° and 30°5 on thoso nights. Strong westerly winds, falling calm at sundown, with a clear sky were the conditions causing the frosts. The quantity of arable land in this mountainous zone is quite inconsiderable, being confined, on the route followed, to the actual valley of Pino llivor for a few miles above tho Middle Forks. Tho portion of the Peace Eivor country, for which the exploration of last season ■enables pretty accurate general information to be given, may be considered as extending eastward from tho Middle Forks of Pine Eiver. West of this point, as already stated, the areas of fertile land ai'O small, being confined to certain river valleys which penetrate the foot hills of the Eocky Mountains and high plateau attached to them. With thio western limit, the region now to be described may be con- sidered as bounded to the north by tho 57th parallel, to its intersection eastward with the Peace River. Thence the boundary may be assumed to follow the Peace River southward to tho mouth of Heart Brook, near the confluence of the Smoky River. Thence t'> run south-eastward to the extremity of Lesser Slave Lake, to follow the western border of the hilly region lying to the south of the lake to the Athabaska River ; thence to follow the Athabaska westward to the foot hills, and skirting the foot- hills to run north-westward to the first mentioned point on Pine River.* The tract included within the limits abovo given has an area of about 31,550 aquare miles, and by far the larger part of this area may be classed as fertile. Its * In addition to the area above defined, mj explorations and those of my assistant, Mr McConnell, during the past season, included an examination of the upper part of the Athabasca to Athabasca Land- inff, of the north shore i^f Lesser Slave Lake and Lesser Slave Lake River, of a route from the east end of Ijesser Slave Lake to old Fort Assineboine and thence to Edmonton, and of the road from Athabasca Landing to Edmonton. Also of the Athabasca from the Landing to the mouth of the Riviere la Bdche, by the valley of the latter to Lac la B6che and thence to Victoria and Egg Lake. The country exam- ined on these liaes is not included in the present report, as being less homogenous in charaster than the great region above defined, it requires to be treated at greater length and in more detail. It may suffice for the present to state that considerable areas of fertile land are found taroughout, but more particularly in the region south of the line of the Athabasca River. , 2 114 average elevation may be statofl as liltlo over 2,000 foct, and this is maintained witb considerable uniformity, for though the general surface slopes slightly from the north and south toward Peace lliver, the region as a whole may be considered as a plutoau throu>rh which the great gorge-like valley of the Peace has been excavated. This ;'alloy has in g.-neral a depth of t!00 to 800 feet below that part of the jjlateau bordering it, with a width oi two to three miles from ritn to lim. Its tributary streams at first nearly on the plateau level, flow in valle3''s of continually increasing depth as they approach that of the Peace IJiver. Those from the south-eastern portion of the region riso ! either in the Ilocky Mountains, or near the Athabaska, the tributaries received by the latter stream from the north and north-west being — with the exception of the Uatiste— quite inconsiderable in this part of its course. The ridges and hills by which this region is occasionally diversified, appear in all cases to be composed either of the generally soft rocks of the Cretaceous and Tertiary or of arenaceous clays containing erratic.^! I'nd representing the boulder clays of the glacial period. These elevations are generally slight, and with exceedingly light and gradual elopes, the scarjied banks of the streams constituting much more important irregularities. These ridges, hovvever, often resemble detached portions of a higher plateau and spi-ead widely enough to occupy in the aggregate a considerable area, of which the soil iis not so uniform in character as elsewhere. With these exceptions, the soil of the district may be described as a fine silt, resembling the white silts of the Nechacco basin previously referred to, and not dissimilar from the loess-like materialconstituting the subsoil of the RedEiver Valley in Manitoba. This silt, at a short distance below the surface, is greyish or brownish in color, but becomes mixed superficially with a proportion of vegetable matter to a varying depth. It has evidently been deposited by a comparatively tranquil body of water not loaded with ice, probably toward the close of the glacial period, and haS' either never been laid down on the ridges and undulationf* above refei'rel to, or has been since removed from them by natural processes of waste. As evidenced by the- natural vegetation its fertility is great. West of the Smoky River, both to the south and north of Peuv^e River, there aie extensive areas of prairie country, either perfectly open and covered with a more or less luxuriant growth of grass, .r dotted with patches of coppice and trees. The northern banks of the Peace River Valley are also very generally open and grassed, and parts of the valley of the Smoky and other rivers have a similar character. The total area of prairie land west of the Smoky River, :'niy bo about 3,000 square miles. The remainder of the surface is generally occupied by second-growth forest, occasionally dense, but more olten open and composed of aspen, birch, and cottonwood, with a greater or less proportion of coniferous trees. Some patches of the original forest, however, remain, particularly in the river valleys, and are composed of much larger trees, chiefly coniferous, among which the black spruce is most abundant. Handsome groves of old and largo cottonwoods are also to be found in some of the valleys. Where the soil becomes locally sandy and poor, and more particularly in some of the more elevated parts of the ridges before described, a thick growth of scrub pine and black spruce, in which the indiviaual trees are small, k found ; and in swampy regions the tamarac is not wanting, and grows generally inter- mixed with the black spruce. East of the Smoky River, and southward toward the Athabaska, the prairie country is quite insignificant in extent, the region being characterized by second-growth woods of the character just described, v^^hich, on approaching the Athabaska, are replaced by extensive and well nigh impassible tracts of brule and wind-fall, in which second growth forest is only beginning to struggle up. Though the prairies are most immediately available, from an agricultural point of view, the regions now covered with second-growth and forest, where the soil itself ia not inferior, will eventually be equally valuable. The largest tract of poo.:* land is that bordering the valley of the Athabaska on the north. This rises to an elevation considerably greater than most of the region to the north and west, and appears during the submergence to which the superficial deposits are due, to have been exposed to 115 stronger currents which have prevented the deposition of the fine silt, causing it to bo replaced by a coarser silt which passes in places with actual sand, and alternates with ridges of boulder clay. This region is also often very swampy, and for a width of twenty to twenty*; i les on tlio ti-ail from Sturgeon Lake to the Athabaska is quite unsuitod to tig. ure, though still ia many places capable of j'ielding good sumraor griizing when the forest has boon completely removed by firo. To the north- ward, more particularly to the oast of Smoky Eiver, peaty and mossy swamps occupy part of the surface, and those may be regarded as permanently unsuitod to agriculture. There is also a sandy tract, though of small width, along the lower nart of the Elk River near its junction with the Smoky. Deducting, as far as posoibU) all the areas known to be inferior or useless, with about twenty per cent, for the portions of the re?ion under consideration of which less is known, the total area of land, with soil suited to agriculture, may bo estimated as at least 23,500 square miles. In the absence of complete maps, such an estimate cannot bo otherwise than very rough, but may serve to give some idea of the fact. Whatever theory be adopted, and may have boon advanced, to account for the wide prairies of the western portion of America further to the south, the origin of the prairies of the Peace River is sufficiently obvious. There can be no doubt that they have been pnxiuced and are maintained by fires. The country is naturally a wooded one, and whore fires have not run for a few years, young trees begin rapidly to spring up. The fires are, of course, ultimately attributable lo human agency, and it is probable that before the country was inhabited by the Indians it was every- where densely fores^clad. That the date of origin of the chief prairie tracts now found is re.Tiote, is clearly evidenced by their present appearance, and more particu- larly by the fact that they are everywhere scored and rutted with old buffalo tracks, while every suitable locality is pitted with the saucer-shaped 'buffalo wallows.' It is reported that a few buffaloes were seen last year near Pine River, but the animal has now become in the Peace River county practically extinct ; an event which, according to the Indians, happened at a date not very remote, owing to a winter of exceptional severity, during which the snow "reached to the'buffaloes backs." The luxuriance of the natural vegetation in these prairies is truly wonderful, and indicates, not alone the fertility of the soil, but the occurence of a sufficient rain- fall. The service berry, or amalanchier, and the choke-cherry are very abundant in some places, particularly on the so-called Grande Prairie, which constitutes the great berry gathering ground of the Indians. With regard to the climate of the Peace River country, we are without such ac'urate information as might bo obtained from a careful meteorological record, embracing even a single year, and its character can at present be ascertained merely from nvOtes and observations of a general character and the appearance of the natural vegetation. It may bo stated at once that the ascertained fiicts leave no doubt on the subject of the sufficient length and warmth of the season, to ripen wheat, oats and barley, with all the ordinary root crops and vegetables, the only point which may admit of question being to what extent the occurence of late and early frosts may interfere with growth. This remark is intended to apply to the whole district previously defined, though it must be remembered, in considering the subject, that the conditions of })laces situated in the bottom of the trough-like river valley, and 600 to 800 feet )elow the plateau, may bo considerably differc.it from those of its surface. The summer season of 1879 was an unusual one, characterized by excessively heavy rainfall, with cold raw weather ia the early summer months. These condi- tions did not extend to the west of the Rocky Mountains, but appear to have been felt over the entire area of the plains to the Red River Valley. As a result of tbis, the crops generally throughout the North-west were later than usual, and the mean temperature of even the latter part of the summer appears to have been i-ather abnor- mally low. Notwithstanding this, on my arrival at Dunvegan, on the 16th of August, small patches oi wheat and barley in the garden of the fort presented a remarkably fine appearand' and were beginning to turn yellow. On my return to 116 the fort on August 3l8t these were being harvested, their complete ripening having- been delayed by overcast and chilly weather which prevailed between these dates^ At the first-mentioned date potatoes were quite ripe, with the balls formed on the stalk, and the garden contained also fine cabbages, cauliflowers, beets, carrots, onions^ lettuce and turnips. Dwarf beans, cucumbers and squashes were also flourishing, and though these plants are particularly tender, showed no sign of frost. The two last named having been sown in the open ground did not appear likely to perfect their fruit. A few stalks of Indian corn were also growing, though it is impi-obable that this plant would ripen its seed in this district. When this garden was again visited, on the last day of August, the boans^ cu. numbers and squashes had been cut down by a frost, but not completely killed. The potato tops were also slightly nipped. Eov. M. Tessier, who has been at Dunvcgan as a missionary for some j-ears, has always been able to ripen small, black butter-beans, but in some seasons not without difficulty owing to frosts. He has also tried a few grains of oats which he procured accidentally, and obtained a return of astonishing abundance. About the date just referred to the potatoe plants at Smoky lliver post (I ho Forks) were badl3' cut down by frost, the tubers being, however, quite ripe, fine and large. On the 15th September, Mr. It. iMcConnell, my as.sistant, found the potatoes in the garden of the fort at the vvcst end of Lesser Slave Lake, and on the level of the plateau, little allected bj' frost, with tubers large and ripe. Mr. H. J. Cainbie also ascertained that wheat thrives at this place. We found some rude attempt at culti- vation also at the 'Cree Settlement,' which consists of a few log houses built ry Indians on the border of Sturgeon Lake, about 70 miles south-west ofthe west end of Lesser Slave- Lake, and is at the average level of the country-, with an elevation of about 2, lOO feet. Here, on September l-4th, the potatoe plants were slightly affected by fro>t, but not more so than observed Avith those at I)ut)vegan two weeks before. The tubers were quite ripe, but the Indians did not intend to dig them for about ten days. Turnips were very fine, and carrots, beets and onions were good, though evidently cultivated with very little care. Two or three very small patches of barley had been almost completely destroj'cd by mice, but a few stalks remaining were quite ripe and with fine heads. The Indians here were very anxious to have a supply of garden seeds, which I have since been able to forward to them by the kindness of Messrs. Stobart, Eden & Co., of Winnipeg. At Fort St. John, 95 miles wost of Dunvcgan, and so much nearer the mountains, on July 20 th, 1875, Professor Macoun states that potatoes, oats, barley and many varieties of vegetables were in a very flourishing state in ' Nigger Dan's ' garden. The oats stood nearly five feet high and the barley had made nearly an equal growth.* The barley and oats were both ripe about the l2th of August, Prof. Macoun was informed by Charlette at Hudson's Hope, thirty miles still further west, that in 187+ there was no frost from the Ist of May until the 15th of September. In 1875 sowing commenced the last week in April. There appears to have been a frost on June 28th, but the first autumn frost occurred on the 8th of September, and Mr. Selwyn found the potato tops still green in the middle (»f the month. Mr H. J. Cambie saw wheat flourishing here in July last, but on his return in September it had been cut down by frost. Such are the notes that can be obtained on the growth of cereals and vegetables in the district in question. From information obtained at Dunvegan, it seems that the sr.ow disappears about the middle of April, westerly winds sweeping it away fast. The liver opens at about the same time. Cultivation begins at about the end of April or first of May. The river generally begins to freeze in November. The depth ofsnow, Iwas told, averages about ttvo feet, an estimate which agrees with Mr. Horetzky's statement.f Mr. Horetzky was also told that the plains were often nearly bare up to the month of December, though the winter usually sets in with the month of • Report of Progress, Geol. Survey of Canada, 1875-6, p. 154. t Canada on the Pacific Coast, p. 205. 117 Nc vombor. S:.- Alexander Mackenzie remarked the same absence of snow in the eai-ly I winter months of 1792. Itwas entirely gone on April 5th, 1793, and gnats and mosqui- Jtoes were troublesome on April 20.* Horses almost invariably winter out well without Irequiring to be fed. Hay should be provided for cattle, to ensure perfect safety, Ifor a period of three or four months, though in some uoasons it is necessary to feed ithe animals for a few weeks only. The Indians of the * Uree Settlement' on Stur- geon Lake, previously referred to, winter their horses without any difficulty round the borders of a neighboring lake, the shores of which are partly open. From Hud- son's Hope, the horses are sent southward to Mobcrly's Lake to winter, and according to Mr. Selwyn, do well there. Lessor Slave Lake, with its wonderful natural iiioadows, has long been known as an excellent place for wintering stock, and is referred to as such by Sir J. Richardson, Some general idea of the length and character of the setisons at Fort St, .Tohn may be gained by an examination of the extracts from the journals from 18G6 to ilS7'>, published by Mr, Selwyn, f The dates of opening and closing of Peace liiver, being an important clue to the mean temperature of the "cgion, may be quoted at Kinnniarizcd by Prof. Macoun in the same report (p. 15b'). Ice drifting, first time 19 Nov. 7. 21 " 8. 20 " 7. 2.i " 8, 20 no record. IS " 10. 19 " 8, 2-i " 4. 19.... Oct. 31. 10 The average date of the breaking up of the ice may thus be stated to bo April 21st; that on which ice is running on the river for the first time, November 7th. In 1792 and, 93, when wintering at the mouth of Smoky River, Sir Alexander Mackenzie observed the ice to be running for the first time on November tith, while the river was clear of ice on the 25th April. I have been unable to find any precise records of the dates of closing and opening of the Saskatchewan, but Dr. Hector states these are usually the second week of November and the second week of April res])cctively. The Saskatchewan is a more rapid stream than the Peace. With regard to the probable difference between the actual valley of the Peace and the plateau forming the general surface of the country, Prof. Macoun ob.^crves, J h^j)eaking of the vicinity of Fort St. John, that notwithstanding the difference in altitude the berries on the plateau ripened only about a week later than I those near the river, while he was informed that there was about the Isame difference in the time of disappearance of the snow in spring. While lat Dunvegan, I ascertained that a similar difference was observed there, but it was added tliat this obtained chiefly with the wooded parts of the plateau, the snow disappearing on the prairies much aboiit the same time as iin the valley. In my diary, under date September 5tli, I find the following entry : — " Aspens and berry bushes about the Peace River Valley now looking quite autumnal. On the plateau 800 or 900 feet higher, not nearly so much so. Slight tinge of yellow only on some aspen groves." This ditferenfe, through not altogether con- stant and depending much on diversity of soil, appears to be actual. In October, 1872, -•e bi ouking 1800 J U" lt67 1808 1 69 1870 1871 1872 1873 187-1 1875 • Voyagea, p. 131-132, t Report of Progress, Geol. Surve/ of Canada, 1875-7C p. 84, Op. at., p, 166, 118 Mr. Horolzky writes: * " We observed that, curiously enough, the vegetation upon those uplands did not appear to have suffered so niuoh from the effects of frost, this being probably due to the fact of the air in those upper regions being constantly in motion, while in the deep and capacio'' valley of the river the winds have often no effect " The difference between the valley and the plateau being thus very small, I have not treated separately the observations for temperature taken by myself in the different situations. Most of the observations, however, refer to the plateau, and including the whole time spent in the country, from the Middle Forks of Pine Klver to the bank of the Athabaska, cover a period of nearly two months. The mean mini- mum temperature for the month of August, deduced from observations extending from the 6th to the 31st of the month is 39"9°. The mean of observations at 6 a. m. during the same period is 42'3®. That of the observations at 6 p. m. 59 5°. In September the mean minimum temperature was 28" 1°. The mean of morning observations o4*3°, of evening observations 51*5°. I have endeavored to deduce from these obser- vations means temperatures for the months in question, by correcting them by the tables of hourly variations in temperature given by C. A. Schott in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge (No. 277), but find it impossible to do so, as the daily range is here so much greater than that of any of the places represented by the tables, which refer chiefly to the eastern portion of the continent. It would appear that while in most places tho mean temperature of the day is reached about 8 p. m., it is found in the Peace River country not far from 6 ]\ m., by reason of tho increased rapidity of loss of heat by radiation duo to greater elevation and dryer atmosphere. The maximum temperature was seldom observed, but the daily range is very great, and the maximum probably several times reached 80° in August, and often surpafsod 70° in September. From the 6th to the 3lst of August I registered two nights of frost, on the 13th and 20th of the month when the thermometer showed 32° and 26° respectively. Both of these wore observed on the plateau, but one at least of thorn (that of the 20lh) must have occured also in the valley, from the effucis produced, Dunvegan on tender vege- tation. These frosts occured in very fine weather, following a day of strong westerly wind, tho result of which is to remove from the surface of the earth tho whole of the lower heated layer of the atmosphere. This, succeeded by a calm and cloudless night with transparent sky, cau.ses tho thermometer to sink below tho freezing-point before morning. When not proceeded by strong wind, mere transparency of the atmosphere seems seldom or never to lead to frost in August, in this district, as many beautifully starlight nights without an appioach of the mercury to be freezing-point were observed. Though in some cases such frosts as these maybe general, and e.xtend over a wide district of country, it is more usually found that they are quite local in charac- ter. A few flou'ing clouds, or light wreaths of mist, may arrest radiation so lar as to prevent frost over the greater part of tho country, while som».> spot accidentally exposed during the whole night uiider a clear sky experiences a temperature below 32°. The contour, and character of vegetation of the country also have much to do with the occurrence of frosts, and it is very Irequenlly the case that river valleys are more subject to frosts than tiie upland districts. During the month of September, in a region for the most part wooded, and often above the average altitude, between Dunvegan and tho Athabaska, nineteen frosts were registered, tho actually lowest temperature being 20° on Septem')er 18th. Through the kindness of Colonel Jarvis, of tho North-west Mounted Police, I have been able to secure a copy of records kept by Dr. Ilerkomer, of Fort Suskatclio- wan, on the Saskatchewan River, about twenty miles north-east of Kdmonton. For comparison with tho observed temperatures in the portion of the Peace Hiver cduu- try now discussed, thoy are invaluable ; for in the whole district surroundiuir Fort Saskatchewan and Edmonton we now know from actual and repeated exporimont that Canada ou the Pacifc p. -14. .-.J — i.^.^,.-- .. 119 wheat and all other ordinary cereals and vegetables thrive, and yield most abundant crops. The climate in its great diurnal and annual range corresponds exactly with that of the Peace River country. Fort Saskatchewan is situated on the brow of the Saskatchewan Valley, about seventy feet above the river, and therefore probably less liable to frosts than either the bottom of the river valley or extensive flat tracts of plain where there is little circulation of air. This, with the position of the thermometers in regard to the buildings, leads to the belief that if at all in error, as representing the climate of the region generally, the indicated temperatures are slightly too great. The thermometer appears to have been read in all cases to the nearest degree only. A comparison may be made between the temperature observed in the Peace River country during August and September, with those at Fort Saskatchewan, as follows. — (t (t (( Peace River Country, mean of minima durir^^' August 39- 9^ September 2S- V '* Frosts experienced during August 3 " " " September 19 For Saskatchewan, mean of minima during August 39- 3' " " " September 31- 1' Frosts experienced during August September 15 o lu uui'iii^ ii.u^uat II' o <( (( (( j^ort Saskatchewan, mean of maxima during August 77* 8 September 68- 1° Fort Saslcatchewan, deduced moan tcmpoi-ature of August f 8- 6^ " " " September 49- 6^ The mean of maxima and actual moan temperature for the months cannot bo stated for the Peace River country. The actual mean for Fort Saskatchewan is ob- tained by adding the minima and maxima for each month together, and is probably very nearly correct. While regretting that the dota at disposal for the determination of the agricul- tural value of the Peace River country are not more ample, we may I believe, arrive with considerable certainty at the general fact that it is great. From such com- parison as can be made, it would be premature to allow that the climate of the Peace River is inferior to that of the region about JCdmonton or the Saskatchewan. It is true that in both the Saskatchewan and Peace River districts the season is none too long for the cultivation of wheat, but if the crop can be counted on as a sure one, — and experi- ence seems to indicate that it may — the occurrence of early and iate frosts may be regarded with comparative indifference. Theseason is at least equally short throught- out the whole fertile belt from the Peace River to Manitoba, though earl}' and late frosts are not so common in the low valley of the Red River. The almost simultane- ous advance of spring along the whole line of this fertile bolt, is indicated by the dates of the flowering of the various plants, a point referred to by me in some detail elsewhere.* It is further unquestionable that the winter is less severe, and not subject to the same extremes in the Peace iiivor and Upper Saskatchewan regions as in Manitoba. AVe have already found reason to believe that the early and late frosts, and not the absence of a suflicient aggregate amount of heat, constitutes the limiting condition of wheat cultui-e in the North-west; but that neither the Saskatchewan nor the Peace River countries lie upon the actual verge of the profitable cultivation of wheat appears to be proved by the fact that oats succeed on the Saskatchevvan, and also — in so far as one or two seasons can be accepted as evidence— on the Peace River ; while it is well known that this cereal is loss tolerant of summer frost than wheat. This is further proved by the fact that at Fort Vermilion and Athabaska Lake, 180 and 300 miles respectively north-east of Dunvegan, Prof. Macoun found wheat and barlo}' ripening well; but in this instance the fact is complicatevl by the circumstance Oeolc(?y and Resources of the 49lh Parallel 1875, p. 279. 120 of the Jecreasing altitude of tho conntiy, which introduces a new condition. As no knowlod^^o has been f^ained of this country on the Lower Peace in addition to that collected by Prof. Alacoun in 1875,* it is not included in tho above discussion, though from it additional great areas might doubtless be added to the fertile tract. Eoferring to the journals kept at Fort St. John, Mr. Selwyn, in the report already several times referred to, comes to the conclusion that tho climate of tho Peace Kiver compares favorably with that of the Saskatchewan country, or Montreal. It has often been stated in a general way that the cause of the exceptionally favorable climate of the Saskatchewan and Peace Kiver countries, as compared with those of the eastern portion of tho American continent, is to bo found in the pre- valence of warni westerly winds from tho Pacific. Sir Alexander Mackenzie speaks of these westerly winds in winter, writing : — "I had already' observed at Athabaska, that this wind never failed to bring us clear mild weather, whereas, when it blew from the opposite quarter, it produced snow. Here it is much more perceptible, for if it bloA's hard south-west for four hours a thaw is the consequence, and if tho wind is at north-east iL brings sleet and snow. To this cause it moy bo attributed tbat there is so iitllo snow in this part of the world. Those warm winds coino otf the Pacific Ocean, which cannot, in a direct line, bo yovy far from us, the distance being so short that, though tlioy pa.-s over mountains covered with snow, there is not time for them to cool."f Further south these south-wcslerlj' currents arc known as 'Chinook winds,' and similar consequences are observed to accomjtany their occurrence. Sir Alex- ander Macken/io, however, in the summer of 171^3, found the distance to the Pacific coast from h s wintering-place, at the mouth of Smoky iiiver, greater than ho appears to ha\ ■'■ imagined at the time he penned the above quoted remarks, and it is difficult indeed 'o understand how currents of air, blowing for at least rJSO miles across a country . hich is for tho most part mountainous, should retain enough warmth to temper crVoctually, tho climate of tho plains to the east. This difficulty would appear to be ])articularly groat in summer, when the mountains are largely snow-clad and the moan temjiorature of tho Peace and Saskatchewan Valleys, is pro- bably considci-ably in excess of that of the region intervening between them and tho bca. The complete explanation is to bo found in the groat quantity of heat rendered latent when moisture is evaporated or air expanded in volume, but wiiich becomes sensible again on condensation of the moisture or compression of the air. The pressure in the upper regions of the atmosphere being so much loss than in the lower, a body of air rising from the soa-lovol to the summit of tho coast moun- tains must expand, which implying molecular work, results in an absorption of heat and consequent couling. The amount of tlds coling has been estimated at about 1° Centigrade for lUO moires of ascent when the air is dry, but becomes reduced to jt degree when the temperature Inis fallen to the dew-point of tho atmosphere and pre- cipitation of moisture as cloud, rain or snow begins ; tho heat resulting from this condensation retarding to a certain degree tho cooling due to the expansion of tho air. When the air descends again on the further side of the mountain range, its condensation leads to an increase of sensible heat equal to 1° C. for each 100 metres. X it is owing to this circumstance that places in tho south of (ri-'onland, on the west coast, during the prevalence of south-easterly winds which flow over tho high interior of the country, have been found, in winter, to experience for a time a tempeiature higher than thatof North Italy, or tho south of Prance, though the north Atlantic Ocean from which tho winds come can have boon little above tho freezing-point at this season. The wind well known in the Alps as the foehn, is another example of the same phenomenon • Report of Progress of Oeol. Survej, Canaiia, 1875 76. t VoyiiKcs, p. 138, t The figures are Dr. Ilann's, quoted by Hoffineyer in the Danish Geographical Society's Journal| and reproduced in Nature, August, 1877. 1^1 1 The data aro wanting for an accurate investigation of the circumstances of our ■vest coast in this regard, but a general idea of the fact may be gained. Wo may iissume that the air at the sea level is practically saturated with moisture, or already Rt its dew-point, that in crossing the mountainous region the average height to whicl: the air is carried is about 2,000 metres ((},{)60 foot), and that it descends to a level of about 700 metres (2,296 feet) in the Peace ilver country. The loss of sensible heat on elevation would, in this case, ar.iount to 10° C. (18° F.), the gain on descent to the level of 700 metres to 13° C. (23-4° F.). The amount of heat lost by the air during its passage across the mountainous region, by radiation and contact with the snowy peaks, cannot bo determined. It is of course much greater in winter than in hummer, and depends, also on the speed with which the current ol air travels. Taking the mean summer temperature of the coast at abcut 12° C, (54° F.) and allowing several degrees ior loss of radiation, it becomes easy to understand how the western prairies may be flooded with air nearly as warm aa that of the coast, though it has travelled to them over a region comparative)}' cokl. Owing to the great width of the mountain barrier, the main result is complicated by local details, regions of considerable precipitation occurring at each important mountain range, with subsidiary drier regions in the lee. The last of these regions of precipitation is that of the Eocky Mountain range, properly so-called. By this a further addition of heat is made to the air, which then flows down as a dry and warm current to the east. In addition to the favorable climatic conditions indicated by the thermometer, the length of the day in summer in the higher northern latitudes favours the rapid and vigorous growth of vegetation, and takes the place, to a certain extent, of heat in this respect. This lias been supposed to be the case from the liixuiiant vegetation of some northern region, but Alfoni^o do Candolle has put the matter beyond doubt by subject- ing it to direct experiment. In latitude 5tJ° which may be taken as representing that of much of the Peace River country, sunrise on 21st June, occurs at 3h. 12m., .-unset at 8h. 50m.; while six degrees furtljor south, in latitude 50'', whicii may be assumed to represent Manitoba, sunrise occurs on the same day at 3h. 49rn., huiiset at 8h. 13m. The duration of sunlight, in the flrst case, is iTh. 38m.; in the second, 16h. 24 m., or one hour and a quarter in excess in the northern locality. This excess of course decreases to zero at the spring and autumn equinoxes, and the difference is reversed in the winter. A further circumstance givi-ig to the Peace liiver country and that on the lipjier part of the Saskatchewan, other things being equal, u value as farming land acre for acre consideiabl}' greater than thn.tof most pai-ts of the .North-west, is the immunity of this region from the visits of the devastating loc>ist or grasshopper (Ca/w^>?t;n«s Sfrctus). I have else^vhere discussed the question A' locust invasions, in several ]>apei's,* and it has since been taken up by the United States Entomological Commis- sion. f It r ust suffice to state here, that while long series of years may pass v,'itbout the occurrence of serious invasions, these must continue always, or at least for a very long time, to constitute a di'awback to the whole territory lying south of a lino drawn about sixty miles south of Edmonton, and thence nearly following the border of the wooded country eastward and southward to Manitoba. (2) General Geological features, and Minerals of Economic Importance. The rocks of the coast of the northern part of British Columbia and its adjacent jislands, resemble those of the southern part of the coast, in the same lino of strike, land the Victoria series of Vancouver Island. The ago of these rocks I believe to be not greater than Palaeozoic, though their crj'stalline and highly altered appearance might, at first sight, suggest a comparison with still older series. They may be • Canadian Naturalist, Vol. VIII., pp. 119, 207, 411. t First Annual Report, United States Eatomological Commission, 1878. r^vr mxnuJi-viia — l.l 122 t» Ash 40-90 40-. 100 uO 100-00 Ratio of volatile combustible matter to fixed carbon 1— 2-'Z8 1—204 124 Hy slow coking the undor portion of tho pow>lor ulono -.vas sin(^ "od, the middlo iind upper portions roniaiu'iig pulvorulont. l-ust coking gave ii tirmur coico. Ash, })alc croam colour. ^Ipf.chnen labdled Skf'ena, Stafion 05, twenty miles above the Forks. Tho specimen was Made up of altornaio dull layers of what appeared to bo sition of the noi-tlioi-n interior of British Columbia, tlie possible existence of '.vorkablo deposits of coal is a matter of indifferenco, but in the ovont of the O|)oning of any rente tlirou^'h il, it would l"3 exceedingly desirable to have all parts of the extensive Moiozoic area subjected to a ideological examination as close us possible. Gohl has not been found oxtcn.' ivtdy, or in ,su(di quantity, as to <^is'o i-ise to per- manent mining on the SK'ooiia or the Nasso. The hills behind the Hudson Buy post, on the east side of the north or lower end of Babine Lake, are of sandstones and tine-grained conglomerates with a strike of N. 15" li. (mag.) and high north-westerly di|)s. Some beds might form good build- ing niMterial if opened below the frost-shattered surface. For some distance south- ward on the lake, siniilar rocks prevail, but from Na-tal-kuz Mountain and the second Hudson Bay post to the head of the lake, rocks which may bo referred to the Cache Creek group of the interior of Briti:ih Columbia, at»d are probar.ly Carboniferous in age, ap|}car to form the substructure of the country; while Tertiary volcanic materials lie upon them, and characleri/.o long stret'^hes oi' the lake shore. Bunded limestones and marbles occur on the north bank, near the great bend of the lake. Tho rocks of the poitagc, for some miles from Babine Lake, appear to bo Tertiary, while near the head of Stuart Lake massive grey hornblendic granite occurs. In travelling down Stuart Lake, in haste and with bad weather, very little chance oc- curred for the examination of the rocks. The granite above referred to is soon, however, replaced by a schistose greenish and greyish series, and in the hills north of the Pinchi Jliver, massive limestone beds were first made out. These run south- eastward foi'ming the range along the north-east side of the lake, and culminating in Na-katl,or Pope's Cradle, 4,800 feet in height, a few miles from Fort St. James. These limestones have already been described* and are kncwn to be of Ca,rboniferou8 age. Between Fori St. James, on Stuart Lake, and Foit McLcod, the surface is almost everj'wherc covered with drift deposits, and consequently, though travelling nearly ut right angles to the general strike of the rock.q of this part of the province, little can bo ascertained as to their character. Neither the Tertiary basin, previously outlined on the Lower Ncchacco Iliver, nor that of the vicinity of Fort George, appears to extend as far north as the line of route just referred to. There appear, however, to be outlying patches of Tertiary volcanic rocks, which rest upon the older formations. These, as indicated chiefly by the debris and drift of the surface, and stones found in brooks, seem to include rocks both of the Cache Creek and Mesozoic series. On Long Lake River, near L'oquois Creek, rocks with little doubt belonging to the first men- tioned sei'ies occur and include felspathie materials and bandj of limestone. In the vicin- ity of Fort McLeod,rocks similar to these, but with thicker beds of limestone, are found. North of Fort McLeod, on the Parsnip, Mr. Sehvyn believes an area of Tertiary lignite-bearing rocks to extend as fur as the mouth of the Nation River. Lignite was observed in places near the junction of the Pack, or McLeod's Lake River, with the Parsnip, and loose blocks of a quality likely to be serviceable as fuel, were found scattered further down. f In continuing eastward from the Parsnip River by the Misinchinca, the country, to Azouzetta Lake at the summit of the Pine River Pass, is characterized by schistose and slaty rocks, with occasional bands of quartzite. The schists are generally mica- ceous and often very bright, with lustrous surfaces wnich are not unfrequently minntelj' wrinkled. Those together form a well marked series, and as they occupy a belt of country about twenty miles in width, and are generally at high angles, are doubtless many times repeated by folding. Those rocks appear to overlie the massive limestones of the central range of the Ri»cky Mountains, which appear to bo of Carboni- ferous or Devonian age. From their lithologioal identity there can bo little doubt that they repi-escnt the auriferous series of Cariboo, but they have not here been extensively prospected, and no paying deposits of gold have boeu found ia this part of the country. * Report of Progress, Geol. Survey of Cauada, 1876-77, page 55. t Report of Progress, Geol. Surrey of Canaia, 1875<76, p. 71. 126 On tho uppor part of the Misinchincn, numerous 'colors' may be obtained on the bars of the river, and while it is ixwHiblo that rich auriferous deposits may yet be found here, it should bo mentioned that the rocks are not so extensively traversed by quarta veins as in the Cariboo region. It is apparently on tho north-western extension of this belt of schistose rocks, that the Ominoca gold district is situated. Tho known aui-iforous localities hero lio about fifty miles north of a line ])as8ing westward from the Pine Pass by Forts McLeod and St. James. There are three routes by which Omenica may be reached. First from the coast by the Skeena Iiivcr, Babinu Portage and Firepan Pass. This route is travelled by canoe and on foot. Second by trail from Fort St. James, practicable for pack animals; and third by canoe or boat from tho eastward by the Peace and Finlay liivers. Without cntoi-ing into details, a glance at tho map will show how com- pletely isolated this district is, and account for tho scarcity and high pricfo of pro- visions, which has prevented tho working of any but good paying claims and hindered the thorough examination of the country. Some facts in connection with this district have been given by me in a previous report,* but it has never been visited by any member of the Geological Survey. Tho main points which seem to bear on the possible future of tho district are as follows : — The existence of rich deposits of gold, and the possibility that with greater facility of access the known area covered by these would be increased, and that it would be- come possible to work those of a lower grade. The occurrence of pellets of no,tivo- silver or amalgam in association with the gold. It may not be found possible to trace this material to veins of workable dimensions, but its presence seems in some degieo to show the general argentiferous characterof the district. The chief promise of future importance as a mining centre seems to lie, however, in tho fact that highly argentiferous galena occur in some abundance, and, it is reported, in well-detined and wide veins. These it is at present impossible to utilize, owing to the cost of labor and carriage, but the subjoined particulars may serve to give some idea of the char- acter of the deposits. According to Mr. Woodcock, of Victoria, some of the most important veins are in the vicinity of a stream called Boulder Creek. That known as the " Arctic Circle " is said to be about twenty feet wide, and to show about four feet of highly metalliferous ore. It is exposed by the brook in a face about thirty feet high. The claim adjoining this is called the " Black Warrior," and shows a vein eight feet wide of nearly pure galena. Other specimens have been obtained from places within a radius of eight miles from this locality. l^ofir Lnst Creek a vein known as tho " Champion Ledge " is found, and runs nearly parallel with tho stream. Particulars as to its size are wanting. Another vein in the creek is reported to be twenty feet wide. Mr. Woodcock has favored me with copies of the following analyses of two speci- mens of the ores from this district, by Messrs. Johnston, Matthy & Co., London, Eng- land. Arctic Circle Vein. Lead '^26-80 Iron , 2-50 Silver 013 Sulphur..... 6 35 Silica fil-GO Alumina 1*40 Combined water O-O.^i Oxygen and loss O-2'I Silver equal to 44-2 oz. per ton of 20 cwt. • Report of Progrjss, Geol. Survey of Canada, 1876-77, p. 116. 12t zx: A Becond analysis of tho Arctic Circle ore, is by G. W. Hopkins, San Francisco, and gives the following rosult : — Silver, per ton, 40HI oz. or 852.'76. Gold, truce. Pig lead would contain about 50 oz. to the ton. Black Warrior Vein. Lead 2025 Iron 215 Silver 09 Sulphur 480 Silica 69-80 Alumina 1'50 Combined water 1*00 Oxygen and loss 1*41 10000 Silver equal to 29*8 oz. per ton of 20 cwt. A second assay of the " Black Warrior," by Messrs. Riehn, Hemme & Co., San Francisco, showed the sample to contain 98 oz. or $126.70 of silver to the ton, equal to $187.10 per ton of pig lead. Tv o assays of specimens of ore from a deposit known as the " Mammoth Ledge," gave tie following results. Assay by Thos. Price, San Fi*ancisco : — Gold, per ton, ^oz $ 2.06 Silver do 32^^ oz 41.89 $43.95 Clean galena would assay, $131.85. Assay by Messrs. Riehn, Hemme & Co., San Francisco : — Gold, per ton $ 6-28 Silver do 9113 $97-41 Pig lead would contain 207 ounces to the ton. A specimen of quartz with galena, from a stream nearMansen Creek in the same district, was examined by Mr. Hoffmann some years ago * and found to contain 8971 oz. of silver to the ton, with traces of gold, but, as Mr. Hoffmann remarks, the silver is confined to the galena, of which only a small quantity occurs in tho vein-stone, and which must consequently be highly argentiferous. An analysis of a sample of galena from the Arctic Circle vein, separated as far as possible from the gangue, in the laboratory of tho Survey, gave 128 oz. of silver to tho ton. A specimen of ore from the Champion Ledge, including galena and gangue, showed 20 oz. of silver to the ton and a trace of gold. It would thus appear that a considerable percentage of silver occurs in all the galena ores examined from this district, and that if the veins are sufficiently large and constant in character, the region must be of impoitance when sufficient means of acccbS to it are provided. All these ores might, by ordinary process of dressing and washing, bo raised nearly to the grade which they show when the piecious metals are calculated to the proportion of galena contained. During the summer of 1879, there were, as 1 have been informed, about sixty white men engaged in mining at Omineca, with twenty Chinamen, and sixty to seventy Indians, the latter receiving wages as laborers of $3 a day. I am inclined to believe, however, that these figures may be rather above the mark than below it. • Report of Progress, 1876-76, p. 430, 1876-77, p. 116. 3 128 To the north-eaet of the scliisti ■! rocks, and apparently underlying them, are the masHivo limestones which form the axial mountains of the Eocky Mountain range. These, in their direction of strike, .-'re parallel to the general north-westerly and K)ii(h-oaMterly trend of the range. From the line of the summit, or Azouzetta Lake Valley, the width of the limeHtones and other old rocks measured transversely is about tive or six miles only. On the north-eastward side of the range, the lime- stones become associated with quartzites which may be of greater ago, and with blackish shales and slaty rocks holding Monotis subcirculahs, »nd therefore to be assigned to the Triassic jeriod. These rocks of the axis of the mountains are not known to be of any economic importance, though in some places capable of j luing building stone of fair quality. 'Colors' of gold may bo obtained in the • opor part of the Pine Kiver, as on the AJisinchinca. From the point on the upper Pine River last described, rocks probably for the most jiart of Cretaceous ago, but possibly passing up into Tertiary in some places, extend over the whole upper part of the basin of the Peace River. A lino drawn from this point north-north-westward to near the confluence of the Ottor Tail River with the Peace — a distance of abeut forty-five miles — probably marks with approxi- mate accuracy, for a portion of its length, the junction of these newer rocks with the main ma'»s of the older rocks of the axis of the mountains. There is evidence that this line is nearly that of the shore at the time of the deposit of the Cretaceous rocks, and that the present axial elevations of tho Rocky Mountains have stood as an island or islands above the Cretaceous sea. Cherty fragments, like those associated with tho limestones of tho mouninins, are found abundantly in tho conglomerates and sandstones of the newer series. The existence of tho remains of plants, and of seams, of coal in different parts of tho newer rocks, show that the sea must have been a shallow one, and by occasional elevations, patches at least of its bed were, from time to time, converted into land areas. It is in these rocks, forming a zone to the east of the Rocky Mountains, that the most promising coal-fields of the North-west lie, and they avf now known to bo characterized by the presence of coal from the Peace River to the 49th parallel. Their study is consequently attended with interest, and much additional light has been thrown upon it by the examination of sections in the Peace River region, last summer. Till maps are complete, and tho whole of the observations i)roporly dis- cussed, it would bo unwise to attempt to enter into detail, but some points bearing on the carboniferous character of the formation may be given. In the vicinity of the mountains, tho rocks are much flexed, but the undulations gradually lesson as tho mountains are left behind, and the beds become at length horizontal, or so nearly so that no inclination of a fixed character can be detected by ordinary methods. Near the mountains the rocks are almost entirely sandstones, and often quite coarse and associated with conglomerates. Further off, shaly inter- calations appear, and eventually two well marked and thick zones of dark colored shales are found, separated by a zone of sandstone and shales, and capped above by a second sandstone and shale formation, which may possibly belong to the lower part of the Tertiary. In both tbo horizons characterized by sandstones coal is found, and while as above stated the upper may represent a ]X)rtion of the Tertiary, the lower is certainly well down in the Cretaceous formation. This in itself is a point of cor sider- able importance, showing that the carboniferous character of the rocks is not confined to a single series of beds, but recurs at two stages. It also, probably confirms the view advanced by Dr. Hector and supported by Mr. Solwyn, for the Saskatchewan country, as to tho existence of a coal-bearing horizon in the Cretaceous of that region in addition to that of the Tertiary or Laramie age. The localities in which coal is known to occur in the lower or certainly Cretace- ous zone are : — Table Mountain, Coal Brook and vicinity, Portage Mountain and tho lower part of Smoky River. Table Mountain is situated on the south b'ink of Pine River between tha Lower and Middle Forks. It was examined by Mr. Selwyn in 1875, who describes the coal as 129 occurring in four soaras, In d conding order, six inches, eight inches, two feet and aix inches thick roMpectivoly. The coul \H stated to be of good quality, but has not been analyzed. Coal Brook joins the south brunch of Pine liivor a i'ovr miles from the Lower Forks, and though a comparatively small stream, has formed numerous fine sections iu the soft Cretaceous rocks. Coal was discovered here by Mr. J. Hunter in 1877, and is mentioned by him in the Canadian Pacific Railway Eeport for 1878 (p. 79). Mr. Hunter favored me with specimens collected by him at this time, and i have since personally examined the locality. The rocks are probably nearly on the same horizon as those of Table Mountain. The coal is of good quality and occurs in several beds, which are however, so far as observed, all very thin, the thickest measui'ing about six inches. Coal also occurs on the south branch of Pine River above the mouth of Coal Creek, and there is much ground to hope for the ultimate discovery of coal seams of workable thickness in this region. Portage Mountain is cut through by the canyon of the Peace River above Hud- son's Hope. The thickest seam obsorvnd by Mr. Selw^n in this place, was again but six inches,* but in July last Mr. H. J. Cambie noticed one about two feet in thick- ness. The following analysis of a specimen of coal from this place is published by Dr. Uarrington.f Water Volatile combustible maaer Fixed carbon Ash 10000 100-00 Ratio of volatile to fixed combustible by slow coking 1-3-32, by fast coking 1-2-71. By rapid heating the coal yielded a tine coke, and it may be regarded in all respects as a fuel of excellent quality, only requiring to be found in sufficient quantity to ! claim importance. The coal referred to as occurring on this horizon on the lower Smoky River is in itselfof no importance whatever, being but 2i inches thick. With the fact of the abundance of impressions of roots and branches in the sandstone is shows merely the carboniferous character of the formation to this point. It appears at the very sum- mit of the series of sandstones forming the lower group, at their junction with the overlying bluish shales. On Riviere Brule, near its mouth, about fourteen miles from Dunvegan, my assistant, Mr. McConnell, examined a reported coal seam, which proved to be a lignite coal of inferior quality, and about twelve inches only iu thickness. Coal or I'gnite is also reported to occur on Rat River ten or fifteen miles above Dunvegan, but the locality was not vikited. It is probable that in both these places it is the lower or distinctively Cretaceous series of sandstone and slates which hold the coal. Of localities showing coal or lignite in the upper series of sandstones and lates, which may, so far as present information goes represent the uppermost part f the Cretaceous, or the overlying Laramie group ; ihe first discovered is Mountain "reek, joining Elk River, about fifty-cighi; miles in a direction nearly due south from unvegan. The beds found here were again quite thin, but the bars in the stream 10 strewn with largo Locks which appear to bo of bituminous coal rather than lig- ite, and are of good quality as a fuel. These must be derived from thicker beds han those examined, biit which may be below the water-level. The banks of the Elk River, .''bove the mouth of Mountain Creek, show similar ragments of coal more or less rounded, and on the Smoky River, below the mouth Slow coking. Fast coking. 2-10 2,10 21-54 25.09 71-63 6808 4-73 4-73 •Report of Progress, Geol. Survey of Canada, 1875-76, p. 63. t Report of Progress, Geol. Survey of Canada, 1876-77, table facing p 470. lao of the Elk, near ihe base of the upper sandstone series, a seam of good coal five inches in thickness was seen. Drift coal found on the upper part of the main Smoky probably also belongs to this upper sandstone series. Sandstones and shales, which might represent either the upper or lower series above refoned to, occur on the Athabasca Eiver, and were observed in many places above Old Fort Assineboine to hold coal seams. Two of these were noticed to be of remarkable persistency, and though generally thin, the upper seam was found in one place to measure ten feet in thickness, including however a few shaly part- ings which would reduce the thickness of good coal or lignite to nine feet two inches. This is separated by about twenty feet of soft sandstone from the lower seam, which is compact and of good appearance and about three feet in thickness. On a stream entering Lesser Slave Lake from the north, near its eastern end, Mr. MeConnell observed numerous fragments of lignite of good quality, but all con- siderably rounded, showing that they had been brought Irom some distance. It would thus appear that while in the region lying between the Athabasca and the Peace rivers, no coal seams sufficiently thick to be of great economic value have yet been discovered, that coal and lignite of good quality occur in two distinct series of beds. Wherever natural sections of these occur in the valleys of rivers and streams, coal in greater or less quantity is found, and the persistently carboniferous character of the beds thus abundantly proven. There can be little doubt that beds of a work&Dle chai'acter occur in different parts of this region and will be found by further search. On the extension of these formations to the south-eastward, a bed of coal, reported to be eight feet in thickness, occurs near the projected railway crossing of the North Pembina Eiver, while between Fort Edmonton and the mouth of the Brazeau River, on the Saskatchewan, a seam of coal fifteen to twenty feet in thickness was dis- covered by Mr. Selwyn in 18*73 ;* other thick seams f.re reported on the upper part of the Brazeau. An analysis of the fuel from the North Pembina River made in 1874 by Prof. Haanel, gives the following composition : — Water 11-88 Volatile combustible matter 28*66 Fixed carbon 5*7*25 Ash 2*21 100*00 The coal collected by Mr. Sel'.vyn at the place above referred to on the Saskat- chewan yielded to Dr. Harr'ngton the following result on analysis by slow coking : — Water 1009 Volatile combustible matter 28-69 Fixed carbon 54:'96 Ash 5*45 100-00 While neither of these can be classed as true bituminous coals, they are fuels of great value, and compare closely with those brown coals used extensively on the line of the Union Pacific Railway in the Rocky Mountain region. In many localities on the Peace River, and between that stream and the Atha- basca, clay ironstone in nodules and nodular sheets is abundant; but generally not in such quantity as to justify a belief in its economic importance. On the lower part of Smoky River, however, great quant; Mes of ironstoneapparentlycf excellent quality might be collected from the bars and beaches, while in lew pbicos in theoanks, zones largely composed of irouiitone and of considerable thickiu.ss oci-ur. * Report of Progress, G«ol. Survey of Canada, 1873-74, p. 49. 131 As already stated, gold in small quantity may bo found in bo'.h the Misinchinoa and upper part of Pine Eiver, while as stated by Mr. Solwya it has been tound from time to time, in various places and in paying quantities both aloni^the Parsnip and the Peace Rivers. Mr. Solwyn remarks that there are no gold-bearing rocks on tho Peace below Finlay Branch, and suggests that tho fine gold of the lower pai't of the river may have boen originally derived from rocks on the western slope of the mountains, or may have been carried from tho beltof Laurentian and other crystalline rocks forming the north-eastern boundary of the interior basin, and stretching from Lake Superior to tho Arctic Ocean. For tho gold of tho Parsnip and upper part of the Peace, tho former appears to mo to bo tho most probable explanation, while to that found in the Misinchinca, the Pino and other streams* in tho vicinity of the mountains a local origin must also bo gi-anted. Tn al' 'his region, below a certain contour lino and to the east of it, drift from the Laurentian axis, above referred to is, in great abundance. Tho height of this contour lino may for tho present be roughly stated at 2,000 foot. It is in this tract to the east, characterized by Laurentian dihris that tho paying gold-washings of the Saskatchewan aro situated, while in tho direction of tho mountains the * pay' appears to run out where tho Laurentian drift ceases. Gold has also been found in paying quantities in the parts of tho Athabasca and McLeod Rivers which traverse thia drift-covered region, and the evidence seems to bo strongly indicative in all these cases of an eastern or north-eastern source for tho precious metal. It would thus appear, that \/ith the exception of tho regions of tho Parsnip and Upper Peaco,the Rocky Mountain zone in this part of its length has not so far boon proved to yield gold in paying quantity, but that lemunerative placer deposits supplied from the opposite direction, occur at a greater (u* loss distance from the mountains on several rivers. GEORGE M. DAWSOI^-.